From 05a92cf77438900d163f897d9d2f780a0dc3d36b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Chris Anderson Date: Fri, 20 Jun 2008 13:36:36 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] deleted actual book files from example --- examples/word_count/america.txt | 24398 -------------- examples/word_count/da-vinci.txt | 32118 ------------------ examples/word_count/outline-of-science.txt | 12761 -------- examples/word_count/ulysses.txt | 32758 ------------------- examples/word_count/word_count.rb | 16 +- script/couchview | 6 +- 6 files changed, 17 insertions(+), 102040 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 examples/word_count/america.txt delete mode 100644 examples/word_count/da-vinci.txt delete mode 100644 examples/word_count/outline-of-science.txt delete mode 100644 examples/word_count/ulysses.txt diff --git a/examples/word_count/america.txt b/examples/word_count/america.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dc38059..0000000 --- a/examples/word_count/america.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24398 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States -by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net - - -Title: History of the United States - -Author: Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard - -Release Date: October 28, 2005 [EBook #16960] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES *** - - - - -Produced by Curtis Weyant, M and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -HISTORY - -OF THE - -UNITED STATES - - -BY - - -CHARLES A. BEARD - -AND - -MARY R. BEARD - - - -New York - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - -1921 - -_All rights reserved_ - -COPYRIGHT, 1921, - -BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. - - -Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1921. - - - - -Norwood Press - -J.S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. - -NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A. - - - - -PREFACE - - -As things now stand, the course of instruction in American history in -our public schools embraces three distinct treatments of the subject. -Three separate books are used. First, there is the primary book, which -is usually a very condensed narrative with emphasis on biographies and -anecdotes. Second, there is the advanced text for the seventh or eighth -grade, generally speaking, an expansion of the elementary book by the -addition of forty or fifty thousand words. Finally, there is the high -school manual. This, too, ordinarily follows the beaten path, giving -fuller accounts of the same events and characters. To put it bluntly, we -do not assume that our children obtain permanent possessions from their -study of history in the lower grades. If mathematicians followed the -same method, high school texts on algebra and geometry would include the -multiplication table and fractions. - -There is, of course, a ready answer to the criticism advanced above. It -is that teachers have learned from bitter experience how little history -their pupils retain as they pass along the regular route. No teacher of -history will deny this. Still it is a standing challenge to existing -methods of historical instruction. If the study of history cannot be -made truly progressive like the study of mathematics, science, and -languages, then the historians assume a grave responsibility in adding -their subject to the already overloaded curriculum. If the successive -historical texts are only enlarged editions of the first text--more -facts, more dates, more words--then history deserves most of the sharp -criticism which it is receiving from teachers of science, civics, and -economics. - -In this condition of affairs we find our justification for offering a -new high school text in American history. Our first contribution is one -of omission. The time-honored stories of exploration and the -biographies of heroes are left out. We frankly hold that, if pupils know -little or nothing about Columbus, Cortes, Magellan, or Captain John -Smith by the time they reach the high school, it is useless to tell the -same stories for perhaps the fourth time. It is worse than useless. It -is an offense against the teachers of those subjects that are -demonstrated to be progressive in character. - -In the next place we have omitted all descriptions of battles. Our -reasons for this are simple. The strategy of a campaign or of a single -battle is a highly technical, and usually a highly controversial, matter -about which experts differ widely. In the field of military and naval -operations most writers and teachers of history are mere novices. To -dispose of Gettysburg or the Wilderness in ten lines or ten pages is -equally absurd to the serious student of military affairs. Any one who -compares the ordinary textbook account of a single Civil War campaign -with the account given by Ropes, for instance, will ask for no further -comment. No youth called upon to serve our country in arms would think -of turning to a high school manual for information about the art of -warfare. The dramatic scene or episode, so useful in arousing the -interest of the immature pupil, seems out of place in a book that -deliberately appeals to boys and girls on the very threshold of life's -serious responsibilities. - -It is not upon negative features, however, that we rest our case. It is -rather upon constructive features. - -_First._ We have written a topical, not a narrative, history. We have -tried to set forth the important aspects, problems, and movements of -each period, bringing in the narrative rather by way of illustration. - -_Second._ We have emphasized those historical topics which help to -explain how our nation has come to be what it is to-day. - -_Third._ We have dwelt fully upon the social and economic aspects of our -history, especially in relation to the politics of each period. - -_Fourth._ We have treated the causes and results of wars, the problems -of financing and sustaining armed forces, rather than military strategy. -These are the subjects which belong to a history for civilians. These -are matters which civilians can understand--matters which they must -understand, if they are to play well their part in war and peace. - -_Fifth._ By omitting the period of exploration, we have been able to -enlarge the treatment of our own time. We have given special attention -to the history of those current questions which must form the subject -matter of sound instruction in citizenship. - -_Sixth._ We have borne in mind that America, with all her unique -characteristics, is a part of a general civilization. Accordingly we -have given diplomacy, foreign affairs, world relations, and the -reciprocal influences of nations their appropriate place. - -_Seventh._ We have deliberately aimed at standards of maturity. The -study of a mere narrative calls mainly for the use of the memory. We -have aimed to stimulate habits of analysis, comparison, association, -reflection, and generalization--habits calculated to enlarge as well as -inform the mind. We have been at great pains to make our text clear, -simple, and direct; but we have earnestly sought to stretch the -intellects of our readers--to put them upon their mettle. Most of them -will receive the last of their formal instruction in the high school. -The world will soon expect maturity from them. Their achievements will -depend upon the possession of other powers than memory alone. The -effectiveness of their citizenship in our republic will be measured by -the excellence of their judgment as well as the fullness of their -information. - - C.A.B. - M.R.B. - - NEW YORK CITY, - February 8, 1921. - - - - -=A SMALL LIBRARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY= - - -_=SINGLE VOLUMES:=_ - -BASSETT, J.S. _A Short History of the United States_ -ELSON, H.W. _History of the United States of America_ - - -_=SERIES:=_ - -"EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY," EDITED BY A.B. HART - -HART, A.B. _Formation of the Union_ -THWAITES, R.G. _The Colonies_ -WILSON, WOODROW. _Division and Reunion_ - -"RIVERSIDE SERIES," EDITED BY W.E. DODD - -BECKER, C.L. _Beginnings of the American People_ -DODD, W.E. _Expansion and Conflict_ -JOHNSON, A. _Union and Democracy_ -PAXSON, F.L. _The New Nation_ - - - - -CONTENTS - - -PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD - -CHAPTER PAGE - I. THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA 1 - The Agencies of American Colonization 2 - The Colonial Peoples 6 - The Process of Colonization 12 - - II. COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 20 - The Land and the Westward Movement 20 - Industrial and Commercial Development 28 - - III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS 38 - The Leadership of the Churches 39 - Schools and Colleges 43 - The Colonial Press 46 - The Evolution in Political Institutions 48 - - IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM 56 - Relations with the Indians and the French 57 - The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies 61 - Colonial Relations with the British Government 64 - Summary of Colonial Period 73 - - -PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE - - V. THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY 77 - George III and His System 77 - George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies 79 - Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal 83 - Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies 87 - Renewed Resistance in America 90 - Retaliation by the British Government 93 - From Reform to Revolution in America 95 - - VI. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 99 - Resistance and Retaliation 99 - American Independence 101 - The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance 108 - Military Affairs 116 - The Finances of the Revolution 125 - The Diplomacy of the Revolution 127 - Peace at Last 132 - Summary of the Revolutionary Period 135 - - -PART III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS - - VII. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 139 - The Promise and the Difficulties of America 139 - The Calling of a Constitutional Convention 143 - The Framing of the Constitution 146 - The Struggle over Ratification 157 - - VIII. THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES 162 - The Men and Measures of the New Government 162 - The Rise of Political Parties 168 - Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics 171 - - IX. THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER 186 - Republican Principles and Policies 186 - The Republicans and the Great West 188 - The Republican War for Commercial Independence 193 - The Republicans Nationalized 201 - The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall 208 - Summary of Union and National Politics 212 - - -PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY - - X. THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS 217 - Preparation for Western Settlement 217 - The Western Migration and New States 221 - The Spirit of the Frontier 228 - The West and the East Meet 230 - - XI. JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 238 - The Democratic Movement in the East 238 - The New Democracy Enters the Arena 244 - The New Democracy at Washington 250 - The Rise of the Whigs 260 - The Interaction of American and European Opinion 265 - - XII. THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST 271 - The Advance of the Middle Border 271 - On to the Pacific--Texas and the Mexican War 276 - The Pacific Coast and Utah 284 - Summary of Western Development and National Politics 292 - - -PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION - - XIII. THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM 295 - The Industrial Revolution 296 - The Industrial Revolution and National Politics 307 - - XIV. THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS 316 - Slavery--North and South 316 - Slavery in National Politics 324 - The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict 332 - - XV. THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION 344 - The Southern Confederacy 344 - The War Measures of the Federal Government 350 - The Results of the Civil War 365 - Reconstruction in the South 370 - Summary of the Sectional Conflict 375 - - -PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS - - XVI. THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH 379 - The South at the Close of the War 379 - The Restoration of White Supremacy 382 - The Economic Advance of the South 389 - - XVII. BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 401 - Railways and Industry 401 - The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-1885) 412 - The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule 417 - -XVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST 425 - The Railways as Trail Blazers 425 - The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture 431 - Mining and Manufacturing in the West 436 - The Admission of New States 440 - The Influence of the Far West on National Life 443 - - XIX. DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897) 451 - The Currency Question 452 - The Protective Tariff and Taxation 459 - The Railways and Trusts 460 - The Minor Parties and Unrest 462 - The Sound Money Battle of 1896 466 - Republican Measures and Results 472 - - XX. AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900) 477 - American Foreign Relations (1865-1898) 478 - Cuba and the Spanish War 485 - American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient 497 - Summary of National Growth and World Politics 504 - - -PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR - - XXI. THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-1913) 507 - Foreign Affairs 508 - Colonial Administration 515 - The Roosevelt Domestic Policies 519 - Legislative and Executive Activities 523 - The Administration of President Taft 527 - Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912 530 - - XXII. THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA 536 - An Age of Criticism 536 - Political Reforms 538 - Measures of Economic Reform 546 - -XXIII. THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY 554 - The Rise of the Woman Movement 555 - The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage 562 - - XXIV. INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 570 - Cooeperation between Employers and Employees 571 - The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor 575 - The Wider Relations of Organized Labor 577 - Immigration and Americanization 582 - - XXV. PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 588 - Domestic Legislation 588 - Colonial and Foreign Policies 592 - The United States and the European War 596 - The United States at War 604 - The Settlement at Paris 612 - Summary of Democracy and the World War 620 - -APPENDIX 627 - -A TOPICAL SYLLABUS 645 - -INDEX 655 - - - - -MAPS - - - PAGE -The Original Grants (color map) _Facing_ 4 - -German and Scotch-Irish Settlements 8 - -Distribution of Population in 1790 27 - -English, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750 - (color map) _Facing_ 59 - -The Colonies at the Time of the Declaration of Independence - (color map) _Facing_ 108 - -North America according to the Treaty of 1783 - (color map) _Facing_ 134 - -The United States in 1805 (color map) _Facing_ 193 - -Roads and Trails into Western Territory (color map) _Facing_ 224 - -The Cumberland Road 233 - -Distribution of Population in 1830 235 - -Texas and the Territory in Dispute 282 - -The Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary 285 - -The Overland Trails 287 - -Distribution of Slaves in Southern States 323 - -The Missouri Compromise 326 - -Slave and Free Soil on the Eve of the Civil War 335 - -The United States in 1861 (color map) _Facing_ 345 - -Railroads of the United States in 1918 405 - -The United States in 1870 (color map) _Facing_ 427 - -The United States in 1912 (color map) _Facing_ 443 - -American Dominions in the Pacific (color map) _Facing_ 500 - -The Caribbean Region (color map) _Facing_ 592 - -Battle Lines of the Various Years of the World War 613 - -Europe in 1919 (color map) _Between_ 618-619 - - "THE NATIONS OF THE WEST" (popularly called "The - Pioneers"), designed by A. Stirling Calder and modeled by - Mr. Calder, F.G.R. Roth, and Leo Lentelli, topped the Arch - of the Setting Sun at the Panama-Pacific Exposition held at - San Francisco in 1915. Facing the Court of the Universe - moves a group of men and women typical of those who have - made our civilization. From left to right appear the - French-Canadian, the Alaskan, the Latin-American, the - German, the Italian, the Anglo-American, and the American - Indian, squaw and warrior. In the place of honor in the - center of the group, standing between the oxen on the tongue - of the prairie schooner, is a figure, beautiful and almost - girlish, but strong, dignified, and womanly, the Mother of - To-morrow. Above the group rides the Spirit of Enterprise, - flanked right and left by the Hopes of the Future in the - person of two boys. The group as a whole is beautifully - symbolic of the westward march of American civilization. - -[Illustration: _Photograph by Cardinell-Vincent Co., San Francisco_ - -"THE NATIONS OF THE WEST"] - - - - -HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES - - - - -PART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA - - -The tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North America -during the early years of the seventeenth century was but one phase in -the restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the surface of the -earth. The ancient Greeks flung out their colonies in every direction, -westward as far as Gaul, across the Mediterranean, and eastward into -Asia Minor, perhaps to the very confines of India. The Romans, supported -by their armies and their government, spread their dominion beyond the -narrow lands of Italy until it stretched from the heather of Scotland to -the sands of Arabia. The Teutonic tribes, from their home beyond the -Danube and the Rhine, poured into the empire of the Caesars and made the -beginnings of modern Europe. Of this great sweep of races and empires -the settlement of America was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only -one aspect of the expansion which finally carried the peoples, the -institutions, and the trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth. - -In one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed -from that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them -affection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from the -altar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who came to -America disliked the state and disowned the church of the mother -country. They established compacts of government for themselves and set -up altars of their own. They sought not only new soil to till but also -political and religious liberty for themselves and their children. - - -THE AGENCIES OF AMERICAN COLONIZATION - -It was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand miles of -water and found homes in the American wilderness at the opening of the -seventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies called for huge outlays -of money. Stores had to be furnished in quantities sufficient to sustain -the life of the settlers until they could gather harvests of their own. -Artisans and laborers of skill and industry had to be induced to risk -the hazards of the new world. Soldiers were required for defense and -mariners for the exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment, -adept in managing men, had to be discovered. Altogether such an -enterprise demanded capital larger than the ordinary merchant or -gentleman could amass and involved risks more imminent than he dared to -assume. Though in later days, after initial tests had been made, wealthy -proprietors were able to establish colonies on their own account, it was -the corporation that furnished the capital and leadership in the -beginning. - -=The Trading Company.=--English pioneers in exploration found an -instrument for colonization in companies of merchant adventurers, which -had long been employed in carrying on commerce with foreign countries. -Such a corporation was composed of many persons of different ranks of -society--noblemen, merchants, and gentlemen--who banded together for a -particular undertaking, each contributing a sum of money and sharing in -the profits of the venture. It was organized under royal authority; it -received its charter, its grant of land, and its trading privileges from -the king and carried on its operations under his supervision and -control. The charter named all the persons originally included in the -corporation and gave them certain powers in the management of its -affairs, including the right to admit new members. The company was in -fact a little government set up by the king. When the members of the -corporation remained in England, as in the case of the Virginia Company, -they operated through agents sent to the colony. When they came over the -seas themselves and settled in America, as in the case of Massachusetts, -they became the direct government of the country they possessed. The -stockholders in that instance became the voters and the governor, the -chief magistrate. - -[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP, GOVERNOR OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY -COMPANY] - -Four of the thirteen colonies in America owed their origins to the -trading corporation. It was the London Company, created by King James I, -in 1606, that laid during the following year the foundations of Virginia -at Jamestown. It was under the auspices of their West India Company, -chartered in 1621, that the Dutch planted the settlements of the New -Netherland in the valley of the Hudson. The founders of Massachusetts -were Puritan leaders and men of affairs whom King Charles I incorporated -in 1629 under the title: "The governor and company of the Massachusetts -Bay in New England." In this case the law did but incorporate a group -drawn together by religious ties. "We must be knit together as one man," -wrote John Winthrop, the first Puritan governor in America. Far to the -south, on the banks of the Delaware River, a Swedish commercial company -in 1638 made the beginnings of a settlement, christened New Sweden; it -was destined to pass under the rule of the Dutch, and finally under the -rule of William Penn as the proprietary colony of Delaware. - -In a certain sense, Georgia may be included among the "company -colonies." It was, however, originally conceived by the moving spirit, -James Oglethorpe, as an asylum for poor men, especially those imprisoned -for debt. To realize this humane purpose, he secured from King George -II, in 1732, a royal charter uniting several gentlemen, including -himself, into "one body politic and corporate," known as the "Trustees -for establishing the colony of Georgia in America." In the structure of -their organization and their methods of government, the trustees did not -differ materially from the regular companies created for trade and -colonization. Though their purposes were benevolent, their transactions -had to be under the forms of law and according to the rules of business. - -=The Religious Congregation.=--A second agency which figured largely in -the settlement of America was the religious brotherhood, or -congregation, of men and women brought together in the bonds of a common -religious faith. By one of the strange fortunes of history, this -institution, founded in the early days of Christianity, proved to be a -potent force in the origin and growth of self-government in a land far -away from Galilee. "And the multitude of them that believed were of one -heart and of one soul," we are told in the Acts describing the Church at -Jerusalem. "We are knit together as a body in a most sacred covenant of -the Lord ... by virtue of which we hold ourselves strictly tied to all -care of each other's good and of the whole," wrote John Robinson, a -leader among the Pilgrims who founded their tiny colony of Plymouth in -1620. The Mayflower Compact, so famous in American history, was but a -written and signed agreement, incorporating the spirit of obedience to -the common good, which served as a guide to self-government until -Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691. - -[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL GRANTS] - -Three other colonies, all of which retained their identity until the eve -of the American Revolution, likewise sprang directly from the -congregations of the faithful: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New -Hampshire, mainly offshoots from Massachusetts. They were founded by -small bodies of men and women, "united in solemn covenants with the -Lord," who planted their settlements in the wilderness. Not until many a -year after Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson conducted their followers -to the Narragansett country was Rhode Island granted a charter of -incorporation (1663) by the crown. Not until long after the congregation -of Thomas Hooker from Newtown blazed the way into the Connecticut River -Valley did the king of England give Connecticut a charter of its own -(1662) and a place among the colonies. Half a century elapsed before the -towns laid out beyond the Merrimac River by emigrants from Massachusetts -were formed into the royal province of New Hampshire in 1679. - -Even when Connecticut was chartered, the parchment and sealing wax of -the royal lawyers did but confirm rights and habits of self-government -and obedience to law previously established by the congregations. The -towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield had long lived happily -under their "Fundamental Orders" drawn up by themselves in 1639; so had -the settlers dwelt peacefully at New Haven under their "Fundamental -Articles" drafted in the same year. The pioneers on the Connecticut -shore had no difficulty in agreeing that "the Scriptures do hold forth a -perfect rule for the direction and government of all men." - -=The Proprietor.=--A third and very important colonial agency was the -proprietor, or proprietary. As the name, associated with the word -"property," implies, the proprietor was a person to whom the king -granted property in lands in North America to have, hold, use, and enjoy -for his own benefit and profit, with the right to hand the estate down -to his heirs in perpetual succession. The proprietor was a rich and -powerful person, prepared to furnish or secure the capital, collect the -ships, supply the stores, and assemble the settlers necessary to found -and sustain a plantation beyond the seas. Sometimes the proprietor -worked alone. Sometimes two or more were associated like partners in the -common undertaking. - -Five colonies, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas, -owe their formal origins, though not always their first settlements, nor -in most cases their prosperity, to the proprietary system. Maryland, -established in 1634 under a Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, and -blessed with religious toleration by the act of 1649, flourished under -the mild rule of proprietors until it became a state in the American -union. New Jersey, beginning its career under two proprietors, Berkeley -and Carteret, in 1664, passed under the direct government of the crown -in 1702. Pennsylvania was, in a very large measure, the product of the -generous spirit and tireless labors of its first proprietor, the leader -of the Friends, William Penn, to whom it was granted in 1681 and in -whose family it remained until 1776. The two Carolinas were first -organized as one colony in 1663 under the government and patronage of -eight proprietors, including Lord Clarendon; but after more than half a -century both became royal provinces governed by the king. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN, PROPRIETOR OF PENNSYLVANIA] - - -THE COLONIAL PEOPLES - -=The English.=--In leadership and origin the thirteen colonies, except -New York and Delaware, were English. During the early days of all, save -these two, the main, if not the sole, current of immigration was from -England. The colonists came from every walk of life. They were men, -women, and children of "all sorts and conditions." The major portion -were yeomen, or small land owners, farm laborers, and artisans. With -them were merchants and gentlemen who brought their stocks of goods or -their fortunes to the New World. Scholars came from Oxford and -Cambridge to preach the gospel or to teach. Now and then the son of an -English nobleman left his baronial hall behind and cast his lot with -America. The people represented every religious faith--members of the -Established Church of England; Puritans who had labored to reform that -church; Separatists, Baptists, and Friends, who had left it altogether; -and Catholics, who clung to the religion of their fathers. - -New England was almost purely English. During the years between 1629 and -1640, the period of arbitrary Stuart government, about twenty thousand -Puritans emigrated to America, settling in the colonies of the far -North. Although minor additions were made from time to time, the greater -portion of the New England people sprang from this original stock. -Virginia, too, for a long time drew nearly all her immigrants from -England alone. Not until the eve of the Revolution did other -nationalities, mainly the Scotch-Irish and Germans, rival the English in -numbers. - -The populations of later English colonies--the Carolinas, New York, -Pennsylvania, and Georgia--while receiving a steady stream of -immigration from England, were constantly augmented by wanderers from -the older settlements. New York was invaded by Puritans from New England -in such numbers as to cause the Anglican clergymen there to lament that -"free thinking spreads almost as fast as the Church." North Carolina was -first settled toward the northern border by immigrants from Virginia. -Some of the North Carolinians, particularly the Quakers, came all the -way from New England, tarrying in Virginia only long enough to learn how -little they were wanted in that Anglican colony. - -=The Scotch-Irish.=--Next to the English in numbers and influence were -the Scotch-Irish, Presbyterians in belief, English in tongue. Both -religious and economic reasons sent them across the sea. Their Scotch -ancestors, in the days of Cromwell, had settled in the north of Ireland -whence the native Irish had been driven by the conqueror's sword. There -the Scotch nourished for many years enjoying in peace their own form of -religion and growing prosperous in the manufacture of fine linen and -woolen cloth. Then the blow fell. Toward the end of the seventeenth -century their religious worship was put under the ban and the export of -their cloth was forbidden by the English Parliament. Within two decades -twenty thousand Scotch-Irish left Ulster alone, for America; and all -during the eighteenth century the migration continued to be heavy. -Although no exact record was kept, it is reckoned that the Scotch-Irish -and the Scotch who came directly from Scotland, composed one-sixth of -the entire American population on the eve of the Revolution. - -[Illustration: SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH -IMMIGRANTS] - -These newcomers in America made their homes chiefly in New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Coming late upon -the scene, they found much of the land immediately upon the seaboard -already taken up. For this reason most of them became frontier people -settling the interior and upland regions. There they cleared the land, -laid out their small farms, and worked as "sturdy yeomen on the soil," -hardy, industrious, and independent in spirit, sharing neither the -luxuries of the rich planters nor the easy life of the leisurely -merchants. To their agriculture they added woolen and linen -manufactures, which, flourishing in the supple fingers of their tireless -women, made heavy inroads upon the trade of the English merchants in -the colonies. Of their labors a poet has sung: - - "O, willing hands to toil; - Strong natures tuned to the harvest-song and bound to the kindly soil; - Bold pioneers for the wilderness, defenders in the field." - -=The Germans.=--Third among the colonists in order of numerical -importance were the Germans. From the very beginning, they appeared in -colonial records. A number of the artisans and carpenters in the first -Jamestown colony were of German descent. Peter Minuit, the famous -governor of New Motherland, was a German from Wesel on the Rhine, and -Jacob Leisler, leader of a popular uprising against the provincial -administration of New York, was a German from Frankfort-on-Main. The -wholesale migration of Germans began with the founding of Pennsylvania. -Penn was diligent in searching for thrifty farmers to cultivate his -lands and he made a special effort to attract peasants from the Rhine -country. A great association, known as the Frankfort Company, bought -more than twenty thousand acres from him and in 1684 established a -center at Germantown for the distribution of German immigrants. In old -New York, Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson became a similar center for -distribution. All the way from Maine to Georgia inducements were offered -to the German farmers and in nearly every colony were to be found, in -time, German settlements. In fact the migration became so large that -German princes were frightened at the loss of so many subjects and -England was alarmed by the influx of foreigners into her overseas -dominions. Yet nothing could stop the movement. By the end of the -colonial period, the number of Germans had risen to more than two -hundred thousand. - -The majority of them were Protestants from the Rhine region, and South -Germany. Wars, religious controversies, oppression, and poverty drove -them forth to America. Though most of them were farmers, there were also -among them skilled artisans who contributed to the rapid growth of -industries in Pennsylvania. Their iron, glass, paper, and woolen mills, -dotted here and there among the thickly settled regions, added to the -wealth and independence of the province. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -A GLIMPSE OF OLD GERMANTOWN] - -Unlike the Scotch-Irish, the Germans did not speak the language of the -original colonists or mingle freely with them. They kept to themselves, -built their own schools, founded their own newspapers, and published -their own books. Their clannish habits often irritated their neighbors -and led to occasional agitations against "foreigners." However, no -serious collisions seem to have occurred; and in the days of the -Revolution, German soldiers from Pennsylvania fought in the patriot -armies side by side with soldiers from the English and Scotch-Irish -sections. - -=Other Nationalities.=--Though the English, the Scotch-Irish, and the -Germans made up the bulk of the colonial population, there were other -racial strains as well, varying in numerical importance but contributing -their share to colonial life. - -From France came the Huguenots fleeing from the decree of the king which -inflicted terrible penalties upon Protestants. - -From "Old Ireland" came thousands of native Irish, Celtic in race and -Catholic in religion. Like their Scotch-Irish neighbors to the north, -they revered neither the government nor the church of England imposed -upon them by the sword. How many came we do not know, but shipping -records of the colonial period show that boatload after boatload left -the southern and eastern shores of Ireland for the New World. -Undoubtedly thousands of their passengers were Irish of the native -stock. This surmise is well sustained by the constant appearance of -Celtic names in the records of various colonies. - -[Illustration:_From an old print_ - -OLD DUTCH FORT AND ENGLISH CHURCH NEAR ALBANY] - -The Jews, then as ever engaged in their age-long battle for religious -and economic toleration, found in the American colonies, not complete -liberty, but certainly more freedom than they enjoyed in England, -France, Spain, or Portugal. The English law did not actually recognize -their right to live in any of the dominions, but owing to the easy-going -habits of the Americans they were allowed to filter into the seaboard -towns. The treatment they received there varied. On one occasion the -mayor and council of New York forbade them to sell by retail and on -another prohibited the exercise of their religious worship. Newport, -Philadelphia, and Charleston were more hospitable, and there large -Jewish colonies, consisting principally of merchants and their families, -flourished in spite of nominal prohibitions of the law. - -Though the small Swedish colony in Delaware was quickly submerged -beneath the tide of English migration, the Dutch in New York continued -to hold their own for more than a hundred years after the English -conquest in 1664. At the end of the colonial period over one-half of the -170,000 inhabitants of the province were descendants of the original -Dutch--still distinct enough to give a decided cast to the life and -manners of New York. Many of them clung as tenaciously to their mother -tongue as they did to their capacious farmhouses or their Dutch ovens; -but they were slowly losing their identity as the English pressed in -beside them to farm and trade. - -The melting pot had begun its historic mission. - - -THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION - -Considered from one side, colonization, whatever the motives of the -emigrants, was an economic matter. It involved the use of capital to pay -for their passage, to sustain them on the voyage, and to start them on -the way of production. Under this stern economic necessity, Puritans, -Scotch-Irish, Germans, and all were alike laid. - -=Immigrants Who Paid Their Own Way.=--Many of the immigrants to America -in colonial days were capitalists themselves, in a small or a large way, -and paid their own passage. What proportion of the colonists were able -to finance their voyage across the sea is a matter of pure conjecture. -Undoubtedly a very considerable number could do so, for we can trace the -family fortunes of many early settlers. Henry Cabot Lodge is authority -for the statement that "the settlers of New England were drawn from the -country gentlemen, small farmers, and yeomanry of the mother -country.... Many of the emigrants were men of wealth, as the old lists -show, and all of them, with few exceptions, were men of property and -good standing. They did not belong to the classes from which emigration -is usually supplied, for they all had a stake in the country they left -behind." Though it would be interesting to know how accurate this -statement is or how applicable to the other colonies, no study has as -yet been made to gratify that interest. For the present it is an -unsolved problem just how many of the colonists were able to bear the -cost of their own transfer to the New World. - -=Indentured Servants.=--That at least tens of thousands of immigrants -were unable to pay for their passage is established beyond the shadow of -a doubt by the shipping records that have come down to us. The great -barrier in the way of the poor who wanted to go to America was the cost -of the sea voyage. To overcome this difficulty a plan was worked out -whereby shipowners and other persons of means furnished the passage -money to immigrants in return for their promise, or bond, to work for a -term of years to repay the sum advanced. This system was called -indentured servitude. - -It is probable that the number of bond servants exceeded the original -twenty thousand Puritans, the yeomen, the Virginia gentlemen, and the -Huguenots combined. All the way down the coast from Massachusetts to -Georgia were to be found in the fields, kitchens, and workshops, men, -women, and children serving out terms of bondage generally ranging from -five to seven years. In the proprietary colonies the proportion of bond -servants was very high. The Baltimores, Penns, Carterets, and other -promoters anxiously sought for workers of every nationality to till -their fields, for land without labor was worth no more than land in the -moon. Hence the gates of the proprietary colonies were flung wide open. -Every inducement was offered to immigrants in the form of cheap land, -and special efforts were made to increase the population by importing -servants. In Pennsylvania, it was not uncommon to find a master with -fifty bond servants on his estate. It has been estimated that two-thirds -of all the immigrants into Pennsylvania between the opening of the -eighteenth century and the outbreak of the Revolution were in bondage. -In the other Middle colonies the number was doubtless not so large; but -it formed a considerable part of the population. - -The story of this traffic in white servants is one of the most striking -things in the history of labor. Bondmen differed from the serfs of the -feudal age in that they were not bound to the soil but to the master. -They likewise differed from the negro slaves in that their servitude had -a time limit. Still they were subject to many special disabilities. It -was, for instance, a common practice to impose on them penalties far -heavier than were imposed upon freemen for the same offense. A free -citizen of Pennsylvania who indulged in horse racing and gambling was -let off with a fine; a white servant guilty of the same unlawful conduct -was whipped at the post and fined as well. - -The ordinary life of the white servant was also severely restricted. A -bondman could not marry without his master's consent; nor engage in -trade; nor refuse work assigned to him. For an attempt to escape or -indeed for any infraction of the law, the term of service was extended. -The condition of white bondmen in Virginia, according to Lodge, "was -little better than that of slaves. Loose indentures and harsh laws put -them at the mercy of their masters." It would not be unfair to add that -such was their lot in all other colonies. Their fate depended upon the -temper of their masters. - -Cruel as was the system in many ways, it gave thousands of people in the -Old World a chance to reach the New--an opportunity to wrestle with fate -for freedom and a home of their own. When their weary years of servitude -were over, if they survived, they might obtain land of their own or -settle as free mechanics in the towns. For many a bondman the gamble -proved to be a losing venture because he found himself unable to rise -out of the state of poverty and dependence into which his servitude -carried him. For thousands, on the contrary, bondage proved to be a real -avenue to freedom and prosperity. Some of the best citizens of America -have the blood of indentured servants in their veins. - -=The Transported--Involuntary Servitude.=--In their anxiety to secure -settlers, the companies and proprietors having colonies in America -either resorted to or connived at the practice of kidnapping men, women, -and children from the streets of English cities. In 1680 it was -officially estimated that "ten thousand persons were spirited away" to -America. Many of the victims of the practice were young children, for -the traffic in them was highly profitable. Orphans and dependents were -sometimes disposed of in America by relatives unwilling to support them. -In a single year, 1627, about fifteen hundred children were shipped to -Virginia. - -In this gruesome business there lurked many tragedies, and very few -romances. Parents were separated from their children and husbands from -their wives. Hundreds of skilled artisans--carpenters, smiths, and -weavers--utterly disappeared as if swallowed up by death. A few thus -dragged off to the New World to be sold into servitude for a term of -five or seven years later became prosperous and returned home with -fortunes. In one case a young man who was forcibly carried over the sea -lived to make his way back to England and establish his claim to a -peerage. - -Akin to the kidnapped, at least in economic position, were convicts -deported to the colonies for life in lieu of fines and imprisonment. The -Americans protested vigorously but ineffectually against this practice. -Indeed, they exaggerated its evils, for many of the "criminals" were -only mild offenders against unduly harsh and cruel laws. A peasant -caught shooting a rabbit on a lord's estate or a luckless servant girl -who purloined a pocket handkerchief was branded as a criminal along with -sturdy thieves and incorrigible rascals. Other transported offenders -were "political criminals"; that is, persons who criticized or opposed -the government. This class included now Irish who revolted against -British rule in Ireland; now Cavaliers who championed the king against -the Puritan revolutionists; Puritans, in turn, dispatched after the -monarchy was restored; and Scotch and English subjects in general who -joined in political uprisings against the king. - -=The African Slaves.=--Rivaling in numbers, in the course of time, the -indentured servants and whites carried to America against their will -were the African negroes brought to America and sold into slavery. When -this form of bondage was first introduced into Virginia in 1619, it was -looked upon as a temporary necessity to be discarded with the increase -of the white population. Moreover it does not appear that those planters -who first bought negroes at the auction block intended to establish a -system of permanent bondage. Only by a slow process did chattel slavery -take firm root and become recognized as the leading source of the labor -supply. In 1650, thirty years after the introduction of slavery, there -were only three hundred Africans in Virginia. - -The great increase in later years was due in no small measure to the -inordinate zeal for profits that seized slave traders both in Old and in -New England. Finding it relatively easy to secure negroes in Africa, -they crowded the Southern ports with their vessels. The English Royal -African Company sent to America annually between 1713 and 1743 from five -to ten thousand slaves. The ship owners of New England were not far -behind their English brethren in pushing this extraordinary traffic. - -As the proportion of the negroes to the free white population steadily -rose, and as whole sections were overrun with slaves and slave traders, -the Southern colonies grew alarmed. In 1710, Virginia sought to curtail -the importation by placing a duty of L5 on each slave. This effort was -futile, for the royal governor promptly vetoed it. From time to time -similar bills were passed, only to meet with royal disapproval. South -Carolina, in 1760, absolutely prohibited importation; but the measure -was killed by the British crown. As late as 1772, Virginia, not daunted -by a century of rebuffs, sent to George III a petition in this vein: -"The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa -hath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity and under its -present encouragement, we have too much reason to fear, will endanger -the very existence of Your Majesty's American dominions.... Deeply -impressed with these sentiments, we most humbly beseech Your Majesty to -remove all those restraints on Your Majesty's governors of this colony -which inhibit their assenting to such laws as might check so very -pernicious a commerce." - -All such protests were without avail. The negro population grew by leaps -and bounds, until on the eve of the Revolution it amounted to more than -half a million. In five states--Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas, -and Georgia--the slaves nearly equalled or actually exceeded the whites -in number. In South Carolina they formed almost two-thirds of the -population. Even in the Middle colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania -about one-fifth of the inhabitants were from Africa. To the North, the -proportion of slaves steadily diminished although chattel servitude was -on the same legal footing as in the South. In New York approximately one -in six and in New England one in fifty were negroes, including a few -freedmen. - -The climate, the soil, the commerce, and the industry of the North were -all unfavorable to the growth of a servile population. Still, slavery, -though sectional, was a part of the national system of economy. Northern -ships carried slaves to the Southern colonies and the produce of the -plantations to Europe. "If the Northern states will consult their -interest, they will not oppose the increase in slaves which will -increase the commodities of which they will become the carriers," said -John Rutledge, of South Carolina, in the convention which framed the -Constitution of the United States. "What enriches a part enriches the -whole and the states are the best judges of their particular interest," -responded Oliver Ellsworth, the distinguished spokesman of Connecticut. - -=References= - -E. Charming, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II. - -J.A. Doyle, _The English Colonies in America_ (5 vols.). - -J. Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her Neighbors_ (2 vols.). - -A.B. Faust, _The German Element in the United States_ (2 vols.). - -H.J. Ford, _The Scotch-Irish in America_. - -L. Tyler, _England in America_ (American Nation Series). - -R. Usher, _The Pilgrims and Their History_. - - -=Questions= - -1. America has been called a nation of immigrants. Explain why. - -2. Why were individuals unable to go alone to America in the beginning? -What agencies made colonization possible? Discuss each of them. - -3. Make a table of the colonies, showing the methods employed in their -settlement. - -4. Why were capital and leadership so very important in early -colonization? - -5. What is meant by the "melting pot"? What nationalities were -represented among the early colonists? - -6. Compare the way immigrants come to-day with the way they came in -colonial times. - -7. Contrast indentured servitude with slavery and serfdom. - -8. Account for the anxiety of companies and proprietors to secure -colonists. - -9. What forces favored the heavy importation of slaves? - -10. In what way did the North derive advantages from slavery? - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Chartered Company.=--Compare the first and third charters of -Virginia in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book of American History_, -1606-1898, pp. 1-14. Analyze the first and second Massachusetts charters -in Macdonald, pp. 22-84. Special reference: W.A.S. Hewins, _English -Trading Companies_. - -=Congregations and Compacts for Self-government.=--A study of the -Mayflower Compact, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the -Fundamental Articles of New Haven in Macdonald, pp. 19, 36, 39. -Reference: Charles Borgeaud, _Rise of Modern Democracy_, and C.S. -Lobingier, _The People's Law_, Chaps. I-VII. - -=The Proprietary System.=--Analysis of Penn's charter of 1681, in -Macdonald, p. 80. Reference: Lodge, _Short History of the English -Colonies in America_, p. 211. - -=Studies of Individual Colonies.=--Review of outstanding events in -history of each colony, using Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. -55-159, as the basis. - -=Biographical Studies.=--John Smith, John Winthrop, William Penn, Lord -Baltimore, William Bradford, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas -Hooker, and Peter Stuyvesant, using any good encyclopedia. - -=Indentured Servitude.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 69-72; -in Pennsylvania, pp. 242-244. Contemporary account in Callender, -_Economic History of the United States_, pp. 44-51. Special reference: -Karl Geiser, _Redemptioners and Indentured Servants_ (Yale Review, X, -No. 2 Supplement). - -=Slavery.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 67-69; in the -Northern colonies, pp. 241, 275, 322, 408, 442. - -=The People of the Colonies.=--Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. -67-73; New England, pp. 406-409, 441-450; Pennsylvania, pp. 227-229, -240-250; New York, pp. 312-313, 322-335. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE - -THE LAND AND THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT - - -=The Significance of Land Tenure.=--The way in which land may be -acquired, held, divided among heirs, and bought and sold exercises a -deep influence on the life and culture of a people. The feudal and -aristocratic societies of Europe were founded on a system of landlordism -which was characterized by two distinct features. In the first place, -the land was nearly all held in great estates, each owned by a single -proprietor. In the second place, every estate was kept intact under the -law of primogeniture, which at the death of a lord transferred all his -landed property to his eldest son. This prevented the subdivision of -estates and the growth of a large body of small farmers or freeholders -owning their own land. It made a form of tenantry or servitude -inevitable for the mass of those who labored on the land. It also -enabled the landlords to maintain themselves in power as a governing -class and kept the tenants and laborers subject to their economic and -political control. If land tenure was so significant in Europe, it was -equally important in the development of America, where practically all -the first immigrants were forced by circumstances to derive their -livelihood from the soil. - -=Experiments in Common Tillage.=--In the New World, with its broad -extent of land awaiting the white man's plow, it was impossible to -introduce in its entirety and over the whole area the system of lords -and tenants that existed across the sea. So it happened that almost -every kind of experiment in land tenure, from communism to feudalism, -was tried. In the early days of the Jamestown colony, the land, though -owned by the London Company, was tilled in common by the settlers. No -man had a separate plot of his own. The motto of the community was: -"Labor and share alike." All were supposed to work in the fields and -receive an equal share of the produce. At Plymouth, the Pilgrims -attempted a similar experiment, laying out the fields in common and -distributing the joint produce of their labor with rough equality among -the workers. - -In both colonies the communistic experiments were failures. Angry at the -lazy men in Jamestown who idled their time away and yet expected regular -meals, Captain John Smith issued a manifesto: "Everyone that gathereth -not every day as much as I do, the next day shall be set beyond the -river and forever banished from the fort and live there or starve." Even -this terrible threat did not bring a change in production. Not until -each man was given a plot of his own to till, not until each gathered -the fruits of his own labor, did the colony prosper. In Plymouth, where -the communal experiment lasted for five years, the results were similar -to those in Virginia, and the system was given up for one of separate -fields in which every person could "set corn for his own particular." -Some other New England towns, refusing to profit by the experience of -their Plymouth neighbor, also made excursions into common ownership and -labor, only to abandon the idea and go in for individual ownership of -the land. "By degrees it was seen that even the Lord's people could not -carry the complicated communist legislation into perfect and wholesome -practice." - -=Feudal Elements in the Colonies--Quit Rents, Manors, and -Plantations.=--At the other end of the scale were the feudal elements of -land tenure found in the proprietary colonies, in the seaboard regions -of the South, and to some extent in New York. The proprietor was in fact -a powerful feudal lord, owning land granted to him by royal charter. He -could retain any part of it for his personal use or dispose of it all in -large or small lots. While he generally kept for himself an estate of -baronial proportions, it was impossible for him to manage directly any -considerable part of the land in his dominion. Consequently he either -sold it in parcels for lump sums or granted it to individuals on -condition that they make to him an annual payment in money, known as -"quit rent." In Maryland, the proprietor sometimes collected as high as -L9000 (equal to about $500,000 to-day) in a single year from this -source. In Pennsylvania, the quit rents brought a handsome annual -tribute into the exchequer of the Penn family. In the royal provinces, -the king of England claimed all revenues collected in this form from the -land, a sum amounting to L19,000 at the time of the Revolution. The quit -rent,--"really a feudal payment from freeholders,"--was thus a material -source of income for the crown as well as for the proprietors. Wherever -it was laid, however, it proved to be a burden, a source of constant -irritation; and it became a formidable item in the long list of -grievances which led to the American Revolution. - -Something still more like the feudal system of the Old World appeared in -the numerous manors or the huge landed estates granted by the crown, the -companies, or the proprietors. In the colony of Maryland alone there -were sixty manors of three thousand acres each, owned by wealthy men and -tilled by tenants holding small plots under certain restrictions of -tenure. In New York also there were many manors of wide extent, most of -which originated in the days of the Dutch West India Company, when -extensive concessions were made to patroons to induce them to bring over -settlers. The Van Rensselaer, the Van Cortlandt, and the Livingston -manors were so large and populous that each was entitled to send a -representative to the provincial legislature. The tenants on the New -York manors were in somewhat the same position as serfs on old European -estates. They were bound to pay the owner a rent in money and kind; they -ground their grain at his mill; and they were subject to his judicial -power because he held court and meted out justice, in some instances -extending to capital punishment. - -The manors of New York or Maryland were, however, of slight consequence -as compared with the vast plantations of the Southern seaboard--huge -estates, far wider in expanse than many a European barony and tilled by -slaves more servile than any feudal tenants. It must not be forgotten -that this system of land tenure became the dominant feature of a large -section and gave a decided bent to the economic and political life of -America. - -[Illustration: SOUTHERN PLANTATION MANSION] - -=The Small Freehold.=--In the upland regions of the South, however, and -throughout most of the North, the drift was against all forms of -servitude and tenantry and in the direction of the freehold; that is, -the small farm owned outright and tilled by the possessor and his -family. This was favored by natural circumstances and the spirit of the -immigrants. For one thing, the abundance of land and the scarcity of -labor made it impossible for the companies, the proprietors, or the -crown to develop over the whole continent a network of vast estates. In -many sections, particularly in New England, the climate, the stony soil, -the hills, and the narrow valleys conspired to keep the farms within a -moderate compass. For another thing, the English, Scotch-Irish, and -German peasants, even if they had been tenants in the Old World, did not -propose to accept permanent dependency of any kind in the New. If they -could not get freeholds, they would not settle at all; thus they forced -proprietors and companies to bid for their enterprise by selling land in -small lots. So it happened that the freehold of modest proportions -became the cherished unit of American farmers. The people who tilled the -farms were drawn from every quarter of western Europe; but the freehold -system gave a uniform cast to their economic and social life in America. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -A NEW ENGLAND FARMHOUSE] - -=Social Effects of Land Tenure.=--Land tenure and the process of western -settlement thus developed two distinct types of people engaged in the -same pursuit--agriculture. They had a common tie in that they both -cultivated the soil and possessed the local interest and independence -which arise from that occupation. Their methods and their culture, -however, differed widely. - -The Southern planter, on his broad acres tilled by slaves, resembled the -English landlord on his estates more than he did the colonial farmer who -labored with his own hands in the fields and forests. He sold his rice -and tobacco in large amounts directly to English factors, who took his -entire crop in exchange for goods and cash. His fine clothes, -silverware, china, and cutlery he bought in English markets. Loving the -ripe old culture of the mother country, he often sent his sons to Oxford -or Cambridge for their education. In short, he depended very largely for -his prosperity and his enjoyment of life upon close relations with the -Old World. He did not even need market towns in which to buy native -goods, for they were made on his own plantation by his own artisans who -were usually gifted slaves. - -The economic condition of the small farmer was totally different. His -crops were not big enough to warrant direct connection with English -factors or the personal maintenance of a corps of artisans. He needed -local markets, and they sprang up to meet the need. Smiths, hatters, -weavers, wagon-makers, and potters at neighboring towns supplied him -with the rough products of their native skill. The finer goods, bought -by the rich planter in England, the small farmer ordinarily could not -buy. His wants were restricted to staples like tea and sugar, and -between him and the European market stood the merchant. His community -was therefore more self-sufficient than the seaboard line of great -plantations. It was more isolated, more provincial, more independent, -more American. The planter faced the Old East. The farmer faced the New -West. - -=The Westward Movement.=--Yeoman and planter nevertheless were alike in -one respect. Their land hunger was never appeased. Each had the eye of -an expert for new and fertile soil; and so, north and south, as soon as -a foothold was secured on the Atlantic coast, the current of migration -set in westward, creeping through forests, across rivers, and over -mountains. Many of the later immigrants, in their search for cheap -lands, were compelled to go to the border; but in a large part the path -breakers to the West were native Americans of the second and third -generations. Explorers, fired by curiosity and the lure of the -mysterious unknown, and hunters, fur traders, and squatters, following -their own sweet wills, blazed the trail, opening paths and sending back -stories of the new regions they traversed. Then came the regular -settlers with lawful titles to the lands they had purchased, sometimes -singly and sometimes in companies. - -In Massachusetts, the westward movement is recorded in the founding of -Springfield in 1636 and Great Barrington in 1725. By the opening of the -eighteenth century the pioneers of Connecticut had pushed north and west -until their outpost towns adjoined the Hudson Valley settlements. In New -York, the inland movement was directed by the Hudson River to Albany, -and from that old Dutch center it radiated in every direction, -particularly westward through the Mohawk Valley. New Jersey was early -filled to its borders, the beginnings of the present city of New -Brunswick being made in 1681 and those of Trenton in 1685. In -Pennsylvania, as in New York, the waterways determined the main lines of -advance. Pioneers, pushing up through the valley of the Schuylkill, -spread over the fertile lands of Berks and Lancaster counties, laying -out Reading in 1748. Another current of migration was directed by the -Susquehanna, and, in 1726, the first farmhouse was built on the bank -where Harrisburg was later founded. Along the southern tier of counties -a thin line of settlements stretched westward to Pittsburgh, reaching -the upper waters of the Ohio while the colony was still under the Penn -family. - -In the South the westward march was equally swift. The seaboard was -quickly occupied by large planters and their slaves engaged in the -cultivation of tobacco and rice. The Piedmont Plateau, lying back from -the coast all the way from Maryland to Georgia, was fed by two streams -of migration, one westward from the sea and the other southward from the -other colonies--Germans from Pennsylvania and Scotch-Irish furnishing -the main supply. "By 1770, tide-water Virginia was full to overflowing -and the 'back country' of the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah was fully -occupied. Even the mountain valleys ... were claimed by sturdy pioneers. -Before the Declaration of Independence, the oncoming tide of -home-seekers had reached the crest of the Alleghanies." - -[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790] - -Beyond the mountains pioneers had already ventured, harbingers of an -invasion that was about to break in upon Kentucky and Tennessee. As -early as 1769 that mighty Nimrod, Daniel Boone, curious to hunt -buffaloes, of which he had heard weird reports, passed through the -Cumberland Gap and brought back news of a wonderful country awaiting the -plow. A hint was sufficient. Singly, in pairs, and in groups, settlers -followed the trail he had blazed. A great land corporation, the -Transylvania Company, emulating the merchant adventurers of earlier -times, secured a huge grant of territory and sought profits in quit -rents from lands sold to farmers. By the outbreak of the Revolution -there were several hundred people in the Kentucky region. Like the older -colonists, they did not relish quit rents, and their opposition wrecked -the Transylvania Company. They even carried their protests into the -Continental Congress in 1776, for by that time they were our "embryo -fourteenth colony." - - -INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT - -Though the labor of the colonists was mainly spent in farming, there was -a steady growth in industrial and commercial pursuits. Most of the -staple industries of to-day, not omitting iron and textiles, have their -beginnings in colonial times. Manufacturing and trade soon gave rise to -towns which enjoyed an importance all out of proportion to their -numbers. The great centers of commerce and finance on the seaboard -originated in the days when the king of England was "lord of these -dominions." - -[Illustration: DOMESTIC INDUSTRY: DIPPING TALLOW CANDLES] - -=Textile Manufacture as a Domestic Industry.=--Colonial women, in -addition to sharing every hardship of pioneering, often the heavy labor -of the open field, developed in the course of time a national industry -which was almost exclusively their own. Wool and flax were raised in -abundance in the North and South. "Every farm house," says Coman, the -economic historian, "was a workshop where the women spun and wove the -serges, kerseys, and linsey-woolseys which served for the common wear." -By the close of the seventeenth century, New England manufactured cloth -in sufficient quantities to export it to the Southern colonies and to -the West Indies. As the industry developed, mills were erected for the -more difficult process of dyeing, weaving, and fulling, but carding and -spinning continued to be done in the home. The Dutch of New Netherland, -the Swedes of Delaware, and the Scotch-Irish of the interior "were not -one whit behind their Yankee neighbors." - -The importance of this enterprise to British economic life can hardly be -overestimated. For many a century the English had employed their fine -woolen cloth as the chief staple in a lucrative foreign trade, and the -government had come to look upon it as an object of special interest and -protection. When the colonies were established, both merchants and -statesmen naturally expected to maintain a monopoly of increasing value; -but before long the Americans, instead of buying cloth, especially of -the coarser varieties, were making it to sell. In the place of -customers, here were rivals. In the place of helpless reliance upon -English markets, here was the germ of economic independence. - -If British merchants had not discovered it in the ordinary course of -trade, observant officers in the provinces would have conveyed the news -to them. Even in the early years of the eighteenth century the royal -governor of New York wrote of the industrious Americans to his home -government: "The consequence will be that if they can clothe themselves -once, not only comfortably, but handsomely too, without the help of -England, they who already are not very fond of submitting to government -will soon think of putting in execution designs they have long harboured -in their breasts. This will not seem strange when you consider what sort -of people this country is inhabited by." - -=The Iron Industry.=--Almost equally widespread was the art of iron -working--one of the earliest and most picturesque of colonial -industries. Lynn, Massachusetts, had a forge and skilled artisans within -fifteen years after the founding of Boston. The smelting of iron began -at New London and New Haven about 1658; in Litchfield county, -Connecticut, a few years later; at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in -1731; and near by at Lenox some thirty years after that. New Jersey had -iron works at Shrewsbury within ten years after the founding of the -colony in 1665. Iron forges appeared in the valleys of the Delaware and -the Susquehanna early in the following century, and iron masters then -laid the foundations of fortunes in a region destined to become one of -the great iron centers of the world. Virginia began iron working in the -year that saw the introduction of slavery. Although the industry soon -lapsed, it was renewed and flourished in the eighteenth century. -Governor Spotswood was called the "Tubal Cain" of the Old Dominion -because he placed the industry on a firm foundation. Indeed it seems -that every colony, except Georgia, had its iron foundry. Nails, wire, -metallic ware, chains, anchors, bar and pig iron were made in large -quantities; and Great Britain, by an act in 1750, encouraged the -colonists to export rough iron to the British Islands. - -=Shipbuilding.=--Of all the specialized industries in the colonies, -shipbuilding was the most important. The abundance of fir for masts, oak -for timbers and boards, pitch for tar and turpentine, and hemp for rope -made the way of the shipbuilder easy. Early in the seventeenth century a -ship was built at New Amsterdam, and by the middle of that century -shipyards were scattered along the New England coast at Newburyport, -Salem, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, New London, and New Haven. -Yards at Albany and Poughkeepsie in New York built ships for the trade -of that colony with England and the Indies. Wilmington and Philadelphia -soon entered the race and outdistanced New York, though unable to equal -the pace set by New England. While Maryland, Virginia, and South -Carolina also built ships, Southern interest was mainly confined to the -lucrative business of producing ship materials: fir, cedar, hemp, and -tar. - -=Fishing.=--The greatest single economic resource of New England outside -of agriculture was the fisheries. This industry, started by hardy -sailors from Europe, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, flourished -under the indomitable seamanship of the Puritans, who labored with the -net and the harpoon in almost every quarter of the Atlantic. "Look," -exclaimed Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons, "at the manner in -which the people of New England have of late carried on the whale -fishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice and -behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay -and Davis's Straits, while we are looking for them beneath the arctic -circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar -cold, that they are at the antipodes and engaged under the frozen -serpent of the south.... Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging -to them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We know that, whilst -some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of -Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along -the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No -climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of -Holland nor the activity of France nor the dexterous and firm sagacity -of English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hard -industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent -people." - -The influence of the business was widespread. A large and lucrative -European trade was built upon it. The better quality of the fish caught -for food was sold in the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, or -exchanged for salt, lemons, and raisins for the American market. The -lower grades of fish were carried to the West Indies for slave -consumption, and in part traded for sugar and molasses, which furnished -the raw materials for the thriving rum industry of New England. These -activities, in turn, stimulated shipbuilding, steadily enlarging the -demand for fishing and merchant craft of every kind and thus keeping the -shipwrights, calkers, rope makers, and other artisans of the seaport -towns rushed with work. They also increased trade with the mother -country for, out of the cash collected in the fish markets of Europe and -the West Indies, the colonists paid for English manufactures. So an -ever-widening circle of American enterprise centered around this single -industry, the nursery of seamanship and the maritime spirit. - -=Oceanic Commerce and American Merchants.=--All through the eighteenth -century, the commerce of the American colonies spread in every direction -until it rivaled in the number of people employed, the capital engaged, -and the profits gleaned, the commerce of European nations. A modern -historian has said: "The enterprising merchants of New England developed -a network of trade routes that covered well-nigh half the world." This -commerce, destined to be of such significance in the conflict with the -mother country, presented, broadly speaking, two aspects. - -On the one side, it involved the export of raw materials and -agricultural produce. The Southern colonies produced for shipping, -tobacco, rice, tar, pitch, and pine; the Middle colonies, grain, flour, -furs, lumber, and salt pork; New England, fish, flour, rum, furs, shoes, -and small articles of manufacture. The variety of products was in fact -astounding. A sarcastic writer, while sneering at the idea of an -American union, once remarked of colonial trade: "What sort of dish will -you make? New England will throw in fish and onions. The middle states, -flax-seed and flour. Maryland and Virginia will add tobacco. North -Carolina, pitch, tar, and turpentine. South Carolina, rice and indigo, -and Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with sawdust. Such an -absurd jumble will you make if you attempt to form a union among such -discordant materials as the thirteen British provinces." - -On the other side, American commerce involved the import trade, -consisting principally of English and continental manufactures, tea, and -"India goods." Sugar and molasses, brought from the West Indies, -supplied the flourishing distilleries of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -and Connecticut. The carriage of slaves from Africa to the Southern -colonies engaged hundreds of New England's sailors and thousands of -pounds of her capital. - -The disposition of imported goods in the colonies, though in part -controlled by English factors located in America, employed also a large -and important body of American merchants like the Willings and Morrises -of Philadelphia; the Amorys, Hancocks, and Faneuils of Boston; and the -Livingstons and Lows of New York. In their zeal and enterprise, they -were worthy rivals of their English competitors, so celebrated for -world-wide commercial operations. Though fully aware of the advantages -they enjoyed in British markets and under the protection of the British -navy, the American merchants were high-spirited and mettlesome, ready to -contend with royal officers in order to shield American interests -against outside interference. - -[Illustration: THE DUTCH WEST INDIA WAREHOUSE IN NEW AMSTERDAM -(NEW YORK CITY)] - -Measured against the immense business of modern times, colonial commerce -seems perhaps trivial. That, however, is not the test of its -significance. It must be considered in relation to the growth of English -colonial trade in its entirety--a relation which can be shown by a few -startling figures. The whole export trade of England, including that to -the colonies, was, in 1704, L6,509,000. On the eve of the American -Revolution, namely, in 1772, English exports to the American colonies -alone amounted to L6,024,000; in other words, almost as much as the -whole foreign business of England two generations before. At the first -date, colonial trade was but one-twelfth of the English export business; -at the second date, it was considerably more than one-third. In 1704, -Pennsylvania bought in English markets goods to the value of L11,459; in -1772 the purchases of the same colony amounted to L507,909. In short, -Pennsylvania imports increased fifty times within sixty-eight years, -amounting in 1772 to almost the entire export trade of England to the -colonies at the opening of the century. The American colonies were -indeed a great source of wealth to English merchants. - -=Intercolonial Commerce.=--Although the bad roads of colonial times made -overland transportation difficult and costly, the many rivers and -harbors along the coast favored a lively water-borne trade among the -colonies. The Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers in -the North and the many smaller rivers in the South made it possible for -goods to be brought from, and carried to, the interior regions in little -sailing vessels with comparative ease. Sloops laden with manufactures, -domestic and foreign, collected at some city like Providence, New York, -or Philadelphia, skirted the coasts, visited small ports, and sailed up -the navigable rivers to trade with local merchants who had for exchange -the raw materials which they had gathered in from neighboring farms. -Larger ships carried the grain, live stock, cloth, and hardware of New -England to the Southern colonies, where they were traded for tobacco, -leather, tar, and ship timber. From the harbors along the Connecticut -shores there were frequent sailings down through Long Island Sound to -Maryland, Virginia, and the distant Carolinas. - -=Growth of Towns.=--In connection with this thriving trade and industry -there grew up along the coast a number of prosperous commercial centers -which were soon reckoned among the first commercial towns of the whole -British empire, comparing favorably in numbers and wealth with such -ports as Liverpool and Bristol. The statistical records of that time are -mainly guesses; but we know that Philadelphia stood first in size among -these towns. Serving as the port of entry for Pennsylvania, Delaware, -and western Jersey, it had drawn within its borders, just before the -Revolution, about 25,000 inhabitants. Boston was second in rank, with -somewhat more than 20,000 people. New York, the "commercial capital of -Connecticut and old East Jersey," was slightly smaller than Boston, but -growing at a steady rate. The fourth town in size was Charleston, South -Carolina, with about 10,000 inhabitants. Newport in Rhode Island, a -center of rum manufacture and shipping, stood fifth, with a population -of about 7000. Baltimore and Norfolk were counted as "considerable -towns." In the interior, Hartford in Connecticut, Lancaster and York in -Pennsylvania, and Albany in New York, with growing populations and -increasing trade, gave prophecy of an urban America away from the -seaboard. The other towns were straggling villages. Williamsburg, -Virginia, for example, had about two hundred houses, in which dwelt a -dozen families of the gentry and a few score of tradesmen. Inland county -seats often consisted of nothing more than a log courthouse, a prison, -and one wretched inn to house judges, lawyers, and litigants during the -sessions of the court. - -The leading towns exercised an influence on colonial opinion all out of -proportion to their population. They were the centers of wealth, for one -thing; of the press and political activity, for another. Merchants and -artisans could readily take concerted action on public questions arising -from their commercial operations. The towns were also centers for news, -gossip, religious controversy, and political discussion. In the market -places the farmers from the countryside learned of British policies and -laws, and so, mingling with the townsmen, were drawn into the main -currents of opinion which set in toward colonial nationalism and -independence. - - -=References= - -J. Bishop, _History of American Manufactures_ (2 vols.). - -E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_. - -P.A. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_ (2 vols.). - -E. Semple, _American History and Its Geographical Conditions_. - -W. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_. (2 vols.). - - -=Questions= - -1. Is land in your community parceled out into small farms? Contrast the -system in your community with the feudal system of land tenure. - -2. Are any things owned and used in common in your community? Why did -common tillage fail in colonial times? - -3. Describe the elements akin to feudalism which were introduced in the -colonies. - -4. Explain the success of freehold tillage. - -5. Compare the life of the planter with that of the farmer. - -6. How far had the western frontier advanced by 1776? - -7. What colonial industry was mainly developed by women? Why was it very -important both to the Americans and to the English? - -8. What were the centers for iron working? Ship building? - -9. Explain how the fisheries affected many branches of trade and -industry. - -10. Show how American trade formed a vital part of English business. - -11. How was interstate commerce mainly carried on? - -12. What were the leading towns? Did they compare in importance with -British towns of the same period? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Land Tenure.=--Coman, _Industrial History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 32-38. -Special reference: Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, Vol. I, Chap. -VIII. - -=Tobacco Planting in Virginia.=--Callender, _Economic History of the -United States_, pp. 22-28. - -=Colonial Agriculture.=--Coman, pp. 48-63. Callender, pp. 69-74. -Reference: J.R.H. Moore, _Industrial History of the American People_, -pp. 131-162. - -=Colonial Manufactures.=--Coman, pp. 63-73. Callender, pp. 29-44. -Special reference: Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_. - -=Colonial Commerce.=--Coman, pp. 73-85. Callender, pp. 51-63, 78-84. -Moore, pp. 163-208. Lodge, _Short History of the English Colonies_, pp. -409-412, 229-231, 312-314. - - - - -Chapter III - -SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS - - -Colonial life, crowded as it was with hard and unremitting toil, left -scant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. There was -little money in private purses or public treasuries to be dedicated to -schools, libraries, and museums. Few there were with time to read long -and widely, and fewer still who could devote their lives to things that -delight the eye and the mind. And yet, poor and meager as the -intellectual life of the colonists may seem by way of comparison, heroic -efforts were made in every community to lift the people above the plane -of mere existence. After the first clearings were opened in the forests -those efforts were redoubled, and with lengthening years told upon the -thought and spirit of the land. The appearance, during the struggle with -England, of an extraordinary group of leaders familiar with history, -political philosophy, and the arts of war, government, and diplomacy -itself bore eloquent testimony to the high quality of the American -intellect. No one, not even the most critical, can run through the -writings of distinguished Americans scattered from Massachusetts to -Georgia--the Adamses, Ellsworth, the Morrises, the Livingstons, -Hamilton, Franklin, Washington, Madison, Marshall, Henry, the Randolphs, -and the Pinckneys--without coming to the conclusion that there was -something in American colonial life which fostered minds of depth and -power. Women surmounted even greater difficulties than the men in the -process of self-education, and their keen interest in public issues is -evident in many a record like the _Letters_ of Mrs. John Adams to her -husband during the Revolution; the writings of Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren, -the sister of James Otis, who measured her pen with the British -propagandists; and the patriot newspapers founded and managed by women. - - -THE LEADERSHIP OF THE CHURCHES - -In the intellectual life of America, the churches assumed a role of high -importance. There were abundant reasons for this. In many of the -colonies--Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New England--the religious impulse -had been one of the impelling motives in stimulating immigration. In all -the colonies, the clergy, at least in the beginning, formed the only -class with any leisure to devote to matters of the spirit. They preached -on Sundays and taught school on week days. They led in the discussion of -local problems and in the formation of political opinion, so much of -which was concerned with the relation between church and state. They -wrote books and pamphlets. They filled most of the chairs in the -colleges; under clerical guidance, intellectual and spiritual, the -Americans received their formal education. In several of the provinces -the Anglican Church was established by law. In New England the Puritans -were supreme, notwithstanding the efforts of the crown to overbear their -authority. In the Middle colonies, particularly, the multiplication of -sects made the dominance of any single denomination impossible; and in -all of them there was a growing diversity of faith, which promised in -time a separation of church and state and freedom of opinion. - -=The Church of England.=--Virginia was the stronghold of the English -system of church and state. The Anglican faith and worship were -prescribed by law, sustained by taxes imposed on all, and favored by the -governor, the provincial councilors, and the richest planters. "The -Established Church," says Lodge, "was one of the appendages of the -Virginia aristocracy. They controlled the vestries and the ministers, -and the parish church stood not infrequently on the estate of the -planter who built and managed it." As in England, Catholics and -Protestant Dissenters were at first laid under heavy disabilities. Only -slowly and on sufferance were they admitted to the province; but when -once they were even covertly tolerated, they pressed steadily in, until, -by the Revolution, they outnumbered the adherents of the established -order. - -The Church was also sanctioned by law and supported by taxes in the -Carolinas after 1704, and in Georgia after that colony passed directly -under the crown in 1754--this in spite of the fact that the majority of -the inhabitants were Dissenters. Against the protests of the Catholics -it was likewise established in Maryland. In New York, too, -notwithstanding the resistance of the Dutch, the Established Church was -fostered by the provincial officials, and the Anglicans, embracing about -one-fifteenth of the population, exerted an influence all out of -proportion to their numbers. - -Many factors helped to enhance the power of the English Church in the -colonies. It was supported by the British government and the official -class sent out to the provinces. Its bishops and archbishops in England -were appointed by the king, and its faith and service were set forth by -acts of Parliament. Having its seat of power in the English monarchy, it -could hold its clergy and missionaries loyal to the crown and so -counteract to some extent the independent spirit that was growing up in -America. The Church, always a strong bulwark of the state, therefore had -a political role to play here as in England. Able bishops and far-seeing -leaders firmly grasped this fact about the middle of the eighteenth -century and redoubled their efforts to augment the influence of the -Church in provincial affairs. Unhappily for their plans they failed to -calculate in advance the effect of their methods upon dissenting -Protestants, who still cherished memories of bitter religious conflicts -in the mother country. - -=Puritanism in New England.=--If the established faith made for imperial -unity, the same could not be said of Puritanism. The Plymouth Pilgrims -had cast off all allegiance to the Anglican Church and established a -separate and independent congregation before they came to America. The -Puritans, essaying at first the task of reformers within the Church, -soon after their arrival in Massachusetts, likewise flung off their yoke -of union with the Anglicans. In each town a separate congregation was -organized, the male members choosing the pastor, the teachers, and the -other officers. They also composed the voters in the town meeting, where -secular matters were determined. The union of church and government was -thus complete, and uniformity of faith and life prescribed by law and -enforced by civil authorities; but this worked for local autonomy -instead of imperial unity. - -The clergy became a powerful class, dominant through their learning and -their fearful denunciations of the faithless. They wrote the books for -the people to read--the famous Cotton Mather having three hundred and -eighty-three books and pamphlets to his credit. In cooeperation with the -civil officers they enforced a strict observance of the Puritan -Sabbath--a day of rest that began at six o'clock on Saturday evening and -lasted until sunset on Sunday. All work, all trading, all amusement, and -all worldly conversation were absolutely prohibited during those hours. -A thoughtless maid servant who for some earthly reason smiled in church -was in danger of being banished as a vagabond. Robert Pike, a devout -Puritan, thinking the sun had gone to rest, ventured forth on horseback -one Sunday evening and was luckless enough to have a ray of light strike -him through a rift in the clouds. The next day he was brought into court -and fined for "his ungodly conduct." With persons accused of witchcraft -the Puritans were still more ruthless. When a mania of persecution swept -over Massachusetts in 1692, eighteen people were hanged, one was pressed -to death, many suffered imprisonment, and two died in jail. - -Just about this time, however, there came a break in the uniformity of -Puritan rule. The crown and church in England had long looked upon it -with disfavor, and in 1684 King Charles II annulled the old charter of -the Massachusetts Bay Company. A new document issued seven years later -wrested from the Puritans of the colony the right to elect their own -governor and reserved the power of appointment to the king. It also -abolished the rule limiting the suffrage to church members, substituting -for it a simple property qualification. Thus a royal governor and an -official family, certain to be Episcopalian in faith and monarchist in -sympathies, were forced upon Massachusetts; and members of all religious -denominations, if they had the required amount of property, were -permitted to take part in elections. By this act in the name of the -crown, the Puritan monopoly was broken down in Massachusetts, and that -province was brought into line with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New -Hampshire, where property, not religious faith, was the test for the -suffrage. - -=Growth of Religious Toleration.=--Though neither the Anglicans of -Virginia nor the Puritans of Massachusetts believed in toleration for -other denominations, that principle was strictly applied in Rhode -Island. There, under the leadership of Roger Williams, liberty in -matters of conscience was established in the beginning. Maryland, by -granting in 1649 freedom to those who professed to believe in Jesus -Christ, opened its gates to all Christians; and Pennsylvania, true to -the tenets of the Friends, gave freedom of conscience to those "who -confess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal God to be the -creator, upholder, and ruler of the World." By one circumstance or -another, the Middle colonies were thus early characterized by diversity -rather than uniformity of opinion. Dutch Protestants, Huguenots, -Quakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, New Lights, Moravians, Lutherans, -Catholics, and other denominations became too strongly intrenched and -too widely scattered to permit any one of them to rule, if it had -desired to do so. There were communities and indeed whole sections where -one or another church prevailed, but in no colony was a legislature -steadily controlled by a single group. Toleration encouraged diversity, -and diversity, in turn, worked for greater toleration. - -The government and faith of the dissenting denominations conspired with -economic and political tendencies to draw America away from the English -state. Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and Puritans had no hierarchy -of bishops and archbishops to bind them to the seat of power in London. -Neither did they look to that metropolis for guidance in interpreting -articles of faith. Local self-government in matters ecclesiastical -helped to train them for local self-government in matters political. The -spirit of independence which led Dissenters to revolt in the Old World, -nourished as it was amid favorable circumstances in the New World, made -them all the more zealous in the defense of every right against -authority imposed from without. - - -SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES - -=Religion and Local Schools.=--One of the first cares of each Protestant -denomination was the education of the children in the faith. In this -work the Bible became the center of interest. The English version was -indeed the one book of the people. Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans, -whose life had once been bounded by the daily routine of labor, found in -the Scriptures not only an inspiration to religious conduct, but also a -book of romance, travel, and history. "Legend and annal," says John -Richard Green, "war-song and psalm, state-roll and biography, the mighty -voices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission -journeys, of perils by sea and among the heathen, philosophic arguments, -apocalyptic visions, all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for -the most part by any rival learning.... As a mere literary monument, the -English version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the English -tongue." It was the King James version just from the press that the -Pilgrims brought across the sea with them. - -For the authority of the Established Church was substituted the -authority of the Scriptures. The Puritans devised a catechism based upon -their interpretation of the Bible, and, very soon after their arrival in -America, they ordered all parents and masters of servants to be diligent -in seeing that their children and wards were taught to read religious -works and give answers to the religious questions. Massachusetts was -scarcely twenty years old before education of this character was -declared to be compulsory, and provision was made for public schools -where those not taught at home could receive instruction in reading and -writing. - -[Illustration: A PAGE FROM A FAMOUS SCHOOLBOOK - - - A In ADAM'S Fall - We sinned all. - - B Heaven to find, - The Bible Mind. - - C Christ crucify'd - For sinners dy'd. - - D The Deluge drown'd - The Earth around. - - E ELIJAH hid - by Ravens fed. - - F The judgment made - FELIX afraid.] - - - -Outside of New England the idea of compulsory education was not regarded -with the same favor; but the whole land was nevertheless dotted with -little schools kept by "dames, itinerant teachers, or local parsons." -Whether we turn to the life of Franklin in the North or Washington in -the South, we read of tiny schoolhouses, where boys, and sometimes -girls, were taught to read and write. Where there were no schools, -fathers and mothers of the better kind gave their children the rudiments -of learning. Though illiteracy was widespread, there is evidence to show -that the diffusion of knowledge among the masses was making steady -progress all through the eighteenth century. - -=Religion and Higher Learning.=--Religious motives entered into the -establishment of colleges as well as local schools. Harvard, founded in -1636, and Yale, opened in 1718, were intended primarily to train -"learned and godly ministers" for the Puritan churches of New England. -To the far North, Dartmouth, chartered in 1769, was designed first as a -mission to the Indians and then as a college for the sons of New England -farmers preparing to preach, teach, or practice law. The College of New -Jersey, organized in 1746 and removed to Princeton eleven years later, -was sustained by the Presbyterians. Two colleges looked to the -Established Church as their source of inspiration and support: William -and Mary, founded in Virginia in 1693, and King's College, now Columbia -University, chartered by King George II in 1754, on an appeal from the -New York Anglicans, alarmed at the growth of religious dissent and the -"republican tendencies" of the age. Two colleges revealed a drift away -from sectarianism. Brown, established in Rhode Island in 1764, and the -Philadelphia Academy, forerunner of the University of Pennsylvania, -organized by Benjamin Franklin, reflected the spirit of toleration by -giving representation on the board of trustees to several religious -sects. It was Franklin's idea that his college should prepare young men -to serve in public office as leaders of the people and ornaments to -their country. - -=Self-education in America.=--Important as were these institutions of -learning, higher education was by no means confined within their walls. -Many well-to-do families sent their sons to Oxford or Cambridge in -England. Private tutoring in the home was common. In still more families -there were intelligent children who grew up in the great colonial school -of adversity and who trained themselves until, in every contest of mind -and wit, they could vie with the sons of Harvard or William and Mary or -any other college. Such, for example, was Benjamin Franklin, whose -charming autobiography, in addition to being an American classic, is a -fine record of self-education. His formal training in the classroom was -limited to a few years at a local school in Boston; but his -self-education continued throughout his life. He early manifested a zeal -for reading, and devoured, he tells us, his father's dry library on -theology, Bunyan's works, Defoe's writings, Plutarch's _Lives_, Locke's -_On the Human Understanding_, and innumerable volumes dealing with -secular subjects. His literary style, perhaps the best of his time, -Franklin acquired by the diligent and repeated analysis of the -_Spectator_. In a life crowded with labors, he found time to read widely -in natural science and to win single-handed recognition at the hands of -European savants for his discoveries in electricity. By his own efforts -he "attained an acquaintance" with Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish, -thus unconsciously preparing himself for the day when he was to speak -for all America at the court of the king of France. - -Lesser lights than Franklin, educated by the same process, were found -all over colonial America. From this fruitful source of native ability, -self-educated, the American cause drew great strength in the trials of -the Revolution. - - -THE COLONIAL PRESS - -=The Rise of the Newspaper.=--The evolution of American democracy into a -government by public opinion, enlightened by the open discussion of -political questions, was in no small measure aided by a free press. That -too, like education, was a matter of slow growth. A printing press was -brought to Massachusetts in 1639, but it was put in charge of an -official censor and limited to the publication of religious works. Forty -years elapsed before the first newspaper appeared, bearing the curious -title, _Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic_, and it had not -been running very long before the government of Massachusetts suppressed -it for discussing a political question. - -Publishing, indeed, seemed to be a precarious business; but in 1704 -there came a second venture in journalism, _The Boston News-Letter_, -which proved to be a more lasting enterprise because it refrained from -criticizing the authorities. Still the public interest languished. When -Franklin's brother, James, began to issue his _New England Courant_ -about 1720, his friends sought to dissuade him, saying that one -newspaper was enough for America. Nevertheless he continued it; and his -confidence in the future was rewarded. In nearly every colony a gazette -or chronicle appeared within the next thirty years or more. Benjamin -Franklin was able to record in 1771 that America had twenty-five -newspapers. Boston led with five. Philadelphia had three: two in English -and one in German. - -=Censorship and Restraints on the Press.=--The idea of printing, -unlicensed by the government and uncontrolled by the church, was, -however, slow in taking form. The founders of the American colonies had -never known what it was to have the free and open publication of books, -pamphlets, broadsides, and newspapers. When the art of printing was -first discovered, the control of publishing was vested in clerical -authorities. After the establishment of the State Church in England in -the reign of Elizabeth, censorship of the press became a part of royal -prerogative. Printing was restricted to Oxford, Cambridge, and London; -and no one could publish anything without previous approval of the -official censor. When the Puritans were in power, the popular party, -with a zeal which rivaled that of the crown, sought, in turn, to silence -royalist and clerical writers by a vigorous censorship. After the -restoration of the monarchy, control of the press was once more placed -in royal hands, where it remained until 1695, when Parliament, by -failing to renew the licensing act, did away entirely with the official -censorship. By that time political parties were so powerful and so -active and printing presses were so numerous that official review of all -published matter became a sheer impossibility. - -In America, likewise, some troublesome questions arose in connection -with freedom of the press. The Puritans of Massachusetts were no less -anxious than King Charles or the Archbishop of London to shut out from -the prying eyes of the people all literature "not mete for them to -read"; and so they established a system of official licensing for -presses, which lasted until 1755. In the other colonies where there was -more diversity of opinion and publishers could set up in business with -impunity, they were nevertheless constantly liable to arrest for -printing anything displeasing to the colonial governments. In 1721 the -editor of the _Mercury_ in Philadelphia was called before the -proprietary council and ordered to apologize for a political article, -and for a later offense of a similar character he was thrown into jail. -A still more famous case was that of Peter Zenger, a New York publisher, -who was arrested in 1735 for criticising the administration. Lawyers who -ventured to defend the unlucky editor were deprived of their licenses to -practice, and it became necessary to bring an attorney all the way from -Philadelphia. By this time the tension of feeling was high, and the -approbation of the public was forthcoming when the lawyer for the -defense exclaimed to the jury that the very cause of liberty itself, not -that of the poor printer, was on trial! The verdict for Zenger, when it -finally came, was the signal for an outburst of popular rejoicing. -Already the people of King George's province knew how precious a thing -is the freedom of the press. - -Thanks to the schools, few and scattered as they were, and to the -vigilance of parents, a very large portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of -the colonists could read. Through the newspapers, pamphlets, and -almanacs that streamed from the types, the people could follow the -course of public events and grasp the significance of political -arguments. An American opinion was in the process of making--an -independent opinion nourished by the press and enriched by discussions -around the fireside and at the taverns. When the day of resistance to -British rule came, government by opinion was at hand. For every person -who could hear the voice of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, there were a -thousand who could see their appeals on the printed page. Men who had -spelled out their letters while poring over Franklin's _Poor Richard's -Almanac_ lived to read Thomas Paine's thrilling call to arms. - - -THE EVOLUTION IN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS - -Two very distinct lines of development appeared in colonial politics. -The one, exalting royal rights and aristocratic privileges, was the -drift toward provincial government through royal officers appointed in -England. The other, leading toward democracy and self-government, was -the growth in the power of the popular legislative assembly. Each -movement gave impetus to the other, with increasing force during the -passing years, until at last the final collision between the two ideals -of government came in the war of independence. - -=The Royal Provinces.=--Of the thirteen English colonies eight were -royal provinces in 1776, with governors appointed by the king. Virginia -passed under the direct rule of the crown in 1624, when the charter of -the London Company was annulled. The Massachusetts Bay corporation lost -its charter in 1684, and the new instrument granted seven years later -stripped the colonists of the right to choose their chief executive. In -the early decades of the eighteenth century both the Carolinas were -given the provincial instead of the proprietary form. New Hampshire, -severed from Massachusetts in 1679, and Georgia, surrendered by the -trustees in 1752, went into the hands of the crown. New York, -transferred to the Duke of York on its capture from the Dutch in 1664, -became a province when he took the title of James II in 1685. New -Jersey, after remaining for nearly forty years under proprietors, was -brought directly under the king in 1702. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and -Delaware, although they retained their proprietary character until the -Revolution, were in some respects like the royal colonies, for their -governors were as independent of popular choice as were the appointees -of King George. Only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, -retained full self-government on the eve of the Revolution. They alone -had governors and legislatures entirely of their own choosing. - -The chief officer of the royal province was the governor, who enjoyed -high and important powers which he naturally sought to augment at every -turn. He enforced the laws and, usually with the consent of a council, -appointed the civil and military officers. He granted pardons and -reprieves; he was head of the highest court; he was commander-in-chief -of the militia; he levied troops for defense and enforced martial law in -time of invasion, war, and rebellion. In all the provinces, except -Massachusetts, he named the councilors who composed the upper house of -the legislature and was likely to choose those who favored his claims. -He summoned, adjourned, and dissolved the popular assembly, or the lower -house; he laid before it the projects of law desired by the crown; and -he vetoed measures which he thought objectionable. Here were in America -all the elements of royal prerogative against which Hampden had -protested and Cromwell had battled in England. - -[Illustration: THE ROYAL GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT NEW BERNE] - -The colonial governors were generally surrounded by a body of -office-seekers and hunters for land grants. Some of them were noblemen -of broken estates who had come to America to improve their fortunes. The -pretensions of this circle grated on colonial nerves, and privileges -granted to them, often at the expense of colonists, did much to deepen -popular antipathy to the British government. Favors extended to -adherents of the Established Church displeased Dissenters. The -reappearance of this formidable union of church and state, from which -they had fled, stirred anew the ancient wrath against that combination. - -=The Colonial Assembly.=--Coincident with the drift toward -administration through royal governors was the second and opposite -tendency, namely, a steady growth in the practice of self-government. -The voters of England had long been accustomed to share in taxation and -law-making through representatives in Parliament, and the idea was early -introduced in America. Virginia was only twelve years old (1619) when -its first representative assembly appeared. As the towns of -Massachusetts multiplied and it became impossible for all the members of -the corporation to meet at one place, the representative idea was -adopted, in 1633. The river towns of Connecticut formed a representative -system under their "Fundamental Orders" of 1639, and the entire colony -was given a royal charter in 1662. Generosity, as well as practical -considerations, induced such proprietors as Lord Baltimore and William -Penn to invite their colonists to share in the government as soon as any -considerable settlements were made. Thus by one process or another every -one of the colonies secured a popular assembly. - -It is true that in the provision for popular elections, the suffrage was -finally restricted to property owners or taxpayers, with a leaning -toward the freehold qualification. In Virginia, the rural voter had to -be a freeholder owning at least fifty acres of land, if there was no -house on it, or twenty-five acres with a house twenty-five feet square. -In Massachusetts, the voter for member of the assembly under the charter -of 1691 had to be a freeholder of an estate worth forty shillings a year -at least or of other property to the value of forty pounds sterling. In -Pennsylvania, the suffrage was granted to freeholders owning fifty acres -or more of land well seated, twelve acres cleared, and to other persons -worth at least fifty pounds in lawful money. - -Restrictions like these undoubtedly excluded from the suffrage a very -considerable number of men, particularly the mechanics and artisans of -the towns, who were by no means content with their position. -Nevertheless, it was relatively easy for any man to acquire a small -freehold, so cheap and abundant was land; and in fact a large proportion -of the colonists were land owners. Thus the assemblies, in spite of the -limited suffrage, acquired a democratic tone. - -The popular character of the assemblies increased as they became engaged -in battles with the royal and proprietary governors. When called upon by -the executive to make provision for the support of the administration, -the legislature took advantage of the opportunity to make terms in the -interest of the taxpayers. It made annual, not permanent, grants of -money to pay official salaries and then insisted upon electing a -treasurer to dole it out. Thus the colonists learned some of the -mysteries of public finance, as well as the management of rapacious -officials. The legislature also used its power over money grants to -force the governor to sign bills which he would otherwise have vetoed. - -=Contests between Legislatures and Governors.=--As may be imagined, many -and bitter were the contests between the royal and proprietary governors -and the colonial assemblies. Franklin relates an amusing story of how -the Pennsylvania assembly held in one hand a bill for the executive to -sign and, in the other hand, the money to pay his salary. Then, with sly -humor, Franklin adds: "Do not, my courteous reader, take pet at our -proprietary constitution for these our bargain and sale proceedings in -legislation. It is a happy country where justice and what was your own -before can be had for ready money. It is another addition to the value -of money and of course another spur to industry. Every land is not so -blessed." - -It must not be thought, however, that every governor got off as easily -as Franklin's tale implies. On the contrary, the legislatures, like -Caesar, fed upon meat that made them great and steadily encroached upon -executive prerogatives as they tried out and found their strength. If -we may believe contemporary laments, the power of the crown in America -was diminishing when it was struck down altogether. In New York, the -friends of the governor complained in 1747 that "the inhabitants of -plantations are generally educated in republican principles; upon -republican principles all is conducted. Little more than a shadow of -royal authority remains in the Northern colonies." "Here," echoed the -governor of South Carolina, the following year, "levelling principles -prevail; the frame of the civil government is unhinged; a governor, if -he would be idolized, must betray his trust; the people have got their -whole administration in their hands; the election of the members of the -assembly is by ballot; not civil posts only, but all ecclesiastical -preferments, are in the disposal or election of the people." - -Though baffled by the "levelling principles" of the colonial assemblies, -the governors did not give up the case as hopeless. Instead they evolved -a system of policy and action which they thought could bring the -obstinate provincials to terms. That system, traceable in their letters -to the government in London, consisted of three parts: (1) the royal -officers in the colonies were to be made independent of the legislatures -by taxes imposed by acts of Parliament; (2) a British standing army was -to be maintained in America; (3) the remaining colonial charters were to -be revoked and government by direct royal authority was to be enlarged. - -Such a system seemed plausible enough to King George III and to many -ministers of the crown in London. With governors, courts, and an army -independent of the colonists, they imagined it would be easy to carry -out both royal orders and acts of Parliament. This reasoning seemed both -practical and logical. Nor was it founded on theory, for it came fresh -from the governors themselves. It was wanting in one respect only. It -failed to take account of the fact that the American people were growing -strong in the practice of self-government and could dispense with the -tutelage of the British ministry, no matter how excellent it might be or -how benevolent its intentions. - - -=References= - -A.M. Earle, _Home Life in Colonial Days_. - -A.L. Cross, _The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_ (Harvard -Studies). - -E.G. Dexter, _History of Education in the United States_. - -C.A. Duniway, _Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts_. - -Benjamin Franklin, _Autobiography_. - -E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard Studies). - -A.E. McKinley, _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies_ -(Pennsylvania University Studies). - -M.C. Tyler, _History of American Literature during the Colonial Times_ -(2 vols.). - - -=Questions= - -1. Why is leisure necessary for the production of art and literature? -How may leisure be secured? - -2. Explain the position of the church in colonial life. - -3. Contrast the political roles of Puritanism and the Established -Church. - -4. How did diversity of opinion work for toleration? - -5. Show the connection between religion and learning in colonial times. - -6. Why is a "free press" such an important thing to American democracy? - -7. Relate some of the troubles of early American publishers. - -8. Give the undemocratic features of provincial government. - -9. How did the colonial assemblies help to create an independent -American spirit, in spite of a restricted suffrage? - -10. Explain the nature of the contests between the governors and the -legislatures. - - -=Research Topics= - -=Religious and Intellectual Life.=--Lodge, _Short History of the English -Colonies_: (1) in New England, pp. 418-438, 465-475; (2) in Virginia, -pp. 54-61, 87-89; (3) in Pennsylvania, pp. 232-237, 253-257; (4) in New -York, pp. 316-321. Interesting source materials in Hart, _American -History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 255-275, 276-290. - -=The Government of a Royal Province, Virginia.=--Lodge, pp. 43-50. -Special Reference: E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard -Studies). - -=The Government of a Proprietary Colony, Pennsylvania.=--Lodge, pp. -230-232. - -=Government in New England.=--Lodge, pp. 412-417. - -=The Colonial Press.=--Special Reference: G.H. Payne, _History of -Journalism in the United States_ (1920). - -=Colonial Life in General.=--John Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her -Neighbors_, Vol. II, pp. 174-269; Elson, _History of the United States_, -pp. 197-210. - -=Colonial Government in General.=--Elson, pp. 210-216. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM - - -It is one of the well-known facts of history that a people loosely -united by domestic ties of a political and economic nature, even a -people torn by domestic strife, may be welded into a solid and compact -body by an attack from a foreign power. The imperative call to common -defense, the habit of sharing common burdens, the fusing force of common -service--these things, induced by the necessity of resisting outside -interference, act as an amalgam drawing together all elements, except, -perhaps, the most discordant. The presence of the enemy allays the most -virulent of quarrels, temporarily at least. "Politics," runs an old -saying, "stops at the water's edge." - -This ancient political principle, so well understood in diplomatic -circles, applied nearly as well to the original thirteen American -colonies as to the countries of Europe. The necessity for common -defense, if not equally great, was certainly always pressing. Though it -has long been the practice to speak of the early settlements as founded -in "a wilderness," this was not actually the case. From the earliest -days of Jamestown on through the years, the American people were -confronted by dangers from without. All about their tiny settlements -were Indians, growing more and more hostile as the frontier advanced and -as sharp conflicts over land aroused angry passions. To the south and -west was the power of Spain, humiliated, it is true, by the disaster to -the Armada, but still presenting an imposing front to the British -empire. To the north and west were the French, ambitious, energetic, -imperial in temper, and prepared to contest on land and water the -advance of British dominion in America. - - -RELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS AND THE FRENCH - -=Indian Affairs.=--It is difficult to make general statements about the -relations of the colonists to the Indians. The problem was presented in -different shape in different sections of America. It was not handled -according to any coherent or uniform plan by the British government, -which alone could speak for all the provinces at the same time. Neither -did the proprietors and the governors who succeeded one another, in an -irregular train, have the consistent policy or the matured experience -necessary for dealing wisely with Indian matters. As the difficulties -arose mainly on the frontiers, where the restless and pushing pioneers -were making their way with gun and ax, nearly everything that happened -was the result of chance rather than of calculation. A personal quarrel -between traders and an Indian, a jug of whisky, a keg of gunpowder, the -exchange of guns for furs, personal treachery, or a flash of bad temper -often set in motion destructive forces of the most terrible character. - -On one side of the ledger may be set innumerable generous records--of -Squanto and Samoset teaching the Pilgrims the ways of the wilds; of -Roger Williams buying his lands from the friendly natives; or of William -Penn treating with them on his arrival in America. On the other side of -the ledger must be recorded many a cruel and bloody conflict as the -frontier rolled westward with deadly precision. The Pequots on the -Connecticut border, sensing their doom, fell upon the tiny settlements -with awful fury in 1637 only to meet with equally terrible punishment. A -generation later, King Philip, son of Massasoit, the friend of the -Pilgrims, called his tribesmen to a war of extermination which brought -the strength of all New England to the field and ended in his own -destruction. In New York, the relations with the Indians, especially -with the Algonquins and the Mohawks, were marked by periodic and -desperate wars. Virginia and her Southern neighbors suffered as did New -England. In 1622 Opecacano, a brother of Powhatan, the friend of the -Jamestown settlers, launched a general massacre; and in 1644 he -attempted a war of extermination. In 1675 the whole frontier was ablaze. -Nathaniel Bacon vainly attempted to stir the colonial governor to put up -an adequate defense and, failing in that plea, himself headed a revolt -and a successful expedition against the Indians. As the Virginia -outposts advanced into the Kentucky country, the strife with the natives -was transferred to that "dark and bloody ground"; while to the -southeast, a desperate struggle with the Tuscaroras called forth the -combined forces of the two Carolinas and Virginia. - -[Illustration: _From an old print._ - -VIRGINIANS DEFENDING THEMSELVES AGAINST THE INDIANS] - -From such horrors New Jersey and Delaware were saved on account of their -geographical location. Pennsylvania, consistently following a policy of -conciliation, was likewise spared until her western vanguard came into -full conflict with the allied French and Indians. Georgia, by clever -negotiations and treaties of alliance, managed to keep on fair terms -with her belligerent Cherokees and Creeks. But neither diplomacy nor -generosity could stay the inevitable conflict as the frontier advanced, -especially after the French soldiers enlisted the Indians in their -imperial enterprises. It was then that desultory fighting became general -warfare. - -[Illustration: ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA, -1750] - -=Early Relations with the French.=--During the first decades of French -exploration and settlement in the St. Lawrence country, the English -colonies, engrossed with their own problems, gave little or no thought -to their distant neighbors. Quebec, founded in 1608, and Montreal, in -1642, were too far away, too small in population, and too slight in -strength to be much of a menace to Boston, Hartford, or New York. It was -the statesmen in France and England, rather than the colonists in -America, who first grasped the significance of the slowly converging -empires in North America. It was the ambition of Louis XIV of France, -rather than the labors of Jesuit missionaries and French rangers, that -sounded the first note of colonial alarm. - -Evidence of this lies in the fact that three conflicts between the -English and the French occurred before their advancing frontiers met on -the Pennsylvania border. King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's -War (1701-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748) owed their origins -and their endings mainly to the intrigues and rivalries of European -powers, although they all involved the American colonies in struggles -with the French and their savage allies. - -=The Clash in the Ohio Valley.=--The second of these wars had hardly -closed, however, before the English colonists themselves began to be -seriously alarmed about the rapidly expanding French dominion in the -West. Marquette and Joliet, who opened the Lake region, and La Salle, -who in 1682 had gone down the Mississippi to the Gulf, had been followed -by the builders of forts. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, thus -taking possession of the gateway to the Mississippi as well as the St. -Lawrence. A few years later they built Fort Niagara; in 1731 they -occupied Crown Point; in 1749 they formally announced their dominion -over all the territory drained by the Ohio River. Having asserted this -lofty claim, they set out to make it good by constructing in the years -1752-1754 Fort Le Boeuf near Lake Erie, Fort Venango on the upper -waters of the Allegheny, and Fort Duquesne at the junction of the -streams forming the Ohio. Though they were warned by George Washington, -in the name of the governor of Virginia, to keep out of territory "so -notoriously known to be property of the crown of Great Britain," the -French showed no signs of relinquishing their pretensions. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -BRADDOCK'S RETREAT] - -=The Final Phase--the French and Indian War.=--Thus it happened that the -shot which opened the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French -and Indian War, was fired in the wilds of Pennsylvania. There began the -conflict that spread to Europe and even Asia and finally involved -England and Prussia, on the one side, and France, Austria, Spain, and -minor powers on the other. On American soil, the defeat of Braddock in -1755 and Wolfe's exploit in capturing Quebec four years later were the -dramatic features. On the continent of Europe, England subsidized -Prussian arms to hold France at bay. In India, on the banks of the -Ganges, as on the banks of the St. Lawrence, British arms were -triumphant. Well could the historian write: "Conquests equaling in -rapidity and far surpassing in magnitude those of Cortes and Pizarro had -been achieved in the East." Well could the merchants of London declare -that under the administration of William Pitt, the imperial genius of -this world-wide conflict, commerce had been "united with and made to -flourish by war." - -From the point of view of the British empire, the results of the war -were momentous. By the peace of 1763, Canada and the territory east of -the Mississippi, except New Orleans, passed under the British flag. The -remainder of the Louisiana territory was transferred to Spain and French -imperial ambitions on the American continent were laid to rest. In -exchange for Havana, which the British had seized during the war, Spain -ceded to King George the colony of Florida. Not without warrant did -Macaulay write in after years that Pitt "was the first Englishman of his -time; and he had made England the first country in the world." - - -THE EFFECTS OF WARFARE ON THE COLONIES - -The various wars with the French and the Indians, trivial in detail as -they seem to-day, had a profound influence on colonial life and on the -destiny of America. Circumstances beyond the control of popular -assemblies, jealous of their individual powers, compelled cooeperation -among them, grudging and stingy no doubt, but still cooeperation. The -American people, more eager to be busy in their fields or at their -trades, were simply forced to raise and support armies, to learn the -arts of warfare, and to practice, if in a small theater, the science of -statecraft. These forces, all cumulative, drove the colonists, so -tenaciously provincial in their habits, in the direction of nationalism. - -=The New England Confederation.=--It was in their efforts to deal with -the problems presented by the Indian and French menace that the -Americans took the first steps toward union. Though there were many -common ties among the settlers of New England, it required a deadly -fear of the Indians to produce in 1643 the New England Confederation, -composed of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The -colonies so united were bound together in "a firm and perpetual league -of friendship and amity for offense and defense, mutual service and -succor, upon all just occasions." They made provision for distributing -the burdens of wars among the members and provided for a congress of -commissioners from each colony to determine upon common policies. For -some twenty years the Confederation was active and it continued to hold -meetings until after the extinction of the Indian peril on the immediate -border. - -Virginia, no less than Massachusetts, was aware of the importance of -intercolonial cooeperation. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the -Old Dominion began treaties of commerce and amity with New York and the -colonies of New England. In 1684 delegates from Virginia met at Albany -with the agents of New York and Massachusetts to discuss problems of -mutual defense. A few years later the Old Dominion cooeperated loyally -with the Carolinas in defending their borders against Indian forays. - -=The Albany Plan of Union.=--An attempt at a general colonial union was -made in 1754. On the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in England, a -conference was held at Albany to consider Indian relations, to devise -measures of defense against the French, and to enter into "articles of -union and confederation for the general defense of his Majesty's -subjects and interests in North America as well in time of peace as of -war." New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, -Pennsylvania, and Maryland were represented. After a long discussion, a -plan of union, drafted mainly, it seems, by Benjamin Franklin, was -adopted and sent to the colonies and the crown for approval. The -colonies, jealous of their individual rights, refused to accept the -scheme and the king disapproved it for the reason, Franklin said, that -it had "too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution." -Though the Albany union failed, the document is still worthy of study -because it forecast many of the perplexing problems that were not solved -until thirty-three years afterward, when another convention of which -also Franklin was a member drafted the Constitution of the United -States. - -[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN] - -=The Military Education of the Colonists.=--The same wars that showed -the provincials the meaning of union likewise instructed them in the art -of defending their institutions. Particularly was this true of the last -French and Indian conflict, which stretched all the way from Maine to -the Carolinas and made heavy calls upon them all for troops. The answer, -it is admitted, was far from satisfactory to the British government and -the conduct of the militiamen was far from professional; but thousands -of Americans got a taste, a strong taste, of actual fighting in the -field. Men like George Washington and Daniel Morgan learned lessons that -were not forgotten in after years. They saw what American militiamen -could do under favorable circumstances and they watched British regulars -operating on American soil. "This whole transaction," shrewdly remarked -Franklin of Braddock's campaign, "gave us Americans the first suspicion -that our exalted ideas of the prowess of British regular troops had not -been well founded." It was no mere accident that the Virginia colonel -who drew his sword under the elm at Cambridge and took command of the -army of the Revolution was the brave officer who had "spurned the -whistle of bullets" at the memorable battle in western Pennsylvania. - -=Financial Burdens and Commercial Disorder.=--While the provincials were -learning lessons in warfare they were also paying the bills. All the -conflicts were costly in treasure as in blood. King Philip's war left -New England weak and almost bankrupt. The French and Indian struggle was -especially expensive. The twenty-five thousand men put in the field by -the colonies were sustained only by huge outlays of money. Paper -currency streamed from the press and debts were accumulated. Commerce -was driven from its usual channels and prices were enhanced. When the -end came, both England and America were staggering under heavy -liabilities, and to make matters worse there was a fall of prices -accompanied by a commercial depression which extended over a period of -ten years. It was in the midst of this crisis that measures of taxation -had to be devised to pay the cost of the war, precipitating the quarrel -which led to American independence. - -=The Expulsion of French Power from North America.=--The effects of the -defeat administered to France, as time proved, were difficult to -estimate. Some British statesmen regarded it as a happy circumstance -that the colonists, already restive under their administration, had no -foreign power at hand to aid them in case they struck for independence. -American leaders, on the other hand, now that the soldiers of King Louis -were driven from the continent, thought that they had no other country -to fear if they cast off British sovereignty. At all events, France, -though defeated, was not out of the sphere of American influence; for, -as events proved, it was the fortunate French alliance negotiated by -Franklin that assured the triumph of American arms in the War of the -Revolution. - - -COLONIAL RELATIONS WITH THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT - -It was neither the Indian wars nor the French wars that finally brought -forth American nationality. That was the product of the long strife -with the mother country which culminated in union for the war of -independence. The forces that created this nation did not operate in the -colonies alone. The character of the English sovereigns, the course of -events in English domestic politics, and English measures of control -over the colonies--executive, legislative, and judicial--must all be -taken into account. - -=The Last of the Stuarts.=--The struggles between Charles I (1625-49) -and the parliamentary party and the turmoil of the Puritan regime -(1649-60) so engrossed the attention of Englishmen at home that they had -little time to think of colonial policies or to interfere with colonial -affairs. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660, accompanied by -internal peace and the increasing power of the mercantile classes in the -House of Commons, changed all that. In the reign of Charles II -(1660-85), himself an easy-going person, the policy of regulating trade -by act of Parliament was developed into a closely knit system and -powerful agencies to supervise the colonies were created. At the same -time a system of stricter control over the dominions was ushered in by -the annulment of the old charter of Massachusetts which conferred so -much self-government on the Puritans. - -Charles' successor, James II, a man of sterner stuff and jealous of his -authority in the colonies as well as at home, continued the policy thus -inaugurated and enlarged upon it. If he could have kept his throne, he -would have bent the Americans under a harsh rule or brought on in his -dominions a revolution like that which he precipitated at home in 1688. -He determined to unite the Northern colonies and introduce a more -efficient administration based on the pattern of the royal provinces. He -made a martinet, Sir Edmund Andros, governor of all New England, New -York, and New Jersey. The charter of Massachusetts, annulled in the last -days of his brother's reign, he continued to ignore, and that of -Connecticut would have been seized if it had not been spirited away and -hidden, according to tradition, in a hollow oak. - -For several months, Andros gave the Northern colonies a taste of -ill-tempered despotism. He wrung quit rents from land owners not -accustomed to feudal dues; he abrogated titles to land where, in his -opinion, they were unlawful; he forced the Episcopal service upon the -Old South Church in Boston; and he denied the writ of _habeas corpus_ to -a preacher who denounced taxation without representation. In the middle -of his arbitrary course, however, his hand was stayed. The news came -that King James had been dethroned by his angry subjects, and the people -of Boston, kindling a fire on Beacon Hill, summoned the countryside to -dispose of Andros. The response was prompt and hearty. The hated -governor was arrested, imprisoned, and sent back across the sea under -guard. - -The overthrow of James, followed by the accession of William and Mary -and by assured parliamentary supremacy, had an immediate effect in the -colonies. The new order was greeted with thanksgiving. Massachusetts was -given another charter which, though not so liberal as the first, -restored the spirit if not the entire letter of self-government. In the -other colonies where Andros had been operating, the old course of -affairs was resumed. - -=The Indifference of the First Two Georges.=--On the death in 1714 of -Queen Anne, the successor of King William, the throne passed to a -Hanoverian prince who, though grateful for English honors and revenues, -was more interested in Hanover than in England. George I and George II, -whose combined reigns extended from 1714 to 1760, never even learned to -speak the English language, at least without an accent. The necessity of -taking thought about colonial affairs bored both of them so that the -stoutest defender of popular privileges in Boston or Charleston had no -ground to complain of the exercise of personal prerogatives by the king. -Moreover, during a large part of this period, the direction of affairs -was in the hands of an astute leader, Sir Robert Walpole, who betrayed -his somewhat cynical view of politics by adopting as his motto: "Let -sleeping dogs lie." He revealed his appreciation of popular sentiment -by exclaiming: "I will not be the minister to enforce taxes at the -expense of blood." Such kings and such ministers were not likely to -arouse the slumbering resistance of the thirteen colonies across the -sea. - -=Control of the Crown over the Colonies.=--While no English ruler from -James II to George III ventured to interfere with colonial matters -personally, constant control over the colonies was exercised by royal -officers acting under the authority of the crown. Systematic supervision -began in 1660, when there was created by royal order a committee of the -king's council to meet on Mondays and Thursdays of each week to consider -petitions, memorials, and addresses respecting the plantations. In 1696 -a regular board was established, known as the "Lords of Trade and -Plantations," which continued, until the American Revolution, to -scrutinize closely colonial business. The chief duties of the board were -to examine acts of colonial legislatures, to recommend measures to those -assemblies for adoption, and to hear memorials and petitions from the -colonies relative to their affairs. - -The methods employed by this board were varied. All laws passed by -American legislatures came before it for review as a matter of routine. -If it found an act unsatisfactory, it recommended to the king the -exercise of his veto power, known as the royal disallowance. Any person -who believed his personal or property rights injured by a colonial law -could be heard by the board in person or by attorney; in such cases it -was the practice to hear at the same time the agent of the colony so -involved. The royal veto power over colonial legislation was not, -therefore, a formal affair, but was constantly employed on the -suggestion of a highly efficient agency of the crown. All this was in -addition to the powers exercised by the governors in the royal -provinces. - -=Judicial Control.=--Supplementing this administrative control over the -colonies was a constant supervision by the English courts of law. The -king, by virtue of his inherent authority, claimed and exercised high -appellate powers over all judicial tribunals in the empire. The right -of appeal from local courts, expressly set forth in some charters, was, -on the eve of the Revolution, maintained in every colony. Any subject in -England or America, who, in the regular legal course, was aggrieved by -any act of a colonial legislature or any decision of a colonial court, -had the right, subject to certain regulations, to carry his case to the -king in council, forcing his opponent to follow him across the sea. In -the exercise of appellate power, the king in council acting as a court -could, and frequently did, declare acts of colonial legislatures duly -enacted and approved, null and void, on the ground that they were -contrary to English law. - -=Imperial Control in Operation.=--Day after day, week after week, year -after year, the machinery for political and judicial control over -colonial affairs was in operation. At one time the British governors in -the colonies were ordered not to approve any colonial law imposing a -duty on European goods imported in English vessels. Again, when North -Carolina laid a tax on peddlers, the council objected to it as -"restrictive upon the trade and dispersion of English manufactures -throughout the continent." At other times, Indian trade was regulated in -the interests of the whole empire or grants of lands by a colonial -legislature were set aside. Virginia was forbidden to close her ports to -North Carolina lest there should be retaliation. - -In short, foreign and intercolonial trade were subjected to a control -higher than that of the colony, foreshadowing a day when the -Constitution of the United States was to commit to Congress the power to -regulate interstate and foreign commerce and commerce with the Indians. -A superior judicial power, towering above that of the colonies, as the -Supreme Court at Washington now towers above the states, kept the -colonial legislatures within the metes and bounds of established law. In -the thousands of appeals, memorials, petitions, and complaints, and the -rulings and decisions upon them, were written the real history of -British imperial control over the American colonies. - -So great was the business before the Lords of Trade that the colonies -had to keep skilled agents in London to protect their interests. As -common grievances against the operation of this machinery of control -arose, there appeared in each colony a considerable body of men, with -the merchants in the lead, who chafed at the restraints imposed on their -enterprise. Only a powerful blow was needed to weld these bodies into a -common mass nourishing the spirit of colonial nationalism. When to the -repeated minor irritations were added general and sweeping measures of -Parliament applying to every colony, the rebound came in the Revolution. - -=Parliamentary Control over Colonial Affairs.=--As soon as Parliament -gained in power at the expense of the king, it reached out to bring the -American colonies under its sway as well. Between the execution of -Charles I and the accession of George III, there was enacted an immense -body of legislation regulating the shipping, trade, and manufactures of -America. All of it, based on the "mercantile" theory then prevalent in -all countries of Europe, was designed to control the overseas -plantations in such a way as to foster the commercial and business -interests of the mother country, where merchants and men of finance had -got the upper hand. According to this theory, the colonies of the -British empire should be confined to agriculture and the production of -raw materials, and forced to buy their manufactured goods of England. - -_The Navigation Acts._--In the first rank among these measures of -British colonial policy must be placed the navigation laws framed for -the purpose of building up the British merchant marine and navy--arms so -essential in defending the colonies against the Spanish, Dutch, and -French. The beginning of this type of legislation was made in 1651 and -it was worked out into a system early in the reign of Charles II -(1660-85). - -The Navigation Acts, in effect, gave a monopoly of colonial commerce to -British ships. No trade could be carried on between Great Britain and -her dominions save in vessels built and manned by British subjects. No -European goods could be brought to America save in the ships of the -country that produced them or in English ships. These laws, which were -almost fatal to Dutch shipping in America, fell with severity upon the -colonists, compelling them to pay higher freight rates. The adverse -effect, however, was short-lived, for the measures stimulated -shipbuilding in the colonies, where the abundance of raw materials gave -the master builders of America an advantage over those of the mother -country. Thus the colonists in the end profited from the restrictive -policy written into the Navigation Acts. - -_The Acts against Manufactures._--The second group of laws was -deliberately aimed to prevent colonial industries from competing too -sharply with those of England. Among the earliest of these measures may -be counted the Woolen Act of 1699, forbidding the exportation of woolen -goods from the colonies and even the woolen trade between towns and -colonies. When Parliament learned, as the result of an inquiry, that New -England and New York were making thousands of hats a year and sending -large numbers annually to the Southern colonies and to Ireland, Spain, -and Portugal, it enacted in 1732 a law declaring that "no hats or felts, -dyed or undyed, finished or unfinished" should be "put upon any vessel -or laden upon any horse or cart with intent to export to any place -whatever." The effect of this measure upon the hat industry was almost -ruinous. A few years later a similar blow was given to the iron -industry. By an act of 1750, pig and bar iron from the colonies were -given free entry to England to encourage the production of the raw -material; but at the same time the law provided that "no mill or other -engine for slitting or rolling of iron, no plating forge to work with a -tilt hammer, and no furnace for making steel" should be built in the -colonies. As for those already built, they were declared public -nuisances and ordered closed. Thus three important economic interests of -the colonists, the woolen, hat, and iron industries, were laid under the -ban. - -_The Trade Laws._--The third group of restrictive measures passed by the -British Parliament related to the sale of colonial produce. An act of -1663 required the colonies to export certain articles to Great Britain -or to her dominions alone; while sugar, tobacco, and ginger consigned to -the continent of Europe had to pass through a British port paying custom -duties and through a British merchant's hands paying the usual -commission. At first tobacco was the only one of the "enumerated -articles" which seriously concerned the American colonies, the rest -coming mainly from the British West Indies. In the course of time, -however, other commodities were added to the list of enumerated -articles, until by 1764 it embraced rice, naval stores, copper, furs, -hides, iron, lumber, and pearl ashes. This was not all. The colonies -were compelled to bring their European purchases back through English -ports, paying duties to the government and commissions to merchants -again. - -_The Molasses Act._--Not content with laws enacted in the interest of -English merchants and manufacturers, Parliament sought to protect the -British West Indies against competition from their French and Dutch -neighbors. New England merchants had long carried on a lucrative trade -with the French islands in the West Indies and Dutch Guiana, where sugar -and molasses could be obtained in large quantities at low prices. Acting -on the protests of English planters in the Barbadoes and Jamaica, -Parliament, in 1733, passed the famous Molasses Act imposing duties on -sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from foreign -countries--rates which would have destroyed the American trade with the -French and Dutch if the law had been enforced. The duties, however, were -not collected. The molasses and sugar trade with the foreigners went on -merrily, smuggling taking the place of lawful traffic. - -=Effect of the Laws in America.=--As compared with the strict monopoly -of her colonial trade which Spain consistently sought to maintain, the -policy of England was both moderate and liberal. Furthermore, the -restrictive laws were supplemented by many measures intended to be -favorable to colonial prosperity. The Navigation Acts, for example, -redounded to the advantage of American shipbuilders and the producers -of hemp, tar, lumber, and ship stores in general. Favors in British -ports were granted to colonial producers as against foreign competitors -and in some instances bounties were paid by England to encourage -colonial enterprise. Taken all in all, there is much justification in -the argument advanced by some modern scholars to the effect that the -colonists gained more than they lost by British trade and industrial -legislation. Certainly after the establishment of independence, when -free from these old restrictions, the Americans found themselves -handicapped by being treated as foreigners rather than favored traders -and the recipients of bounties in English markets. - -Be that as it may, it appears that the colonists felt little irritation -against the mother country on account of the trade and navigation laws -enacted previous to the close of the French and Indian war. Relatively -few were engaged in the hat and iron industries as compared with those -in farming and planting, so that England's policy of restricting America -to agriculture did not conflict with the interests of the majority of -the inhabitants. The woolen industry was largely in the hands of women -and carried on in connection with their domestic duties, so that it was -not the sole support of any considerable number of people. - -As a matter of fact, moreover, the restrictive laws, especially those -relating to trade, were not rigidly enforced. Cargoes of tobacco were -boldly sent to continental ports without even so much as a bow to the -English government, to which duties should have been paid. Sugar and -molasses from the French and Dutch colonies were shipped into New -England in spite of the law. Royal officers sometimes protested against -smuggling and sometimes connived at it; but at no time did they succeed -in stopping it. Taken all in all, very little was heard of "the galling -restraints of trade" until after the French war, when the British -government suddenly entered upon a new course. - - -SUMMARY OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD - -In the period between the landing of the English at Jamestown, Virginia, -in 1607, and the close of the French and Indian war in 1763--a period of -a century and a half--a new nation was being prepared on this continent -to take its place among the powers of the earth. It was an epoch of -migration. Western Europe contributed emigrants of many races and -nationalities. The English led the way. Next to them in numerical -importance were the Scotch-Irish and the Germans. Into the melting pot -were also cast Dutch, Swedes, French, Jews, Welsh, and Irish. Thousands -of negroes were brought from Africa to till Southern fields or labor as -domestic servants in the North. - -Why did they come? The reasons are various. Some of them, the Pilgrims -and Puritans of New England, the French Huguenots, Scotch-Irish and -Irish, and the Catholics of Maryland, fled from intolerant governments -that denied them the right to worship God according to the dictates of -their consciences. Thousands came to escape the bondage of poverty in -the Old World and to find free homes in America. Thousands, like the -negroes from Africa, were dragged here against their will. The lure of -adventure appealed to the restless and the lure of profits to the -enterprising merchants. - -How did they come? In some cases religious brotherhoods banded together -and borrowed or furnished the funds necessary to pay the way. In other -cases great trading companies were organized to found colonies. Again it -was the wealthy proprietor, like Lord Baltimore or William Penn, who -undertook to plant settlements. Many immigrants were able to pay their -own way across the sea. Others bound themselves out for a term of years -in exchange for the cost of the passage. Negroes were brought on account -of the profits derived from their sale as slaves. - -Whatever the motive for their coming, however, they managed to get -across the sea. The immigrants set to work with a will. They cut down -forests, built houses, and laid out fields. They founded churches, -schools, and colleges. They set up forges and workshops. They spun and -wove. They fashioned ships and sailed the seas. They bartered and -traded. Here and there on favorable harbors they established centers of -commerce--Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and -Charleston. As soon as a firm foothold was secured on the shore line -they pressed westward until, by the close of the colonial period, they -were already on the crest of the Alleghanies. - -Though they were widely scattered along a thousand miles of seacoast, -the colonists were united in spirit by many common ties. The major -portion of them were Protestants. The language, the law, and the -literature of England furnished the basis of national unity. Most of the -colonists were engaged in the same hard task; that of conquering a -wilderness. To ties of kinship and language were added ties created by -necessity. They had to unite in defense; first, against the Indians and -later against the French. They were all subjects of the same -sovereign--the king of England. The English Parliament made laws for -them and the English government supervised their local affairs, their -trade, and their manufactures. Common forces assailed them. Common -grievances vexed them. Common hopes inspired them. - -Many of the things which tended to unite them likewise tended to throw -them into opposition to the British Crown and Parliament. Most of them -were freeholders; that is, farmers who owned their own land and tilled -it with their own hands. A free soil nourished the spirit of freedom. -The majority of them were Dissenters, critics, not friends, of the -Church of England, that stanch defender of the British monarchy. Each -colony in time developed its own legislature elected by the voters; it -grew accustomed to making laws and laying taxes for itself. Here was a -people learning self-reliance and self-government. The attempts to -strengthen the Church of England in America and the transformation of -colonies into royal provinces only fanned the spirit of independence -which they were designed to quench. - -Nevertheless, the Americans owed much of their prosperity to the -assistance of the government that irritated them. It was the protection -of the British navy that prevented Holland, Spain, and France from -wiping out their settlements. Though their manufacture and trade were -controlled in the interests of the mother country, they also enjoyed -great advantages in her markets. Free trade existed nowhere upon the -earth; but the broad empire of Britain was open to American ships and -merchandise. It could be said, with good reason, that the disadvantages -which the colonists suffered through British regulation of their -industry and trade were more than offset by the privileges they enjoyed. -Still that is somewhat beside the point, for mere economic advantage is -not necessarily the determining factor in the fate of peoples. A -thousand circumstances had helped to develop on this continent a nation, -to inspire it with a passion for independence, and to prepare it for a -destiny greater than that of a prosperous dominion of the British -empire. The economists, who tried to prove by logic unassailable that -America would be richer under the British flag, could not change the -spirit of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or George -Washington. - - -=References= - -G.L. Beer, _Origin of the British Colonial System_ and _The Old Colonial -System_. - -A. Bradley, _The Fight for Canada in North America_. - -C.M. Andrews, _Colonial Self-Government_ (American Nation Series). - -H. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial Policy_. - -F. Parkman, _France and England in North America_ (12 vols.). - -R. Thwaites, _France in America_ (American Nation Series). - -J. Winsor, _The Mississippi Valley_ and _Cartier to Frontenac_. - - -=Questions= - -1. How would you define "nationalism"? - -2. Can you give any illustrations of the way that war promotes -nationalism? - -3. Why was it impossible to establish and maintain a uniform policy in -dealing with the Indians? - -4. What was the outcome of the final clash with the French? - -5. Enumerate the five chief results of the wars with the French and the -Indians. Discuss each in detail. - -6. Explain why it was that the character of the English king mattered to -the colonists. - -7. Contrast England under the Stuarts with England under the -Hanoverians. - -8. Explain how the English Crown, Courts, and Parliament controlled the -colonies. - -9. Name the three important classes of English legislation affecting the -colonies. Explain each. - -10. Do you think the English legislation was beneficial or injurious to -the colonies? Why? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Rise of French Power in North America.=--Special reference: Francis -Parkman, _Struggle for a Continent_. - -=The French and Indian Wars.=--Special reference: W.M. Sloane, _French -War and the Revolution_, Chaps. VI-IX. Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_, -Vol. II, pp. 195-299. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. -171-196. - -=English Navigation Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. -55, 72, 78, 90, 103. Coman, _Industrial History_, pp. 79-85. - -=British Colonial Policy.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United -States_, pp. 102-108. - -=The New England Confederation.=--Analyze the document in Macdonald, -_Source Book_, p. 45. Special reference: Fiske, _Beginnings of New -England_, pp. 140-198. - -=The Administration of Andros.=--Fiske, _Beginnings_, pp. 242-278. - -=Biographical Studies.=--William Pitt and Sir Robert Walpole. Consult -Green, _Short History of England_, on their policies, using the index. - - - - -PART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY - - -On October 25, 1760, King George II died and the British crown passed to -his young grandson. The first George, the son of the Elector of Hanover -and Sophia the granddaughter of James I, was a thorough German who never -even learned to speak the language of the land over which he reigned. -The second George never saw England until he was a man. He spoke English -with an accent and until his death preferred his German home. During -their reign, the principle had become well established that the king did -not govern but acted only through ministers representing the majority in -Parliament. - - -GEORGE III AND HIS SYSTEM - -=The Character of the New King.=--The third George rudely broke the -German tradition of his family. He resented the imputation that he was a -foreigner and on all occasions made a display of his British sympathies. -To the draft of his first speech to Parliament, he added the popular -phrase: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of -Briton." Macaulay, the English historian, certainly of no liking for -high royal prerogative, said of George: "The young king was a born -Englishman. All his tastes and habits, good and bad, were English. No -portion of his subjects had anything to reproach him with.... His age, -his appearance, and all that was known of his character conciliated -public favor. He was in the bloom of youth; his person and address were -pleasing; scandal imputed to him no vice; and flattery might without -glaring absurdity ascribe to him many princely virtues." - -Nevertheless George III had been spoiled by his mother, his tutors, and -his courtiers. Under their influence he developed high and mighty -notions about the sacredness of royal authority and his duty to check -the pretensions of Parliament and the ministers dependent upon it. His -mother had dinned into his ears the slogan: "George, be king!" Lord -Bute, his teacher and adviser, had told him that his honor required him -to take an active part in the shaping of public policy and the making of -laws. Thus educated, he surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged -him in the determination to rule as well as reign, to subdue all -parties, and to place himself at the head of the nation and empire. - -[Illustration: _From an old print._ - -GEORGE III] - -=Political Parties and George III.=--The state of the political parties -favored the plans of the king to restore some of the ancient luster of -the crown. The Whigs, who were composed mainly of the smaller -freeholders, merchants, inhabitants of towns, and Protestant -non-conformists, had grown haughty and overbearing through long -continuance in power and had as a consequence raised up many enemies in -their own ranks. Their opponents, the Tories, had by this time given up -all hope of restoring to the throne the direct Stuart line; but they -still cherished their old notions about divine right. With the -accession of George III the coveted opportunity came to them to rally -around the throne again. George received his Tory friends with open -arms, gave them offices, and bought them seats in the House of Commons. - -=The British Parliamentary System.=--The peculiarities of the British -Parliament at the time made smooth the way for the king and his allies -with their designs for controlling the entire government. In the first -place, the House of Lords was composed mainly of hereditary nobles whose -number the king could increase by the appointment of his favorites, as -of old. Though the members of the House of Commons were elected by -popular vote, they did not speak for the mass of English people. Great -towns like Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, for example, had no -representatives at all. While there were about eight million inhabitants -in Great Britain, there were in 1768 only about 160,000 voters; that is -to say, only about one in every ten adult males had a voice in the -government. Many boroughs returned one or more members to the Commons -although they had merely a handful of voters or in some instances no -voters at all. Furthermore, these tiny boroughs were often controlled by -lords who openly sold the right of representation to the highest bidder. -The "rotten-boroughs," as they were called by reformers, were a public -scandal, but George III readily made use of them to get his friends into -the House of Commons. - - -GEORGE III'S MINISTERS AND THEIR COLONIAL POLICIES - -=Grenville and the War Debt.=--Within a year after the accession of -George III, William Pitt was turned out of office, the king treating him -with "gross incivility" and the crowds shouting "Pitt forever!" The -direction of affairs was entrusted to men enjoying the king's -confidence. Leadership in the House of Commons fell to George Grenville, -a grave and laborious man who for years had groaned over the increasing -cost of government. - -The first task after the conclusion of peace in 1763 was the adjustment -of the disordered finances of the kingdom. The debt stood at the highest -point in the history of the country. More revenue was absolutely -necessary and Grenville began to search for it, turning his attention -finally to the American colonies. In this quest he had the aid of a -zealous colleague, Charles Townshend, who had long been in public -service and was familiar with the difficulties encountered by royal -governors in America. These two men, with the support of the entire -ministry, inaugurated in February, 1763, "a new system of colonial -government. It was announced by authority that there were to be no more -requisitions from the king to the colonial assemblies for supplies, but -that the colonies were to be taxed instead by act of Parliament. -Colonial governors and judges were to be paid by the Crown; they were to -be supported by a standing army of twenty regiments; and all the -expenses of this force were to be met by parliamentary taxation." - -=Restriction of Paper Money (1763).=--Among the many complaints filed -before the board of trade were vigorous protests against the issuance of -paper money by the colonial legislatures. The new ministry provided a -remedy in the act of 1763, which declared void all colonial laws -authorizing paper money or extending the life of outstanding bills. This -law was aimed at the "cheap money" which the Americans were fond of -making when specie was scarce--money which they tried to force on their -English creditors in return for goods and in payment of the interest and -principal of debts. Thus the first chapter was written in the long -battle over sound money on this continent. - -=Limitation on Western Land Sales.=--Later in the same year (1763) -George III issued a royal proclamation providing, among other things, -for the government of the territory recently acquired by the treaty of -Paris from the French. One of the provisions in this royal decree -touched frontiersmen to the quick. The contests between the king's -officers and the colonists over the disposition of western lands had -been long and sharp. The Americans chafed at restrictions on -settlement. The more adventurous were continually moving west and -"squatting" on land purchased from the Indians or simply seized without -authority. To put an end to this, the king forbade all further purchases -from the Indians, reserving to the crown the right to acquire such lands -and dispose of them for settlement. A second provision in the same -proclamation vested the power of licensing trade with the Indians, -including the lucrative fur business, in the hands of royal officers in -the colonies. These two limitations on American freedom and enterprise -were declared to be in the interest of the crown and for the -preservation of the rights of the Indians against fraud and abuses. - -=The Sugar Act of 1764.=--King George's ministers next turned their -attention to measures of taxation and trade. Since the heavy debt under -which England was laboring had been largely incurred in the defense of -America, nothing seemed more reasonable to them than the proposition -that the colonies should help to bear the burden which fell so heavily -upon the English taxpayer. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the result of this -reasoning. There was no doubt about the purpose of this law, for it was -set forth clearly in the title: "An act for granting certain duties in -the British colonies and plantations in America ... for applying the -produce of such duties ... towards defraying the expenses of defending, -protecting and securing the said colonies and plantations ... and for -more effectually preventing the clandestine conveyance of goods to and -from the said colonies and plantations and improving and securing the -trade between the same and Great Britain." The old Molasses Act had been -prohibitive; the Sugar Act of 1764 was clearly intended as a revenue -measure. Specified duties were laid upon sugar, indigo, calico, silks, -and many other commodities imported into the colonies. The enforcement -of the Molasses Act had been utterly neglected; but this Sugar Act had -"teeth in it." Special precautions as to bonds, security, and -registration of ship masters, accompanied by heavy penalties, promised -a vigorous execution of the new revenue law. - -The strict terms of the Sugar Act were strengthened by administrative -measures. Under a law of the previous year the commanders of armed -vessels stationed along the American coast were authorized to stop, -search, and, on suspicion, seize merchant ships approaching colonial -ports. By supplementary orders, the entire British official force in -America was instructed to be diligent in the execution of all trade and -navigation laws. Revenue collectors, officers of the army and navy, and -royal governors were curtly ordered to the front to do their full duty -in the matter of law enforcement. The ordinary motives for the discharge -of official obligations were sharpened by an appeal to avarice, for -naval officers who seized offenders against the law were rewarded by -large prizes out of the forfeitures and penalties. - -=The Stamp Act (1765).=--The Grenville-Townshend combination moved -steadily towards its goal. While the Sugar Act was under consideration -in Parliament, Grenville announced a plan for a stamp bill. The next -year it went through both Houses with a speed that must have astounded -its authors. The vote in the Commons stood 205 in favor to 49 against; -while in the Lords it was not even necessary to go through the formality -of a count. As George III was temporarily insane, the measure received -royal assent by a commission acting as a board of regency. Protests of -colonial agents in London were futile. "We might as well have hindered -the sun's progress!" exclaimed Franklin. Protests of a few opponents in -the Commons were equally vain. The ministry was firm in its course and -from all appearances the Stamp Act hardly roused as much as a languid -interest in the city of London. In fact, it is recorded that the fateful -measure attracted less notice than a bill providing for a commission to -act for the king when he was incapacitated. - -The Stamp Act, like the Sugar Act, declared the purpose of the British -government to raise revenue in America "towards defraying the expenses -of defending, protecting, and securing the British colonies and -plantations in America." It was a long measure of more than fifty -sections, carefully planned and skillfully drawn. By its provisions -duties were imposed on practically all papers used in legal -transactions,--deeds, mortgages, inventories, writs, bail bonds,--on -licenses to practice law and sell liquor, on college diplomas, playing -cards, dice, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, calendars, and -advertisements. The drag net was closely knit, for scarcely anything -escaped. - -=The Quartering Act (1765).=--The ministers were aware that the Stamp -Act would rouse opposition in America--how great they could not -conjecture. While the measure was being debated, a friend of General -Wolfe, Colonel Barre, who knew America well, gave them an ominous -warning in the Commons. "Believe me--remember I this day told you so--" -he exclaimed, "the same spirit of freedom which actuated that people at -first will accompany them still ... a people jealous of their liberties -and who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated." The -answer of the ministry to a prophecy of force was a threat of force. -Preparations were accordingly made to dispatch a larger number of -soldiers than usual to the colonies, and the ink was hardly dry on the -Stamp Act when Parliament passed the Quartering Act ordering the -colonists to provide accommodations for the soldiers who were to enforce -the new laws. "We have the power to tax them," said one of the ministry, -"and we will tax them." - - -COLONIAL RESISTANCE FORCES REPEAL - -=Popular Opposition.=--The Stamp Act was greeted in America by an -outburst of denunciation. The merchants of the seaboard cities took the -lead in making a dignified but unmistakable protest, agreeing not to -import British goods while the hated law stood upon the books. Lawyers, -some of them incensed at the heavy taxes on their operations and others -intimidated by patriots who refused to permit them to use stamped -papers, joined with the merchants. Aristocratic colonial Whigs, who had -long grumbled at the administration of royal governors, protested -against taxation without their consent, as the Whigs had done in old -England. There were Tories, however, in the colonies as in England--many -of them of the official class--who denounced the merchants, lawyers, and -Whig aristocrats as "seditious, factious and republican." Yet the -opposition to the Stamp Act and its accompanying measure, the Quartering -Act, grew steadily all through the summer of 1765. - -In a little while it was taken up in the streets and along the -countryside. All through the North and in some of the Southern colonies, -there sprang up, as if by magic, committees and societies pledged to -resist the Stamp Act to the bitter end. These popular societies were -known as Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty: the former including -artisans, mechanics, and laborers; and the latter, patriotic women. Both -groups were alike in that they had as yet taken little part in public -affairs. Many artisans, as well as all the women, were excluded from the -right to vote for colonial assemblymen. - -While the merchants and Whig gentlemen confined their efforts chiefly to -drafting well-phrased protests against British measures, the Sons of -Liberty operated in the streets and chose rougher measures. They stirred -up riots in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston when attempts -were made to sell the stamps. They sacked and burned the residences of -high royal officers. They organized committees of inquisition who by -threats and intimidation curtailed the sale of British goods and the use -of stamped papers. In fact, the Sons of Liberty carried their operations -to such excesses that many mild opponents of the stamp tax were -frightened and drew back in astonishment at the forces they had -unloosed. The Daughters of Liberty in a quieter way were making a very -effective resistance to the sale of the hated goods by spurring on -domestic industries, their own particular province being the manufacture -of clothing, and devising substitutes for taxed foods. They helped to -feed and clothe their families without buying British goods. - -=Legislative Action against the Stamp Act.=--Leaders in the colonial -assemblies, accustomed to battle against British policies, supported the -popular protest. The Stamp Act was signed on March 22, 1765. On May 30, -the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions declaring -that the General Assembly of the colony alone had the right to lay taxes -upon the inhabitants and that attempts to impose them otherwise were -"illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust." It was in support of these -resolutions that Patrick Henry uttered the immortal challenge: "Caesar -had his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III...." Cries of -"Treason" were calmly met by the orator who finished: "George III may -profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." - -[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY] - -=The Stamp Act Congress.=--The Massachusetts Assembly answered the call -of Virginia by inviting the colonies to elect delegates to a Congress to -be held in New York to discuss the situation. Nine colonies responded -and sent representatives. The delegates, while professing the warmest -affection for the king's person and government, firmly spread on record -a series of resolutions that admitted of no double meaning. They -declared that taxes could not be imposed without their consent, given -through their respective colonial assemblies; that the Stamp Act showed -a tendency to subvert their rights and liberties; that the recent trade -acts were burdensome and grievous; and that the right to petition the -king and Parliament was their heritage. They thereupon made "humble -supplication" for the repeal of the Stamp Act. - -The Stamp Act Congress was more than an assembly of protest. It marked -the rise of a new agency of government to express the will of America. -It was the germ of a government which in time was to supersede the -government of George III in the colonies. It foreshadowed the Congress -of the United States under the Constitution. It was a successful attempt -at union. "There ought to be no New England men," declared Christopher -Gadsden, in the Stamp Act Congress, "no New Yorkers known on the -Continent, but all of us Americans." - -=The Repeal of the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act.=--The effect of American -resistance on opinion in England was telling. Commerce with the colonies -had been effectively boycotted by the Americans; ships lay idly swinging -at the wharves; bankruptcy threatened hundreds of merchants in London, -Bristol, and Liverpool. Workingmen in the manufacturing towns of England -were thrown out of employment. The government had sown folly and was -reaping, in place of the coveted revenue, rebellion. - -Perplexed by the storm they had raised, the ministers summoned to the -bar of the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin, the agent for -Pennsylvania, who was in London. "Do you think it right," asked -Grenville, "that America should be protected by this country and pay no -part of the expenses?" The answer was brief: "That is not the case; the -colonies raised, clothed, and paid during the last war twenty-five -thousand men and spent many millions." Then came an inquiry whether the -colonists would accept a modified stamp act. "No, never," replied -Franklin, "never! They will never submit to it!" It was next suggested -that military force might compel obedience to law. Franklin had a ready -answer. "They cannot force a man to take stamps.... They may not find a -rebellion; they may, indeed, make one." - -The repeal of the Stamp Act was moved in the House of Commons a few days -later. The sponsor for the repeal spoke of commerce interrupted, debts -due British merchants placed in jeopardy, Manchester industries closed, -workingmen unemployed, oppression instituted, and the loss of the -colonies threatened. Pitt and Edmund Burke, the former near the close -of his career, the latter just beginning his, argued cogently in favor -of retracing the steps taken the year before. Grenville refused. -"America must learn," he wailed, "that prayers are not to be brought to -Caesar through riot and sedition." His protests were idle. The Commons -agreed to the repeal on February 22, 1766, amid the cheers of the -victorious majority. It was carried through the Lords in the face of -strong opposition and, on March 18, reluctantly signed by the king, now -restored to his right mind. - -In rescinding the Stamp Act, Parliament did not admit the contention of -the Americans that it was without power to tax them. On the contrary, it -accompanied the repeal with a Declaratory Act. It announced that the -colonies were subordinate to the crown and Parliament of Great Britain; -that the king and Parliament therefore had undoubted authority to make -laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever; and that the -resolutions and proceedings of the colonists denying such authority were -null and void. - -The repeal was greeted by the colonists with great popular -demonstrations. Bells were rung; toasts to the king were drunk; and -trade resumed its normal course. The Declaratory Act, as a mere paper -resolution, did not disturb the good humor of those who again cheered -the name of King George. Their confidence was soon strengthened by the -news that even the Sugar Act had been repealed, thus practically -restoring the condition of affairs before Grenville and Townshend -inaugurated their policy of "thoroughness." - - -RESUMPTION OF BRITISH REVENUE AND COMMERCIAL POLICIES - -=The Townshend Acts (1767).=--The triumph of the colonists was brief. -Though Pitt, the friend of America, was once more prime minister, and -seated in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, his severe illness -gave to Townshend and the Tory party practical control over Parliament. -Unconvinced by the experience with the Stamp Act, Townshend brought -forward and pushed through both Houses of Parliament three measures, -which to this day are associated with his name. First among his -restrictive laws was that of June 29, 1767, which placed the enforcement -of the collection of duties and customs on colonial imports and exports -in the hands of British commissioners appointed by the king, resident in -the colonies, paid from the British treasury, and independent of all -control by the colonists. The second measure of the same date imposed a -tax on lead, glass, paint, tea, and a few other articles imported into -the colonies, the revenue derived from the duties to be applied toward -the payment of the salaries and other expenses of royal colonial -officials. A third measure was the Tea Act of July 2, 1767, aimed at the -tea trade which the Americans carried on illegally with foreigners. This -law abolished the duty which the East India Company had to pay in -England on tea exported to America, for it was thought that English tea -merchants might thus find it possible to undersell American tea -smugglers. - -=Writs of Assistance Legalized by Parliament.=--Had Parliament been -content with laying duties, just as a manifestation of power and right, -and neglected their collection, perhaps little would have been heard of -the Townshend Acts. It provided, however, for the strict, even the -harsh, enforcement of the law. It ordered customs officers to remain at -their posts and put an end to smuggling. In the revenue act of June 29, -1767, it expressly authorized the superior courts of the colonies to -issue "writs of assistance," empowering customs officers to enter "any -house, warehouse, shop, cellar, or other place in the British colonies -or plantations in America to search for and seize" prohibited or -smuggled goods. - -The writ of assistance, which was a general search warrant issued to -revenue officers, was an ancient device hateful to a people who -cherished the spirit of personal independence and who had made actual -gains in the practice of civil liberty. To allow a "minion of the law" -to enter a man's house and search his papers and premises, was too much -for the emotions of people who had fled to America in a quest for -self-government and free homes, who had braved such hardships to -establish them, and who wanted to trade without official interference. - -The writ of assistance had been used in Massachusetts in 1755 to prevent -illicit trade with Canada and had aroused a violent hostility at that -time. In 1761 it was again the subject of a bitter controversy which -arose in connection with the application of a customs officer to a -Massachusetts court for writs of assistance "as usual." This application -was vainly opposed by James Otis in a speech of five hours' duration--a -speech of such fire and eloquence that it sent every man who heard it -away "ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." Otis denounced -the practice as an exercise of arbitrary power which had cost one king -his head and another his throne, a tyrant's device which placed the -liberty of every man in jeopardy, enabling any petty officer to work -possible malice on any innocent citizen on the merest suspicion, and to -spread terror and desolation through the land. "What a scene," he -exclaimed, "does this open! Every man, prompted by revenge, ill-humor, -or wantonness to inspect the inside of his neighbor's house, may get a -writ of assistance. Others will ask it from self-defense; one arbitrary -exertion will provoke another until society is involved in tumult and -blood." He did more than attack the writ itself. He said that Parliament -could not establish it because it was against the British constitution. -This was an assertion resting on slender foundation, but it was quickly -echoed by the people. Then and there James Otis sounded the call to -America to resist the exercise of arbitrary power by royal officers. -"Then and there," wrote John Adams, "the child Independence was born." -Such was the hated writ that Townshend proposed to put into the hands of -customs officers in his grim determination to enforce the law. - -=The New York Assembly Suspended.=--In the very month that Townshend's -Acts were signed by the king, Parliament took a still more drastic step. -The assembly of New York, protesting against the "ruinous and -insupportable" expense involved, had failed to make provision for the -care of British troops in accordance with the terms of the Quartering -Act. Parliament therefore suspended the assembly until it promised to -obey the law. It was not until a third election was held that compliance -with the Quartering Act was wrung from the reluctant province. In the -meantime, all the colonies had learned on how frail a foundation their -representative bodies rested. - - -RENEWED RESISTANCE IN AMERICA - -=The Massachusetts Circular (1768).=--Massachusetts, under the -leadership of Samuel Adams, resolved to resist the policy of renewed -intervention in America. At his suggestion the assembly adopted a -Circular Letter addressed to the assemblies of the other colonies -informing them of the state of affairs in Massachusetts and roundly -condemning the whole British program. The Circular Letter declared that -Parliament had no right to lay taxes on Americans without their consent -and that the colonists could not, from the nature of the case, be -represented in Parliament. It went on shrewdly to submit to -consideration the question as to whether any people could be called free -who were subjected to governors and judges appointed by the crown and -paid out of funds raised independently. It invited the other colonies, -in the most temperate tones, to take thought about the common -predicament in which they were all placed. - -[Illustration: _From an old print._ - -SAMUEL ADAMS] - -=The Dissolution of Assemblies.=--The governor of Massachusetts, hearing -of the Circular Letter, ordered the assembly to rescind its appeal. On -meeting refusal, he promptly dissolved it. The Maryland, Georgia, and -South Carolina assemblies indorsed the Circular Letter and were also -dissolved at once. The Virginia House of Burgesses, thoroughly aroused, -passed resolutions on May 16, 1769, declaring that the sole right of -imposing taxes in Virginia was vested in its legislature, asserting anew -the right of petition to the crown, condemning the transportation of -persons accused of crimes or trial beyond the seas, and beseeching the -king for a redress of the general grievances. The immediate dissolution -of the Virginia assembly, in its turn, was the answer of the royal -governor. - -=The Boston Massacre.=--American opposition to the British authorities -kept steadily rising as assemblies were dissolved, the houses of -citizens searched, and troops distributed in increasing numbers among -the centers of discontent. Merchants again agreed not to import British -goods, the Sons of Liberty renewed their agitation, and women set about -the patronage of home products still more loyally. - -On the night of March 5, 1770, a crowd on the streets of Boston began to -jostle and tease some British regulars stationed in the town. Things -went from bad to worse until some "boys and young fellows" began to -throw snowballs and stones. Then the exasperated soldiers fired into the -crowd, killing five and wounding half a dozen more. The day after the -"massacre," a mass meeting was held in the town and Samuel Adams was -sent to demand the withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor hesitated -and tried to compromise. Finding Adams relentless, the governor yielded -and ordered the regulars away. - -The Boston Massacre stirred the country from New Hampshire to Georgia. -Popular passions ran high. The guilty soldiers were charged with murder. -Their defense was undertaken, in spite of the wrath of the populace, by -John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who as lawyers thought even the worst -offenders entitled to their full rights in law. In his speech to the -jury, however, Adams warned the British government against its course, -saying, that "from the nature of things soldiers quartered in a populous -town will always occasion two mobs where they will prevent one." Two of -the soldiers were convicted and lightly punished. - -=Resistance in the South.=--The year following the Boston Massacre some -citizens of North Carolina, goaded by the conduct of the royal governor, -openly resisted his authority. Many were killed as a result and seven -who were taken prisoners were hanged as traitors. A little later royal -troops and local militia met in a pitched battle near Alamance River, -called the "Lexington of the South." - -=The _Gaspee_ Affair and the Virginia Resolutions of 1773.=--On sea as -well as on land, friction between the royal officers and the colonists -broke out into overt acts. While patrolling Narragansett Bay looking for -smugglers one day in 1772, the armed ship, _Gaspee_, ran ashore and was -caught fast. During the night several men from Providence boarded the -vessel and, after seizing the crew, set it on fire. A royal commission, -sent to Rhode Island to discover the offenders and bring them to -account, failed because it could not find a single informer. The very -appointment of such a commission aroused the patriots of Virginia to -action; and in March, 1773, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution -creating a standing committee of correspondence to develop cooeperation -among the colonies in resistance to British measures. - -=The Boston Tea Party.=--Although the British government, finding the -Townshend revenue act a failure, repealed in 1770 all the duties except -that on tea, it in no way relaxed its resolve to enforce the other -commercial regulations it had imposed on the colonies. Moreover, -Parliament decided to relieve the British East India Company of the -financial difficulties into which it had fallen partly by reason of the -Tea Act and the colonial boycott that followed. In 1773 it agreed to -return to the Company the regular import duties, levied in England, on -all tea transshipped to America. A small impost of three pence, to be -collected in America, was left as a reminder of the principle laid down -in the Declaratory Act that Parliament had the right to tax the -colonists. - -This arrangement with the East India Company was obnoxious to the -colonists for several reasons. It was an act of favoritism for one -thing, in the interest of a great monopoly. For another thing, it -promised to dump on the American market, suddenly, an immense amount of -cheap tea and so cause heavy losses to American merchants who had large -stocks on hand. It threatened with ruin the business of all those who -were engaged in clandestine trade with the Dutch. It carried with it an -irritating tax of three pence on imports. In Charleston, Annapolis, New -York, and Boston, captains of ships who brought tea under this act were -roughly handled. One night in December, 1773, a band of Boston citizens, -disguised as Indians, boarded the hated tea ships and dumped the cargo -into the harbor. This was serious business, for it was open, flagrant, -determined violation of the law. As such the British government viewed -it. - - -RETALIATION BY THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT - -=Reception of the News of the Tea Riot.=--The news of the tea riot in -Boston confirmed King George in his conviction that there should be no -soft policy in dealing with his American subjects. "The die is cast," he -stated with evident satisfaction. "The colonies must either triumph or -submit.... If we take the resolute part, they will undoubtedly be very -meek." Lord George Germain characterized the tea party as "the -proceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble who ought, if they had -the least prudence, to follow their mercantile employments and not -trouble themselves with politics and government, which they do not -understand." This expressed, in concise form, exactly the sentiments of -Lord North, who had then for three years been the king's chief minister. -Even Pitt, Lord Chatham, was prepared to support the government in -upholding its authority. - -=The Five Intolerable Acts.=--Parliament, beginning on March 31, 1774, -passed five stringent measures, known in American history as the five -"intolerable acts." They were aimed at curing the unrest in America. The -_first_ of them was a bill absolutely shutting the port of Boston to -commerce with the outside world. The _second_, following closely, -revoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691 and provided furthermore that -the councilors should be appointed by the king, that all judges should -be named by the royal governor, and that town meetings (except to elect -certain officers) could not be held without the governor's consent. A -_third_ measure, after denouncing the "utter subversion of all lawful -government" in the provinces, authorized royal agents to transfer to -Great Britain or to other colonies the trials of officers or other -persons accused of murder in connection with the enforcement of the law. -The _fourth_ act legalized the quartering of troops in Massachusetts -towns. The _fifth_ of the measures was the Quebec Act, which granted -religious toleration to the Catholics in Canada, extended the boundaries -of Quebec southward to the Ohio River, and established, in this western -region, government by a viceroy. - -The intolerable acts went through Parliament with extraordinary -celerity. There was an opposition, alert and informed; but it was -ineffective. Burke spoke eloquently against the Boston port bill, -condemning it roundly for punishing the innocent with the guilty, and -showing how likely it was to bring grave consequences in its train. He -was heard with respect and his pleas were rejected. The bill passed both -houses without a division, the entry "unanimous" being made upon their -journals although it did not accurately represent the state of opinion. -The law destroying the charter of Massachusetts passed the Commons by a -vote of three to one; and the third intolerable act by a vote of four to -one. The triumph of the ministry was complete. "What passed in Boston," -exclaimed the great jurist, Lord Mansfield, "is the overt act of High -Treason proceeding from our over lenity and want of foresight." The -crown and Parliament were united in resorting to punitive measures. - -In the colonies the laws were received with consternation. To the -American Protestants, the Quebec Act was the most offensive. That -project they viewed not as an act of grace or of mercy but as a direct -attempt to enlist French Canadians on the side of Great Britain. The -British government did not grant religious toleration to Catholics -either at home or in Ireland and the Americans could see no good motive -in granting it in North America. The act was also offensive because -Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia had, under their charters, -large claims in the territory thus annexed to Quebec. - -To enforce these intolerable acts the military arm of the British -government was brought into play. The commander-in-chief of the armed -forces in America, General Gage, was appointed governor of -Massachusetts. Reinforcements were brought to the colonies, for now King -George was to give "the rebels," as he called them, a taste of strong -medicine. The majesty of his law was to be vindicated by force. - - -FROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION IN AMERICA - -=The Doctrine of Natural Rights.=--The dissolution of assemblies, the -destruction of charters, and the use of troops produced in the colonies -a new phase in the struggle. In the early days of the contest with the -British ministry, the Americans spoke of their "rights as Englishmen" -and condemned the acts of Parliament as unlawful, as violating the -principles of the English constitution under which they all lived. When -they saw that such arguments had no effect on Parliament, they turned -for support to their "natural rights." The latter doctrine, in the form -in which it was employed by the colonists, was as English as the -constitutional argument. John Locke had used it with good effect in -defense of the English revolution in the seventeenth century. American -leaders, familiar with the writings of Locke, also took up his thesis in -the hour of their distress. They openly declared that their rights did -not rest after all upon the English constitution or a charter from the -crown. "Old Magna Carta was not the beginning of all things," retorted -Otis when the constitutional argument failed. "A time may come when -Parliament shall declare every American charter void, but the natural, -inherent, and inseparable rights of the colonists as men and as citizens -would remain and whatever became of charters can never be abolished -until the general conflagration." Of the same opinion was the young and -impetuous Alexander Hamilton. "The sacred rights of mankind," he -exclaimed, "are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty -records. They are written as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human -destiny by the hand of divinity itself, and can never be erased or -obscured by mortal power." - -Firm as the American leaders were in the statement and defense of their -rights, there is every reason for believing that in the beginning they -hoped to confine the conflict to the realm of opinion. They constantly -avowed that they were loyal to the king when protesting in the strongest -language against his policies. Even Otis, regarded by the loyalists as a -firebrand, was in fact attempting to avert revolution by winning -concessions from England. "I argue this cause with the greater -pleasure," he solemnly urged in his speech against the writs of -assistance, "as it is in favor of British liberty ... and as it is in -opposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods -cost one king of England his head and another his throne." - -=Burke Offers the Doctrine of Conciliation.=--The flooding tide of -American sentiment was correctly measured by one Englishman at least, -Edmund Burke, who quickly saw that attempts to restrain the rise of -American democracy were efforts to reverse the processes of nature. He -saw how fixed and rooted in the nature of things was the American -spirit--how inevitable, how irresistible. He warned his countrymen that -there were three ways of handling the delicate situation--and only -three. One was to remove the cause of friction by changing the spirit of -the colonists--an utter impossibility because that spirit was grounded -in the essential circumstances of American life. The second was to -prosecute American leaders as criminals; of this he begged his -countrymen to beware lest the colonists declare that "a government -against which a claim of liberty is tantamount to high treason is a -government to which submission is equivalent to slavery." The third and -right way to meet the problem, Burke concluded, was to accept the -American spirit, repeal the obnoxious measures, and receive the colonies -into equal partnership. - -=Events Produce the Great Decision.=--The right way, indicated by Burke, -was equally impossible to George III and the majority in Parliament. To -their narrow minds, American opinion was contemptible and American -resistance unlawful, riotous, and treasonable. The correct way, in their -view, was to dispatch more troops to crush the "rebels"; and that very -act took the contest from the realm of opinion. As John Adams said: -"Facts are stubborn things." Opinions were unseen, but marching soldiers -were visible to the veriest street urchin. "Now," said Gouverneur -Morris, "the sheep, simple as they are, cannot be gulled as heretofore." -It was too late to talk about the excellence of the British -constitution. If any one is bewildered by the controversies of modern -historians as to why the crisis came at last, he can clarify his -understanding by reading again Edmund Burke's stately oration, _On -Conciliation with America_. - - -=References= - -G.L. Beer, _British Colonial Policy_ (1754-63). - -E. Channing, _History of the United States_, Vol. III. - -R. Frothingham, _Rise of the Republic_. - -G.E. Howard, _Preliminaries of the Revolution_ (American Nation Series). - -J.K. Hosmer, _Samuel Adams_. - -J.T. Morse, _Benjamin Franklin_. - -M.C. Tyler, _Patrick Henry_. - -J.A. Woodburn (editor), _The American Revolution_ (Selections from the -English work by Lecky). - - -=Questions= - -1. Show how the character of George III made for trouble with the -colonies. - -2. Explain why the party and parliamentary systems of England favored -the plans of George III. - -3. How did the state of English finances affect English policy? - -4. Enumerate five important measures of the English government affecting -the colonies between 1763 and 1765. Explain each in detail. - -5. Describe American resistance to the Stamp Act. What was the outcome? - -6. Show how England renewed her policy of regulation in 1767. - -7. Summarize the events connected with American resistance. - -8. With what measures did Great Britain retaliate? - -9. Contrast "constitutional" with "natural" rights. - -10. What solution did Burke offer? Why was it rejected? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Powers Conferred on Revenue Officers by Writs of Assistance.=--See a -writ in Macdonald, _Source Book_, p. 109. - -=The Acts of Parliament Respecting America.=--Macdonald, pp. 117-146. -Assign one to each student for report and comment. - -=Source Studies on the Stamp Act.=--Hart, _American History Told by -Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 394-412. - -=Source Studies of the Townshend Acts.=--Hart, Vol. II, pp. 413-433. - -=American Principles.=--Prepare a table of them from the Resolutions of -the Stamp Act Congress and the Massachusetts Circular. Macdonald, pp. -136-146. - -=An English Historian's View of the Period.=--Green, _Short History of -England_, Chap. X. - -=English Policy Not Injurious to America.=--Callender, _Economic -History_, pp. 85-121. - -=A Review of English Policy.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American -People_, Vol. II, pp. 129-170. - -=The Opening of the Revolution.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, -pp. 220-235. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - - -RESISTANCE AND RETALIATION - -=The Continental Congress.=--When the news of the "intolerable acts" -reached America, every one knew what strong medicine Parliament was -prepared to administer to all those who resisted its authority. The -cause of Massachusetts became the cause of all the colonies. Opposition -to British policy, hitherto local and spasmodic, now took on a national -character. To local committees and provincial conventions was added a -Continental Congress, appropriately called by Massachusetts on June 17, -1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams. The response to the summons -was electric. By hurried and irregular methods delegates were elected -during the summer, and on September 5 the Congress duly assembled in -Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia. Many of the greatest men in America -were there--George Washington and Patrick Henry from Virginia and John -and Samuel Adams from Massachusetts. Every shade of opinion was -represented. Some were impatient with mild devices; the majority favored -moderation. - -The Congress drew up a declaration of American rights and stated in -clear and dignified language the grievances of the colonists. It -approved the resistance to British measures offered by Massachusetts and -promised the united support of all sections. It prepared an address to -King George and another to the people of England, disavowing the idea of -independence but firmly attacking the policies pursued by the British -government. - -=The Non-Importation Agreement.=--The Congress was not content, however, -with professions of faith and with petitions. It took one revolutionary -step. It agreed to stop the importation of British goods into America, -and the enforcement of this agreement it placed in the hands of local -"committees of safety and inspection," to be elected by the qualified -voters. The significance of this action is obvious. Congress threw -itself athwart British law. It made a rule to bind American citizens and -to be carried into effect by American officers. It set up a state within -the British state and laid down a test of allegiance to the new order. -The colonists, who up to this moment had been wavering, had to choose -one authority or the other. They were for the enforcement of the -non-importation agreement or they were against it. They either bought -English goods or they did not. In the spirit of the toast--"May Britain -be wise and America be free"--the first Continental Congress adjourned -in October, having appointed the tenth of May following for the meeting -of a second Congress, should necessity require. - -=Lord North's "Olive Branch."=--When the news of the action of the -American Congress reached England, Pitt and Burke warmly urged a repeal -of the obnoxious laws, but in vain. All they could wring from the prime -minister, Lord North, was a set of "conciliatory resolutions" proposing -to relieve from taxation any colony that would assume its share of -imperial defense and make provision for supporting the local officers of -the crown. This "olive branch" was accompanied by a resolution assuring -the king of support at all hazards in suppressing the rebellion and by -the restraining act of March 30, 1775, which in effect destroyed the -commerce of New England. - -=Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775).=--Meanwhile the -British authorities in Massachusetts relaxed none of their efforts in -upholding British sovereignty. General Gage, hearing that military -stores had been collected at Concord, dispatched a small force to seize -them. By this act he precipitated the conflict he had sought to avoid. -At Lexington, on the road to Concord, occurred "the little thing" that -produced "the great event." An unexpected collision beyond the thought -or purpose of any man had transferred the contest from the forum to the -battle field. - -=The Second Continental Congress.=--Though blood had been shed and war -was actually at hand, the second Continental Congress, which met at -Philadelphia in May, 1775, was not yet convinced that conciliation was -beyond human power. It petitioned the king to interpose on behalf of the -colonists in order that the empire might avoid the calamities of civil -war. On the last day of July, it made a temperate but firm answer to -Lord North's offer of conciliation, stating that the proposal was -unsatisfactory because it did not renounce the right to tax or repeal -the offensive acts of Parliament. - -=Force, the British Answer.=--Just as the representatives of America -were about to present the last petition of Congress to the king on -August 23, 1775, George III issued a proclamation of rebellion. This -announcement declared that the colonists, "misled by dangerous and -ill-designing men," were in a state of insurrection; it called on the -civil and military powers to bring "the traitors to justice"; and it -threatened with "condign punishment the authors, perpetrators, and -abettors of such traitorous designs." It closed with the usual prayer: -"God, save the king." Later in the year, Parliament passed a sweeping -act destroying all trade and intercourse with America. Congress was -silent at last. Force was also America's answer. - - -AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE - -=Drifting into War.=--Although the Congress had not given up all hope of -reconciliation in the spring and summer of 1775, it had firmly resolved -to defend American rights by arms if necessary. It transformed the -militiamen who had assembled near Boston, after the battle of Lexington, -into a Continental army and selected Washington as commander-in-chief. -It assumed the powers of a government and prepared to raise money, wage -war, and carry on diplomatic relations with foreign countries. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -SPIRIT OF 1776] - -Events followed thick and fast. On June 17, the American militia, by -the stubborn defense of Bunker Hill, showed that it could make British -regulars pay dearly for all they got. On July 3, Washington took command -of the army at Cambridge. In January, 1776, after bitter disappointments -in drumming up recruits for its army in England, Scotland, and Ireland, -the British government concluded a treaty with the Landgrave of -Hesse-Cassel in Germany contracting, at a handsome figure, for thousands -of soldiers and many pieces of cannon. This was the crowning insult to -America. Such was the view of all friends of the colonies on both sides -of the water. Such was, long afterward, the judgment of the conservative -historian Lecky: "The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to -subdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic made -reconciliation hopeless and independence inevitable." The news of this -wretched transaction in German soldiers had hardly reached America -before there ran all down the coast the thrilling story that Washington -had taken Boston, on March 17, 1776, compelling Lord Howe to sail with -his entire army for Halifax. - -=The Growth of Public Sentiment in Favor of Independence.=--Events were -bearing the Americans away from their old position under the British -constitution toward a final separation. Slowly and against their -desires, prudent and honorable men, who cherished the ties that united -them to the old order and dreaded with genuine horror all thought of -revolution, were drawn into the path that led to the great decision. In -all parts of the country and among all classes, the question of the hour -was being debated. "American independence," as the historian Bancroft -says, "was not an act of sudden passion nor the work of one man or one -assembly. It had been discussed in every part of the country by farmers -and merchants, by mechanics and planters, by the fishermen along the -coast and the backwoodsmen of the West; in town meetings and from the -pulpit; at social gatherings and around the camp fires; in county -conventions and conferences or committees; in colonial congresses and -assemblies." - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -THOMAS PAINE] - -=Paine's "Commonsense."=--In the midst of this ferment of American -opinion, a bold and eloquent pamphleteer broke in upon the hesitating -public with a program for absolute independence, without fears and -without apologies. In the early days of 1776, Thomas Paine issued the -first of his famous tracts, "Commonsense," a passionate attack upon the -British monarchy and an equally passionate plea for American liberty. -Casting aside the language of petition with which Americans had hitherto -addressed George III, Paine went to the other extreme and assailed him -with many a violent epithet. He condemned monarchy itself as a system -which had laid the world "in blood and ashes." Instead of praising the -British constitution under which colonists had been claiming their -rights, he brushed it aside as ridiculous, protesting that it was "owing -to the constitution of the people, not to the constitution of the -government, that the Crown is not as oppressive in England as in -Turkey." - -Having thus summarily swept away the grounds of allegiance to the old -order, Paine proceeded relentlessly to an argument for immediate -separation from Great Britain. There was nothing in the sphere of -practical interest, he insisted, which should bind the colonies to the -mother country. Allegiance to her had been responsible for the many wars -in which they had been involved. Reasons of trade were not less weighty -in behalf of independence. "Our corn will fetch its price in any market -in Europe and our imported goods must be paid for, buy them where we -will." As to matters of government, "it is not in the power of Britain -to do this continent justice; the business of it will soon be too -weighty and intricate to be managed with any tolerable degree of -convenience by a power so distant from us and so very ignorant of us." - -There is accordingly no alternative to independence for America. -"Everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of -the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries ''tis time to part.' ... -Arms, the last resort, must decide the contest; the appeal was the -choice of the king and the continent hath accepted the challenge.... The -sun never shone on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a -city, a county, a province or a kingdom, but of a continent.... 'Tis not -the concern of a day, a year or an age; posterity is involved in the -contest and will be more or less affected to the end of time by the -proceedings now. Now is the seed-time of Continental union, faith, and -honor.... O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the -tyranny, but the tyrant, stand forth.... Let names of Whig and Tory be -extinct. Let none other be heard among us than those of a good citizen, -an open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of -mankind and of the free and independent states of America." As more than -100,000 copies were scattered broadcast over the country, patriots -exclaimed with Washington: "Sound doctrine and unanswerable reason!" - -=The Drift of Events toward Independence.=--Official support for the -idea of independence began to come from many quarters. On the tenth of -February, 1776, Gadsden, in the provincial convention of South Carolina, -advocated a new constitution for the colony and absolute independence -for all America. The convention balked at the latter but went half way -by abolishing the system of royal administration and establishing a -complete plan of self-government. A month later, on April 12, the -neighboring state of North Carolina uttered the daring phrase from which -others shrank. It empowered its representatives in the Congress to -concur with the delegates of the other colonies in declaring -independence. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Virginia quickly -responded to the challenge. The convention of the Old Dominion, on May -15, instructed its delegates at Philadelphia to propose the independence -of the United Colonies and to give the assent of Virginia to the act of -separation. When the resolution was carried the British flag on the -state house was lowered for all time. - -Meanwhile the Continental Congress was alive to the course of events -outside. The subject of independence was constantly being raised. "Are -we rebels?" exclaimed Wyeth of Virginia during a debate in February. -"No: we must declare ourselves a free people." Others hesitated and -spoke of waiting for the arrival of commissioners of conciliation. "Is -not America already independent?" asked Samuel Adams a few weeks later. -"Why not then declare it?" Still there was uncertainty and delegates -avoided the direct word. A few more weeks elapsed. At last, on May 10, -Congress declared that the authority of the British crown in America -must be suppressed and advised the colonies to set up governments of -their own. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -THOMAS JEFFERSON READING HIS DRAFT OF THE DECLARATION OF -INDEPENDENCE TO THE COMMITTEE OF CONGRESS] - -=Independence Declared.=--The way was fully prepared, therefore, when, -on June 7, the Virginia delegation in the Congress moved that "these -united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent -states." A committee was immediately appointed to draft a formal -document setting forth the reasons for the act, and on July 2 all the -states save New York went on record in favor of severing their political -connection with Great Britain. Two days later, July 4, Jefferson's draft -of the Declaration of Independence, changed in some slight particulars, -was adopted. The old bell in Independence Hall, as it is now known, rang -out the glad tidings; couriers swiftly carried the news to the uttermost -hamlet and farm. A new nation announced its will to have a place among -the powers of the world. - -To some documents is given immortality. The Declaration of Independence -is one of them. American patriotism is forever associated with it; but -patriotism alone does not make it immortal. Neither does the vigor of -its language or the severity of its indictment give it a secure place in -the records of time. The secret of its greatness lies in the simple fact -that it is one of the memorable landmarks in the history of a political -ideal which for three centuries has been taking form and spreading -throughout the earth, challenging kings and potentates, shaking down -thrones and aristocracies, breaking the armies of irresponsible power on -battle fields as far apart as Marston Moor and Chateau-Thierry. That -ideal, now so familiar, then so novel, is summed up in the simple -sentence: "Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the -governed." - -Written in a "decent respect for the opinions of mankind," to set forth -the causes which impelled the American colonists to separate from -Britain, the Declaration contained a long list of "abuses and -usurpations" which had induced them to throw off the government of King -George. That section of the Declaration has passed into "ancient" -history and is seldom read. It is the part laying down a new basis for -government and giving a new dignity to the common man that has become a -household phrase in the Old World as in the New. - -In the more enduring passages there are four fundamental ideas which, -from the standpoint of the old system of government, were the essence of -revolution: (1) all men are created equal and are endowed by their -Creator with certain unalienable rights including life, liberty, and the -pursuit of happiness; (2) the purpose of government is to secure these -rights; (3) governments derive their just powers from the consent of the -governed; (4) whenever any form of government becomes destructive of -these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and -institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and -organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to -effect their safety and happiness. Here was the prelude to the historic -drama of democracy--a challenge to every form of government and every -privilege not founded on popular assent. - - -THE ESTABLISHMENT OF GOVERNMENT AND THE NEW ALLEGIANCE - -=The Committees of Correspondence.=--As soon as debate had passed into -armed resistance, the patriots found it necessary to consolidate their -forces by organizing civil government. This was readily effected, for -the means were at hand in town meetings, provincial legislatures, and -committees of correspondence. The working tools of the Revolution were -in fact the committees of correspondence--small, local, unofficial -groups of patriots formed to exchange views and create public sentiment. -As early as November, 1772, such a committee had been created in Boston -under the leadership of Samuel Adams. It held regular meetings, sent -emissaries to neighboring towns, and carried on a campaign of education -in the doctrines of liberty. - -[Illustration: THE COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA AT THE TIME OF THE -DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE] - -Upon local organizations similar in character to the Boston committee -were built county committees and then the larger colonial committees, -congresses, and conventions, all unofficial and representing the -revolutionary elements. Ordinarily the provincial convention was merely -the old legislative assembly freed from all royalist sympathizers and -controlled by patriots. Finally, upon these colonial assemblies was -built the Continental Congress, the precursor of union under the -Articles of Confederation and ultimately under the Constitution of the -United States. This was the revolutionary government set up within the -British empire in America. - -=State Constitutions Framed.=--With the rise of these new assemblies of -the people, the old colonial governments broke down. From the royal -provinces the governor, the judges, and the high officers fled in haste, -and it became necessary to substitute patriot authorities. The appeal to -the colonies advising them to adopt a new form of government for -themselves, issued by the Congress in May, 1776, was quickly acted upon. -Before the expiration of a year, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, -Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, and New York had drafted new constitutions -as states, not as colonies uncertain of their destinies. Connecticut and -Rhode Island, holding that their ancient charters were equal to their -needs, merely renounced their allegiance to the king and went on as -before so far as the form of government was concerned. South Carolina, -which had drafted a temporary plan early in 1776, drew up a new and more -complete constitution in 1778. Two years later Massachusetts with much -deliberation put into force its fundamental law, which in most of its -essential features remains unchanged to-day. - -The new state constitutions in their broad outlines followed colonial -models. For the royal governor was substituted a governor or president -chosen usually by the legislature; but in two instances, New York and -Massachusetts, by popular vote. For the provincial council there was -substituted, except in Georgia, a senate; while the lower house, or -assembly, was continued virtually without change. The old property -restriction on the suffrage, though lowered slightly in some states, was -continued in full force to the great discontent of the mechanics thus -deprived of the ballot. The special qualifications, laid down in several -constitutions, for governors, senators, and representatives, indicated -that the revolutionary leaders were not prepared for any radical -experiments in democracy. The protests of a few women, like Mrs. John -Adams of Massachusetts and Mrs. Henry Corbin of Virginia, against a -government which excluded them from political rights were treated as -mild curiosities of no significance, although in New Jersey women were -allowed to vote for many years on the same terms as men. - -By the new state constitutions the signs and symbols of royal power, of -authority derived from any source save "the people," were swept aside -and republican governments on an imposing scale presented for the first -time to the modern world. Copies of these remarkable documents prepared -by plain citizens were translated into French and widely circulated in -Europe. There they were destined to serve as a guide and inspiration to -a generation of constitution-makers whose mission it was to begin the -democratic revolution in the Old World. - -=The Articles of Confederation.=--The formation of state constitutions -was an easy task for the revolutionary leaders. They had only to build -on foundations already laid. The establishment of a national system of -government was another matter. There had always been, it must be -remembered, a system of central control over the colonies, but Americans -had had little experience in its operation. When the supervision of the -crown of Great Britain was suddenly broken, the patriot leaders, -accustomed merely to provincial statesmanship, were poorly trained for -action on a national stage. - -Many forces worked against those who, like Franklin, had a vision of -national destiny. There were differences in economic interest--commerce -and industry in the North and the planting system of the South. There -were contests over the apportionment of taxes and the quotas of troops -for common defense. To these practical difficulties were added local -pride, the vested rights of state and village politicians in their -provincial dignity, and the scarcity of men with a large outlook upon -the common enterprise. - -Nevertheless, necessity compelled them to consider some sort of -federation. The second Continental Congress had hardly opened its work -before the most sagacious leaders began to urge the desirability of a -permanent connection. As early as July, 1775, Congress resolved to go -into a committee of the whole on the state of the union, and Franklin, -undaunted by the fate of his Albany plan of twenty years before, again -presented a draft of a constitution. Long and desultory debates followed -and it was not until late in 1777 that Congress presented to the states -the Articles of Confederation. Provincial jealousies delayed -ratification, and it was the spring of 1781, a few months before the -surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when Maryland, the last of the -states, approved the Articles. This plan of union, though it was all -that could be wrung from the reluctant states, provided for neither a -chief executive nor a system of federal courts. It created simply a -Congress of delegates in which each state had an equal voice and gave it -the right to call upon the state legislatures for the sinews of -government--money and soldiers. - -=The Application of Tests of Allegiance.=--As the successive steps were -taken in the direction of independent government, the patriots devised -and applied tests designed to discover who were for and who were against -the new nation in the process of making. When the first Continental -Congress agreed not to allow the importation of British goods, it -provided for the creation of local committees to enforce the rules. Such -agencies were duly formed by the choice of men favoring the scheme, all -opponents being excluded from the elections. Before these bodies those -who persisted in buying British goods were summoned and warned or -punished according to circumstances. As soon as the new state -constitutions were put into effect, local committees set to work in the -same way to ferret out all who were not outspoken in their support of -the new order of things. - -[Illustration: MOBBING THE TORIES] - -These patriot agencies, bearing different names in different sections, -were sometimes ruthless in their methods. They called upon all men to -sign the test of loyalty, frequently known as the "association test." -Those who refused were promptly branded as outlaws, while some of the -more dangerous were thrown into jail. The prison camp in Connecticut at -one time held the former governor of New Jersey and the mayor of New -York. Thousands were black-listed and subjected to espionage. The -black-list of Pennsylvania contained the names of nearly five hundred -persons of prominence who were under suspicion. Loyalists or Tories who -were bold enough to speak and write against the Revolution were -suppressed and their pamphlets burned. In many places, particularly in -the North, the property of the loyalists was confiscated and the -proceeds applied to the cause of the Revolution. - -The work of the official agencies for suppression of opposition was -sometimes supplemented by mob violence. A few Tories were hanged without -trial, and others were tarred and feathered. One was placed upon a cake -of ice and held there "until his loyalty to King George might cool." -Whole families were driven out of their homes to find their way as best -they could within the British lines or into Canada, where the British -government gave them lands. Such excesses were deplored by Washington, -but they were defended on the ground that in effect a civil war, as well -as a war for independence, was being waged. - -=The Patriots and Tories.=--Thus, by one process or another, those who -were to be citizens of the new republic were separated from those who -preferred to be subjects of King George. Just what proportion of the -Americans favored independence and what share remained loyal to the -British monarchy there is no way of knowing. The question of revolution -was not submitted to popular vote, and on the point of numbers we have -conflicting evidence. On the patriot side, there is the testimony of a -careful and informed observer, John Adams, who asserted that two-thirds -of the people were for the American cause and not more than one-third -opposed the Revolution at all stages. - -On behalf of the loyalists, or Tories as they were popularly known, -extravagant claims were made. Joseph Galloway, who had been a member of -the first Continental Congress and had fled to England when he saw its -temper, testified before a committee of Parliament in 1779 that not -one-fifth of the American people supported the insurrection and that -"many more than four-fifths of the people prefer a union with Great -Britain upon constitutional principles to independence." At the same -time General Robertson, who had lived in America twenty-four years, -declared that "more than two-thirds of the people would prefer the -king's government to the Congress' tyranny." In an address to the king -in that year a committee of American loyalists asserted that "the number -of Americans in his Majesty's army exceeded the number of troops -enlisted by Congress to oppose them." - -=The Character of the Loyalists.=--When General Howe evacuated Boston, -more than a thousand people fled with him. This great company, according -to a careful historian, "formed the aristocracy of the province by -virtue of their official rank; of their dignified callings and -professions; of their hereditary wealth and of their culture." The act -of banishment passed by Massachusetts in 1778, listing over 300 Tories, -"reads like the social register of the oldest and noblest families of -New England," more than one out of five being graduates of Harvard -College. The same was true of New York and Philadelphia; namely, that -the leading loyalists were prominent officials of the old order, -clergymen and wealthy merchants. With passion the loyalists fought -against the inevitable or with anguish of heart they left as refugees -for a life of uncertainty in Canada or the mother country. - -=Tories Assail the Patriots.=--The Tories who remained in America joined -the British army by the thousands or in other ways aided the royal -cause. Those who were skillful with the pen assailed the patriots in -editorials, rhymes, satires, and political catechisms. They declared -that the members of Congress were "obscure, pettifogging attorneys, -bankrupt shopkeepers, outlawed smugglers, etc." The people and their -leaders they characterized as "wretched banditti ... the refuse and -dregs of mankind." The generals in the army they sneered at as "men of -rank and honor nearly on a par with those of the Congress." - -=Patriot Writers Arouse the National Spirit.=--Stung by Tory taunts, -patriot writers devoted themselves to creating and sustaining a public -opinion favorable to the American cause. Moreover, they had to combat -the depression that grew out of the misfortunes in the early days of the -war. A terrible disaster befell Generals Arnold and Montgomery in the -winter of 1775 as they attempted to bring Canada into the revolution--a -disaster that cost 5000 men; repeated calamities harassed Washington in -1776 as he was defeated on Long Island, driven out of New York City, and -beaten at Harlem Heights and White Plains. These reverses were almost -too great for the stoutest patriots. - -Pamphleteers, preachers, and publicists rose, however, to meet the needs -of the hour. John Witherspoon, provost of the College of New Jersey, -forsook the classroom for the field of political controversy. The poet, -Philip Freneau, flung taunts of cowardice at the Tories and celebrated -the spirit of liberty in many a stirring poem. Songs, ballads, plays, -and satires flowed from the press in an unending stream. Fast days, -battle anniversaries, celebrations of important steps taken by Congress -afforded to patriotic clergymen abundant opportunities for sermons. -"Does Mr. Wiberd preach against oppression?" anxiously inquired John -Adams in a letter to his wife. The answer was decisive. "The clergy of -every denomination, not excepting the Episcopalian, thunder and lighten -every Sabbath. They pray for Boston and Massachusetts. They thank God -most explicitly and fervently for our remarkable successes. They pray -for the American army." - -Thomas Paine never let his pen rest. He had been with the forces of -Washington when they retreated from Fort Lee and were harried from New -Jersey into Pennsylvania. He knew the effect of such reverses on the -army as well as on the public. In December, 1776, he made a second great -appeal to his countrymen in his pamphlet, "The Crisis," the first part -of which he had written while defeat and gloom were all about him. This -tract was a cry for continued support of the Revolution. "These are the -times that try men's souls," he opened. "The summer soldier and the -sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his -country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of men -and women." Paine laid his lash fiercely on the Tories, branding every -one as a coward grounded in "servile, slavish, self-interested fear." He -deplored the inadequacy of the militia and called for a real army. He -refuted the charge that the retreat through New Jersey was a disaster -and he promised victory soon. "By perseverance and fortitude," he -concluded, "we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and -submission the sad choice of a variety of evils--a ravaged country, a -depopulated city, habitations without safety and slavery without -hope.... Look on this picture and weep over it." His ringing call to -arms was followed by another and another until the long contest was -over. - - -MILITARY AFFAIRS - -=The Two Phases of the War.=--The war which opened with the battle of -Lexington, on April 19, 1775, and closed with the surrender of -Cornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, passed through two distinct -phases--the first lasting until the treaty of alliance with France, in -1778, and the second until the end of the struggle. During the first -phase, the war was confined mainly to the North. The outstanding -features of the contest were the evacuation of Boston by the British, -the expulsion of American forces from New York and their retreat through -New Jersey, the battle of Trenton, the seizure of Philadelphia by the -British (September, 1777), the invasion of New York by Burgoyne and his -capture at Saratoga in October, 1777, and the encampment of American -forces at Valley Forge for the terrible winter of 1777-78. - -The final phase of the war, opening with the treaty of alliance with -France on February 6, 1778, was confined mainly to the Middle states, -the West, and the South. In the first sphere of action the chief events -were the withdrawal of the British from Philadelphia, the battle of -Monmouth, and the inclosure of the British in New York by deploying -American forces from Morristown, New Jersey, up to West Point. In the -West, George Rogers Clark, by his famous march into the Illinois -country, secured Kaskaskia and Vincennes and laid a firm grip on the -country between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the South, the second -period opened with successes for the British. They captured Savannah, -conquered Georgia, and restored the royal governor. In 1780 they seized -Charleston, administered a crushing defeat to the American forces under -Gates at Camden, and overran South Carolina, though meeting reverses at -Cowpens and King's Mountain. Then came the closing scenes. Cornwallis -began the last of his operations. He pursued General Greene far into -North Carolina, clashed with him at Guilford Court House, retired to the -coast, took charge of British forces engaged in plundering Virginia, and -fortified Yorktown, where he was penned up by the French fleet from the -sea and the combined French and American forces on land. - -=The Geographical Aspects of the War.=--For the British the theater of -the war offered many problems. From first to last it extended from -Massachusetts to Georgia, a distance of almost a thousand miles. It was -nearly three thousand miles from the main base of supplies and, though -the British navy kept the channel open, transports were constantly -falling prey to daring privateers and fleet American war vessels. The -sea, on the other hand, offered an easy means of transportation between -points along the coast and gave ready access to the American centers of -wealth and population. Of this the British made good use. Though early -forced to give up Boston, they seized New York and kept it until the end -of the war; they took Philadelphia and retained it until threatened by -the approach of the French fleet; and they captured and held both -Savannah and Charleston. Wars, however, are seldom won by the conquest -of cities. - -Particularly was this true in the case of the Revolution. Only a small -portion of the American people lived in towns. Countrymen back from the -coast were in no way dependent upon them for a livelihood. They lived on -the produce of the soil, not upon the profits of trade. This very fact -gave strength to them in the contest. Whenever the British ventured far -from the ports of entry, they encountered reverses. Burgoyne was forced -to surrender at Saratoga because he was surrounded and cut off from his -base of supplies. As soon as the British got away from Charleston, they -were harassed and worried by the guerrilla warriors of Marion, Sumter, -and Pickens. Cornwallis could technically defeat Greene at Guilford far -in the interior; but he could not hold the inland region he had invaded. -Sustained by their own labor, possessing the interior to which their -armies could readily retreat, supplied mainly from native resources, the -Americans could not be hemmed in, penned up, and destroyed at one fell -blow. - -=The Sea Power.=--The British made good use of their fleet in cutting -off American trade, but control of the sea did not seriously affect the -United States. As an agricultural country, the ruin of its commerce was -not such a vital matter. All the materials for a comfortable though -somewhat rude life were right at hand. It made little difference to a -nation fighting for existence, if silks, fine linens, and chinaware were -cut off. This was an evil to which submission was necessary. - -Nor did the brilliant exploits of John Paul Jones and Captain John Barry -materially change the situation. They demonstrated the skill of American -seamen and their courage as fighting men. They raised the rates of -British marine insurance, but they did not dethrone the mistress of the -seas. Less spectacular, and more distinctive, were the deeds of the -hundreds of privateers and minor captains who overhauled British supply -ships and kept British merchantmen in constant anxiety. Not until the -French fleet was thrown into the scale, were the British compelled to -reckon seriously with the enemy on the sea and make plans based upon the -possibilities of a maritime disaster. - -=Commanding Officers.=--On the score of military leadership it is -difficult to compare the contending forces in the revolutionary contest. -There is no doubt that all the British commanders were men of experience -in the art of warfare. Sir William Howe had served in America during the -French War and was accounted an excellent officer, a strict -disciplinarian, and a gallant gentleman. Nevertheless he loved ease, -society, and good living, and his expulsion from Boston, his failure to -overwhelm Washington by sallies from his comfortable bases at New York -and Philadelphia, destroyed every shred of his military reputation. John -Burgoyne, to whom was given the task of penetrating New York from -Canada, had likewise seen service in the French War both in America and -Europe. He had, however, a touch of the theatrical in his nature and -after the collapse of his plans and the surrender of his army in 1777, -he devoted his time mainly to light literature. Sir Henry Clinton, who -directed the movement which ended in the capture of Charleston in 1780, -had "learned his trade on the continent," and was regarded as a man of -discretion and understanding in military matters. Lord Cornwallis, whose -achievements at Camden and Guilford were blotted out by his surrender at -Yorktown, had seen service in the Seven Years' War and had undoubted -talents which he afterward displayed with great credit to himself in -India. Though none of them, perhaps, were men of first-rate ability, -they all had training and experience to guide them. - -[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON] - -The Americans had a host in Washington himself. He had long been -interested in military strategy and had tested his coolness under fire -during the first clashes with the French nearly twenty years before. He -had no doubts about the justice of his cause, such as plagued some of -the British generals. He was a stern but reasonable disciplinarian. He -was reserved and patient, little given to exaltation at success or -depression at reverses. In the dark hour of the Revolution, "what held -the patriot forces together?" asks Beveridge in his _Life of John -Marshall_. Then he answers: "George Washington and he alone. Had he -died or been seriously disabled, the Revolution would have ended.... -Washington was the soul of the American cause. Washington was the -government. Washington was the Revolution." The weakness of Congress in -furnishing men and supplies, the indolence of civilians, who lived at -ease while the army starved, the intrigues of army officers against him -such as the "Conway cabal," the cowardice of Lee at Monmouth, even the -treason of Benedict Arnold, while they stirred deep emotions in his -breast and aroused him to make passionate pleas to his countrymen, did -not shake his iron will or his firm determination to see the war through -to the bitter end. The weight of Washington's moral force was -immeasurable. - -Of the generals who served under him, none can really be said to have -been experienced military men when the war opened. Benedict Arnold, the -unhappy traitor but brave and daring soldier, was a druggist, book -seller, and ship owner at New Haven when the news of Lexington called -him to battle. Horatio Gates was looked upon as a "seasoned soldier" -because he had entered the British army as a youth, had been wounded at -Braddock's memorable defeat, and had served with credit during the Seven -Years' War; but he was the most conspicuous failure of the Revolution. -The triumph over Burgoyne was the work of other men; and his crushing -defeat at Camden put an end to his military pretensions. Nathanael -Greene was a Rhode Island farmer and smith without military experience -who, when convinced that war was coming, read Caesar's _Commentaries_ and -took up the sword. Francis Marion was a shy and modest planter of South -Carolina whose sole passage at arms had been a brief but desperate brush -with the Indians ten or twelve years earlier. Daniel Morgan, one of the -heroes of Cowpens, had been a teamster with Braddock's army and had seen -some fighting during the French and Indian War, but his military -knowledge, from the point of view of a trained British officer, was -negligible. John Sullivan was a successful lawyer at Durham, New -Hampshire, and a major in the local militia when duty summoned him to -lay down his briefs and take up the sword. Anthony Wayne was a -Pennsylvania farmer and land surveyor who, on hearing the clash of arms, -read a few books on war, raised a regiment, and offered himself for -service. Such is the story of the chief American military leaders, and -it is typical of them all. Some had seen fighting with the French and -Indians, but none of them had seen warfare on a large scale with regular -troops commanded according to the strategy evolved in European -experience. Courage, native ability, quickness of mind, and knowledge of -the country they had in abundance, and in battles such as were fought -during the Revolution all those qualities counted heavily in the -balance. - -=Foreign Officers in American Service.=--To native genius was added -military talent from beyond the seas. Baron Steuben, well schooled in -the iron regime of Frederick the Great, came over from Prussia, joined -Washington at Valley Forge, and day after day drilled and manoeuvered the -men, laughing and cursing as he turned raw countrymen into regular -soldiers. From France came young Lafayette and the stern De Kalb, from -Poland came Pulaski and Kosciusko;--all acquainted with the arts of war -as waged in Europe and fitted for leadership as well as teaching. -Lafayette came early, in 1776, in a ship of his own, accompanied by -several officers of wide experience, and remained loyally throughout the -war sharing the hardships of American army life. Pulaski fell at the -siege of Savannah and De Kalb at Camden. Kosciusko survived the American -war to defend in vain the independence of his native land. To these -distinguished foreigners, who freely threw in their lot with American -revolutionary fortunes, was due much of that spirit and discipline which -fitted raw recruits and temperamental militiamen to cope with a military -power of the first rank. - -=The Soldiers.=--As far as the British soldiers were concerned their -annals are short and simple. The regulars from the standing army who -were sent over at the opening of the contest, the recruits drummed up -by special efforts at home, and the thousands of Hessians bought -outright by King George presented few problems of management to the -British officers. These common soldiers were far away from home and -enlisted for the war. Nearly all of them were well disciplined and many -of them experienced in actual campaigns. The armies of King George -fought bravely, as the records of Bunker Hill, Brandywine, and Monmouth -demonstrate. Many a man and subordinate officer and, for that matter, -some of the high officers expressed a reluctance at fighting against -their own kin; but they obeyed orders. - -The Americans, on the other hand, while they fought with grim -determination, as men fighting for their homes, were lacking in -discipline and in the experience of regular troops. When the war broke -in upon them, there were no common preparations for it. There was no -continental army; there were only local bands of militiamen, many of -them experienced in fighting but few of them "regulars" in the military -sense. Moreover they were volunteers serving for a short time, -unaccustomed to severe discipline, and impatient at the restraints -imposed on them by long and arduous campaigns. They were continually -leaving the service just at the most critical moments. "The militia," -lamented Washington, "come in, you cannot tell how; go, you cannot tell -where; consume your provisions; exhaust your stores; and leave you at -last at a critical moment." - -Again and again Washington begged Congress to provide for an army of -regulars enlisted for the war, thoroughly trained and paid according to -some definite plan. At last he was able to overcome, in part at least, -the chronic fear of civilians in Congress and to wring from that -reluctant body an agreement to grant half pay to all officers and a -bonus to all privates who served until the end of the war. Even this -scheme, which Washington regarded as far short of justice to the -soldiers, did not produce quick results. It was near the close of the -conflict before he had an army of well-disciplined veterans capable of -meeting British regulars on equal terms. - -Though there were times when militiamen and frontiersmen did valiant and -effective work, it is due to historical accuracy to deny the -time-honored tradition that a few minutemen overwhelmed more numerous -forces of regulars in a seven years' war for independence. They did -nothing of the sort. For the victories of Bennington, Trenton, Saratoga, -and Yorktown there were the defeats of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White -Plains, Germantown, and Camden. Not once did an army of militiamen -overcome an equal number of British regulars in an open trial by battle. -"To bring men to be well acquainted with the duties of a soldier," wrote -Washington, "requires time.... To expect the same service from raw and -undisciplined recruits as from veteran soldiers is to expect what never -did and perhaps never will happen." - -=How the War Was Won.=--Then how did the American army win the war? For -one thing there were delays and blunders on the part of the British -generals who, in 1775 and 1776, dallied in Boston and New York with -large bodies of regular troops when they might have been dealing -paralyzing blows at the scattered bands that constituted the American -army. "Nothing but the supineness or folly of the enemy could have saved -us," solemnly averred Washington in 1780. Still it is fair to say that -this apparent supineness was not all due to the British generals. The -ministers behind them believed that a large part of the colonists were -loyal and that compromise would be promoted by inaction rather than by a -war vigorously prosecuted. Victory by masterly inactivity was obviously -better than conquest, and the slighter the wounds the quicker the -healing. Later in the conflict when the seasoned forces of France were -thrown into the scale, the Americans themselves had learned many things -about the practical conduct of campaigns. All along, the British were -embarrassed by the problem of supplies. Their troops could not forage -with the skill of militiamen, as they were in unfamiliar territory. The -long oversea voyages were uncertain at best and doubly so when the -warships of France joined the American privateers in preying on supply -boats. - -The British were in fact battered and worn down by a guerrilla war and -outdone on two important occasions by superior forces--at Saratoga and -Yorktown. Stern facts convinced them finally that an immense army, which -could be raised only by a supreme effort, would be necessary to subdue -the colonies if that hazardous enterprise could be accomplished at all. -They learned also that America would then be alienated, fretful, and the -scene of endless uprisings calling for an army of occupation. That was a -price which staggered even Lord North and George III. Moreover, there -were forces of opposition at home with which they had to reckon. - -=Women and the War.=--At no time were the women of America indifferent -to the struggle for independence. When it was confined to the realm of -opinion they did their part in creating public sentiment. Mrs. Elizabeth -Timothee, for example, founded in Charleston, in 1773, a newspaper to -espouse the cause of the province. Far to the north the sister of James -Otis, Mrs. Mercy Warren, early begged her countrymen to rest their case -upon their natural rights, and in influential circles she urged the -leaders to stand fast by their principles. While John Adams was tossing -about with uncertainty at the Continental Congress, his wife was writing -letters to him declaring her faith in "independency." - -When the war came down upon the country, women helped in every field. In -sustaining public sentiment they were active. Mrs. Warren with a -tireless pen combatted loyalist propaganda in many a drama and satire. -Almost every revolutionary leader had a wife or daughter who rendered -service in the "second line of defense." Mrs. Washington managed the -plantation while the General was at the front and went north to face the -rigors of the awful winter at Valley Forge--an inspiration to her -husband and his men. The daughter of Benjamin Franklin, Mrs. Sarah -Bache, while her father was pleading the American cause in France, set -the women of Pennsylvania to work sewing and collecting supplies. Even -near the firing line women were to be found, aiding the wounded, hauling -powder to the front, and carrying dispatches at the peril of their -lives. - -In the economic sphere, the work of women was invaluable. They harvested -crops without enjoying the picturesque title of "farmerettes" and they -canned and preserved for the wounded and the prisoners of war. Of their -labor in spinning and weaving it is recorded: "Immediately on being cut -off from the use of English manufactures, the women engaged within their -own families in manufacturing various kinds of cloth for domestic use. -They thus kept their households decently clad and the surplus of their -labors they sold to such as chose to buy rather than make for -themselves. In this way the female part of families by their industry -and strict economy frequently supported the whole domestic circle, -evincing the strength of their attachment and the value of their -service." - -For their war work, women were commended by high authorities on more -than one occasion. They were given medals and public testimonials even -as in our own day. Washington thanked them for their labors and paid -tribute to them for the inspiration and material aid which they had -given to the cause of independence. - - -THE FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION - -When the Revolution opened, there were thirteen little treasuries in -America but no common treasury, and from first to last the Congress was -in the position of a beggar rather than a sovereign. Having no authority -to lay and collect taxes directly and knowing the hatred of the -provincials for taxation, it resorted mainly to loans and paper money to -finance the war. "Do you think," boldly inquired one of the delegates, -"that I will consent to load my constituents with taxes when we can send -to the printer and get a wagon load of money, one quire of which will -pay for the whole?" - -=Paper Money and Loans.=--Acting on this curious but appealing political -economy, Congress issued in June, 1776, two million dollars in bills of -credit to be redeemed by the states on the basis of their respective -populations. Other issues followed in quick succession. In all about -$241,000,000 of continental paper was printed, to which the several -states added nearly $210,000,000 of their own notes. Then came -interest-bearing bonds in ever increasing quantities. Several millions -were also borrowed from France and small sums from Holland and Spain. In -desperation a national lottery was held, producing meager results. The -property of Tories was confiscated and sold, bringing in about -$16,000,000. Begging letters were sent to the states asking them to -raise revenues for the continental treasury, but the states, burdened -with their own affairs, gave little heed. - -=Inflation and Depreciation.=--As paper money flowed from the press, it -rapidly declined in purchasing power until in 1779 a dollar was worth -only two or three cents in gold or silver. Attempts were made by -Congress and the states to compel people to accept the notes at face -value; but these were like attempts to make water flow uphill. -Speculators collected at once to fatten on the calamities of the -republic. Fortunes were made and lost gambling on the prices of public -securities while the patriot army, half clothed, was freezing at Valley -Forge. "Speculation, peculation, engrossing, forestalling," exclaimed -Washington, "afford too many melancholy proofs of the decay of public -virtue. Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our currency -... aided by stock jobbing and party dissensions has fed the hopes of -the enemy." - -=The Patriot Financiers.=--To the efforts of Congress in financing the -war were added the labors of private citizens. Hayn Solomon, a merchant -of Philadelphia, supplied members of Congress, including Madison, -Jefferson, and Monroe, and army officers, like Lee and Steuben, with -money for their daily needs. All together he contributed the huge sum of -half a million dollars to the American cause and died broken in purse, -if not in spirit, a British prisoner of war. Another Philadelphia -merchant, Robert Morris, won for himself the name of the "patriot -financier" because he labored night and day to find the money to meet -the bills which poured in upon the bankrupt government. When his own -funds were exhausted, he borrowed from his friends. Experienced in the -handling of merchandise, he created agencies at important points to -distribute supplies to the troops, thus displaying administrative as -well as financial talents. - -[Illustration: ROBERT MORRIS] - -Women organized "drives" for money, contributed their plate and their -jewels, and collected from door to door. Farmers took worthless paper in -return for their produce, and soldiers saw many a pay day pass without -yielding them a penny. Thus by the labors and sacrifices of citizens, -the issuance of paper money, lotteries, the floating of loans, -borrowings in Europe, and the impressment of supplies, the Congress -staggered through the Revolution like a pauper who knows not how his -next meal is to be secured but is continuously relieved at a crisis by a -kindly fate. - - -THE DIPLOMACY OF THE REVOLUTION - -When the full measure of honor is given to the soldiers and sailors and -their commanding officers, the civilians who managed finances and -supplies, the writers who sustained the American spirit, and the women -who did well their part, there yet remains the duty of recognizing the -achievements of diplomacy. The importance of this field of activity was -keenly appreciated by the leaders in the Continental Congress. They were -fairly well versed in European history. They knew of the balance of -power and the sympathies, interests, and prejudices of nations and their -rulers. All this information they turned to good account, in opening -relations with continental countries and seeking money, supplies, and -even military assistance. For the transaction of this delicate business, -they created a secret committee on foreign correspondence as early as -1775 and prepared to send agents abroad. - -=American Agents Sent Abroad.=--Having heard that France was inclining a -friendly ear to the American cause, the Congress, in March, 1776, sent a -commissioner to Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut, often styled the -"first American diplomat." Later in the year a form of treaty to be -presented to foreign powers was drawn up, and Franklin, Arthur Lee, and -Deane were selected as American representatives at the court of "His -Most Christian Majesty the King of France." John Jay of New York was -chosen minister to Spain in 1779; John Adams was sent to Holland the -same year; and other agents were dispatched to Florence, Vienna, and -Berlin. The representative selected for St. Petersburg spent two -fruitless years there, "ignored by the court, living in obscurity and -experiencing nothing but humiliation and failure." Frederick the Great, -king of Prussia, expressed a desire to find in America a market for -Silesian linens and woolens, but, fearing England's command of the sea, -he refused to give direct aid to the Revolutionary cause. - -=Early French Interest.=--The great diplomatic triumph of the Revolution -was won at Paris, and Benjamin Franklin was the hero of the occasion, -although many circumstances prepared the way for his success. Louis -XVI's foreign minister, Count de Vergennes, before the arrival of any -American representative, had brought to the attention of the king the -opportunity offered by the outbreak of the war between England and her -colonies. He showed him how France could redress her grievances and -"reduce the power and greatness of England"--the empire that in 1763 had -forced upon her a humiliating peace "at the price of our possessions, -of our commerce, and our credit in the Indies, at the price of Canada, -Louisiana, Isle Royale, Acadia, and Senegal." Equally successful in -gaining the king's interest was a curious French adventurer, -Beaumarchais, a man of wealth, a lover of music, and the author of two -popular plays, "Figaro" and "The Barber of Seville." These two men had -already urged upon the king secret aid for America before Deane appeared -on the scene. Shortly after his arrival they made confidential -arrangements to furnish money, clothing, powder, and other supplies to -the struggling colonies, although official requests for them were -officially refused by the French government. - -=Franklin at Paris.=--When Franklin reached Paris, he was received only -in private by the king's minister, Vergennes. The French people, -however, made manifest their affection for the "plain republican" in -"his full dress suit of spotted Manchester velvet." He was known among -men of letters as an author, a scientist, and a philosopher of -extraordinary ability. His "Poor Richard" had thrice been translated -into French and was scattered in numerous editions throughout the -kingdom. People of all ranks--ministers, ladies at court, philosophers, -peasants, and stable boys--knew of Franklin and wished him success in -his mission. The queen, Marie Antoinette, fated to lose her head in a -revolution soon to follow, played with fire by encouraging "our dear -republican." - -For the king of France, however, this was more serious business. England -resented the presence of this "traitor" in Paris, and Louis had to be -cautious about plunging into another war that might also end -disastrously. Moreover, the early period of Franklin's sojourn in Paris -was a dark hour for the American Revolution. Washington's brilliant -exploit at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, and the battle with -Cornwallis at Princeton had been followed by the disaster at Brandywine, -the loss of Philadelphia, the defeat at Germantown, and the retirement -to Valley Forge for the winter of 1777-78. New York City and -Philadelphia--two strategic ports--were in British hands; the Hudson -and Delaware rivers were blocked; and General Burgoyne with his British -troops was on his way down through the heart of northern New York, -cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies. No wonder the -king was cautious. Then the unexpected happened. Burgoyne, hemmed in -from all sides by the American forces, his flanks harried, his foraging -parties beaten back, his supplies cut off, surrendered on October 17, -1777, to General Gates, who had superseded General Schuyler in time to -receive the honor. - -=Treaties of Alliance and Commerce (1778).=--News of this victory, -placed by historians among the fifteen decisive battles of the world, -reached Franklin one night early in December while he and some friends -sat gloomily at dinner. Beaumarchais, who was with him, grasped at once -the meaning of the situation and set off to the court at Versailles with -such haste that he upset his coach and dislocated his arm. The king and -his ministers were at last convinced that the hour had come to aid the -Revolution. Treaties of commerce and alliance were drawn up and signed -in February, 1778. The independence of the United States was recognized -by France and an alliance was formed to guarantee that independence. -Combined military action was agreed upon and Louis then formally -declared war on England. Men who had, a few short years before, fought -one another in the wilderness of Pennsylvania or on the Plains of -Abraham, were now ranged side by side in a war on the Empire that Pitt -had erected and that George III was pulling down. - -=Spain and Holland Involved.=--Within a few months, Spain, remembering -the steady decline of her sea power since the days of the Armada and -hoping to drive the British out of Gibraltar, once more joined the -concert of nations against England. Holland, a member of a league of -armed neutrals formed in protest against British searches on the high -seas, sent her fleet to unite with the forces of Spain, France, and -America to prey upon British commerce. To all this trouble for England -was added the danger of a possible revolt in Ireland, where the spirit -of independence was flaming up. - -=The British Offer Terms to America.=--Seeing the colonists about to be -joined by France in a common war on the English empire, Lord North -proposed, in February, 1778, a renewal of negotiations. By solemn -enactment, Parliament declared its intention not to exercise the right -of imposing taxes within the colonies; at the same time it authorized -the opening of negotiations through commissioners to be sent to America. -A truce was to be established, pardons granted, objectionable laws -suspended, and the old imperial constitution, as it stood before the -opening of hostilities, restored to full vigor. It was too late. Events -had taken the affairs of America out of the hands of British -commissioners and diplomats. - -=Effects of French Aid.=--The French alliance brought ships of war, -large sums of gold and silver, loads of supplies, and a considerable -body of trained soldiers to the aid of the Americans. Timely as was this -help, it meant no sudden change in the fortunes of war. The British -evacuated Philadelphia in the summer following the alliance, and -Washington's troops were encouraged to come out of Valley Forge. They -inflicted a heavy blow on the British at Monmouth, but the treasonable -conduct of General Charles Lee prevented a triumph. The recovery of -Philadelphia was offset by the treason of Benedict Arnold, the loss of -Savannah and Charleston (1780), and the defeat of Gates at Camden. - -The full effect of the French alliance was not felt until 1781, when -Cornwallis went into Virginia and settled at Yorktown. Accompanied by -French troops Washington swept rapidly southward and penned the British -to the shore while a powerful French fleet shut off their escape by sea. -It was this movement, which certainly could not have been executed -without French aid, that put an end to all chance of restoring British -dominion in America. It was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that -caused Lord North to pace the floor and cry out: "It is all over! It is -all over!" What might have been done without the French alliance lies -hidden from mankind. What was accomplished with the help of French -soldiers, sailors, officers, money, and supplies, is known to all the -earth. "All the world agree," exultantly wrote Franklin from Paris to -General Washington, "that no expedition was ever better planned or -better executed. It brightens the glory that must accompany your name to -the latest posterity." Diplomacy as well as martial valor had its -reward. - - -PEACE AT LAST - -=British Opposition to the War.=--In measuring the forces that led to -the final discomfiture of King George and Lord North, it is necessary to -remember that from the beginning to the end the British ministry at home -faced a powerful, informed, and relentless opposition. There were -vigorous protests, first against the obnoxious acts which precipitated -the unhappy quarrel, then against the way in which the war was waged, -and finally against the futile struggle to retain a hold upon the -American dominions. Among the members of Parliament who thundered -against the government were the first statesmen and orators of the land. -William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, though he deplored the idea of American -independence, denounced the government as the aggressor and rejoiced in -American resistance. Edmund Burke leveled his heavy batteries against -every measure of coercion and at last strove for a peace which, while -giving independence to America, would work for reconciliation rather -than estrangement. Charles James Fox gave the colonies his generous -sympathy and warmly championed their rights. Outside of the circle of -statesmen there were stout friends of the American cause like David -Hume, the philosopher and historian, and Catherine Macaulay, an author -of wide fame and a republican bold enough to encourage Washington in -seeing it through. - -Against this powerful opposition, the government enlisted a whole army -of scribes and journalists to pour out criticism on the Americans and -their friends. Dr. Samuel Johnson, whom it employed in this business, -was so savage that even the ministers had to tone down his pamphlets -before printing them. Far more weighty was Edward Gibbon, who was in -time to win fame as the historian of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman -Empire_. He had at first opposed the government; but, on being given a -lucrative post, he used his sharp pen in its support, causing his -friends to ridicule him in these lines: - - "King George, in a fright - Lest Gibbon should write - The story of England's disgrace, - Thought no way so sure - His pen to secure - As to give the historian a place." - -=Lord North Yields.=--As time wore on, events bore heavily on the side -of the opponents of the government's measures. They had predicted that -conquest was impossible, and they had urged the advantages of a peace -which would in some measure restore the affections of the Americans. -Every day's news confirmed their predictions and lent support to their -arguments. Moreover, the war, which sprang out of an effort to relieve -English burdens, made those burdens heavier than ever. Military expenses -were daily increasing. Trade with the colonies, the greatest single -outlet for British goods and capital, was paralyzed. The heavy debts due -British merchants in America were not only unpaid but postponed into an -indefinite future. Ireland was on the verge of revolution. The French -had a dangerous fleet on the high seas. In vain did the king assert in -December, 1781, that no difficulties would ever make him consent to a -peace that meant American independence. Parliament knew better, and on -February 27, 1782, in the House of Commons was carried an address to the -throne against continuing the war. Burke, Fox, the younger Pitt, Barre, -and other friends of the colonies voted in the affirmative. Lord North -gave notice then that his ministry was at an end. The king moaned: -"Necessity made me yield." - -In April, 1782, Franklin received word from the English government that -it was prepared to enter into negotiations leading to a settlement. This -was embarrassing. In the treaty of alliance with France, the United -States had promised that peace should be a joint affair agreed to by -both nations in open conference. Finding France, however, opposed to -some of their claims respecting boundaries and fisheries, the American -commissioners conferred with the British agents at Paris without -consulting the French minister. They actually signed a preliminary peace -draft before they informed him of their operations. When Vergennes -reproached him, Franklin replied that they "had been guilty of -neglecting _bienseance_ [good manners] but hoped that the great work -would not be ruined by a single indiscretion." - -=The Terms of Peace (1783).=--The general settlement at Paris in 1783 -was a triumph for America. England recognized the independence of the -United States, naming each state specifically, and agreed to boundaries -extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Great Lakes -to the Floridas. England held Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies -intact, made gains in India, and maintained her supremacy on the seas. -Spain won Florida and Minorca but not the coveted Gibraltar. France -gained nothing important save the satisfaction of seeing England humbled -and the colonies independent. - -The generous terms secured by the American commission at Paris called -forth surprise and gratitude in the United States and smoothed the way -for a renewal of commercial relations with the mother country. At the -same time they gave genuine anxiety to European diplomats. "This federal -republic is born a pigmy," wrote the Spanish ambassador to his royal -master. "A day will come when it will be a giant; even a colossus -formidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience and the facility -for establishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the -advantages of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans -from all the nations. In a few years we shall watch with grief the -tyrannical existence of the same colossus." - -[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF 1783] - - -SUMMARY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD - -The independence of the American colonies was foreseen by many European -statesmen as they watched the growth of their population, wealth, and -power; but no one could fix the hour of the great event. Until 1763 the -American colonists lived fairly happily under British dominion. There -were collisions from time to time, of course. Royal governors clashed -with stiff-necked colonial legislatures. There were protests against the -exercise of the king's veto power in specific cases. Nevertheless, on -the whole, the relations between America and the mother country were -more amicable in 1763 than at any period under the Stuart regime which -closed in 1688. - -The crash, when it came, was not deliberately willed by any one. It was -the product of a number of forces that happened to converge about 1763. -Three years before, there had come to the throne George III, a young, -proud, inexperienced, and stubborn king. For nearly fifty years his -predecessors, Germans as they were in language and interest, had allowed -things to drift in England and America. George III decided that he would -be king in fact as well as in name. About the same time England brought -to a close the long and costly French and Indian War and was staggering -under a heavy burden of debt and taxes. The war had been fought partly -in defense of the American colonies and nothing seemed more reasonable -to English statesmen than the idea that the colonies should bear part of -the cost of their own defense. At this juncture there came into -prominence, in royal councils, two men bent on taxing America and -controlling her trade, Grenville and Townshend. The king was willing, -the English taxpayers were thankful for any promise of relief, and -statesmen were found to undertake the experiment. England therefore set -out upon a new course. She imposed taxes upon the colonists, regulated -their trade and set royal officers upon them to enforce the law. This -action evoked protests from the colonists. They held a Stamp Act -Congress to declare their rights and petition for a redress of -grievances. Some of the more restless spirits rioted in the streets, -sacked the houses of the king's officers, and tore up the stamped paper. - -Frightened by uprising, the English government drew back and repealed -the Stamp Act. Then it veered again and renewed its policy of -interference. Interference again called forth American protests. -Protests aroused sharper retaliation. More British regulars were sent -over to keep order. More irritating laws were passed by Parliament. -Rioting again appeared: tea was dumped in the harbor of Boston and -seized in the harbor of Charleston. The British answer was more force. -The response of the colonists was a Continental Congress for defense. An -unexpected and unintended clash of arms at Lexington and Concord in the -spring of 1775 brought forth from the king of England a proclamation: -"The Americans are rebels!" - -The die was cast. The American Revolution had begun. Washington was made -commander-in-chief. Armies were raised, money was borrowed, a huge -volume of paper currency was issued, and foreign aid was summoned. -Franklin plied his diplomatic arts at Paris until in 1778 he induced -France to throw her sword into the balance. Three years later, -Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, by the formal treaty of -peace, George III acknowledged the independence of the United States. -The new nation, endowed with an imperial domain stretching from the -Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, began its career among the -sovereign powers of the earth. - -In the sphere of civil government, the results of the Revolution were -equally remarkable. Royal officers and royal authorities were driven -from the former dominions. All power was declared to be in the people. -All the colonies became states, each with its own constitution or plan -of government. The thirteen states were united in common bonds under the -Articles of Confederation. A republic on a large scale was instituted. -Thus there was begun an adventure in popular government such as the -world had never seen. Could it succeed or was it destined to break down -and be supplanted by a monarchy? The fate of whole continents hung upon -the answer. - - -=References= - -J. Fiske, _The American Revolution_ (2 vols.). - -H. Lodge, _Life of Washington_ (2 vols.). - -W. Sumner, _The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution_. - -O. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (4 vols.). A sympathetic account -by an English historian. - -M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2 vols.). - -C.H. Van Tyne, _The American Revolution_ (American Nation Series) and -_The Loyalists in the American Revolution_. - - -=Questions= - -1. What was the non-importation agreement? By what body was it adopted? -Why was it revolutionary in character? - -2. Contrast the work of the first and second Continental Congresses. - -3. Why did efforts at conciliation fail? - -4. Trace the growth of American independence from opinion to the sphere -of action. - -5. Why is the Declaration of Independence an "immortal" document? - -6. What was the effect of the Revolution on colonial governments? On -national union? - -7. Describe the contest between "Patriots" and "Tories." - -8. What topics are considered under "military affairs"? Discuss each in -detail. - -9. Contrast the American forces with the British forces and show how the -war was won. - -10. Compare the work of women in the Revolutionary War with their labors -in the World War (1917-18). - -11. How was the Revolution financed? - -12. Why is diplomacy important in war? Describe the diplomatic triumph -of the Revolution. - -13. What was the nature of the opposition in England to the war? - -14. Give the events connected with the peace settlement; the terms of -peace. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Spirit of America.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American -People_, Vol. II, pp. 98-126. - -=American Rights.=--Draw up a table showing all the principles laid down -by American leaders in (1) the Resolves of the First Continental -Congress, Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 162-166; (2) the -Declaration of the Causes and the Necessity of Taking Up Arms, -Macdonald, pp. 176-183; and (3) the Declaration of Independence. - -=The Declaration of Independence.=--Fiske, _The American Revolution_, -Vol. I, pp. 147-197. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 250-254. - -=Diplomacy and the French Alliance.=--Hart, _American History Told by -Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 574-590. Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 1-24. -Callender, _Economic History of the United States_, pp. 159-168; Elson, -pp. 275-280. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Washington, Franklin, Samuel Adams, Patrick -Henry, Thomas Jefferson--emphasizing the peculiar services of each. - -=The Tories.=--Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 470-480. - -=Valley Forge.=--Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 25-49. - -=The Battles of the Revolution.=--Elson, pp. 235-317. - -=An English View of the Revolution.=--Green, _Short History of England_, -Chap. X, Sect. 2. - -=English Opinion and the Revolution.=--Trevelyan, _The American -Revolution_, Vol. III (or Part 2, Vol. II), Chaps. XXIV-XXVII. - - - - -PART III. THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION - - -THE PROMISE AND THE DIFFICULTIES OF AMERICA - -The rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed -by officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by "the plain -people," was the most significant feature of the eighteenth century. The -majority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this -possible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those -Americans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that -the Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper -constitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm "uninstructed by experience," -could not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All -around them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the -immediate future. - -=The Weakness of the Articles of Confederation.=--The government under -the Articles of Confederation had neither the strength nor the resources -necessary to cope with the problems of reconstruction left by the war. -The sole organ of government was a Congress composed of from two to -seven members from each state chosen as the legislature might direct and -paid by the state. In determining all questions, each state had one -vote--Delaware thus enjoying the same weight as Virginia. There was no -president to enforce the laws. Congress was given power to select a -committee of thirteen--one from each state--to act as an executive body -when it was not in session; but this device, on being tried out, proved -a failure. There was no system of national courts to which citizens and -states could appeal for the protection of their rights or through which -they could compel obedience to law. The two great powers of government, -military and financial, were withheld. Congress, it is true, could -authorize expenditures but had to rely upon the states for the payment -of contributions to meet its bills. It could also order the -establishment of an army, but it could only request the states to supply -their respective quotas of soldiers. It could not lay taxes nor bring -any pressure to bear upon a single citizen in the whole country. It -could act only through the medium of the state governments. - -=Financial and Commercial Disorders.=--In the field of public finance, -the disorders were pronounced. The huge debt incurred during the war was -still outstanding. Congress was unable to pay either the interest or the -principal. Public creditors were in despair, as the market value of -their bonds sank to twenty-five or even ten cents on the dollar. The -current bills of Congress were unpaid. As some one complained, there was -not enough money in the treasury to buy pen and ink with which to record -the transactions of the shadow legislature. The currency was in utter -chaos. Millions of dollars in notes issued by Congress had become mere -trash worth a cent or two on the dollar. There was no other expression -of contempt so forceful as the popular saying: "not worth a -Continental." To make matters worse, several of the states were pouring -new streams of paper money from the press. Almost the only good money in -circulation consisted of English, French, and Spanish coins, and the -public was even defrauded by them because money changers were busy -clipping and filing away the metal. Foreign commerce was unsettled. The -entire British system of trade discrimination was turned against the -Americans, and Congress, having no power to regulate foreign commerce, -was unable to retaliate or to negotiate treaties which it could enforce. -Domestic commerce was impeded by the jealousies of the states, which -erected tariff barriers against their neighbors. The condition of the -currency made the exchange of money and goods extremely difficult, and, -as if to increase the confusion, backward states enacted laws hindering -the prompt collection of debts within their borders--an evil which -nothing but a national system of courts could cure. - -=Congress in Disrepute.=--With treaties set at naught by the states, the -laws unenforced, the treasury empty, and the public credit gone, the -Congress of the United States fell into utter disrepute. It called upon -the states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be -treated with contempt. Even its own members looked upon it as a solemn -futility. Some of the ablest men refused to accept election to it, and -many who did take the doubtful honor failed to attend the sessions. -Again and again it was impossible to secure a quorum for the transaction -of business. - -=Troubles of the State Governments.=--The state governments, free to -pursue their own course with no interference from without, had almost as -many difficulties as the Congress. They too were loaded with -revolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already restive -population. Oppressed by their financial burdens and discouraged by the -fall in prices which followed the return of peace, the farmers of -several states joined in a concerted effort and compelled their -legislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in -value, but nevertheless it was forced on unwilling creditors to square -old accounts. - -In every part of the country legislative action fluctuated violently. -Laws were made one year only to be repealed the next and reenacted the -third year. Lands were sold by one legislature and the sales were -canceled by its successor. Uncertainty and distrust were the natural -consequences. Men of substance longed for some power that would forbid -states to issue bills of credit, to make paper money legal tender in -payment of debts, or to impair the obligation of contracts. Men heavily -in debt, on the other hand, urged even more drastic action against -creditors. - -So great did the discontent of the farmers in New Hampshire become in -1786 that a mob surrounded the legislature, demanding a repeal of the -taxes and the issuance of paper money. It was with difficulty that an -armed rebellion was avoided. In Massachusetts the malcontents, under the -leadership of Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolutionary army, -organized that same year open resistance to the government of the state. -Shays and his followers protested against the conduct of creditors in -foreclosing mortgages upon the debt-burdened farmers, against the -lawyers for increasing the costs of legal proceedings, against the -senate of the state the members of which were apportioned among the -towns on the basis of the amount of taxes paid, against heavy taxes, and -against the refusal of the legislature to issue paper money. They seized -the towns of Worcester and Springfield and broke up the courts of -justice. All through the western part of the state the revolt spread, -sending a shock of alarm to every center and section of the young -republic. Only by the most vigorous action was Governor Bowdoin able to -quell the uprising; and when that task was accomplished, the state -government did not dare to execute any of the prisoners because they had -so many sympathizers. Moreover, Bowdoin and several members of the -legislature who had been most zealous in their attacks on the insurgents -were defeated at the ensuing election. The need of national assistance -for state governments in times of domestic violence was everywhere -emphasized by men who were opposed to revolutionary acts. - -=Alarm over Dangers to the Republic.=--Leading American citizens, -watching the drift of affairs, were slowly driven to the conclusion that -the new ship of state so proudly launched a few years before was -careening into anarchy. "The facts of our peace and independence," wrote -a friend of Washington, "do not at present wear so promising an -appearance as I had fondly painted in my mind. The prejudices, -jealousies, and turbulence of the people at times almost stagger my -confidence in our political establishments; and almost occasion me to -think that they will show themselves unworthy of the noble prize for -which we have contended." - -Washington himself was profoundly discouraged. On hearing of Shays's -rebellion, he exclaimed: "What, gracious God, is man that there should -be such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the -other day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions -under which we now live--constitutions of our own choice and making--and -now we are unsheathing our sword to overturn them." The same year he -burst out in a lament over rumors of restoring royal government. "I am -told that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical government -without horror. From thinking proceeds speaking. Hence to acting is -often but a single step. But how irresistible and tremendous! What a -triumph for our enemies to verify their predictions! What a triumph for -the advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing -ourselves!" - -=Congress Attempts Some Reforms.=--The Congress was not indifferent to -the events that disturbed Washington. On the contrary it put forth many -efforts to check tendencies so dangerous to finance, commerce, -industries, and the Confederation itself. In 1781, even before the -treaty of peace was signed, the Congress, having found out how futile -were its taxing powers, carried a resolution of amendment to the -Articles of Confederation, authorizing the levy of a moderate duty on -imports. Yet this mild measure was rejected by the states. Two years -later the Congress prepared another amendment sanctioning the levy of -duties on imports, to be collected this time by state officers and -applied to the payment of the public debt. This more limited proposal, -designed to save public credit, likewise failed. In 1786, the Congress -made a third appeal to the states for help, declaring that they had been -so irregular and so negligent in paying their quotas that further -reliance upon that mode of raising revenues was dishonorable and -dangerous. - - -THE CALLING OF A CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION - -=Hamilton and Washington Urge Reform.=--The attempts at reform by the -Congress were accompanied by demand for, both within and without that -body, a convention to frame a new plan of government. In 1780, the -youthful Alexander Hamilton, realizing the weakness of the Articles, so -widely discussed, proposed a general convention for the purpose of -drafting a new constitution on entirely different principles. With -tireless energy he strove to bring his countrymen to his view. -Washington, agreeing with him on every point, declared, in a circular -letter to the governors, that the duration of the union would be short -unless there was lodged somewhere a supreme power "to regulate and -govern the general concerns of the confederated republic." The governor -of Massachusetts, disturbed by the growth of discontent all about him, -suggested to the state legislature in 1785 the advisability of a -national convention to enlarge the powers of the Congress. The -legislature approved the plan, but did not press it to a conclusion. - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON] - -=The Annapolis Convention.=--Action finally came from the South. The -Virginia legislature, taking things into its own hands, called a -conference of delegates at Annapolis to consider matters of taxation and -commerce. When the convention assembled in 1786, it was found that only -five states had taken the trouble to send representatives. The leaders -were deeply discouraged, but the resourceful Hamilton, a delegate from -New York, turned the affair to good account. He secured the adoption of -a resolution, calling upon the Congress itself to summon another -convention, to meet at Philadelphia. - -=A National Convention Called (1787).=--The Congress, as tardy as ever, -at last decided in February, 1787, to issue the call. Fearing drastic -changes, however, it restricted the convention to "the sole and express -purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Jealous of its own -powers, it added that any alterations proposed should be referred to the -Congress and the states for their approval. - -Every state in the union, except Rhode Island, responded to this call. -Indeed some of the states, having the Annapolis resolution before them, -had already anticipated the Congress by selecting delegates before the -formal summons came. Thus, by the persistence of governors, -legislatures, and private citizens, there was brought about the -long-desired national convention. In May, 1787, it assembled in -Philadelphia. - -=The Eminent Men of the Convention.=--On the roll of that memorable -convention were fifty-five men, at least half of whom were acknowledged -to be among the foremost statesmen and thinkers in America. Every field -of statecraft was represented by them: war and practical management in -Washington, who was chosen president of the convention; diplomacy in -Franklin, now old and full of honor in his own land as well as abroad; -finance in Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris; law in James Wilson of -Pennsylvania; the philosophy of government in James Madison, called the -"father of the Constitution." They were not theorists but practical men, -rich in political experience and endowed with deep insight into the -springs of human action. Three of them had served in the Stamp Act -Congress: Dickinson of Delaware, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, -and John Rutledge of South Carolina. Eight had been signers of the -Declaration of Independence: Read of Delaware, Sherman of Connecticut, -Wythe of Virginia, Gerry of Massachusetts, Franklin, Robert Morris, -George Clymer, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania. All but twelve had at -some time served in the Continental Congress and eighteen were members -of that body in the spring of 1787. Washington, Hamilton, Mifflin, and -Charles Pinckney had been officers in the Revolutionary army. Seven of -the delegates had gained political experience as governors of states. -"The convention as a whole," according to the historian Hildreth, -"represented in a marked manner the talent, intelligence, and -especially the conservative sentiment of the country." - - -THE FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION - -=Problems Involved.=--The great problems before the convention were nine -in number: (1) Shall the Articles of Confederation be revised or a new -system of government constructed? (2) Shall the government be founded on -states equal in power as under the Articles or on the broader and deeper -foundation of population? (3) What direct share shall the people have in -the election of national officers? (4) What shall be the qualifications -for the suffrage? (5) How shall the conflicting interests of the -commercial and the planting states be balanced so as to safeguard the -essential rights of each? (6) What shall be the form of the new -government? (7) What powers shall be conferred on it? (8) How shall the -state legislatures be restrained from their attacks on property rights -such as the issuance of paper money? (9) Shall the approval of all the -states be necessary, as under the Articles, for the adoption and -amendment of the Constitution? - -=Revision of the Articles or a New Government?=--The moment the first -problem was raised, representatives of the small states, led by William -Paterson of New Jersey, were on their feet. They feared that, if the -Articles were overthrown, the equality and rights of the states would be -put in jeopardy. Their protest was therefore vigorous. They cited the -call issued by the Congress in summoning the convention which -specifically stated that they were assembled for "the sole and express -purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." They cited also -their instructions from their state legislatures, which authorized them -to "revise and amend" the existing scheme of government, not to make a -revolution in it. To depart from the authorization laid down by the -Congress and the legislatures would be to exceed their powers, they -argued, and to betray the trust reposed in them by their countrymen. - -To their contentions, Randolph of Virginia replied: "When the salvation -of the republic is at stake, it would be treason to our trust not to -propose what we find necessary." Hamilton, reminding the delegates that -their work was still subject to the approval of the states, frankly said -that on the point of their powers he had no scruples. With the issue -clear, the convention cast aside the Articles as if they did not exist -and proceeded to the work of drawing up a new constitution, "laying its -foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form" -as to the delegates seemed "most likely to affect their safety and -happiness." - -=A Government Founded on States or on People?--The -Compromise.=--Defeated in their attempt to limit the convention to a -mere revision of the Articles, the spokesmen of the smaller states -redoubled their efforts to preserve the equality of the states. The -signal for a radical departure from the Articles on this point was given -early in the sessions when Randolph presented "the Virginia plan." He -proposed that the new national legislature consist of two houses, the -members of which were to be apportioned among the states according to -their wealth or free white population, as the convention might decide. -This plan was vehemently challenged. Paterson of New Jersey flatly -avowed that neither he nor his state would ever bow to such tyranny. As -an alternative, he presented "the New Jersey plan" calling for a -national legislature of one house representing states as such, not -wealth or people--a legislature in which all states, large or small, -would have equal voice. Wilson of Pennsylvania, on behalf of the more -populous states, took up the gauntlet which Paterson had thrown down. It -was absurd, he urged, for 180,000 men in one state to have the same -weight in national counsels as 750,000 men in another state. "The -gentleman from New Jersey," he said, "is candid. He declares his opinion -boldly.... I will be equally candid.... I will never confederate on his -principles." So the bitter controversy ran on through many exciting -sessions. - -Greek had met Greek. The convention was hopelessly deadlocked and on the -verge of dissolution, "scarce held together by the strength of a hair," -as one of the delegates remarked. A crash was averted only by a -compromise. Instead of a Congress of one house as provided by the -Articles, the convention agreed upon a legislature of two houses. In the -Senate, the aspirations of the small states were to be satisfied, for -each state was given two members in that body. In the formation of the -House of Representatives, the larger states were placated, for it was -agreed that the members of that chamber were to be apportioned among the -states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves. - -=The Question of Popular Election.=--The method of selecting federal -officers and members of Congress also produced an acrimonious debate -which revealed how deep-seated was the distrust of the capacity of the -people to govern themselves. Few there were who believed that no branch -of the government should be elected directly by the voters; still fewer -were there, however, who desired to see all branches so chosen. One or -two even expressed a desire for a monarchy. The dangers of democracy -were stressed by Gerry of Massachusetts: "All the evils we experience -flow from an excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue but are -the dupes of pretended patriots.... I have been too republican -heretofore but have been taught by experience the danger of a leveling -spirit." To the "democratic licentiousness of the state legislatures," -Randolph sought to oppose a "firm senate." To check the excesses of -popular government Charles Pinckney of South Carolina declared that no -one should be elected President who was not worth $100,000 and that high -property qualifications should be placed on members of Congress and -judges. Other members of the convention were stoutly opposed to such -"high-toned notions of government." Franklin and Wilson, both from -Pennsylvania, vigorously championed popular election; while men like -Madison insisted that at least one part of the government should rest on -the broad foundation of the people. - -Out of this clash of opinion also came compromise. One branch, the House -of Representatives, it was agreed, was to be elected directly by the -voters, while the Senators were to be elected indirectly by the state -legislatures. The President was to be chosen by electors selected as the -legislatures of the states might determine, and the judges of the -federal courts, supreme and inferior, by the President and the Senate. - -=The Question of the Suffrage.=--The battle over the suffrage was sharp -but brief. Gouverneur Morris proposed that only land owners should be -permitted to vote. Madison replied that the state legislatures, which -had made so much trouble with radical laws, were elected by freeholders. -After the debate, the delegates, unable to agree on any property -limitations on the suffrage, decided that the House of Representatives -should be elected by voters having the "qualifications requisite for -electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature." Thus -they accepted the suffrage provisions of the states. - -=The Balance between the Planting and the Commercial States.=--After the -debates had gone on for a few weeks, Madison came to the conclusion that -the real division in the convention was not between the large and the -small states but between the planting section founded on slave labor and -the commercial North. Thus he anticipated by nearly three-quarters of a -century "the irrepressible conflict." The planting states had neither -the free white population nor the wealth of the North. There were, -counting Delaware, six of them as against seven commercial states. -Dependent for their prosperity mainly upon the sale of tobacco, rice, -and other staples abroad, they feared that Congress might impose -restraints upon their enterprise. Being weaker in numbers, they were -afraid that the majority might lay an unfair burden of taxes upon them. - -_Representation and Taxation._--The Southern members of the convention -were therefore very anxious to secure for their section the largest -possible representation in Congress, and at the same time to restrain -the taxing power of that body. Two devices were thought adapted to these -ends. One was to count the slaves as people when apportioning -representatives among the states according to their respective -populations; the other was to provide that direct taxes should be -apportioned among the states, in proportion not to their wealth but to -the number of their free white inhabitants. For obvious reasons the -Northern delegates objected to these proposals. Once more a compromise -proved to be the solution. It was agreed that not all the slaves but -three-fifths of them should be counted for both purposes--representation -and direct taxation. - -_Commerce and the Slave Trade._--Southern interests were also involved -in the project to confer upon Congress the power to regulate interstate -and foreign commerce. To the manufacturing and trading states this was -essential. It would prevent interstate tariffs and trade jealousies; it -would enable Congress to protect American manufactures and to break -down, by appropriate retaliations, foreign discriminations against -American commerce. To the South the proposal was menacing because -tariffs might interfere with the free exchange of the produce of -plantations in European markets, and navigation acts might confine the -carrying trade to American, that is Northern, ships. The importation of -slaves, moreover, it was feared might be heavily taxed or immediately -prohibited altogether. - -The result of this and related controversies was a debate on the merits -of slavery. Gouverneur Morris delivered his mind and heart on that -subject, denouncing slavery as a nefarious institution and the curse of -heaven on the states in which it prevailed. Mason of Virginia, a -slaveholder himself, was hardly less outspoken, saying: "Slavery -discourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed -by slaves. They prevent the migration of whites who really strengthen -and enrich a country." - -The system, however, had its defenders. Representatives from South -Carolina argued that their entire economic life rested on slave labor -and that the high death rate in the rice swamps made continuous -importation necessary. Ellsworth of Connecticut took the ground that -the convention should not meddle with slavery. "The morality or wisdom -of slavery," he said, "are considerations belonging to the states. What -enriches a part enriches the whole." To the future he turned an -untroubled face: "As population increases, poor laborers will be so -plenty as to render slaves useless. Slavery in time will not be a speck -in our country." Virginia and North Carolina, already overstocked with -slaves, favored prohibiting the traffic in them; but South Carolina was -adamant. She must have fresh supplies of slaves or she would not -federate. - -So it was agreed that, while Congress might regulate foreign trade by -majority vote, the importation of slaves should not be forbidden before -the lapse of twenty years, and that any import tax should not exceed $10 -a head. At the same time, in connection with the regulation of foreign -trade, it was stipulated that a two-thirds vote in the Senate should be -necessary in the ratification of treaties. A further concession to the -South was made in the provision for the return of runaway slaves--a -provision also useful in the North, where indentured servants were about -as troublesome as slaves in escaping from their masters. - -=The Form of the Government.=--As to the details of the frame of -government and the grand principles involved, the opinion of the -convention ebbed and flowed, decisions being taken in the heat of -debate, only to be revoked and taken again. - -_The Executive._--There was general agreement that there should be an -executive branch; for reliance upon Congress to enforce its own laws and -treaties had been a broken reed. On the character and functions of the -executive, however, there were many views. The New Jersey plan called -for a council selected by the Congress; the Virginia plan provided that -the executive branch should be chosen by the Congress but did not state -whether it should be composed of one or several persons. On this matter -the convention voted first one way and then another; finally it agreed -on a single executive chosen indirectly by electors selected as the -state legislatures might decide, serving for four years, subject to -impeachment, and endowed with regal powers in the command of the army -and the navy and in the enforcement of the laws. - -_The Legislative Branch--Congress._--After the convention had made the -great compromise between the large and small commonwealths by giving -representation to states in the Senate and to population in the House, -the question of methods of election had to be decided. As to the House -of Representatives it was readily agreed that the members should be -elected by direct popular vote. There was also easy agreement on the -proposition that a strong Senate was needed to check the "turbulence" of -the lower house. Four devices were finally selected to accomplish this -purpose. In the first place, the Senators were not to be chosen directly -by the voters but by the legislatures of the states, thus removing their -election one degree from the populace. In the second place, their term -was fixed at six years instead of two, as in the case of the House. In -the third place, provision was made for continuity by having only -one-third of the members go out at a time while two-thirds remained in -service. Finally, it was provided that Senators must be at least thirty -years old while Representatives need be only twenty-five. - -_The Judiciary._--The need for federal courts to carry out the law was -hardly open to debate. The feebleness of the Articles of Confederation -was, in a large measure, attributed to the want of a judiciary to hold -states and individuals in obedience to the laws and treaties of the -union. Nevertheless on this point the advocates of states' rights were -extremely sensitive. They looked with distrust upon judges appointed at -the national capital and emancipated from local interests and -traditions; they remembered with what insistence they had claimed -against Britain the right of local trial by jury and with what -consternation they had viewed the proposal to make colonial judges -independent of the assemblies in the matter of their salaries. -Reluctantly they yielded to the demand for federal courts, consenting at -first only to a supreme court to review cases heard in lower state -courts and finally to such additional inferior courts as Congress might -deem necessary. - -_The System of Checks and Balances._--It is thus apparent that the -framers of the Constitution, in shaping the form of government, arranged -for a distribution of power among three branches, executive, -legislative, and judicial. Strictly speaking we might say four branches, -for the legislature, or Congress, was composed of two houses, elected in -different ways, and one of them, the Senate, was made a check on the -President through its power of ratifying treaties and appointments. "The -accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial, in the -same hands," wrote Madison, "whether of one, a few, or many, and whether -hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the -very definition of tyranny." The devices which the convention adopted to -prevent such a centralization of authority were exceedingly ingenious -and well calculated to accomplish the purposes of the authors. - -The legislature consisted of two houses, the members of which were to be -apportioned on a different basis, elected in different ways, and to -serve for different terms. A veto on all its acts was vested in a -President elected in a manner not employed in the choice of either -branch of the legislature, serving for four years, and subject to -removal only by the difficult process of impeachment. After a law had -run the gantlet of both houses and the executive, it was subject to -interpretation and annulment by the judiciary, appointed by the -President with the consent of the Senate and serving for life. Thus it -was made almost impossible for any political party to get possession of -all branches of the government at a single popular election. As Hamilton -remarked, the friends of good government considered "every institution -calculated to restrain the excess of law making and to keep things in -the same state in which they happen to be at any given period as more -likely to do good than harm." - -=The Powers of the Federal Government.=--On the question of the powers -to be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a -serious dispute. Even the delegates from the small states agreed with -those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers -should be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of -Confederation. The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan -recognized this fact. Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison, -even proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering -all national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of -nationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and -finally carried the day. - -_Taxation and Commerce._--There were none bold enough to dissent from -the proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses -and discharge the public debt. When once the dispute over the -apportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was -an easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and -collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises. In this way the national -government was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy -legislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens. There -were likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state -tariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured. When the -fears of the planting states were allayed and the "bargain" over the -importation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the -power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. - -_National Defense._--The necessity for national defense was realized, -though the fear of huge military establishments was equally present. The -old practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures -was completely discredited. As in the case of taxes a direct authority -over citizens was demanded. Congress was therefore given full power to -raise and support armies and a navy. It could employ the state militia -when desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army -and call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis -was thought to require it. - -_The "Necessary and Proper" Clause._--To the specified power vested in -Congress by the Constitution, the advocates of a strong national -government added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws -"necessary and proper" for carrying into effect any and all of the -enumerated powers. This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief -Justice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the -requirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place -among the mighty nations of the earth. - -=Restraints on the States.=--Framing a government and endowing it with -large powers were by no means the sole concern of the convention. Its -very existence had been due quite as much to the conduct of the state -legislatures as to the futilities of a paralyzed Continental Congress. -In every state, explains Marshall in his _Life of Washington_, there was -a party of men who had "marked out for themselves a more indulgent -course. Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their -efforts were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful -compliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which -the people could not bear. They were uniformly in favor of relaxing the -administration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment of -debts, or of suspending their collection, and remitting taxes." - -The legislatures under the dominance of these men had enacted paper -money laws enabling debtors to discharge their obligations more easily. -The convention put an end to such practices by providing that no state -should emit bills of credit or make anything but gold or silver legal -tender in the payment of debts. The state legislatures had enacted laws -allowing men to pay their debts by turning over to creditors land or -personal property; they had repealed the charter of an endowed college -and taken the management from the hands of the lawful trustees; and they -had otherwise interfered with the enforcement of private agreements. The -convention, taking notice of such matters, inserted a clause forbidding -states "to impair the obligation of contracts." The more venturous of -the radicals had in Massachusetts raised the standard of revolt against -the authorities of the state. The convention answered by a brief -sentence to the effect that the President of the United States, to be -equipped with a regular army, would send troops to suppress domestic -insurrections whenever called upon by the legislature or, if it was not -in session, by the governor of the state. To make sure that the -restrictions on the states would not be dead letters, the federal -Constitution, laws, and treaties were made the supreme law of the land, -to be enforced whenever necessary by a national judiciary and executive -against violations on the part of any state authorities. - -=Provisions for Ratification and Amendment.=--When the frame of -government had been determined, the powers to be vested in it had been -enumerated, and the restrictions upon the states had been written into -the bond, there remained three final questions. How shall the -Constitution be ratified? What number of states shall be necessary to -put it into effect? How shall it be amended in the future? - -On the first point, the mandate under which the convention was sitting -seemed positive. The Articles of Confederation were still in effect. -They provided that amendments could be made only by unanimous adoption -in Congress and the approval of all the states. As if to give force to -this provision of law, the call for the convention had expressly stated -that all alterations and revisions should be reported to Congress for -adoption or rejection, Congress itself to transmit the document -thereafter to the states for their review. - -To have observed the strict letter of the law would have defeated the -purposes of the delegates, because Congress and the state legislatures -were openly hostile to such drastic changes as had been made. Unanimous -ratification, as events proved, would have been impossible. Therefore -the delegates decided that the Constitution should be sent to Congress -with the recommendation that it, in turn, transmit the document, not to -the state legislatures, but to conventions held in the states for the -special object of deciding upon ratification. This process was followed. -It was their belief that special conventions would be more friendly than -the state legislatures. - -The convention was equally positive in dealing with the problem of the -number of states necessary to establish the new Constitution. Attempts -to change the Articles had failed because amendment required the -approval of every state and there was always at least one recalcitrant -member of the union. The opposition to a new Constitution was -undoubtedly formidable. Rhode Island had even refused to take part in -framing it, and her hostility was deep and open. So the convention cast -aside the provision of the Articles of Confederation which required -unanimous approval for any change in the plan of government; it decreed -that the new Constitution should go into effect when ratified by nine -states. - -In providing for future changes in the Constitution itself the -convention also thrust aside the old rule of unanimous approval, and -decided that an amendment could be made on a two-thirds vote in both -houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. This -change was of profound significance. Every state agreed to be bound in -the future by amendments duly adopted even in case it did not approve -them itself. America in this way set out upon the high road that led -from a league of states to a nation. - - -THE STRUGGLE OVER RATIFICATION - -On September 17, 1787, the Constitution, having been finally drafted in -clear and simple language, a model to all makers of fundamental law, was -adopted. The convention, after nearly four months of debate in secret -session, flung open the doors and presented to the Americans the -finished plan for the new government. Then the great debate passed to -the people. - -=The Opposition.=--Storms of criticism at once descended upon the -Constitution. "Fraudulent usurpation!" exclaimed Gerry, who had refused -to sign it. "A monster" out of the "thick veil of secrecy," declaimed a -Pennsylvania newspaper. "An iron-handed despotism will be the result," -protested a third. "We, 'the low-born,'" sarcastically wrote a fourth, -"will now admit the 'six hundred well-born' immediately to establish -this most noble, most excellent, and truly divine constitution." The -President will become a king; Congress will be as tyrannical as -Parliament in the old days; the states will be swallowed up; the rights -of the people will be trampled upon; the poor man's justice will be lost -in the endless delays of the federal courts--such was the strain of the -protests against ratification. - -[Illustration: AN ADVERTISEMENT OF _The Federalist_] - -=Defense of the Constitution.=--Moved by the tempest of opposition, -Hamilton, Madison, and Jay took up their pens in defense of the -Constitution. In a series of newspaper articles they discussed and -expounded with eloquence, learning, and dignity every important clause -and provision of the proposed plan. These papers, afterwards collected -and published in a volume known as _The Federalist_, form the finest -textbook on the Constitution that has ever been printed. It takes its -place, moreover, among the wisest and weightiest treatises on government -ever written in any language in any time. Other men, not so gifted, were -no less earnest in their support of ratification. In private -correspondence, editorials, pamphlets, and letters to the newspapers, -they urged their countrymen to forget their partisanship and accept a -Constitution which, in spite of any defects great or small, was the -only guarantee against dissolution and warfare at home and dishonor and -weakness abroad. - -[Illustration: CELEBRATING THE RATIFICATION] - -=The Action of the State Conventions.=--Before the end of the year, -1787, three states had ratified the Constitution: Delaware and New -Jersey unanimously and Pennsylvania after a short, though savage, -contest. Connecticut and Georgia followed early the next year. Then came -the battle royal in Massachusetts, ending in ratification in February by -the narrow margin of 187 votes to 168. In the spring came the news that -Maryland and South Carolina were "under the new roof." On June 21, New -Hampshire, where the sentiment was at first strong enough to defeat the -Constitution, joined the new republic, influenced by the favorable -decision in Massachusetts. Swift couriers were sent to carry the news to -New York and Virginia, where the question of ratification was still -undecided. Nine states had accepted it and were united, whether more saw -fit to join or not. - -Meanwhile, however, Virginia, after a long and searching debate, had -given her approval by a narrow margin, leaving New York as the next seat -of anxiety. In that state the popular vote for the delegates to the -convention had been clearly and heavily against ratification. Events -finally demonstrated the futility of resistance, and Hamilton by good -judgment and masterly arguments was at last able to marshal a majority -of thirty to twenty-seven votes in favor of ratification. - -The great contest was over. All the states, except North Carolina and -Rhode Island, had ratified. "The sloop Anarchy," wrote an ebullient -journalist, "when last heard from was ashore on Union rocks." - -=The First Election.=--In the autumn of 1788, elections were held to -fill the places in the new government. Public opinion was overwhelmingly -in favor of Washington as the first President. Yielding to the -importunities of friends, he accepted the post in the spirit of public -service. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office at Federal Hall -in New York City. "Long live George Washington, President of the United -States!" cried Chancellor Livingston as soon as the General had kissed -the Bible. The cry was caught by the assembled multitude and given back. -A new experiment in popular government was launched. - - -=References= - -M. Farrand, _The Framing of the Constitution of the United States_. - -P.L. Ford, _Essays on the Constitution of the United States_. - -_The Federalist_ (in many editions). - -G. Hunt, _Life of James Madison_. - -A.C. McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_ (American -Nation Series). - - -=Questions= - -1. Account for the failure of the Articles of Confederation. - -2. Explain the domestic difficulties of the individual states. - -3. Why did efforts at reform by the Congress come to naught? - -4. Narrate the events leading up to the constitutional convention. - -5. Who were some of the leading men in the convention? What had been -their previous training? - -6. State the great problems before the convention. - -7. In what respects were the planting and commercial states opposed? -What compromises were reached? - -8. Show how the "check and balance" system is embodied in our form of -government. - -9. How did the powers conferred upon the federal government help cure -the defects of the Articles of Confederation? - -10. In what way did the provisions for ratifying and amending the -Constitution depart from the old system? - -11. What was the nature of the conflict over ratification? - - -=Research Topics= - -=English Treatment of American Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History -of the United States_, pp. 210-220. - -=Financial Condition of the United States.=--Fiske, _Critical Period of -American History_, pp. 163-186. - -=Disordered Commerce.=--Fiske, pp. 134-162. - -=Selfish Conduct of the States.=--Callender, pp. 185-191. - -=The Failure of the Confederation.=--Elson, _History of the United -States_, pp. 318-326. - -=Formation of the Constitution.=--(1) The plans before the convention, -Fiske, pp. 236-249; (2) the great compromise, Fiske, pp. 250-255; (3) -slavery and the convention, Fiske, pp. 256-266; and (4) the frame of -government, Fiske, pp. 275-301; Elson, pp. 328-334. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Look up the history and services of the leaders -in the convention in any good encyclopedia. - -=Ratification of the Constitution.=--Hart, _History Told by -Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 233-254; Elson, pp. 334-340. - -=Source Study.=--Compare the Constitution and Articles of Confederation -under the following heads: (1) frame of government; (2) powers of -Congress; (3) limits on states; and (4) methods of amendment. Every line -of the Constitution should be read and re-read in the light of the -historical circumstances set forth in this chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES - - -THE MEN AND MEASURES OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT - -=Friends of the Constitution in Power.=--In the first Congress that -assembled after the adoption of the Constitution, there were eleven -Senators, led by Robert Morris, the financier, who had been delegates to -the national convention. Several members of the House of -Representatives, headed by James Madison, had also been at Philadelphia -in 1787. In making his appointments, Washington strengthened the new -system of government still further by a judicious selection of -officials. He chose as Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, -who had been the most zealous for its success; General Knox, head of the -War Department, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, were likewise -conspicuous friends of the experiment. Every member of the federal -judiciary whom Washington appointed, from the Chief Justice, John Jay, -down to the justices of the district courts, had favored the -ratification of the Constitution; and a majority of them had served as -members of the national convention that framed the document or of the -state ratifying conventions. Only one man of influence in the new -government, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, was reckoned as a -doubter in the house of the faithful. He had expressed opinions both for -and against the Constitution; but he had been out of the country acting -as the minister at Paris when the Constitution was drafted and ratified. - -=An Opposition to Conciliate.=--The inauguration of Washington amid the -plaudits of his countrymen did not set at rest all the political turmoil -which had been aroused by the angry contest over ratification. "The -interesting nature of the question," wrote John Marshall, "the equality -of the parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate had a -necessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished and to -fix more deeply in many bosoms their prejudices against a plan of -government in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted." The -leaders gathered around Washington were well aware of the excited state -of the country. They saw Rhode Island and North Carolina still outside -of the union.[1] They knew by what small margins the Constitution had -been approved in the great states of Massachusetts, Virginia, and New -York. They were equally aware that a majority of the state conventions, -in yielding reluctant approval to the Constitution, had drawn a number -of amendments for immediate submission to the states. - -=The First Amendments--a Bill of Rights.=--To meet the opposition, -Madison proposed, and the first Congress adopted, a series of amendments -to the Constitution. Ten of them were soon ratified and became in 1791 a -part of the law of the land. These amendments provided, among other -things, that Congress could make no law respecting the establishment of -religion, abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right -of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a -redress of grievances. They also guaranteed indictment by grand jury and -trial by jury for all persons charged by federal officers with serious -crimes. To reassure those who still feared that local rights might be -invaded by the federal government, the tenth amendment expressly -provided that the powers not delegated to the United States by the -Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the -states respectively or to the people. Seven years later, the eleventh -amendment was written in the same spirit as the first ten, after a -heated debate over the action of the Supreme Court in permitting a -citizen to bring a suit against "the sovereign state" of Georgia. The -new amendment was designed to protect states against the federal -judiciary by forbidding it to hear any case in which a state was sued by -a citizen. - -=Funding the National Debt.=--Paper declarations of rights, however, -paid no bills. To this task Hamilton turned all his splendid genius. At -the very outset he addressed himself to the problem of the huge public -debt, daily mounting as the unpaid interest accumulated. In a _Report on -Public Credit_ under date of January 9, 1790, one of the first and -greatest of American state papers, he laid before Congress the outlines -of his plan. He proposed that the federal government should call in all -the old bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and other promises to pay -which had been issued by the Congress since the beginning of the -Revolution. These national obligations, he urged, should be put into one -consolidated debt resting on the credit of the United States; to the -holders of the old paper should be issued new bonds drawing interest at -fixed rates. This process was called "funding the debt." Such a -provision for the support of public credit, Hamilton insisted, would -satisfy creditors, restore landed property to its former value, and -furnish new resources to agriculture and commerce in the form of credit -and capital. - -=Assumption and Funding of State Debts.=--Hamilton then turned to the -obligations incurred by the several states in support of the Revolution. -These debts he proposed to add to the national debt. They were to be -"assumed" by the United States government and placed on the same secure -foundation as the continental debt. This measure he defended not merely -on grounds of national honor. It would, as he foresaw, give strength to -the new national government by making all public creditors, men of -substance in their several communities, look to the federal, rather than -the state government, for the satisfaction of their claims. - -=Funding at Face Value.=--On the question of the terms of consolidation, -assumption, and funding, Hamilton had a firm conviction. That millions -of dollars' worth of the continental and state bonds had passed out of -the hands of those who had originally subscribed their funds to the -support of the government or had sold supplies for the Revolutionary -army was well known. It was also a matter of common knowledge that a -very large part of these bonds had been bought by speculators at ruinous -figures--ten, twenty, and thirty cents on the dollar. Accordingly, it -had been suggested, even in very respectable quarters, that a -discrimination should be made between original holders and speculative -purchasers. Some who held this opinion urged that the speculators who -had paid nominal sums for their bonds should be reimbursed for their -outlays and the original holders paid the difference; others said that -the government should "scale the debt" by redeeming, not at full value -but at a figure reasonably above the market price. Against the -proposition Hamilton set his face like flint. He maintained that the -government was honestly bound to redeem every bond at its face value, -although the difficulty of securing revenue made necessary a lower rate -of interest on a part of the bonds and the deferring of interest on -another part. - -=Funding and Assumption Carried.=--There was little difficulty in -securing the approval of both houses of Congress for the funding of the -national debt at full value. The bill for the assumption of state debts, -however, brought the sharpest division of opinions. To the Southern -members of Congress assumption was a gross violation of states' rights, -without any warrant in the Constitution and devised in the interest of -Northern speculators who, anticipating assumption and funding, had -bought up at low prices the Southern bonds and other promises to pay. -New England, on the other hand, was strongly in favor of assumption; -several representatives from that section were rash enough to threaten a -dissolution of the union if the bill was defeated. To this dispute was -added an equally bitter quarrel over the location of the national -capital, then temporarily at New York City. - -[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA] - -A deadlock, accompanied by the most surly feelings on both sides, -threatened the very existence of the young government. Washington and -Hamilton were thoroughly alarmed. Hearing of the extremity to which the -contest had been carried and acting on the appeal from the Secretary of -the Treasury, Jefferson intervened at this point. By skillful management -at a good dinner he brought the opposing leaders together; and thus once -more, as on many other occasions, peace was purchased and the union -saved by compromise. The bargain this time consisted of an exchange of -votes for assumption in return for votes for the capital. Enough -Southern members voted for assumption to pass the bill, and a majority -was mustered in favor of building the capital on the banks of the -Potomac, after locating it for a ten-year period at Philadelphia to -satisfy Pennsylvania members. - -=The United States Bank.=--Encouraged by the success of his funding and -assumption measures, Hamilton laid before Congress a project for a great -United States Bank. He proposed that a private corporation be chartered -by Congress, authorized to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000 -(three-fourths in new six per cent federal bonds and one-fourth in -specie) and empowered to issue paper currency under proper safeguards. -Many advantages, Hamilton contended, would accrue to the government from -this institution. The price of the government bonds would be increased, -thus enhancing public credit. A national currency would be created of -uniform value from one end of the land to the other. The branches of the -bank in various cities would make easy the exchange of funds so vital to -commercial transactions on a national scale. Finally, through the issue -of bank notes, the money capital available for agriculture and industry -would be increased, thus stimulating business enterprise. Jefferson -hotly attacked the bank on the ground that Congress had no power -whatever under the Constitution to charter such a private corporation. -Hamilton defended it with great cogency. Washington, after weighing all -opinions, decided in favor of the proposal. In 1791 the bill -establishing the first United States Bank for a period of twenty years -became a law. - -=The Protective Tariff.=--A third part of Hamilton's program was the -protection of American industries. The first revenue act of 1789, though -designed primarily to bring money into the empty treasury, declared in -favor of the principle. The following year Washington referred to the -subject in his address to Congress. Thereupon Hamilton was instructed to -prepare recommendations for legislative action. The result, after a -delay of more than a year, was his _Report on Manufactures_, another -state paper worthy, in closeness of reasoning and keenness of -understanding, of a place beside his report on public credit. Hamilton -based his argument on the broadest national grounds: the protective -tariff would, by encouraging the building of factories, create a home -market for the produce of farms and plantations; by making the United -States independent of other countries in times of peace, it would double -its security in time of war; by making use of the labor of women and -children, it would turn to the production of goods persons otherwise -idle or only partly employed; by increasing the trade between the North -and South it would strengthen the links of union and add to political -ties those of commerce and intercourse. The revenue measure of 1792 bore -the impress of these arguments. - - -THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES - -=Dissensions over Hamilton's Measures.=--Hamilton's plans, touching -deeply as they did the resources of individuals and the interests of the -states, awakened alarm and opposition. Funding at face value, said his -critics, was a government favor to speculators; the assumption of state -debts was a deep design to undermine the state governments; Congress had -no constitutional power to create a bank; the law creating the bank -merely allowed a private corporation to make paper money and lend it at -a high rate of interest; and the tariff was a tax on land and labor for -the benefit of manufacturers. - -Hamilton's reply to this bill of indictment was simple and -straightforward. Some rascally speculators had profited from the funding -of the debt at face value, but that was only an incident in the -restoration of public credit. In view of the jealousies of the states it -was a good thing to reduce their powers and pretensions. The -Constitution was not to be interpreted narrowly but in the full light of -national needs. The bank would enlarge the amount of capital so sorely -needed to start up American industries, giving markets to farmers and -planters. The tariff by creating a home market and increasing -opportunities for employment would benefit both land and labor. Out of -such wise policies firmly pursued by the government, he concluded, were -bound to come strength and prosperity for the new government at home, -credit and power abroad. This view Washington fully indorsed, adding -the weight of his great name to the inherent merits of the measures -adopted under his administration. - -=The Sharpness of the Partisan Conflict.=--As a result of the clash of -opinion, the people of the country gradually divided into two parties: -Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the former led by Hamilton, the latter -by Jefferson. The strength of the Federalists lay in the cities--Boston, -Providence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston--among the -manufacturing, financial, and commercial groups of the population who -were eager to extend their business operations. The strength of the -Anti-Federalists lay mainly among the debt-burdened farmers who feared -the growth of what they called "a money power" and planters in all -sections who feared the dominance of commercial and manufacturing -interests. The farming and planting South, outside of the few towns, -finally presented an almost solid front against assumption, the bank, -and the tariff. The conflict between the parties grew steadily in -bitterness, despite the conciliatory and engaging manner in which -Hamilton presented his cause in his state papers and despite the -constant efforts of Washington to soften the asperity of the -contestants. - -=The Leadership and Doctrines of Jefferson.=--The party dispute had not -gone far before the opponents of the administration began to look to -Jefferson as their leader. Some of Hamilton's measures he had approved, -declaring afterward that he did not at the time understand their -significance. Others, particularly the bank, he fiercely assailed. More -than once, he and Hamilton, shaking violently with anger, attacked each -other at cabinet meetings, and nothing short of the grave and dignified -pleas of Washington prevented an early and open break between them. In -1794 it finally came. Jefferson resigned as Secretary of State and -retired to his home in Virginia to assume, through correspondence and -negotiation, the leadership of the steadily growing party of opposition. - -Shy and modest in manner, halting in speech, disliking the turmoil of -public debate, and deeply interested in science and philosophy, -Jefferson was not very well fitted for the strenuous life of political -contest. Nevertheless, he was an ambitious and shrewd negotiator. He was -also by honest opinion and matured conviction the exact opposite of -Hamilton. The latter believed in a strong, active, "high-toned" -government, vigorously compelling in all its branches. Jefferson looked -upon such government as dangerous to the liberties of citizens and -openly avowed his faith in the desirability of occasional popular -uprisings. Hamilton distrusted the people. "Your people is a great -beast," he is reported to have said. Jefferson professed his faith in -the people with an abandon that was considered reckless in his time. - -On economic matters, the opinions of the two leaders were also -hopelessly at variance. Hamilton, while cherishing agriculture, desired -to see America a great commercial and industrial nation. Jefferson was -equally set against this course for his country. He feared the -accumulation of riches and the growth of a large urban working class. -The mobs of great cities, he said, are sores on the body politic; -artisans are usually the dangerous element that make revolutions; -workshops should be kept in Europe and with them the artisans with their -insidious morals and manners. The only substantial foundation for a -republic, Jefferson believed to be agriculture. The spirit of -independence could be kept alive only by free farmers, owning the land -they tilled and looking to the sun in heaven and the labor of their -hands for their sustenance. Trusting as he did in the innate goodness of -human nature when nourished on a free soil, Jefferson advocated those -measures calculated to favor agriculture and to enlarge the rights of -persons rather than the powers of government. Thus he became the -champion of the individual against the interference of the government, -and an ardent advocate of freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and -freedom of scientific inquiry. It was, accordingly, no mere factious -spirit that drove him into opposition to Hamilton. - -=The Whisky Rebellion.=--The political agitation of the Anti-Federalists -was accompanied by an armed revolt against the government in 1794. The -occasion for this uprising was another of Hamilton's measures, a law -laying an excise tax on distilled spirits, for the purpose of increasing -the revenue needed to pay the interest on the funded debt. It so -happened that a very considerable part of the whisky manufactured in the -country was made by the farmers, especially on the frontier, in their -own stills. The new revenue law meant that federal officers would now -come into the homes of the people, measure their liquor, and take the -tax out of their pockets. All the bitterness which farmers felt against -the fiscal measures of the government was redoubled. In the western -districts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, they refused to -pay the tax. In Pennsylvania, some of them sacked and burned the houses -of the tax collectors, as the Revolutionists thirty years before had -mobbed the agents of King George sent over to sell stamps. They were in -a fair way to nullify the law in whole districts when Washington called -out the troops to suppress "the Whisky Rebellion." Then the movement -collapsed; but it left behind a deep-seated resentment which flared up -in the election of several obdurate Anti-Federalist Congressmen from the -disaffected regions. - - -FOREIGN INFLUENCES AND DOMESTIC POLITICS - -=The French Revolution.=--In this exciting period, when all America was -distracted by partisan disputes, a storm broke in Europe--the -epoch-making French Revolution--which not only shook the thrones of the -Old World but stirred to its depths the young republic of the New World. -The first scene in this dramatic affair occurred in the spring of 1789, -a few days after Washington was inaugurated. The king of France, Louis -XVI, driven into bankruptcy by extravagance and costly wars, was forced -to resort to his people for financial help. Accordingly he called, for -the first time in more than one hundred fifty years, a meeting of the -national parliament, the "Estates General," composed of representatives -of the "three estates"--the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Acting -under powerful leaders, the commoners, or "third estate," swept aside -the clergy and nobility and resolved themselves into a national -assembly. This stirred the country to its depths. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -LOUIS XVI IN THE HANDS OF THE MOB] - -Great events followed in swift succession. On July 14, 1789, the -Bastille, an old royal prison, symbol of the king's absolutism, was -stormed by a Paris crowd and destroyed. On the night of August 4, the -feudal privileges of the nobility were abolished by the national -assembly amid great excitement. A few days later came the famous -Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming the sovereignty of the -people and the privileges of citizens. In the autumn of 1791, Louis XVI -was forced to accept a new constitution for France vesting the -legislative power in a popular assembly. Little disorder accompanied -these startling changes. To all appearances a peaceful revolution had -stripped the French king of his royal prerogatives and based the -government of his country on the consent of the governed. - -=American Influence in France.=--In undertaking their great political -revolt the French had been encouraged by the outcome of the American -Revolution. Officers and soldiers, who had served in the American war, -reported to their French countrymen marvelous tales. At the frugal table -of General Washington, in council with the unpretentious Franklin, or at -conferences over the strategy of war, French noblemen of ancient lineage -learned to respect both the talents and the simple character of the -leaders in the great republican commonwealth beyond the seas. Travelers, -who had gone to see the experiment in republicanism with their own eyes, -carried home to the king and ruling class stories of an astounding -system of popular government. - -On the other hand the dalliance with American democracy was regarded by -French conservatives as playing with fire. "When we think of the false -ideas of government and philanthropy," wrote one of Lafayette's aides, -"which these youths acquired in America and propagated in France with so -much enthusiasm and such deplorable success--for this mania of imitation -powerfully aided the Revolution, though it was not the sole cause of -it--we are bound to confess that it would have been better, both for -themselves and for us, if these young philosophers in red-heeled shoes -had stayed at home in attendance on the court." - -=Early American Opinion of the French Revolution.=--So close were the -ties between the two nations that it is not surprising to find every -step in the first stages of the French Revolution greeted with applause -in the United States. "Liberty will have another feather in her cap," -exultantly wrote a Boston editor. "In no part of the globe," soberly -wrote John Marshall, "was this revolution hailed with more joy than in -America.... But one sentiment existed." The main key to the Bastille, -sent to Washington as a memento, was accepted as "a token of the -victory gained by liberty." Thomas Paine saw in the great event "the -first ripe fruits of American principles transplanted into Europe." -Federalists and Anti-Federalists regarded the new constitution of France -as another vindication of American ideals. - -=The Reign of Terror.=--While profuse congratulations were being -exchanged, rumors began to come that all was not well in France. Many -noblemen, enraged at the loss of their special privileges, fled into -Germany and plotted an invasion of France to overthrow the new system of -government. Louis XVI entered into negotiations with his brother -monarchs on the continent to secure their help in the same enterprise, -and he finally betrayed to the French people his true sentiments by -attempting to escape from his kingdom, only to be captured and taken -back to Paris in disgrace. - -A new phase of the revolution now opened. The working people, excluded -from all share in the government by the first French constitution, -became restless, especially in Paris. Assembling on the Champs de Mars, -a great open field, they signed a petition calling for another -constitution giving them the suffrage. When told to disperse, they -refused and were fired upon by the national guard. This "massacre," as -it was called, enraged the populace. A radical party, known as -"Jacobins," then sprang up, taking its name from a Jacobin monastery in -which it held its sessions. In a little while it became the master of -the popular convention convoked in September, 1792. The monarchy was -immediately abolished and a republic established. On January 21, 1793, -Louis was sent to the scaffold. To the war on Austria, already raging, -was added a war on England. Then came the Reign of Terror, during which -radicals in possession of the convention executed in large numbers -counter-revolutionists and those suspected of sympathy with the -monarchy. They shot down peasants who rose in insurrection against their -rule and established a relentless dictatorship. Civil war followed. -Terrible atrocities were committed on both sides in the name of liberty, -and in the name of monarchy. To Americans of conservative temper it now -seemed that the Revolution, so auspiciously begun, had degenerated into -anarchy and mere bloodthirsty strife. - -=Burke Summons the World to War on France.=--In England, Edmund Burke -led the fight against the new French principles which he feared might -spread to all Europe. In his _Reflections on the French Revolution_, -written in 1790, he attacked with terrible wrath the whole program of -popular government; he called for war, relentless war, upon the French -as monsters and outlaws; he demanded that they be reduced to order by -the restoration of the king to full power under the protection of the -arms of European nations. - -=Paine's Defense of the French Revolution.=--To counteract the campaign -of hate against the French, Thomas Paine replied to Burke in another of -his famous tracts, _The Rights of Man_, which was given to the American -public in an edition containing a letter of approval from Jefferson. -Burke, said Paine, had been mourning about the glories of the French -monarchy and aristocracy but had forgotten the starving peasants and the -oppressed people; had wept over the plumage and neglected the dying -bird. Burke had denied the right of the French people to choose their -own governors, blandly forgetting that the English government in which -he saw final perfection itself rested on two revolutions. He had boasted -that the king of England held his crown in contempt of the democratic -societies. Paine answered: "If I ask a man in America if he wants a -king, he retorts and asks me if I take him for an idiot." To the charge -that the doctrines of the rights of man were "new fangled," Paine -replied that the question was not whether they were new or old but -whether they were right or wrong. As to the French disorders and -difficulties, he bade the world wait to see what would be brought forth -in due time. - -=The Effect of the French Revolution on American Politics.=--The course -of the French Revolution and the controversies accompanying it, -exercised a profound influence on the formation of the first political -parties in America. The followers of Hamilton, now proud of the name -"Federalists," drew back in fright as they heard of the cruel deeds -committed during the Reign of Terror. They turned savagely upon the -revolutionists and their friends in America, denouncing as "Jacobin" -everybody who did not condemn loudly enough the proceedings of the -French Republic. A Massachusetts preacher roundly assailed "the -atheistical, anarchical, and in other respects immoral principles of the -French Republicans"; he then proceeded with equal passion to attack -Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists, whom he charged with spreading false -French propaganda and betraying America. "The editors, patrons, and -abettors of these vehicles of slander," he exclaimed, "ought to be -considered and treated as enemies to their country.... Of all traitors -they are the most aggravatedly criminal; of all villains, they are the -most infamous and detestable." - -The Anti-Federalists, as a matter of fact, were generally favorable to -the Revolution although they deplored many of the events associated with -it. Paine's pamphlet, indorsed by Jefferson, was widely read. Democratic -societies, after the fashion of French political clubs, arose in the -cities; the coalition of European monarchs against France was denounced -as a coalition against the very principles of republicanism; and the -execution of Louis XVI was openly celebrated at a banquet in -Philadelphia. Harmless titles, such as "Sir," "the Honorable," and "His -Excellency," were decried as aristocratic and some of the more excited -insisted on adopting the French title, "Citizen," speaking, for example, -of "Citizen Judge" and "Citizen Toastmaster." Pamphlets in defense of -the French streamed from the press, while subsidized newspapers kept the -propaganda in full swing. - -=The European War Disturbs American Commerce.=--This battle of wits, or -rather contest in calumny, might have gone on indefinitely in America -without producing any serious results, had it not been for the war -between England and France, then raging. The English, having command of -the seas, claimed the right to seize American produce bound for French -ports and to confiscate American ships engaged in carrying French goods. -Adding fuel to a fire already hot enough, they began to search American -ships and to carry off British-born sailors found on board American -vessels. - -=The French Appeal for Help.=--At the same time the French Republic -turned to the United States for aid in its war on England and sent over -as its diplomatic representative "Citizen" Genet, an ardent supporter of -the new order. On his arrival at Charleston, he was greeted with fervor -by the Anti-Federalists. As he made his way North, he was wined and -dined and given popular ovations that turned his head. He thought the -whole country was ready to join the French Republic in its contest with -England. Genet therefore attempted to use the American ports as the base -of operations for French privateers preying on British merchant ships; -and he insisted that the United States was in honor bound to help France -under the treaty of 1778. - -=The Proclamation of Neutrality and the Jay Treaty.=--Unmoved by the -rising tide of popular sympathy for France, Washington took a firm -course. He received Genet coldly. The demand that the United States aid -France under the old treaty of alliance he answered by proclaiming the -neutrality of America and warning American citizens against hostile acts -toward either France or England. When Genet continued to hold meetings, -issue manifestoes, and stir up the people against England, Washington -asked the French government to recall him. This act he followed up by -sending the Chief Justice, John Jay, on a pacific mission to England. - -The result was the celebrated Jay treaty of 1794. By its terms Great -Britain agreed to withdraw her troops from the western forts where they -had been since the war for independence and to grant certain slight -trade concessions. The chief sources of bitterness--the failure of the -British to return slaves carried off during the Revolution, the seizure -of American ships, and the impressment of sailors--were not touched, -much to the distress of everybody in America, including loyal -Federalists. Nevertheless, Washington, dreading an armed conflict with -England, urged the Senate to ratify the treaty. The weight of his -influence carried the day. - -At this, the hostility of the Anti-Federalists knew no bounds. Jefferson -declared the Jay treaty "an infamous act which is really nothing more -than an alliance between England and the Anglo-men of this country, -against the legislature and the people of the United States." Hamilton, -defending it with his usual courage, was stoned by a mob in New York and -driven from the platform with blood streaming from his face. Jay was -burned in effigy. Even Washington was not spared. The House of -Representatives was openly hostile. To display its feelings, it called -upon the President for the papers relative to the treaty negotiations, -only to be more highly incensed by his flat refusal to present them, on -the ground that the House did not share in the treaty-making power. - -=Washington Retires from Politics.=--Such angry contests confirmed the -President in his slowly maturing determination to retire at the end of -his second term in office. He did not believe that a third term was -unconstitutional or improper; but, worn out by his long and arduous -labors in war and in peace and wounded by harsh attacks from former -friends, he longed for the quiet of his beautiful estate at Mount -Vernon. - -In September, 1796, on the eve of the presidential election, Washington -issued his Farewell Address, another state paper to be treasured and -read by generations of Americans to come. In this address he directed -the attention of the people to three subjects of lasting interest. He -warned them against sectional jealousies. He remonstrated against the -spirit of partisanship, saying that in government "of the popular -character, in government purely elective, it is a spirit not to be -encouraged." He likewise cautioned the people against "the insidious -wiles of foreign influence," saying: "Europe has a set of primary -interests which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she -must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are -essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it would be -unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary -vicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and collisions -of her friendships or enmities.... Why forego the advantages of so -peculiar a situation?... It is our true policy to steer clear of -permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.... Taking -care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a -respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary -alliances for extraordinary emergencies." - -=The Campaign of 1796--Adams Elected.=--On hearing of the retirement of -Washington, the Anti-Federalists cast off all restraints. In honor of -France and in opposition to what they were pleased to call the -monarchical tendencies of the Federalists, they boldly assumed the name -"Republican"; the term "Democrat," then applied only to obscure and -despised radicals, had not come into general use. They selected -Jefferson as their candidate for President against John Adams, the -Federalist nominee, and carried on such a spirited campaign that they -came within four votes of electing him. - -The successful candidate, Adams, was not fitted by training or opinion -for conciliating a determined opposition. He was a reserved and studious -man. He was neither a good speaker nor a skillful negotiator. In one of -his books he had declared himself in favor of "government by an -aristocracy of talents and wealth"--an offense which the Republicans -never forgave. While John Marshall found him "a sensible, plain, candid, -good-tempered man," Jefferson could see in him nothing but a "monocrat" -and "Anglo-man." Had it not been for the conduct of the French -government, Adams would hardly have enjoyed a moment's genuine -popularity during his administration. - -=The Quarrel with France.=--The French Directory, the executive -department established under the constitution of 1795, managed, however, -to stir the anger of Republicans and Federalists alike. It regarded the -Jay treaty as a rebuke to France and a flagrant violation of obligations -solemnly registered in the treaty of 1778. Accordingly it refused to -receive the American minister, treated him in a humiliating way, and -finally told him to leave the country. Overlooking this affront in his -anxiety to maintain peace, Adams dispatched to France a commission of -eminent men with instructions to reach an understanding with the French -Republic. On their arrival, they were chagrined to find, instead of a -decent reception, an indirect demand for an apology respecting the past -conduct of the American government, a payment in cash, and an annual -tribute as the price of continued friendship. When the news of this -affair reached President Adams, he promptly laid it before Congress, -referring to the Frenchmen who had made the demands as "Mr. X, Mr. Y, -and Mr. Z." - -This insult, coupled with the fact that French privateers, like the -British, were preying upon American commerce, enraged even the -Republicans who had been loudest in the profession of their French -sympathies. They forgot their wrath over the Jay treaty and joined with -the Federalists in shouting: "Millions for defense, not a cent for -tribute!" Preparations for war were made on every hand. Washington was -once more called from Mount Vernon to take his old position at the head -of the army. Indeed, fighting actually began upon the high seas and went -on without a formal declaration of war until the year 1800. By that time -the Directory had been overthrown. A treaty was readily made with -Napoleon, the First Consul, who was beginning his remarkable career as -chief of the French Republic, soon to be turned into an empire. - -=Alien and Sedition Laws.=--Flushed with success, the Federalists -determined, if possible, to put an end to radical French influence in -America and to silence Republican opposition. They therefore passed two -drastic laws in the summer of 1798: the Alien and Sedition Acts. - -The first of these measures empowered the President to expel from the -country or to imprison any alien whom he regarded as "dangerous" or "had -reasonable grounds to suspect" of "any treasonable or secret -machinations against the government." - -The second of the measures, the Sedition Act, penalized not only those -who attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government -but also every one who wrote, uttered, or published "any false, -scandalous, and malicious writing ... against the government of the -United States or either House of Congress, or the President of the -United States, with intent to defame said government ... or to bring -them or either of them into contempt or disrepute." This measure was -hurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear -provision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging -the freedom of speech or of the press. Even many Federalists feared the -consequences of the action. Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill, -exclaiming: "Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different -thing from violence." John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that, -had he been in Congress, he would have opposed the two bills because he -thought them "useless" and "calculated to create unnecessary discontents -and jealousies." - -The Alien law was not enforced; but it gave great offense to the Irish -and French whose activities against the American government's policy -respecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison. The Sedition law, -on the other hand, was vigorously applied. Several editors of Republican -newspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for -their caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies. -Bystanders at political meetings, who uttered sentiments which, though -ungenerous and severe, seem harmless enough now, were hurried before -Federalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned. Although the -prosecutions were not numerous, they aroused a keen resentment. The -Republicans were convinced that their political opponents, having -saddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British -treaty, were bent on silencing all censure. The measures therefore had -exactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended. -Instead of helping the Federalist party, they made criticism of it more -bitter than ever. - -=The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Jefferson was quick to take -advantage of the discontent. He drafted a set of resolutions declaring -the Sedition law null and void, as violating the federal Constitution. -His resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798, -signed by the governor, and transmitted to the other states for their -consideration. Though receiving unfavorable replies from a number of -Northern states, Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and -declared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress -was the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of -grievances. It thus defied the federal government and announced a -doctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for -the future. In the neighboring state of Virginia, Madison led a movement -against the Alien and Sedition laws. He induced the legislature to pass -resolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the -other states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the -rights of the people. - -=The Republican Triumph in 1800.=--Thus the way was prepared for the -election of 1800. The Republicans left no stone unturned in their -efforts to place on the Federalist candidate, President Adams, all the -odium of the Alien and Sedition laws, in addition to responsibility for -approving Hamilton's measures and policies. The Federalists, divided in -councils and cold in their affection for Adams, made a poor campaign. -They tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of "Jacobins" and -"Anarchists"--terms which had been weakened by excessive use. When the -vote was counted, it was found that Adams had been defeated; while the -Republicans had carried the entire South and New York also and secured -eight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania. "Our beloved -Adams will now close his bright career," lamented a Federalist -newspaper. "Sons of faction, demagogues and high priests of anarchy, now -you have cause to triumph!" - -[Illustration: _An old cartoon_ - -A QUARREL BETWEEN A FEDERALIST AND A REPUBLICAN IN THE HOUSE OF -REPRESENTATIVES] - -Jefferson's election, however, was still uncertain. By a curious -provision in the Constitution, presidential electors were required to -vote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill, -the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the -candidate standing next to be Vice President. It so happened that Aaron -Burr, the Republican candidate for Vice President, had received the same -number of votes as Jefferson; as neither had a majority the election was -thrown into the House of Representatives, where the Federalists held the -balance of power. Although it was well known that Burr was not even a -candidate for President, his friends and many Federalists began -intriguing for his election to that high office. Had it not been for the -vigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of -Jefferson's hands. Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17, -1801, was the great issue decided in his favor.[2] - - -=References= - -J.S. Bassett, _The Federalist System_ (American Nation Series). - -C.A. Beard, _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_. - -H. Lodge, _Alexander Hamilton_. - -J.T. Morse, _Thomas Jefferson_. - - -=Questions= - -1. Who were the leaders in the first administration under the -Constitution? - -2. What step was taken to appease the opposition? - -3. Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail. - -4. Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system. - -5. Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson. - -6. What were the important results of the "peaceful" French Revolution -(1789-92)? - -7. Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United -States. - -8. How did the "Reign of Terror" change American opinion? - -9. What was the Burke-Paine controversy? - -10. Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved -America with England and France. - -11. What were American policies with regard to each of those countries? - -12. What was the outcome of the Alien and Sedition Acts? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Early Federal Legislation.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United -States_, pp. 133-156; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. -341-348. - -=Hamilton's Report on Public Credit.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source -Book_, pp. 233-243. - -=The French Revolution.=--Robinson and Beard, _Development of Modern -Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 224-282; Elson, pp. 351-354. - -=The Burke-Paine Controversy.=--Make an analysis of Burke's _Reflections -on the French Revolution_ and Paine's _Rights of Man_. - -=The Alien and Sedition Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, -pp. 259-267; Elson, pp. 367-375. - -=Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Macdonald, pp. 267-278. - -=Source Studies.=--Materials in Hart, _American History Told by -Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 255-343. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas -Jefferson, and Albert Gallatin. - -=The Twelfth Amendment.=--Contrast the provision in the original -Constitution with the terms of the Amendment. _See_ Appendix. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] North Carolina ratified in November, 1789, and Rhode Island in May, -1790. - -[2] To prevent a repetition of such an unfortunate affair, the twelfth -amendment of the Constitution was adopted in 1804, changing slightly the -method of electing the President. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER - - -REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES - -=Opposition to Strong Central Government.=--Cherishing especially the -agricultural interest, as Jefferson said, the Republicans were in the -beginning provincial in their concern and outlook. Their attachment to -America was, certainly, as strong as that of Hamilton; but they regarded -the state, rather than the national government, as the proper center of -power and affection. Indeed, a large part of the rank and file had been -among the opponents of the Constitution in the days of its adoption. -Jefferson had entertained doubts about it and Monroe, destined to be the -fifth President, had been one of the bitter foes of ratification. The -former went so far in the direction of local autonomy that he exalted -the state above the nation in the Kentucky resolutions of 1798, -declaring the Constitution to be a mere compact and the states competent -to interpret and nullify federal law. This was provincialism with a -vengeance. "It is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited -constitutions," wrote Jefferson for the Kentucky legislature. Jealousy -of the national government, not confidence in it--this is the ideal that -reflected the provincial and agricultural interest. - -=Republican Simplicity.=--Every act of the Jeffersonian party during its -early days of power was in accord with the ideals of government which it -professed. It had opposed all pomp and ceremony, calculated to give -weight and dignity to the chief executive of the nation, as symbols of -monarchy and high prerogative. Appropriately, therefore, Jefferson's -inauguration on March 4, 1801, the first at the new capital at -Washington, was marked by extreme simplicity. In keeping with this -procedure he quit the practice, followed by Washington and Adams, of -reading presidential addresses to Congress in joint assembly and adopted -in its stead the plan of sending his messages in writing--a custom that -was continued unbroken until 1913 when President Wilson returned to the -example set by the first chief magistrate. - -=Republican Measures.=--The Republicans had complained of a great -national debt as the source of a dangerous "money power," giving -strength to the federal government; accordingly they began to pay it off -as rapidly as possible. They had held commerce in low esteem and looked -upon a large navy as a mere device to protect it; consequently they -reduced the number of warships. They had objected to excise taxes, -particularly on whisky; these they quickly abolished, to the intense -satisfaction of the farmers. They had protested against the heavy cost -of the federal government; they reduced expenses by discharging hundreds -of men from the army and abolishing many offices. - -They had savagely criticized the Sedition law and Jefferson refused to -enforce it. They had been deeply offended by the assault on freedom of -speech and press and they promptly impeached Samuel Chase, a justice of -the Supreme Court, who had been especially severe in his attacks upon -offenders under the Sedition Act. Their failure to convict Justice Chase -by a narrow margin was due to no lack of zeal on their part but to the -Federalist strength in the Senate where the trial was held. They had -regarded the appointment of a large number of federal judges during the -last hours of Adams' administration as an attempt to intrench -Federalists in the judiciary and to enlarge the sphere of the national -government. Accordingly, they at once repealed the act creating the new -judgeships, thus depriving the "midnight appointees" of their posts. -They had considered the federal offices, civil and military, as sources -of great strength to the Federalists and Jefferson, though committed to -the principle that offices should be open to all and distributed -according to merit, was careful to fill most of the vacancies as they -occurred with trusted Republicans. To his credit, however, it must be -said that he did not make wholesale removals to find room for party -workers. - -The Republicans thus hewed to the line of their general policy of -restricting the weight, dignity, and activity of the national -government. Yet there were no Republicans, as the Federalists asserted, -prepared to urge serious modifications in the Constitution. "If there be -any among us who wish to dissolve this union or to change its republican -form," wrote Jefferson in his first inaugural, "let them stand -undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may -be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it." After reciting the -fortunate circumstances of climate, soil, and isolation which made the -future of America so full of promise, Jefferson concluded: "A wise and -frugal government which shall restrain men from injuring one another, -shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of -industry and improvement and shall not take from the mouth of labour the -bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government; and this is -necessary to close the circle of our felicities." - -In all this the Republicans had not reckoned with destiny. In a few -short years that lay ahead it was their fate to double the territory of -the country, making inevitable a continental nation; to give the -Constitution a generous interpretation that shocked many a Federalist; -to wage war on behalf of American commerce; to reestablish the hated -United States Bank; to enact a high protective tariff; to see their -Federalist opponents in their turn discredited as nullifiers and -provincials; to announce high national doctrines in foreign affairs; and -to behold the Constitution exalted and defended against the pretensions -of states by a son of old Virginia, John Marshall, Chief Justice of the -Supreme Court of the United States. - - -THE REPUBLICANS AND THE GREAT WEST - -=Expansion and Land Hunger.=--The first of the great measures which -drove the Republicans out upon this new national course--the purchase -of the Louisiana territory--was the product of circumstances rather than -of their deliberate choosing. It was not the lack of land for his -cherished farmers that led Jefferson to add such an immense domain to -the original possessions of the United States. In the Northwest -territory, now embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, -and a portion of Minnesota, settlements were mainly confined to the -north bank of the Ohio River. To the south, in Kentucky and Tennessee, -where there were more than one hundred thousand white people who had -pushed over the mountains from Virginia and the Carolinas, there were -still wide reaches of untilled soil. The Alabama and Mississippi regions -were vast Indian frontiers of the state of Georgia, unsettled and almost -unexplored. Even to the wildest imagination there seemed to be territory -enough to satisfy the land hunger of the American people for a century -to come. - -=The Significance of the Mississippi River.=--At all events the East, -then the center of power, saw no good reason for expansion. The planters -of the Carolinas, the manufacturers of Pennsylvania, the importers of -New York, the shipbuilders of New England, looking to the seaboard and -to Europe for trade, refinements, and sometimes their ideas of -government, were slow to appreciate the place of the West in national -economy. The better educated the Easterners were, the less, it seems, -they comprehended the destiny of the nation. Sons of Federalist fathers -at Williams College, after a long debate decided by a vote of fifteen to -one that the purchase of Louisiana was undesirable. - -On the other hand, the pioneers of Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee, -unlearned in books, saw with their own eyes the resources of the -wilderness. Many of them had been across the Mississippi and had beheld -the rich lands awaiting the plow of the white man. Down the great river -they floated their wheat, corn, and bacon to ocean-going ships bound for -the ports of the seaboard or for Europe. The land journeys over the -mountain barriers with bulky farm produce, they knew from experience, -were almost impossible, and costly at best. Nails, bolts of cloth, tea, -and coffee could go or come that way, but not corn and bacon. A free -outlet to the sea by the Mississippi was as essential to the pioneers of -the Kentucky region as the harbor of Boston to the merchant princes of -that metropolis. - -=Louisiana under Spanish Rule.=--For this reason they watched with deep -solicitude the fortunes of the Spanish king to whom, at the close of the -Seven Years' War, had fallen the Louisiana territory stretching from New -Orleans to the Rocky Mountains. While he controlled the mouth of the -Mississippi there was little to fear, for he had neither the army nor -the navy necessary to resist any invasion of American trade. Moreover, -Washington had been able, by the exercise of great tact, to secure from -Spain in 1795 a trading privilege through New Orleans which satisfied -the present requirements of the frontiersmen even if it did not allay -their fears for the future. So things stood when a swift succession of -events altered the whole situation. - -=Louisiana Transferred to France.=--In July, 1802, a royal order from -Spain instructed the officials at New Orleans to close the port to -American produce. About the same time a disturbing rumor, long current, -was confirmed--Napoleon had coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to -France by a secret treaty signed in 1800. "The scalers of the Alps and -conquerors of Venice" now looked across the sea for new scenes of -adventure. The West was ablaze with excitement. A call for war ran -through the frontier; expeditions were organized to prevent the landing -of the French; and petitions for instant action flooded in upon -Jefferson. - -=Jefferson Sees the Danger.=--Jefferson, the friend of France and sworn -enemy of England, compelled to choose in the interest of America, never -winced. "The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France," -he wrote to Livingston, the American minister in Paris, "works sorely on -the United States. It completely reverses all the political relations of -the United States and will form a new epoch in our political course.... -There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our -natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which the produce -of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market.... France, -placing herself in that door, assumes to us an attitude of defiance. -Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific -dispositions, her feeble state would induce her to increase our -facilities there.... Not so can it ever be in the hands of France.... -The day that France takes possession of New Orleans fixes the sentence -which is to restrain her forever within her low water mark.... It seals -the union of the two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive -possession of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the -British fleet and nation.... This is not a state of things we seek or -desire. It is one which this measure, if adopted by France, forces on us -as necessarily as any other cause by the laws of nature brings on its -necessary effect." - -=Louisiana Purchased.=--Acting on this belief, but apparently seeing -only the Mississippi outlet at stake, Jefferson sent his friend, James -Monroe, to France with the power to buy New Orleans and West Florida. -Before Monroe arrived, the regular minister, Livingston, had already -convinced Napoleon that it would be well to sell territory which might -be wrested from him at any moment by the British sea power, especially -as the war, temporarily stopped by the peace of Amiens, was once more -raging in Europe. Wise as he was in his day, Livingston had at first no -thought of buying the whole Louisiana country. He was simply dazed when -Napoleon offered to sell the entire domain and get rid of the business -altogether. Though staggered by the proposal, he and Monroe decided to -accept. On April 30, they signed the treaty of cession, agreeing to pay -$11,250,000 in six per cent bonds and to discharge certain debts due -French citizens, making in all approximately fifteen millions. Spain -protested, Napoleon's brother fumed, French newspapers objected; but the -deed was done. - -=Jefferson and His Constitutional Scruples.=--When the news of this -extraordinary event reached the United States, the people were filled -with astonishment, and no one was more surprised than Jefferson himself. -He had thought of buying New Orleans and West Florida for a small sum, -and now a vast domain had been dumped into the lap of the nation. He was -puzzled. On looking into the Constitution he found not a line -authorizing the purchase of more territory and so he drafted an -amendment declaring "Louisiana, as ceded by France,--a part of the -United States." He had belabored the Federalists for piling up a big -national debt and he could hardly endure the thought of issuing more -bonds himself. - -In the midst of his doubts came the news that Napoleon might withdraw -from the bargain. Thoroughly alarmed by that, Jefferson pressed the -Senate for a ratification of the treaty. He still clung to his original -idea that the Constitution did not warrant the purchase; but he lamely -concluded: "If our friends shall think differently, I shall certainly -acquiesce with satisfaction; confident that the good sense of our -country will correct the evil of construction when it shall produce ill -effects." Thus the stanch advocate of "strict interpretation" cut loose -from his own doctrine and intrusted the construction of the Constitution -to "the good sense" of his countrymen. - -=The Treaty Ratified.=--This unusual transaction, so favorable to the -West, aroused the ire of the seaboard Federalists. Some denounced it as -unconstitutional, easily forgetting Hamilton's masterly defense of the -bank, also not mentioned in the Constitution. Others urged that, if "the -howling wilderness" ever should be settled, it would turn against the -East, form new commercial connections, and escape from federal control. -Still others protested that the purchase would lead inevitably to the -dominance of a "hotch potch of wild men from the Far West." Federalists, -who thought "the broad back of America" could readily bear Hamilton's -consolidated debt, now went into agonies over a bond issue of less than -one-sixth of that amount. But in vain. Jefferson's party with a high -hand carried the day. The Senate, after hearing the Federalist protest, -ratified the treaty. In December, 1803, the French flag was hauled down -from the old government buildings in New Orleans and the Stars and -Stripes were hoisted as a sign that the land of Coronado, De Soto, -Marquette, and La Salle had passed forever to the United States. - -[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1805] - -By a single stroke, the original territory of the United States was more -than doubled. While the boundaries of the purchase were uncertain, it is -safe to say that the Louisiana territory included what is now Arkansas, -Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and large -portions of Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and -Wyoming. The farm lands that the friends of "a little America" on the -seacoast declared a hopeless wilderness were, within a hundred years, -fully occupied and valued at nearly seven billion dollars--almost five -hundred times the price paid to Napoleon. - -=Western Explorations.=--Having taken the fateful step, Jefferson wisely -began to make the most of it. He prepared for the opening of the new -country by sending the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore it, -discover its resources, and lay out an overland route through the -Missouri Valley and across the Great Divide to the Pacific. The story of -this mighty exploit, which began in the spring of 1804 and ended in the -autumn of 1806, was set down with skill and pains in the journal of -Lewis and Clark; when published even in a short form, it invited the -forward-looking men of the East to take thought about the western -empire. At the same time Zebulon Pike, in a series of journeys, explored -the sources of the Mississippi River and penetrated the Spanish -territories of the far Southwest. Thus scouts and pioneers continued the -work of diplomats. - - -THE REPUBLICAN WAR FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE - -=The English and French Blockades.=--In addition to bringing Louisiana -to the United States, the reopening of the European War in 1803, after a -short lull, renewed in an acute form the commercial difficulties that -had plagued the country all during the administrations of Washington and -Adams. The Republicans were now plunged into the hornets' nest. The -party whose ardent spirits had burned Jay in effigy, stoned Hamilton for -defending his treaty, jeered Washington's proclamation of neutrality, -and spoken bitterly of "timid traders," could no longer take refuge in -criticism. It had to act. - -Its troubles took a serious turn in 1806. England, in a determined -effort to bring France to her knees by starvation, declared the coast of -Europe blockaded from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe River. Napoleon -retaliated by his Berlin Decree of November, 1806, blockading the -British Isles--a measure terrifying to American ship owners whose -vessels were liable to seizure by any French rover, though Napoleon had -no navy to make good his proclamation. Great Britain countered with a -still more irritating decree--the Orders in Council of 1807. It modified -its blockade, but in so doing merely authorized American ships not -carrying munitions of war to complete their voyage to the Continent, on -condition of their stopping at a British port, securing a license, and -paying a tax. This, responded Napoleon, was the height of insolence, and -he denounced it as a gross violation of international law. He then -closed the circle of American troubles by issuing his Milan Decree of -December, 1807. This order declared that any ship which complied with -the British rules would be subject to seizure and confiscation by French -authorities. - -=The Impressment of Seamen.=--That was not all. Great Britain, in dire -need of men for her navy, adopted the practice of stopping American -ships, searching them, and carrying away British-born sailors found on -board. British sailors were so badly treated, so cruelly flogged for -trivial causes, and so meanly fed that they fled in crowds to the -American marine. In many cases it was difficult to tell whether seamen -were English or American. They spoke the same language, so that language -was no test. Rovers on the deep and stragglers in the ports of both -countries, they frequently had no papers to show their nativity. -Moreover, Great Britain held to the old rule--"Once an Englishman, -always an Englishman"--a doctrine rejected by the United States in -favor of the principle that a man could choose the nation to which he -would give allegiance. British sea captains, sometimes by mistake, and -often enough with reckless indifference, carried away into servitude in -their own navy genuine American citizens. The process itself, even when -executed with all the civilities of law, was painful enough, for it -meant that American ships were forced to "come to," and compelled to -rest submissively under British guns until the searching party had pried -into records, questioned seamen, seized and handcuffed victims. Saints -could not have done this work without raising angry passions, and only -saints could have endured it with patience and fortitude. - -Had the enactment of the scenes been confined to the high seas and -knowledge of them to rumors and newspaper stories, American resentment -might not have been so intense; but many a search and seizure was made -in sight of land. British and French vessels patrolled the coasts, -firing on one another and chasing one another in American waters within -the three-mile limit. When, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate -_Chesapeake_ refused to surrender men alleged to be deserters from King -George's navy, the British warship _Leopard_ opened fire, killing three -men and wounding eighteen more--an act which even the British ministry -could hardly excuse. If the French were less frequently the offenders, -it was not because of their tenderness about American rights but because -so few of their ships escaped the hawk-eyed British navy to operate in -American waters. - -=The Losses in American Commerce.=--This high-handed conduct on the part -of European belligerents was very injurious to American trade. By their -enterprise, American shippers had become the foremost carriers on the -Atlantic Ocean. In a decade they had doubled the tonnage of American -merchant ships under the American flag, taking the place of the French -marine when Britain swept that from the seas, and supplying Britain with -the sinews of war for the contest with the Napoleonic empire. The -American shipping engaged in foreign trade embraced 363,110 tons in -1791; 669,921 tons in 1800; and almost 1,000,000 tons in 1810. Such was -the enterprise attacked by the British and French decrees. American -ships bound for Great Britain were liable to be captured by French -privateers which, in spite of the disasters of the Nile and Trafalgar, -ranged the seas. American ships destined for the Continent, if they -failed to stop at British ports and pay tribute, were in great danger of -capture by the sleepless British navy and its swarm of auxiliaries. -American sea captains who, in fear of British vengeance, heeded the -Orders in Council and paid the tax were almost certain to fall a prey to -French vengeance, for the French were vigorous in executing the Milan -Decree. - -=Jefferson's Policy.=--The President's dilemma was distressing. Both the -belligerents in Europe were guilty of depredations on American commerce. -War on both of them was out of the question. War on France was -impossible because she had no territory on this side of the water which -could be reached by American troops and her naval forces had been -shattered at the battles of the Nile and Trafalgar. War on Great -Britain, a power which Jefferson's followers feared and distrusted, was -possible but not inviting. Jefferson shrank from it. A man of peace, he -disliked war's brazen clamor; a man of kindly spirit, he was startled at -the death and destruction which it brought in its train. So for the -eight years Jefferson steered an even course, suggesting measure after -measure with a view to avoiding bloodshed. He sent, it is true, -Commodore Preble in 1803 to punish Mediterranean pirates preying upon -American commerce; but a great war he evaded with passionate -earnestness, trying in its place every other expedient to protect -American rights. - -=The Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts.=--In 1806, Congress passed and -Jefferson approved a non-importation act closing American ports to -certain products from British dominions--a measure intended as a club -over the British government's head. This law, failing in its purpose, -Jefferson proposed and Congress adopted in December, 1807, the Embargo -Act forbidding all vessels to leave American harbors for foreign ports. -France and England were to be brought to terms by cutting off their -supplies. - -The result of the embargo was pathetic. England and France refused to -give up search and seizure. American ship owners who, lured by huge -profits, had formerly been willing to take the risk were now restrained -by law to their home ports. Every section suffered. The South and West -found their markets for cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, and bacon -curtailed. Thus they learned by bitter experience the national -significance of commerce. Ship masters, ship builders, longshoremen, and -sailors were thrown out of employment while the prices of foreign goods -doubled. Those who obeyed the law were ruined; violators of the law -smuggled goods into Canada and Florida for shipment abroad. - -Jefferson's friends accepted the medicine with a wry face as the only -alternative to supine submission or open war. His opponents, without -offering any solution of their own, denounced it as a contemptible plan -that brought neither relief nor honor. Beset by the clamor that arose on -all sides, Congress, in the closing days of Jefferson's administration, -repealed the Embargo law and substituted a Non-intercourse act -forbidding trade with England and France while permitting it with other -countries--a measure equally futile in staying the depredations on -American shipping. - -=Jefferson Retires in Favor of Madison.=--Jefferson, exhausted by -endless wrangling and wounded, as Washington had been, by savage -criticism, welcomed March 4, 1809. His friends urged him to "stay by the -ship" and accept a third term. He declined, saying that election for -life might result from repeated reelection. In following Washington's -course and defending it on principle, he set an example to all his -successors, making the "third term doctrine" a part of American -unwritten law. - -His intimate friend, James Madison, to whom he turned over the burdens -of his high office was, like himself, a man of peace. Madison had been a -leader since the days of the Revolution, but in legislative halls and -council chambers, not on the field of battle. Small in stature, -sensitive in feelings, studious in habits, he was no man for the rough -and tumble of practical politics. He had taken a prominent and -distinguished part in the framing and the adoption of the Constitution. -He had served in the first Congress as a friend of Hamilton's measures. -Later he attached himself to Jefferson's fortunes and served for eight -years as his first counselor, the Secretary of State. The principles of -the Constitution, which he had helped to make and interpret, he was now -as President called upon to apply in one of the most perplexing moments -in all American history. In keeping with his own traditions and -following in the footsteps of Jefferson, he vainly tried to solve the -foreign problem by negotiation. - -=The Trend of Events.=--Whatever difficulties Madison had in making up -his mind on war and peace were settled by events beyond his own control. -In the spring of 1811, a British frigate held up an American ship near -the harbor of New York and impressed a seaman alleged to be an American -citizen. Burning with resentment, the captain of the _President_, an -American warship, acting under orders, poured several broadsides into -the _Little Belt_, a British sloop, suspected of being the guilty party. -The British also encouraged the Indian chief Tecumseh, who welded -together the Indians of the Northwest under British protection and gave -signs of restlessness presaging a revolt. This sent a note of alarm -along the frontier that was not checked even when, in November, -Tecumseh's men were badly beaten at Tippecanoe by William Henry -Harrison. The Indians stood in the way of the advancing frontier, and it -seemed to the pioneers that, without support from the British in Canada, -the Red Men would soon be subdued. - -=Clay and Calhoun.=--While events were moving swiftly and rumors were -flying thick and fast, the mastery of the government passed from the -uncertain hands of Madison to a party of ardent young men in Congress, -dubbed "Young Republicans," under the leadership of two members destined -to be mighty figures in American history: Henry Clay of Kentucky and -John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The former contended, in a flair of -folly, that "the militia of Kentucky alone are competent to place -Montreal and Upper Canada at your feet." The latter with a light heart -spoke of conquering Canada in a four weeks' campaign. "It must not be -inferred," says Channing, "that in advocating conquest, the Westerners -were actuated merely by desire for land; they welcomed war because they -thought it would be the easiest way to abate Indian troubles. The -savages were supported by the fur-trading interests that centred at -Quebec and London.... The Southerners on their part wished for Florida -and they thought that the conquest of Canada would obviate some Northern -opposition to this acquisition of slave territory." While Clay and -Calhoun, spokesmen of the West and South, were not unmindful of what -Napoleon had done to American commerce, they knew that their followers -still remembered with deep gratitude the aid of the French in the war -for independence and that the embers of the old hatred for George III, -still on the throne, could be readily blown into flame. - -=Madison Accepts War as Inevitable.=--The conduct of the British -ministers with whom Madison had to deal did little to encourage him in -adhering to the policy of "watchful waiting." One of them, a high Tory, -believed that all Americans were alike "except that a few are less -knaves than others" and his methods were colored by his belief. On the -recall of this minister the British government selected another no less -high and mighty in his principles and opinions. So Madison became -thoroughly discouraged about the outcome of pacific measures. When the -pressure from Congress upon him became too heavy, he gave way, signing -on June 18, 1812, the declaration of war on Great Britain. In -proclaiming hostilities, the administration set forth the causes which -justified the declaration; namely, the British had been encouraging the -Indians to attack American citizens on the frontier; they had ruined -American trade by blockades; they had insulted the American flag by -stopping and searching our ships; they had illegally seized American -sailors and driven them into the British navy. - -=The Course of the War.=--The war lasted for nearly three years without -bringing victory to either side. The surrender of Detroit by General -Hull to the British and the failure of the American invasion of Canada -were offset by Perry's victory on Lake Erie and a decisive blow -administered to British designs for an invasion of New York by way of -Plattsburgh. The triumph of Jackson at New Orleans helped to atone for -the humiliation suffered in the burning of the Capitol by the British. -The stirring deeds of the _Constitution_, the _United States_, and the -_Argus_ on the seas, the heroic death of Lawrence and the victories of a -hundred privateers furnished consolation for those who suffered from the -iron blockade finally established by the British government when it came -to appreciate the gravity of the situation. While men love the annals of -the sea, they will turn to the running battles, the narrow escapes, and -the reckless daring of American sailors in that naval contest with Great -Britain. - -All this was exciting but it was inconclusive. In fact, never was a -government less prepared than was that of the United States in 1812. It -had neither the disciplined troops, the ships of war, nor the supplies -required by the magnitude of the military task. It was fortune that -favored the American cause. Great Britain, harassed, worn, and -financially embarrassed by nearly twenty years of fighting in Europe, -was in no mood to gather her forces for a titanic effort in America even -after Napoleon was overthrown and sent into exile at Elba in the spring -of 1814. War clouds still hung on the European horizon and the conflict -temporarily halted did again break out. To be rid of American anxieties -and free for European eventualities, England was ready to settle with -the United States, especially as that could be done without conceding -anything or surrendering any claims. - -=The Treaty of Peace.=--Both countries were in truth sick of a war that -offered neither glory nor profit. Having indulged in the usual -diplomatic skirmishing, they sent representatives to Ghent to discuss -terms of peace. After long negotiations an agreement was reached on -Christmas eve, 1814, a few days before Jackson's victory at New Orleans. -When the treaty reached America the people were surprised to find that -it said nothing about the seizure of American sailors, the destruction -of American trade, the searching of American ships, or the support of -Indians on the frontier. Nevertheless, we are told, the people "passed -from gloom to glory" when the news of peace arrived. The bells were -rung; schools were closed; flags were displayed; and many a rousing -toast was drunk in tavern and private home. The rejoicing could -continue. With Napoleon definitely beaten at Waterloo in June, 1815, -Great Britain had no need to impress sailors, search ships, and -confiscate American goods bound to the Continent. Once more the terrible -sea power sank into the background and the ocean was again white with -the sails of merchantmen. - - -THE REPUBLICANS NATIONALIZED - -=The Federalists Discredited.=--By a strange turn of fortune's wheel, -the party of Hamilton, Washington, Adams, the party of the grand nation, -became the party of provincialism and nullification. New England, -finding its shipping interests crippled in the European conflict and -then penalized by embargoes, opposed the declaration of war on Great -Britain, which meant the completion of the ruin already begun. In the -course of the struggle, the Federalist leaders came perilously near to -treason in their efforts to hamper the government of the United States; -and in their desperation they fell back upon the doctrine of -nullification so recently condemned by them when it came from Kentucky. -The Senate of Massachusetts, while the war was in progress, resolved -that it was waged "without justifiable cause," and refused to approve -military and naval projects not connected with "the defense of our -seacoast and soil." A Boston newspaper declared that the union was -nothing but a treaty among sovereign states, that states could decide -for themselves the question of obeying federal law, and that armed -resistance under the banner of a state would not be rebellion or -treason. The general assembly of Connecticut reminded the administration -at Washington that "the state of Connecticut is a free, sovereign, and -independent state." Gouverneur Morris, a member of the convention which -had drafted the Constitution, suggested the holding of another -conference to consider whether the Northern states should remain in the -union. - -[Illustration: _From an old cartoon_ - -NEW ENGLAND JUMPING INTO THE HANDS OF GEORGE III] - -In October, 1814, a convention of delegates from Connecticut, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and certain counties of New Hampshire and -Vermont was held at Hartford, on the call of Massachusetts. The counsels -of the extremists were rejected but the convention solemnly went on -record to the effect that acts of Congress in violation of the -Constitution are void; that in cases of deliberate, dangerous, and -palpable infractions the state is duty bound to interpose its authority -for the protection of its citizens; and that when emergencies occur the -states must be their own judges and execute their own decisions. Thus -New England answered the challenge of Calhoun and Clay. Fortunately its -actions were not as rash as its words. The Hartford convention merely -proposed certain amendments to the Constitution and adjourned. At the -close of the war, its proposals vanished harmlessly; but the men who -made them were hopelessly discredited. - -=The Second United States Bank.=--In driving the Federalists towards -nullification and waging a national war themselves, the Republicans lost -all their old taint of provincialism. Moreover, in turning to measures -of reconstruction called forth by the war, they resorted to the national -devices of the Federalists. In 1816, they chartered for a period of -twenty years a second United States Bank--the institution which -Jefferson and Madison once had condemned as unsound and -unconstitutional. The Constitution remained unchanged; times and -circumstances had changed. Calhoun dismissed the vexed question of -constitutionality with a scant reference to an ancient dispute, while -Madison set aside his scruples and signed the bill. - -=The Protective Tariff of 1816.=--The Republicans supplemented the Bank -by another Federalist measure--a high protective tariff. Clay viewed it -as the beginning of his "American system" of protection. Calhoun -defended it on national principles. For this sudden reversal of policy -the young Republicans were taunted by some of their older party -colleagues with betraying the "agricultural interest" that Jefferson had -fostered; but Calhoun refused to listen to their criticisms. "When the -seas are open," he said, "the produce of the South may pour anywhere -into the markets of the Old World.... What are the effects of a war with -a maritime power--with England? Our commerce annihilated ... our -agriculture cut off from its accustomed markets, the surplus of the -farmer perishes on his hands.... The recent war fell with peculiar -pressure on the growers of cotton and tobacco and the other great -staples of the country; and the same state of things will recur in the -event of another war unless prevented by the foresight of this body.... -When our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon -will be under the fostering care of the government, we shall no longer -experience these evils." With the Republicans nationalized, the -Federalist party, as an organization, disappeared after a crushing -defeat in the presidential campaign of 1816. - -=Monroe and the Florida Purchase.=--To the victor in that political -contest, James Monroe of Virginia, fell two tasks of national -importance, adding to the prestige of the whole country and deepening -the sense of patriotism that weaned men away from mere allegiance to -states. The first of these was the purchase of Florida from Spain. The -acquisition of Louisiana let the Mississippi flow "unvexed to the sea"; -but it left all the states east of the river cut off from the Gulf, -affording them ground for discontent akin to that which had moved the -pioneers of Kentucky to action a generation earlier. The uncertainty as -to the boundaries of Louisiana gave the United States a claim to West -Florida, setting on foot a movement for occupation. The Florida swamps -were a basis for Indian marauders who periodically swept into the -frontier settlements, and hiding places for runaway slaves. Thus the -sanction of international law was given to punitive expeditions into -alien territory. - -The pioneer leaders stood waiting for the signal. It came. President -Monroe, on the occasion of an Indian outbreak, ordered General Jackson -to seize the offenders, in the Floridas, if necessary. The high-spirited -warrior, taking this as a hint that he was to occupy the coveted region, -replied that, if possession was the object of the invasion, he could -occupy the Floridas within sixty days. Without waiting for an answer to -this letter, he launched his expedition, and in the spring of 1818 was -master of the Spanish king's domain to the south. - -There was nothing for the king to do but to make the best of the -inevitable by ceding the Floridas to the United States in return for -five million dollars to be paid to American citizens having claims -against Spain. On Washington's birthday, 1819, the treaty was signed. It -ceded the Floridas to the United States and defined the boundary between -Mexico and the United States by drawing a line from the mouth of the -Sabine River in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific. On this -occasion even Monroe, former opponent of the Constitution, forgot to -inquire whether new territory could be constitutionally acquired and -incorporated into the American union. The Republicans seemed far away -from the days of "strict construction." And Jefferson still lived! - -=The Monroe Doctrine.=--Even more effective in fashioning the national -idea was Monroe's enunciation of the famous doctrine that bears his -name. The occasion was another European crisis. During the Napoleonic -upheaval and the years of dissolution that ensued, the Spanish colonies -in America, following the example set by their English neighbors in -1776, declared their independence. Unable to conquer them alone, the -king of Spain turned for help to the friendly powers of Europe that -looked upon revolution and republics with undisguised horror. - -_The Holy Alliance._--He found them prepared to view his case with -sympathy. Three of them, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, under the -leadership of the Czar, Alexander I, in the autumn of 1815, had entered -into a Holy Alliance to sustain by reciprocal service the autocratic -principle in government. Although the effusive, almost maudlin, language -of the treaty did not express their purpose explicitly, the Alliance was -later regarded as a mere union of monarchs to prevent the rise and -growth of popular government. - -The American people thought their worst fears confirmed when, in 1822, a -conference of delegates from Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France met at -Verona to consider, among other things, revolutions that had just broken -out in Spain and Italy. The spirit of the conference is reflected in the -first article of the agreement reached by the delegates: "The high -contracting powers, being convinced that the system of representative -government is equally incompatible with the monarchical principle and -the maxim of the sovereignty of the people with the divine right, -mutually engage in the most solemn manner to use all their efforts to -put an end to the system of representative government in whatever -country it may exist in Europe and to prevent its being introduced in -those countries where it is not yet known." The Czar, who incidentally -coveted the west coast of North America, proposed to send an army to aid -the king of Spain in his troubles at home, thus preparing the way for -intervention in Spanish America. It was material weakness not want of -spirit, that prevented the grand union of monarchs from making open war -on popular government. - -_The Position of England._--Unfortunately, too, for the Holy Alliance, -England refused to cooeperate. English merchants had built up a large -trade with the independent Latin-American colonies and they protested -against the restoration of Spanish sovereignty, which meant a renewal of -Spain's former trade monopoly. Moreover, divine right doctrines had been -laid to rest in England and the representative principle thoroughly -established. Already there were signs of the coming democratic flood -which was soon to carry the first reform bill of 1832, extending the -suffrage, and sweep on to even greater achievements. British statesmen, -therefore, had to be cautious. In such circumstances, instead of -cooeperating with the autocrats of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, they -turned to the minister of the United States in London. The British prime -minister, Canning, proposed that the two countries join in declaring -their unwillingness to see the Spanish colonies transferred to any other -power. - -_Jefferson's Advice._--The proposal was rejected; but President Monroe -took up the suggestion with Madison and Jefferson as well as with his -Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams. They favored the plan. Jefferson -said: "One nation, most of all, could disturb us in this pursuit [of -freedom]; she now offers to lead, aid, and accompany us in it. By -acceding to her proposition we detach her from the bands, bring her -mighty weight into the scale of free government and emancipate a -continent at one stroke.... With her on our side we need not fear the -whole world. With her then we should most sedulously cherish a cordial -friendship." - -_Monroe's Statement of the Doctrine._--Acting on the advice of trusted -friends, President Monroe embodied in his message to Congress, on -December 2, 1823, a statement of principles now famous throughout the -world as the Monroe Doctrine. To the autocrats of Europe he announced -that he would regard "any attempt on their part to extend their system -to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety." -While he did not propose to interfere with existing colonies dependent -on European powers, he ranged himself squarely on the side of those that -had declared their independence. Any attempt by a European power to -oppress them or control their destiny in any manner he characterized as -"a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." -Referring in another part of his message to a recent claim which the -Czar had made to the Pacific coast, President Monroe warned the Old -World that "the American continents, by the free and independent -condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to -be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European -powers." The effect of this declaration was immediate and profound. Men -whose political horizon had been limited to a community or state were -led to consider their nation as a great power among the sovereignties of -the earth, taking its part in shaping their international relations. - -=The Missouri Compromise.=--Respecting one other important measure of -this period, the Republicans also took a broad view of their obligations -under the Constitution; namely, the Missouri Compromise. It is true, -they insisted on the admission of Missouri as a slave state, balanced -against the free state of Maine; but at the same time they assented to -the prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana territory north of the line -36 deg. 30'. During the debate on the subject an extreme view had been -presented, to the effect that Congress had no constitutional warrant for -abolishing slavery in the territories. The precedent of the Northwest -Ordinance, ratified by Congress in 1789, seemed a conclusive answer from -practice to this contention; but Monroe submitted the issue to his -cabinet, which included Calhoun of South Carolina, Crawford of Georgia, -and Wirt of Virginia, all presumably adherents to the Jeffersonian -principle of strict construction. He received in reply a unanimous -verdict to the effect that Congress did have the power to prohibit -slavery in the territories governed by it. Acting on this advice he -approved, on March 6, 1820, the bill establishing freedom north of the -compromise line. This generous interpretation of the powers of Congress -stood for nearly forty years, until repudiated by the Supreme Court in -the Dred Scott case. - - -THE NATIONAL DECISIONS OF CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL - -=John Marshall, the Nationalist.=--The Republicans in the lower ranges -of state politics, who did not catch the grand national style of their -leaders charged with responsibilities in the national field, were -assisted in their education by a Federalist from the Old Dominion, John -Marshall, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United -States from 1801 to 1835, lost no occasion to exalt the Constitution -above the claims of the provinces. No differences of opinion as to his -political views have ever led even his warmest opponents to deny his -superb abilities or his sincere devotion to the national idea. All will -likewise agree that for talents, native and acquired, he was an ornament -to the humble democracy that brought him forth. His whole career was -American. Born on the frontier of Virginia, reared in a log cabin, -granted only the barest rudiments of education, inured to hardship and -rough life, he rose by masterly efforts to the highest judicial honor -America can bestow. - -On him the bitter experience of the Revolution and of later days made a -lasting impression. He was no "summer patriot." He had been a soldier in -the Revolutionary army. He had suffered with Washington at Valley Forge. -He had seen his comrades in arms starving and freezing because the -Continental Congress had neither the power nor the inclination to force -the states to do their full duty. To him the Articles of Confederation -were the symbol of futility. Into the struggle for the formation of the -Constitution and its ratification in Virginia he had thrown himself with -the ardor of a soldier. Later, as a member of Congress, a representative -to France, and Secretary of State, he had aided the Federalists in -establishing the new government. When at length they were driven from -power in the executive and legislative branches of the government, he -was chosen for their last stronghold, the Supreme Court. By historic -irony he administered the oath of office to his bitterest enemy, Thomas -Jefferson; and, long after the author of the Declaration of Independence -had retired to private life, the stern Chief Justice continued to -announce the old Federalist principles from the Supreme Bench. - -[Illustration: JOHN MARSHALL] - -=Marbury _vs._ Madison--An Act of Congress Annulled.=--He had been in -his high office only two years when he laid down for the first time in -the name of the entire Court the doctrine that the judges have the power -to declare an act of Congress null and void when in their opinion it -violates the Constitution. This power was not expressly conferred on the -Court. Though many able men held that the judicial branch of the -government enjoyed it, the principle was not positively established -until 1803 when the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison was decided. In -rendering the opinion of the Court, Marshall cited no precedents. He -sought no foundations for his argument in ancient history. He rested it -on the general nature of the American system. The Constitution, ran his -reasoning, is the supreme law of the land; it limits and binds all who -act in the name of the United States; it limits the powers of Congress -and defines the rights of citizens. If Congress can ignore its -limitations and trespass upon the rights of citizens, Marshall argued, -then the Constitution disappears and Congress is supreme. Since, -however, the Constitution is supreme and superior to Congress, it is the -duty of judges, under their oath of office, to sustain it against -measures which violate it. Therefore, from the nature of the American -constitutional system the courts must declare null and void all acts -which are not authorized. "A law repugnant to the Constitution," he -closed, "is void and the courts as well as other departments are bound -by that instrument." From that day to this the practice of federal and -state courts in passing upon the constitutionality of laws has remained -unshaken. - -This doctrine was received by Jefferson and many of his followers with -consternation. If the idea was sound, he exclaimed, "then indeed is our -Constitution a complete _felo de se_ [legally, a suicide]. For, -intending to establish three departments, cooerdinate and independent -that they might check and balance one another, it has given, according -to this opinion, to one of them alone the right to prescribe rules for -the government of the others, and to that one, too, which is unelected -by and independent of the nation.... The Constitution, on this -hypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which -they may twist and shape into any form they please. It should be -remembered, as an axiom of eternal truth in politics, that whatever -power in any government is independent, is absolute also.... A judiciary -independent of a king or executive alone is a good thing; but -independence of the will of the nation is a solecism, at least in a -republican government." But Marshall was mighty and his view prevailed, -though from time to time other men, clinging to Jefferson's opinion, -likewise opposed the exercise by the Courts of the high power of passing -upon the constitutionality of acts of Congress. - -=Acts of State Legislatures Declared Unconstitutional.=--Had Marshall -stopped with annulling an act of Congress, he would have heard less -criticism from Republican quarters; but, with the same firmness, he set -aside acts of state legislatures as well, whenever, in his opinion, they -violated the federal Constitution. In 1810, in the case of Fletcher -_vs._ Peck, he annulled an act of the Georgia legislature, informing the -state that it was not sovereign, but "a part of a large empire, ... a -member of the American union; and that union has a constitution ... -which imposes limits to the legislatures of the several states." In the -case of McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, decided in 1819, he declared void an -act of the Maryland legislature designed to paralyze the branches of the -United States Bank established in that state. In the same year, in the -still more memorable Dartmouth College case, he annulled an act of the -New Hampshire legislature which infringed upon the charter received by -the college from King George long before. That charter, he declared, was -a contract between the state and the college, which the legislature -under the federal Constitution could not impair. Two years later he -stirred the wrath of Virginia by summoning her to the bar of the Supreme -Court to answer in a case in which the validity of one of her laws was -involved and then justified his action in a powerful opinion rendered in -the case of Cohens _vs._ Virginia. - -All these decisions aroused the legislatures of the states. They passed -sheaves of resolutions protesting and condemning; but Marshall never -turned and never stayed. The Constitution of the United States, he -fairly thundered at them, is the supreme law of the land; the Supreme -Court is the proper tribunal to pass finally upon the validity of the -laws of the states; and "those sovereignties," far from possessing the -right of review and nullification, are irrevocably bound by the -decisions of that Court. This was strong medicine for the authors of the -Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and for the members of the Hartford -convention; but they had to take it. - -=The Doctrine of Implied Powers.=--While restraining Congress in the -Marbury case and the state legislatures in a score of cases, Marshall -also laid the judicial foundation for a broad and liberal view of the -Constitution as opposed to narrow and strict construction. In McCulloch -_vs._ Maryland, he construed generously the words "necessary and proper" -in such a way as to confer upon Congress a wide range of "implied -powers" in addition to their express powers. That case involved, among -other things, the question whether the act establishing the second -United States Bank was authorized by the Constitution. Marshall answered -in the affirmative. Congress, ran his reasoning, has large powers over -taxation and the currency; a bank is of appropriate use in the exercise -of these enumerated powers; and therefore, though not absolutely -necessary, a bank is entirely proper and constitutional. "With respect -to the means by which the powers that the Constitution confers are to be -carried into execution," he said, Congress must be allowed the -discretion which "will enable that body to perform the high duties -assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people." In short, -the Constitution of the United States is not a strait jacket but a -flexible instrument vesting in Congress the powers necessary to meet -national problems as they arise. In delivering this opinion Marshall -used language almost identical with that employed by Lincoln when, -standing on the battle field of a war waged to preserve the nation, he -said that "a government of the people, by the people, for the people -shall not perish from the earth." - - -SUMMARY OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS - -During the strenuous period between the establishment of American -independence and the advent of Jacksonian democracy the great American -experiment was under the direction of the men who had launched it. All -the Presidents in that period, except John Quincy Adams, had taken part -in the Revolution. James Madison, the chief author of the Constitution, -lived until 1836. This age, therefore, was the "age of the fathers." It -saw the threatened ruin of the country under the Articles of -Confederation, the formation of the Constitution, the rise of political -parties, the growth of the West, the second war with England, and the -apparent triumph of the national spirit over sectionalism. - -The new republic had hardly been started in 1783 before its troubles -began. The government could not raise money to pay its debts or running -expenses; it could not protect American commerce and manufactures -against European competition; it could not stop the continual issues of -paper money by the states; it could not intervene to put down domestic -uprisings that threatened the existence of the state governments. -Without money, without an army, without courts of law, the union under -the Articles of Confederation was drifting into dissolution. Patriots, -who had risked their lives for independence, began to talk of monarchy -again. Washington, Hamilton, and Madison insisted that a new -constitution alone could save America from disaster. - -By dint of much labor the friends of a new form of government induced -the Congress to call a national convention to take into account the -state of America. In May, 1787, it assembled at Philadelphia and for -months it debated and wrangled over plans for a constitution. The small -states clamored for equal rights in the union. The large states vowed -that they would never grant it. A spirit of conciliation, fair play, and -compromise saved the convention from breaking up. In addition, there -were jealousies between the planting states and the commercial states. -Here, too, compromises had to be worked out. Some of the delegates -feared the growth of democracy and others cherished it. These factions -also had to be placated. At last a plan of government was drafted--the -Constitution of the United States--and submitted to the states for -approval. Only after a long and acrimonious debate did enough states -ratify the instrument to put it into effect. On April 30, 1789, George -Washington was inaugurated first President. - -The new government proceeded to fund the old debt of the nation, assume -the debts of the states, found a national bank, lay heavy taxes to pay -the bills, and enact laws protecting American industry and commerce. -Hamilton led the way, but he had not gone far before he encountered -opposition. He found a formidable antagonist in Jefferson. In time two -political parties appeared full armed upon the scene: the Federalists -and the Republicans. For ten years they filled the country with -political debate. In 1800 the Federalists were utterly vanquished by the -Republicans with Jefferson in the lead. - -By their proclamations of faith the Republicans favored the states -rather than the new national government, but in practice they added -immensely to the prestige and power of the nation. They purchased -Louisiana from France, they waged a war for commercial independence -against England, they created a second United States Bank, they enacted -the protective tariff of 1816, they declared that Congress had power to -abolish slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line, and they spread -the shield of the Monroe Doctrine between the Western Hemisphere and -Europe. - -Still America was a part of European civilization. Currents of opinion -flowed to and fro across the Atlantic. Friends of popular government in -Europe looked to America as the great exemplar of their ideals. Events -in Europe reacted upon thought in the United States. The French -Revolution exerted a profound influence on the course of political -debate. While it was in the stage of mere reform all Americans favored -it. When the king was executed and a radical democracy set up, American -opinion was divided. When France fell under the military dominion of -Napoleon and preyed upon American commerce, the United States made ready -for war. - -The conduct of England likewise affected American affairs. In 1793 war -broke out between England and France and raged with only a slight -intermission until 1815. England and France both ravaged American -commerce, but England was the more serious offender because she had -command of the seas. Though Jefferson and Madison strove for peace, the -country was swept into war by the vehemence of the "Young Republicans," -headed by Clay and Calhoun. - -When the armed conflict was closed, one in diplomacy opened. The -autocratic powers of Europe threatened to intervene on behalf of Spain -in her attempt to recover possession of her Latin-American colonies. -Their challenge to America brought forth the Monroe Doctrine. The powers -of Europe were warned not to interfere with the independence or the -republican policies of this hemisphere or to attempt any new -colonization in it. It seemed that nationalism was to have a peaceful -triumph over sectionalism. - - -=References= - -H. Adams, _History of the United States, 1800-1817_ (9 vols.). - -K.C. Babcock, _Rise of American Nationality_ (American Nation Series). - -E. Channing, _The Jeffersonian System_ (Same Series). - -D.C. Gilman, _James Monroe_. - -W. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_. - -T. Roosevelt, _Naval War of 1812_. - - -=Questions= - -1. What was the leading feature of Jefferson's political theory? - -2. Enumerate the chief measures of his administration. - -3. Were the Jeffersonians able to apply their theories? Give the -reasons. - -4. Explain the importance of the Mississippi River to Western farmers. - -5. Show how events in Europe forced the Louisiana Purchase. - -6. State the constitutional question involved in the Louisiana Purchase. - -7. Show how American trade was affected by the European war. - -8. Compare the policies of Jefferson and Madison. - -9. Why did the United States become involved with England rather than -with France? - -10. Contrast the causes of the War of 1812 with the results. - -11. Give the economic reasons for the attitude of New England. - -12. Give five "nationalist" measures of the Republicans. Discuss each in -detail. - -13. Sketch the career of John Marshall. - -14. Discuss the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison. - -15. Summarize Marshall's views on: (_a_) states' rights; and (_b_) a -liberal interpretation of the Constitution. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Louisiana Purchase.=--Text of Treaty in Macdonald, _Documentary -Source Book_, pp. 279-282. Source materials in Hart, _American History -Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 363-384. Narrative, Henry Adams, -_History of the United States_, Vol. II, pp. 25-115; Elson, _History of -the United States_, pp. 383-388. - -=The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts.=--Macdonald, pp. 282-288; Adams, -Vol. IV, pp. 152-177; Elson, pp. 394-405. - -=Congress and the War of 1812.=--Adams, Vol. VI, pp. 113-198; Elson, pp. -408-450. - -=Proposals of the Hartford Convention.=--Macdonald, pp. 293-302. - -=Manufactures and the Tariff of 1816.=--Coman, _Industrial History of -the United States_, pp. 184-194. - -=The Second United States Bank.=--Macdonald, pp. 302-306. - -=Effect of European War on American Trade.=--Callender, _Economic -History of the United States_, pp. 240-250. - -=The Monroe Message.=--Macdonald, pp. 318-320. - -=Lewis and Clark Expedition.=--R.G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain -Explorations_, pp. 92-187. Schafer, _A History of the Pacific Northwest_ -(rev. ed.), pp. 29-61. - - - - -PART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS - - -The nationalism of Hamilton was undemocratic. The democracy of Jefferson -was, in the beginning, provincial. The historic mission of uniting -nationalism and democracy was in the course of time given to new leaders -from a region beyond the mountains, peopled by men and women from all -sections and free from those state traditions which ran back to the -early days of colonization. The voice of the democratic nationalism -nourished in the West was heard when Clay of Kentucky advocated his -American system of protection for industries; when Jackson of Tennessee -condemned nullification in a ringing proclamation that has taken its -place among the great American state papers; and when Lincoln of -Illinois, in a fateful hour, called upon a bewildered people to meet the -supreme test whether this was a nation destined to survive or to perish. -And it will be remembered that Lincoln's party chose for its banner that -earlier device--Republican--which Jefferson had made a sign of power. -The "rail splitter" from Illinois united the nationalism of Hamilton -with the democracy of Jefferson, and his appeal was clothed in the -simple language of the people, not in the sonorous rhetoric which -Webster learned in the schools. - - -PREPARATION FOR WESTERN SETTLEMENT - -=The West and the American Revolution.=--The excessive attention devoted -by historians to the military operations along the coast has obscured -the role played by the frontier in the American Revolution. The action -of Great Britain in closing western land to easy settlement in 1763 was -more than an incident in precipitating the war for independence. -Americans on the frontier did not forget it; when Indians were employed -by England to defend that land, zeal for the patriot cause set the -interior aflame. It was the members of the western vanguard, like Daniel -Boone, John Sevier, and George Rogers Clark, who first understood the -value of the far-away country under the guns of the English forts, where -the Red Men still wielded the tomahawk and the scalping knife. It was -they who gave the East no rest until their vision was seen by the -leaders on the seaboard who directed the course of national policy. It -was one of their number, a seasoned Indian fighter, George Rogers Clark, -who with aid from Virginia seized Kaskaskia and Vincennes and secured -the whole Northwest to the union while the fate of Washington's army was -still hanging in the balance. - -=Western Problems at the End of the Revolution.=--The treaty of peace, -signed with Great Britain in 1783, brought the definite cession of the -coveted territory west to the Mississippi River, but it left unsolved -many problems. In the first place, tribes of resentful Indians in the -Ohio region, even though British support was withdrawn at last, had to -be reckoned with; and it was not until after the establishment of the -federal Constitution that a well-equipped army could be provided to -guarantee peace on the border. In the second place, British garrisons -still occupied forts on Lake Erie pending the execution of the terms of -the treaty of 1783--terms which were not fulfilled until after the -ratification of the Jay treaty twelve years later. In the third place, -Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had conflicting claims to the -land in the Northwest based on old English charters and Indian treaties. -It was only after a bitter contest that the states reached an agreement -to transfer their rights to the government of the United States, -Virginia executing her deed of cession on March 1, 1784. In the fourth -place, titles to lands bought by individuals remained uncertain in the -absence of official maps and records. To meet this last situation, -Congress instituted a systematic survey of the Ohio country, laying it -out into townships, sections of 640 acres each, and quarter sections. In -every township one section of land was set aside for the support of -public schools. - -=The Northwest Ordinance.=--The final problem which had to be solved -before settlement on a large scale could be begun was that of governing -the territory. Pioneers who looked with hungry eyes on the fertile -valley of the Ohio could hardly restrain their impatience. Soldiers of -the Revolution, who had been paid for their services in land warrants -entitling them to make entries in the West, called for action. - -Congress answered by passing in 1787 the famous Northwest Ordinance -providing for temporary territorial government to be followed by the -creation of a popular assembly as soon as there were five thousand free -males in any district. Eventual admission to the union on an equal -footing with the original states was promised to the new territories. -Religious freedom was guaranteed. The safeguards of trial by jury, -regular judicial procedure, and _habeas corpus_ were established, in order -that the methods of civilized life might take the place of the -rough-and-ready justice of lynch law. During the course of the debate on -the Ordinance, Congress added the sixth article forbidding slavery and -involuntary servitude. - -This Charter of the Northwest, so well planned by the Congress under the -Articles of Confederation, was continued in force by the first Congress -under the Constitution in 1789. The following year its essential -provisions, except the ban on slavery, were applied to the territory -south of the Ohio, ceded by North Carolina to the national government, -and in 1798 to the Mississippi territory, once held by Georgia. Thus it -was settled for all time that "the new colonies were not to be exploited -for the benefit of the parent states (any more than for the benefit of -England) but were to be autonomous and cooerdinate commonwealths." This -outcome, bitterly opposed by some Eastern leaders who feared the triumph -of Western states over the seaboard, completed the legal steps necessary -by way of preparation for the flood of settlers. - -=The Land Companies, Speculators, and Western Land Tenure.=--As in the -original settlement of America, so in the opening of the West, great -companies and single proprietors of large grants early figured. In 1787 -the Ohio Land Company, a New England concern, acquired a million and a -half acres on the Ohio and began operations by planting the town of -Marietta. A professional land speculator, J.C. Symmes, secured a million -acres lower down where the city of Cincinnati was founded. Other -individuals bought up soldiers' claims and so acquired enormous holdings -for speculative purposes. Indeed, there was such a rush to make fortunes -quickly through the rise in land values that Washington was moved to cry -out against the "rage for speculating in and forestalling of land on the -North West of the Ohio," protesting that "scarce a valuable spot within -any tolerable distance of it is left without a claimant." He therefore -urged Congress to fix a reasonable price for the land, not "too -exorbitant and burdensome for real occupiers, but high enough to -discourage monopolizers." - -Congress, however, was not prepared to use the public domain for the -sole purpose of developing a body of small freeholders in the West. It -still looked upon the sale of public lands as an important source of -revenue with which to pay off the public debt; consequently it thought -more of instant income than of ultimate results. It placed no limit on -the amount which could be bought when it fixed the price at $2 an acre -in 1796, and it encouraged the professional land operator by making the -first installment only twenty cents an acre in addition to the small -registration and survey fee. On such terms a speculator with a few -thousand dollars could get possession of an enormous plot of land. If he -was fortunate in disposing of it, he could meet the installments, which -were spread over a period of four years, and make a handsome profit for -himself. Even when the credit or installment feature was abolished in -1821 and the price of the land lowered to a cash price of $1.75 an acre, -the opportunity for large speculative purchases continued to attract -capital to land ventures. - -=The Development of the Small Freehold.=--The cheapness of land and the -scarcity of labor, nevertheless, made impossible the triumph of the huge -estate with its semi-servile tenantry. For about $45 a man could get a -farm of 160 acres on the installment plan; another payment of $80 was -due in forty days; but a four-year term was allowed for the discharge of -the balance. With a capital of from two to three hundred dollars a -family could embark on a land venture. If it had good crops, it could -meet the deferred payments. It was, however, a hard battle at best. Many -a man forfeited his land through failure to pay the final installment; -yet in the end, in spite of all the handicaps, the small freehold of a -few hundred acres at most became the typical unit of Western -agriculture, except in the planting states of the Gulf. Even the lands -of the great companies were generally broken up and sold in small lots. - -The tendency toward moderate holdings, so favored by Western conditions, -was also promoted by a clause in the Northwest Ordinance declaring that -the land of any person dying intestate--that is, without any will -disposing of it--should be divided equally among his descendants. -Hildreth says of this provision: "It established the important -republican principle, not then introduced into all the states, of the -equal distribution of landed as well as personal property." All these -forces combined made the wide dispersion of wealth, in the early days of -the nineteenth century, an American characteristic, in marked contrast -with the European system of family prestige and vast estates based on -the law of primogeniture. - - -THE WESTERN MIGRATION AND NEW STATES - -=The People.=--With government established, federal arms victorious over -the Indians, and the lands surveyed for sale, the way was prepared for -the immigrants. They came with a rush. Young New Englanders, weary of -tilling the stony soil of their native states, poured through New York -and Pennsylvania, some settling on the northern bank of the Ohio but -most of them in the Lake region. Sons and daughters of German farmers in -Pennsylvania and many a redemptioner who had discharged his bond of -servitude pressed out into Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, or beyond. From -the exhausted fields and the clay hills of the Southern states came -pioneers of English and Scotch-Irish descent, the latter in great -numbers. Indeed one historian of high authority has ventured to say that -"the rapid expansion of the United States from a coast strip to a -continental area is largely a Scotch-Irish achievement." While native -Americans of mixed stocks led the way into the West, it was not long -before immigrants direct from Europe, under the stimulus of company -enterprise, began to filter into the new settlements in increasing -numbers. - -The types of people were as various as the nations they represented. -Timothy Flint, who published his entertaining _Recollections_ in 1826, -found the West a strange mixture of all sorts and conditions of people. -Some of them, he relates, had been hunters in the upper world of the -Mississippi, above the falls of St. Anthony. Some had been still farther -north, in Canada. Still others had wandered from the South--the Gulf of -Mexico, the Red River, and the Spanish country. French boatmen and -trappers, Spanish traders from the Southwest, Virginia planters with -their droves of slaves mingled with English, German, and Scotch-Irish -farmers. Hunters, forest rangers, restless bordermen, and squatters, -like the foaming combers of an advancing tide, went first. Then followed -the farmers, masters of the ax and plow, with their wives who shared -every burden and hardship and introduced some of the features of -civilized life. The hunters and rangers passed on to new scenes; the -home makers built for all time. - -=The Number of Immigrants.=--There were no official stations on the -frontier to record the number of immigrants who entered the West during -the decades following the American Revolution. But travelers of the time -record that every road was "crowded" with pioneers and their families, -their wagons and cattle; and that they were seldom out of the sound of -the snapping whip of the teamster urging forward his horses or the crack -of the hunter's rifle as he brought down his evening meal. "During the -latter half of 1787," says Coman, "more than nine hundred boats floated -down the Ohio carrying eighteen thousand men, women, and children, and -twelve thousand horses, sheep, and cattle, and six hundred and fifty -wagons." Other lines of travel were also crowded and with the passing -years the flooding tide of home seekers rose higher and higher. - -=The Western Routes.=--Four main routes led into the country beyond the -Appalachians. The Genesee road, beginning at Albany, ran almost due west -to the present site of Buffalo on Lake Erie, through a level country. In -the dry season, wagons laden with goods could easily pass along it into -northern Ohio. A second route, through Pittsburgh, was fed by three -eastern branches, one starting at Philadelphia, one at Baltimore, and -another at Alexandria. A third main route wound through the mountains -from Alexandria to Boonesboro in Kentucky and then westward across the -Ohio to St. Louis. A fourth, the most famous of them all, passed through -the Cumberland Gap and by branches extended into the Cumberland valley -and the Kentucky country. - -Of these four lines of travel, the Pittsburgh route offered the most -advantages. Pioneers, no matter from what section they came, when once -they were on the headwaters of the Ohio and in possession of a flatboat, -could find a quick and easy passage into all parts of the West and -Southwest. Whether they wanted to settle in Ohio, Kentucky, or western -Tennessee they could find their way down the drifting flood to their -destination or at least to some spot near it. Many people from the South -as well as the Northern and Middle states chose this route; so it came -about that the sons and daughters of Virginia and the Carolinas mingled -with those of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England in the settlement -of the Northwest territory. - -=The Methods of Travel into the West.=--Many stories giving exact -descriptions of methods of travel into the West in the early days have -been preserved. The country was hardly opened before visitors from the -Old World and from the Eastern states, impelled by curiosity, made their -way to the very frontier of civilization and wrote books to inform or -amuse the public. One of them, Gilbert Imlay, an English traveler, has -given us an account of the Pittsburgh route as he found it in 1791. "If -a man ... " he writes, "has a family or goods of any sort to remove, his -best way, then, would be to purchase a waggon and team of horses to -carry his property to Redstone Old Fort or to Pittsburgh, according as -he may come from the Northern or Southern states. A good waggon will -cost, at Philadelphia, about L10 ... and the horses about L12 each; they -would cost something more both at Baltimore and Alexandria. The waggon -may be covered with canvass, and if it is the choice of the people, they -may sleep in it of nights with the greatest safety. But if they dislike -that, there are inns of accommodation the whole distance on the -different roads.... The provisions I would purchase in the same manner -[that is, from the farmers along the road]; and by having two or three -camp kettles and stopping every evening when the weather is fine upon -the brink of some rivulet and by kindling a fire they may soon dress -their own food.... This manner of journeying is so far from being -disagreeable that in a fine season it is extremely pleasant." The -immigrant once at Pittsburgh or Wheeling could then buy a flatboat of a -size required for his goods and stock, and drift down the current to his -journey's end. - -[Illustration: ROADS AND TRAILS INTO THE WESTERN TERRITORY] - -=The Admission of Kentucky and Tennessee.=--When the eighteenth century -drew to a close, Kentucky had a population larger than Delaware, Rhode -Island, or New Hampshire. Tennessee claimed 60,000 inhabitants. In 1792 -Kentucky took her place as a state beside her none too kindly parent, -Virginia. The Eastern Federalists resented her intrusion; but they took -some consolation in the admission of Vermont because the balance of -Eastern power was still retained. - -As if to assert their independence of old homes and conservative ideas -the makers of Kentucky's first constitution swept aside the landed -qualification on the suffrage and gave the vote to all free white males. -Four years later, Kentucky's neighbor to the south, Tennessee, followed -this step toward a wider democracy. After encountering fierce opposition -from the Federalists, Tennessee was accepted as the sixteenth state. - -=Ohio.=--The door of the union had hardly opened for Tennessee when -another appeal was made to Congress, this time from the pioneers in -Ohio. The little posts founded at Marietta and Cincinnati had grown into -flourishing centers of trade. The stream of immigrants, flowing down the -river, added daily to their numbers and the growing settlements all -around poured produce into their markets to be exchanged for "store -goods." After the Indians were disposed of in 1794 and the last British -soldier left the frontier forts under the terms of the Jay treaty of -1795, tiny settlements of families appeared on Lake Erie in the "Western -Reserve," a region that had been retained by Connecticut when she -surrendered her other rights in the Northwest. - -At the close of the century, Ohio, claiming a population of more than -50,000, grew discontented with its territorial status. Indeed, two years -before the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance, squatters in that -region had been invited by one John Emerson to hold a convention after -the fashion of the men of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield in old -Connecticut and draft a frame of government for themselves. This true -son of New England declared that men "have an undoubted right to pass -into every vacant country and there to form their constitution and that -from the confederation of the whole United States Congress is not -empowered to forbid them." This grand convention was never held because -the heavy hand of the government fell upon the leaders; but the spirit -of John Emerson did not perish. In November, 1802, a convention chosen -by voters, assembled under the authority of Congress at Chillicothe, -drew up a constitution. It went into force after a popular ratification. -The roll of the convention bore such names as Abbot, Baldwin, Cutler, -Huntington, Putnam, and Sargent, and the list of counties from which -they came included Adams, Fairfield, Hamilton, Jefferson, Trumbull, and -Washington, showing that the new America in the West was peopled and led -by the old stock. In 1803 Ohio was admitted to the union. - -=Indiana and Illinois.=--As in the neighboring state, the frontier in -Indiana advanced northward from the Ohio, mainly under the leadership, -however, of settlers from the South--restless Kentuckians hoping for -better luck in a newer country and pioneers from the far frontiers of -Virginia and North Carolina. As soon as a tier of counties swinging -upward like the horns of the moon against Ohio on the east and in the -Wabash Valley on the west was fairly settled, a clamor went up for -statehood. Under the authority of an act of Congress in 1816 the -Indianians drafted a constitution and inaugurated their government at -Corydon. "The majority of the members of the convention," we are told by -a local historian, "were frontier farmers who had a general idea of what -they wanted and had sense enough to let their more erudite colleagues -put it into shape." - -Two years later, the pioneers of Illinois, also settled upward from the -Ohio, like Indiana, elected their delegates to draft a constitution. -Leadership in the convention, quite properly, was taken by a man born in -New York and reared in Tennessee; and the constitution as finally -drafted "was in its principal provisions a copy of the then existing -constitutions of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.... Many of the articles -are exact copies in wording although differently arranged and -numbered." - -=Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.=--Across the Mississippi to the -far south, clearing and planting had gone on with much bustle and -enterprise. The cotton and sugar lands of Louisiana, opened by French -and Spanish settlers, were widened in every direction by planters with -their armies of slaves from the older states. New Orleans, a good market -and a center of culture not despised even by the pioneer, grew apace. In -1810 the population of lower Louisiana was over 75,000. The time had -come, said the leaders of the people, to fulfill the promise made to -France in the treaty of cession; namely, to grant to the inhabitants of -the territory statehood and the rights of American citizens. Federalists -from New England still having a voice in Congress, if somewhat weaker, -still protested in tones of horror. "I am compelled to declare it as my -deliberate opinion," pronounced Josiah Quincy in the House of -Representatives, "that if this bill [to admit Louisiana] passes, the -bonds of this Union are virtually dissolved ... that as it will be the -right of all, so it will be the duty of some [states] to prepare -definitely for a separation; amicably if they can, violently if they -must.... It is a death blow to the Constitution. It may afterwards -linger; but lingering, its fate will, at no very distant period, be -consummated." Federalists from New York like those from New England had -their doubts about the wisdom of admitting Western states; but the party -of Jefferson and Madison, having the necessary majority, granted the -coveted statehood to Louisiana in 1812. - -When, a few years later, Mississippi and Alabama knocked at the doors of -the union, the Federalists had so little influence, on account of their -conduct during the second war with England, that spokesmen from the -Southwest met a kindlier reception at Washington. Mississippi, in 1817, -and Alabama, in 1819, took their places among the United States of -America. Both of them, while granting white manhood suffrage, gave their -constitutions the tone of the old East by providing landed -qualifications for the governor and members of the legislature. - -=Missouri.=--Far to the north in the Louisiana purchase, a new -commonwealth was rising to power. It was peopled by immigrants who came -down the Ohio in fleets of boats or crossed the Mississippi from -Kentucky and Tennessee. Thrifty Germans from Pennsylvania, hardy farmers -from Virginia ready to work with their own hands, freemen seeking -freemen's homes, planters with their slaves moving on from worn-out -fields on the seaboard, came together in the widening settlements of the -Missouri country. Peoples from the North and South flowed together, -small farmers and big planters mingling in one community. When their -numbers had reached sixty thousand or more, they precipitated a contest -over their admission to the union, "ringing an alarm bell in the night," -as Jefferson phrased it. The favorite expedient of compromise with -slavery was brought forth in Congress once more. Maine consequently was -brought into the union without slavery and Missouri with slavery. At the -same time there was drawn westward through the rest of the Louisiana -territory a line separating servitude from slavery. - - -THE SPIRIT OF THE FRONTIER - -=Land Tenure and Liberty.=--Over an immense western area there developed -an unbroken system of freehold farms. In the Gulf states and the lower -Mississippi Valley, it is true, the planter with his many slaves even -led in the pioneer movement; but through large sections of Tennessee and -Kentucky, as well as upper Georgia and Alabama, and all throughout the -Northwest territory the small farmer reigned supreme. In this immense -dominion there sprang up a civilization without caste or class--a body -of people all having about the same amount of this world's goods and -deriving their livelihood from one source: the labor of their own hands -on the soil. The Northwest territory alone almost equaled in area all -the original thirteen states combined, except Georgia, and its system of -agricultural economy was unbroken by plantations and feudal estates. "In -the subdivision of the soil and the great equality of condition," as -Webster said on more than one occasion, "lay the true basis, most -certainly, of popular government." There was the undoubted source of -Jacksonian democracy. - -[Illustration: A LOG CABIN--LINCOLN'S BIRTHPLACE] - -=The Characteristics of the Western People.=--Travelers into the -Northwest during the early years of the nineteenth century were agreed -that the people of that region were almost uniformly marked by the -characteristics common to an independent yeomanry. A close observer thus -recorded his impressions: "A spirit of adventurous enterprise, a -willingness to go through any hardship to accomplish an object.... -Independence of thought and action. They have felt the influence of -these principles from their childhood. Men who can endure anything; that -have lived almost without restraint, free as the mountain air or as the -deer and the buffalo of their forests, and who know they are Americans -all.... An apparent roughness which some would deem rudeness of -manner.... Where there is perfect equality in a neighborhood of people -who know little about each other's previous history or ancestry but -where each is lord of the soil he cultivates. Where a log cabin is all -that the best of families can expect to have for years and of course can -possess few of the external decorations which have so much influence in -creating a diversity of rank in society. These circumstances have laid -the foundation for that equality of intercourse, simplicity of manners, -want of deference, want of reserve, great readiness to make -acquaintances, freedom of speech, indisposition to brook real or -imaginary insults which one witnesses among people of the West." - -This equality, this independence, this rudeness so often described by -the traveler as marking a new country, were all accentuated by the -character of the settlers themselves. Traces of the fierce, unsociable, -eagle-eyed, hard-drinking hunter remained. The settlers who followed the -hunter were, with some exceptions, soldiers of the Revolutionary army, -farmers of the "middling order," and mechanics from the towns,--English, -Scotch-Irish, Germans,--poor in possessions and thrown upon the labor of -their own hands for support. Sons and daughters from well-to-do Eastern -homes sometimes brought softer manners; but the equality of life and the -leveling force of labor in forest and field soon made them one in spirit -with their struggling neighbors. Even the preachers and teachers, who -came when the cabins were raised in the clearings and rude churches and -schoolhouses were built, preached sermons and taught lessons that -savored of the frontier, as any one may know who reads Peter -Cartwright's _A Muscular Christian_ or Eggleston's _The Hoosier -Schoolmaster_. - - -THE WEST AND THE EAST MEET - -=The East Alarmed.=--A people so independent as the Westerners and so -attached to local self-government gave the conservative East many a rude -shock, setting gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches agog with -the idea that terrible things might happen in the Mississippi Valley. -Not without good grounds did Washington fear that "a touch of a feather -would turn" the Western settlers away from the seaboard to the -Spaniards; and seriously did he urge the East not to neglect them, lest -they be "drawn into the arms of, or be dependent upon foreigners." -Taking advantage of the restless spirit in the Southwest, Aaron Burr, -having disgraced himself by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, laid -wild plans, if not to bring about a secession in that region, at least -to build a state of some kind out of the Spanish dominions adjoining -Louisiana. Frightened at such enterprises and fearing the dominance of -the West, the Federalists, with a few conspicuous exceptions, opposed -equality between the sections. Had their narrow views prevailed, the -West, with its new democracy, would have been held in perpetual tutelage -to the seaboard or perhaps been driven into independence as the thirteen -colonies had been not long before. - -=Eastern Friends of the West.=--Fortunately for the nation, there were -many Eastern leaders, particularly from the South, who understood the -West, approved its spirit, and sought to bring the two sections together -by common bonds. Washington kept alive and keen the zeal for Western -advancement which he acquired in his youth as a surveyor. He never grew -tired of urging upon his Eastern friends the importance of the lands -beyond the mountains. He pressed upon the governor of Virginia a project -for a wagon road connecting the seaboard with the Ohio country and was -active in a movement to improve the navigation of the Potomac. He -advocated strengthening the ties of commerce. "Smooth the roads," he -said, "and make easy the way for them, and then see what an influx of -articles will be poured upon us; how amazingly our exports will be -increased by them; and how amply we shall be compensated for any trouble -and expense we may encounter to effect it." Jefferson, too, was -interested in every phase of Western development--the survey of lands, -the exploration of waterways, the opening of trade, and even the -discovery of the bones of prehistoric animals. Robert Fulton, the -inventor of the steamboat, was another man of vision who for many years -pressed upon his countrymen the necessity of uniting East and West by a -canal which would cement the union, raise the value of the public lands, -and extend the principles of confederate and republican government. - -=The Difficulties of Early Transportation.=--Means of communication -played an important part in the strategy of all those who sought to -bring together the seaboard and the frontier. The produce of the -West--wheat, corn, bacon, hemp, cattle, and tobacco--was bulky and the -cost of overland transportation was prohibitive. In the Eastern market, -"a cow and her calf were given for a bushel of salt, while a suit of -'store clothes' cost as much as a farm." In such circumstances, the -inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley were forced to ship their produce -over a long route by way of New Orleans and to pay high freight rates -for everything that was brought across the mountains. Scows of from five -to fifty tons were built at the towns along the rivers and piloted down -the stream to the Crescent City. In a few cases small ocean-going -vessels were built to transport goods to the West Indies or to the -Eastern coast towns. Salt, iron, guns, powder, and the absolute -essentials which the pioneers had to buy mainly in Eastern markets were -carried over narrow wagon trails that were almost impassable in the -rainy season. - -=The National Road.=--To far-sighted men, like Albert Gallatin, "the -father of internal improvements," the solution of this problem was the -construction of roads and canals. Early in Jefferson's administration, -Congress dedicated a part of the proceeds from the sale of lands to -building highways from the headwaters of the navigable waters emptying -into the Atlantic to the Ohio River and beyond into the Northwest -territory. In 1806, after many misgivings, it authorized a great -national highway binding the East and the West. The Cumberland Road, as -it was called, began in northwestern Maryland, wound through southern -Pennsylvania, crossed the narrow neck of Virginia at Wheeling, and then -shot almost straight across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, into Missouri. -By 1817, stagecoaches were running between Washington and Wheeling; by -1833 contractors had carried their work to Columbus, Ohio, and by 1852, -to Vandalia, Illinois. Over this ballasted road mail and passenger -coaches could go at high speed, and heavy freight wagons proceed in -safety at a steady pace. - -[Illustration: THE CUMBERLAND ROAD] - -=Canals and Steamboats.=--A second epoch in the economic union of the -East and West was reached with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, -offering an all-water route from New York City to the Great Lakes and -the Mississippi Valley. Pennsylvania, alarmed by the advantages -conferred on New York by this enterprise, began her system of canals and -portages from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, completing the last link in -1834. In the South, the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, chartered in 1825, -was busy with a project to connect Georgetown and Cumberland when -railways broke in upon the undertaking before it was half finished. -About the same time, Ohio built a canal across the state, affording -water communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio River through a rich -wheat belt. Passengers could now travel by canal boat into the West with -comparative ease and comfort, if not at a rapid speed, and the bulkiest -of freight could be easily handled. Moreover, the rate charged for -carrying goods was cut by the Erie Canal from $32 a ton per hundred -miles to $1. New Orleans was destined to lose her primacy in the -Mississippi Valley. - -The diversion of traffic to Eastern markets was also stimulated by -steamboats which appeared on the Ohio about 1810, three years after -Fulton had made his famous trip on the Hudson. It took twenty men to -sail and row a five-ton scow up the river at a speed of from ten to -twenty miles a day. In 1825, Timothy Flint traveled a hundred miles a -day on the new steamer _Grecian_ "against the whole weight of the -Mississippi current." Three years later the round trip from Louisville -to New Orleans was cut to eight days. Heavy produce that once had to -float down to New Orleans could be carried upstream and sent to the East -by way of the canal systems. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -AN EARLY MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT] - -Thus the far country was brought near. The timid no longer hesitated at -the thought of the perilous journey. All routes were crowded with -Western immigrants. The forests fell before the ax like grain before the -sickle. Clearings scattered through the woods spread out into a great -mosaic of farms stretching from the Southern Appalachians to Lake -Michigan. The national census of 1830 gave 937,000 inhabitants to Ohio; -343,000 to Indiana; 157,000 to Illinois; 687,000 to Kentucky; and -681,000 to Tennessee. - -[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1830] - -With the increase in population and the growth of agriculture came -political influence. People who had once petitioned Congress now sent -their own representatives. Men who had hitherto accepted without -protests Presidents from the seaboard expressed a new spirit of dissent -in 1824 by giving only three electoral votes for John Quincy Adams; and -four years later they sent a son of the soil from Tennessee, Andrew -Jackson, to take Washington's chair as chief executive of the -nation--the first of a long line of Presidents from the Mississippi -basin. - - -=References= - -W.G. Brown, _The Lower South in American History_. - -B.A. Hinsdale, _The Old North West_ (2 vols.). - -A.B. Hulbert, _Great American Canals_ and _The Cumberland Road_. - -T. Roosevelt, _Thomas H. Benton_. - -P.J. Treat, _The National Land System_ (1785-1820). - -F.J. Turner, _Rise of the New West_ (American Nation Series). - -J. Winsor, _The Westward Movement_. - - -=Questions= - -1. How did the West come to play a role in the Revolution? - -2. What preparations were necessary to settlement? - -3. Give the principal provisions of the Northwest Ordinance. - -4. Explain how freehold land tenure happened to predominate in the West. - -5. Who were the early settlers in the West? What routes did they take? -How did they travel? - -6. Explain the Eastern opposition to the admission of new Western -states. Show how it was overcome. - -7. Trace a connection between the economic system of the West and the -spirit of the people. - -8. Who were among the early friends of Western development? - -9. Describe the difficulties of trade between the East and the West. - -10. Show how trade was promoted. - - -=Research Topics= - -=Northwest Ordinance.=--Analysis of text in Macdonald, _Documentary -Source Book_. Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_, Vol. V, pp. 5-57. - -=The West before the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vol. I. - -=The West during the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vols. II and III. - -=Tennessee.=--Roosevelt, Vol. V, pp. 95-119 and Vol. VI, pp. 9-87. - -=The Cumberland Road.=--A.B. Hulbert, _The Cumberland Road_. - -=Early Life in the Middle West.=--Callender, _Economic History of the -United States_, pp. 617-633; 636-641. - -=Slavery in the Southwest.=--Callender, pp. 641-652. - -=Early Land Policy.=--Callender, pp. 668-680. - -=Westward Movement of Peoples.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 7-39. - -Lists of books dealing with the early history of Western states are -given in Hart, Channing, and Turner, _Guide to the Study and Reading of -American History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 62-89. - -=Kentucky.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 176-263. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY - - -The New England Federalists, at the Hartford convention, prophesied that -in time the West would dominate the East. "At the adoption of the -Constitution," they said, "a certain balance of power among the original -states was considered to exist, and there was at that time and yet is -among those parties a strong affinity between their great and general -interests. By the admission of these [new] states that balance has been -materially affected and unless the practice be modified must ultimately -be destroyed. The Southern states will first avail themselves of their -new confederates to govern the East, and finally the Western states, -multiplied in number, and augmented in population, will control the -interests of the whole." Strangely enough the fulfillment of this -prophecy was being prepared even in Federalist strongholds by the rise -of a new urban democracy that was to make common cause with the farmers -beyond the mountains. - - -THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN THE EAST - -=The Aristocratic Features of the Old Order.=--The Revolutionary -fathers, in setting up their first state constitutions, although they -often spoke of government as founded on the consent of the governed, did -not think that consistency required giving the vote to all adult males. -On the contrary they looked upon property owners as the only safe -"depositary" of political power. They went back to the colonial -tradition that related taxation and representation. This, they argued, -was not only just but a safeguard against the "excesses of democracy." - -In carrying their theory into execution they placed taxpaying or -property qualifications on the right to vote. Broadly speaking, these -limitations fell into three classes. Three states, Pennsylvania (1776), -New Hampshire (1784), and Georgia (1798), gave the ballot to all who -paid taxes, without reference to the value of their property. Three, -Virginia, Delaware, and Rhode Island, clung firmly to the ancient -principles that only freeholders could be intrusted with electoral -rights. Still other states, while closely restricting the suffrage, -accepted the ownership of other things as well as land in fulfillment of -the requirements. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vote was granted -to all men who held land yielding an annual income of three pounds or -possessed other property worth sixty pounds. - -The electors thus enfranchised, numerous as they were, owing to the wide -distribution of land, often suffered from a very onerous disability. In -many states they were able to vote only for persons of wealth because -heavy property qualifications were imposed on public officers. In New -Hampshire, the governor had to be worth five hundred pounds, one-half in -land; in Massachusetts, one thousand pounds, all freehold; in Maryland, -five thousand pounds, one thousand of which was freehold; in North -Carolina, one thousand pounds freehold; and in South Carolina, ten -thousand pounds freehold. A state senator in Massachusetts had to be the -owner of a freehold worth three hundred pounds or personal property -worth six hundred pounds; in New Jersey, one thousand pounds' worth of -property; in North Carolina, three hundred acres of land; in South -Carolina, two thousand pounds freehold. For members of the lower house -of the legislature lower qualifications were required. - -In most of the states the suffrage or office holding or both were -further restricted by religious provisions. No single sect was powerful -enough to dominate after the Revolution, but, for the most part, -Catholics and Jews were either disfranchised or excluded from office. -North Carolina and Georgia denied the ballot to any one who was not a -Protestant. Delaware withheld it from all who did not believe in the -Trinity and the inspiration of the Scriptures. Massachusetts and -Maryland limited it to Christians. Virginia and New York, advanced for -their day, made no discrimination in government on account of religious -opinion. - -=The Defense of the Old Order.=--It must not be supposed that property -qualifications were thoughtlessly imposed at the outset or considered of -little consequence in practice. In the beginning they were viewed as -fundamental. As towns grew in size and the number of landless citizens -increased, the restrictions were defended with even more vigor. In -Massachusetts, the great Webster upheld the rights of property in -government, saying: "It is entirely just that property should have its -due weight and consideration in political arrangements.... The -disastrous revolutions which the world has witnessed, those political -thunderstorms and earthquakes which have shaken the pillars of society -to their deepest foundations, have been revolutions against property." -In Pennsylvania, a leader in local affairs cried out against a plan to -remove the taxpaying limitation on the suffrage: "What does the delegate -propose? To place the vicious vagrant, the wandering Arabs, the Tartar -hordes of our large cities on the level with the virtuous and good man?" -In Virginia, Jefferson himself had first believed in property -qualifications and had feared with genuine alarm the "mobs of the great -cities." It was near the end of the eighteenth century before he -accepted the idea of manhood suffrage. Even then he was unable to -convince the constitution-makers of his own state. "It is not an idle -chimera of the brain," urged one of them, "that the possession of land -furnishes the strongest evidence of permanent, common interest with, and -attachment to, the community.... It is upon this foundation I wish to -place the right of suffrage. This is the best general standard which can -be resorted to for the purpose of determining whether the persons to be -invested with the right of suffrage are such persons as could be, -consistently with the safety and well-being of the community, intrusted -with the exercise of that right." - -=Attacks on the Restricted Suffrage.=--The changing circumstances of -American life, however, soon challenged the rule of those with property. -Prominent among the new forces were the rising mercantile and business -interests. Where the freehold qualification was applied, business men -who did not own land were deprived of the vote and excluded from office. -In New York, for example, the most illiterate farmer who had one hundred -pounds' worth of land could vote for state senator and governor, while -the landless banker or merchant could not. It is not surprising, -therefore, to find business men taking the lead in breaking down -freehold limitations on the suffrage. The professional classes also were -interested in removing the barriers which excluded many of them from -public affairs. It was a schoolmaster, Thomas Dorr, who led the popular -uprising in Rhode Island which brought the exclusive rule by freeholders -to an end. - -In addition to the business and professional classes, the mechanics of -the towns showed a growing hostility to a system of government that -generally barred them from voting or holding office. Though not -numerous, they had early begun to exercise an influence on the course of -public affairs. They had led the riots against the Stamp Act, overturned -King George's statue, and "crammed stamps down the throats of -collectors." When the state constitutions were framed they took a lively -interest, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia. In June, 1776, -the "mechanicks in union" in New York protested against putting the new -state constitution into effect without their approval, declaring that -the right to vote on the acceptance or rejection of a fundamental law -"is the birthright of every man to whatever state he may belong." Though -their petition was rejected, their spirit remained. When, a few years -later, the federal Constitution was being framed, the mechanics watched -the process with deep concern; they knew that one of its main objects -was to promote trade and commerce, affecting directly their daily bread. -During the struggle over ratification, they passed resolutions approving -its provisions and they often joined in parades organized to stir up -sentiment for the Constitution, even though they could not vote for -members of the state conventions and so express their will directly. -After the organization of trade unions they collided with the courts of -law and thus became interested in the election of judges and lawmakers. - -Those who attacked the old system of class rule found a strong moral -support in the Declaration of Independence. Was it not said that all men -are created equal? Whoever runs may read. Was it not declared that -governments derive their just power from the consent of the governed? -That doctrine was applied with effect to George III and seemed -appropriate for use against the privileged classes of Massachusetts or -Virginia. "How do the principles thus proclaimed," asked the -non-freeholders of Richmond, in petitioning for the ballot, "accord with -the existing regulation of the suffrage? A regulation which, instead of -the equality nature ordains, creates an odious distinction between -members of the same community ... and vests in a favored class, not in -consideration of their public services but of their private possessions, -the highest of all privileges." - -=Abolition of Property Qualifications.=--By many minor victories rather -than by any spectacular triumphs did the advocates of manhood suffrage -carry the day. Slight gains were made even during the Revolution or -shortly afterward. In Pennsylvania, the mechanics, by taking an active -part in the contest over the Constitution of 1776, were able to force -the qualification down to the payment of a small tax. Vermont came into -the union in 1792 without any property restrictions. In the same year -Delaware gave the vote to all men who paid taxes. Maryland, reckoned one -of the most conservative of states, embarked on the experiment of -manhood suffrage in 1809; and nine years later, Connecticut, equally -conservative, decided that all taxpayers were worthy of the ballot. - -Five states, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Rhode Island, and North -Carolina, remained obdurate while these changes were going on around -them; finally they had to yield themselves. The last struggle in -Massachusetts took place in the constitutional convention of 1820. There -Webster, in the prime of his manhood, and John Adams, in the closing -years of his old age, alike protested against such radical innovations -as manhood suffrage. Their protests were futile. The property test was -abolished and a small tax-paying qualification was substituted. New York -surrendered the next year and, after trying some minor restrictions for -five years, went completely over to white manhood suffrage in 1826. -Rhode Island clung to her freehold qualification through thirty years of -agitation. Then Dorr's Rebellion, almost culminating in bloodshed, -brought about a reform in 1843 which introduced a slight tax-paying -qualification as an alternative to the freehold. Virginia and North -Carolina were still unconvinced. The former refused to abandon ownership -of land as the test for political rights until 1850 and the latter until -1856. Although religious discriminations and property qualifications for -office holders were sometimes retained after the establishment of -manhood suffrage, they were usually abolished along with the monopoly of -government enjoyed by property owners and taxpayers. - -[Illustration: THOMAS DORR AROUSING HIS FOLLOWERS] - -At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the white -male industrial workers and the mechanics of the Northern cities, at -least, could lay aside the petition for the ballot and enjoy with the -free farmer a voice in the government of their common country. -"Universal democracy," sighed Carlyle, who was widely read in the United -States, "whatever we may think of it has declared itself the inevitable -fact of the days in which we live; and he who has any chance to instruct -or lead in these days must begin by admitting that ... Where no -government is wanted, save that of the parish constable, as in America -with its boundless soil, every man being able to find work and -recompense for himself, democracy may subsist; not elsewhere." Amid the -grave misgivings of the first generation of statesmen, America was -committed to the great adventure, in the populous towns of the East as -well as in the forests and fields of the West. - - -THE NEW DEMOCRACY ENTERS THE ARENA - -The spirit of the new order soon had a pronounced effect on the -machinery of government and the practice of politics. The enfranchised -electors were not long in demanding for themselves a larger share in -administration. - -=The Spoils System and Rotation in Office.=--First of all they wanted -office for themselves, regardless of their fitness. They therefore -extended the system of rewarding party workers with government -positions--a system early established in several states, notably New -York and Pennsylvania. Closely connected with it was the practice of -fixing short terms for officers and making frequent changes in -personnel. "Long continuance in office," explained a champion of this -idea in Pennsylvania in 1837, "unfits a man for the discharge of its -duties, by rendering him arbitrary and aristocratic, and tends to beget, -first life office, and then hereditary office, which leads to the -destruction of free government." The solution offered was the historic -doctrine of "rotation in office." At the same time the principle of -popular election was extended to an increasing number of officials who -had once been appointed either by the governor or the legislature. Even -geologists, veterinarians, surveyors, and other technical officers were -declared elective on the theory that their appointment "smacked of -monarchy." - -=Popular Election of Presidential Electors.=--In a short time the spirit -of democracy, while playing havoc with the old order in state -government, made its way upward into the federal system. The framers of -the Constitution, bewildered by many proposals and unable to agree on -any single plan, had committed the choice of presidential electors to -the discretion of the state legislatures. The legislatures, in turn, -greedy of power, early adopted the practice of choosing the electors -themselves; but they did not enjoy it long undisturbed. Democracy, -thundering at their doors, demanded that they surrender the privilege to -the people. Reluctantly they yielded, sometimes granting popular -election and then withdrawing it. The drift was inevitable, and the -climax came with the advent of Jacksonian democracy. In 1824, Vermont, -New York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, though some -had experimented with popular election, still left the choice of -electors with the legislature. Eight years later South Carolina alone -held to the old practice. Popular election had become the final word. -The fanciful idea of an electoral college of "good and wise men," -selected without passion or partisanship by state legislatures acting as -deliberative bodies, was exploded for all time; the election of the -nation's chief magistrate was committed to the tempestuous methods of -democracy. - -=The Nominating Convention.=--As the suffrage was widened and the -popular choice of presidential electors extended, there arose a violent -protest against the methods used by the political parties in nominating -candidates. After the retirement of Washington, both the Republicans and -the Federalists found it necessary to agree upon their favorites before -the election, and they adopted a colonial device--the pre-election -caucus. The Federalist members of Congress held a conference and -selected their candidate, and the Republicans followed the example. In -a short time the practice of nominating by a "congressional caucus" -became a recognized institution. The election still remained with the -people; but the power of picking candidates for their approval passed -into the hands of a small body of Senators and Representatives. - -A reaction against this was unavoidable. To friends of "the plain -people," like Andrew Jackson, it was intolerable, all the more so -because the caucus never favored him with the nomination. More -conservative men also found grave objections to it. They pointed out -that, whereas the Constitution intended the President to be an -independent officer, he had now fallen under the control of a caucus of -congressmen. The supremacy of the legislative branch had been obtained -by an extra-legal political device. To such objections were added -practical considerations. In 1824, when personal rivalry had taken the -place of party conflicts, the congressional caucus selected as the -candidate, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, a man of distinction but no -great popularity, passing by such an obvious hero as General Jackson. -The followers of the General were enraged and demanded nothing short of -the death of "King Caucus." Their clamor was effective. Under their -attacks, the caucus came to an ignominious end. - -In place of it there arose in 1831 a new device, the national nominating -convention, composed of delegates elected by party voters for the sole -purpose of nominating candidates. Senators and Representatives were -still prominent in the party councils, but they were swamped by hundreds -of delegates "fresh from the people," as Jackson was wont to say. In -fact, each convention was made up mainly of office holders and office -seekers, and the new institution was soon denounced as vigorously as -King Caucus had been, particularly by statesmen who failed to obtain a -nomination. Still it grew in strength and by 1840 was firmly -established. - -=The End of the Old Generation.=--In the election of 1824, the -representatives of the "aristocracy" made their last successful stand. -Until then the leadership by men of "wealth and talents" had been -undisputed. There had been five Presidents--Washington, John Adams, -Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe--all Eastern men brought up in prosperous -families with the advantages of culture which come from leisure and the -possession of life's refinements. None of them had ever been compelled -to work with his hands for a livelihood. Four of them had been -slaveholders. Jefferson was a philosopher, learned in natural science, a -master of foreign languages, a gentleman of dignity and grace of manner, -notwithstanding his studied simplicity. Madison, it was said, was armed -"with all the culture of his century." Monroe was a graduate of William -and Mary, a gentleman of the old school. Jefferson and his three -successors called themselves Republicans and professed a genuine faith -in the people but they were not "of the people" themselves; they were -not sons of the soil or the workshop. They were all men of "the grand -old order of society" who gave finish and style even to popular -government. - -Monroe was the last of the Presidents belonging to the heroic epoch of -the Revolution. He had served in the war for independence, in the -Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and in official capacity -after the adoption of the Constitution. In short, he was of the age that -had wrought American independence and set the government afloat. With -his passing, leadership went to a new generation; but his successor, -John Quincy Adams, formed a bridge between the old and the new in that -he combined a high degree of culture with democratic sympathies. -Washington had died in 1799, preceded but a few months by Patrick Henry -and followed in four years by Samuel Adams. Hamilton had been killed in -a duel with Burr in 1804. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were yet alive -in 1824 but they were soon to pass from the scene, reconciled at last, -full of years and honors. Madison was in dignified retirement, destined -to live long enough to protest against the doctrine of nullification -proclaimed by South Carolina before death carried him away at the ripe -old age of eighty-five. - -=The Election of John Quincy Adams (1824).=--The campaign of 1824 marked -the end of the "era of good feeling" inaugurated by the collapse of the -Federalist party after the election of 1816. There were four leading -candidates, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and W.H. -Crawford. The result of the election was a division of the electoral -votes into four parts and no one received a majority. Under the -Constitution, therefore, the selection of President passed to the House -of Representatives. Clay, who stood at the bottom of the poll, threw his -weight to Adams and assured his triumph, much to the chagrin of -Jackson's friends. They thought, with a certain justification, that -inasmuch as the hero of New Orleans had received the largest electoral -vote, the House was morally bound to accept the popular judgment and -make him President. Jackson shook hands cordially with Adams on the day -of the inauguration, but never forgave him for being elected. - -While Adams called himself a Republican in politics and often spoke of -"the rule of the people," he was regarded by Jackson's followers as "an -aristocrat." He was not a son of the soil. Neither was he acquainted at -first hand with the labor of farmers and mechanics. He had been educated -at Harvard and in Europe. Like his illustrious father, John Adams, he -was a stern and reserved man, little given to seeking popularity. -Moreover, he was from the East and the frontiersmen of the West regarded -him as a man "born with a silver spoon in his mouth." Jackson's -supporters especially disliked him because they thought their hero -entitled to the presidency. Their anger was deepened when Adams -appointed Clay to the office of Secretary of State; and they set up a -cry that there had been a "deal" by which Clay had helped to elect Adams -to get office for himself. - -Though Adams conducted his administration with great dignity and in a -fine spirit of public service, he was unable to overcome the opposition -which he encountered on his election to office or to win popularity in -the West and South. On the contrary, by advocating government assistance -in building roads and canals and public grants in aid of education, -arts, and sciences, he ran counter to the current which had set in -against appropriations of federal funds for internal improvements. By -signing the Tariff Bill of 1828, soon known as the "Tariff of -Abominations," he made new enemies without adding to his friends in New -York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio where he sorely needed them. Handicapped by -the false charge that he had been a party to a "corrupt bargain" with -Clay to secure his first election; attacked for his advocacy of a high -protective tariff; charged with favoring an "aristocracy of -office-holders" in Washington on account of his refusal to discharge -government clerks by the wholesale, Adams was retired from the White -House after he had served four years. - -=The Triumph of Jackson in 1828.=--Probably no candidate for the -presidency ever had such passionate popular support as Andrew Jackson -had in 1828. He was truly a man of the people. Born of poor parents in -the upland region of South Carolina, schooled in poverty and adversity, -without the advantages of education or the refinements of cultivated -leisure, he seemed the embodiment of the spirit of the new American -democracy. Early in his youth he had gone into the frontier of Tennessee -where he soon won a name as a fearless and intrepid Indian fighter. On -the march and in camp, he endeared himself to his men by sharing their -hardships, sleeping on the ground with them, and eating parched corn -when nothing better could be found for the privates. From local -prominence he sprang into national fame by his exploit at the battle of -New Orleans. His reputation as a military hero was enhanced by the -feeling that he had been a martyr to political treachery in 1824. The -farmers of the West and South claimed him as their own. The mechanics of -the Eastern cities, newly enfranchised, also looked upon him as their -friend. Though his views on the tariff, internal improvements, and other -issues before the country were either vague or unknown, he was readily -elected President. - -The returns of the electoral vote in 1828 revealed the sources of -Jackson's power. In New England, he received but one ballot, from -Maine; he had a majority of the electors in New York and all of them in -Pennsylvania; and he carried every state south of Maryland and beyond -the Appalachians. Adams did not get a single electoral vote in the South -and West. The prophecy of the Hartford convention had been fulfilled. - -[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON] - -When Jackson took the oath of office on March 4, 1829, the government of -the United States entered into a new era. Until this time the -inauguration of a President--even that of Jefferson, the apostle of -simplicity--had brought no rude shock to the course of affairs at the -capital. Hitherto the installation of a President meant that an -old-fashioned gentleman, accompanied by a few servants, had driven to -the White House in his own coach, taken the oath with quiet dignity, -appointed a few new men to the higher posts, continued in office the -long list of regular civil employees, and begun his administration with -respectable decorum. Jackson changed all this. When he was inaugurated, -men and women journeyed hundreds of miles to witness the ceremony. Great -throngs pressed into the White House, "upset the bowls of punch, broke -the glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the satin-covered -chairs to see the people's President." If Jefferson's inauguration was, -as he called it, the "great revolution," Jackson's inauguration was a -cataclysm. - - -THE NEW DEMOCRACY AT WASHINGTON - -=The Spoils System.=--The staid and respectable society of Washington -was disturbed by this influx of farmers and frontiersmen. To speak of -politics became "bad form" among fashionable women. The clerks and -civil servants of the government who had enjoyed long and secure tenure -of office became alarmed at the clamor of new men for their positions. -Doubtless the major portion of them had opposed the election of Jackson -and looked with feelings akin to contempt upon him and his followers. -With a hunter's instinct, Jackson scented his prey. Determined to have -none but his friends in office, he made a clean sweep, expelling old -employees to make room for men "fresh from the people." This was a new -custom. Other Presidents had discharged a few officers for engaging in -opposition politics. They had been careful in making appointments not to -choose inveterate enemies; but they discharged relatively few men on -account of their political views and partisan activities. - -By wholesale removals and the frank selection of officers on party -grounds--a practice already well intrenched in New York--Jackson -established the "spoils system" at Washington. The famous slogan, "to -the victor belong the spoils of victory," became the avowed principle of -the national government. Statesmen like Calhoun denounced it; poets like -James Russell Lowell ridiculed it; faithful servants of the government -suffered under it; but it held undisturbed sway for half a century -thereafter, each succeeding generation outdoing, if possible, its -predecessor in the use of public office for political purposes. If any -one remarked that training and experience were necessary qualifications -for important public positions, he met Jackson's own profession of -faith: "The duties of any public office are so simple or admit of being -made so simple that any man can in a short time become master of them." - -=The Tariff and Nullification.=--Jackson had not been installed in power -very long before he was compelled to choose between states' rights and -nationalism. The immediate occasion of the trouble was the tariff--a -matter on which Jackson did not have any very decided views. His mind -did not run naturally to abstruse economic questions; and owing to the -divided opinion of the country it was "good politics" to be vague and -ambiguous in the controversy. Especially was this true, because the -tariff issue was threatening to split the country into parties again. - -_The Development of the Policy of "Protection."_--The war of 1812 and -the commercial policies of England which followed it had accentuated the -need for American economic independence. During that conflict, the -United States, cut off from English manufactures as during the -Revolution, built up home industries to meet the unusual call for iron, -steel, cloth, and other military and naval supplies as well as the -demands from ordinary markets. Iron foundries and textile mills sprang -up as in the night; hundreds of business men invested fortunes in -industrial enterprises so essential to the military needs of the -government; and the people at large fell into the habit of buying -American-made goods again. As the London _Times_ tersely observed of the -Americans, "their first war with England made them independent; their -second war made them formidable." - -In recognition of this state of affairs, the tariff of 1816 was -designed: _first_, to prevent England from ruining these "infant -industries" by dumping the accumulated stores of years suddenly upon -American markets; and, _secondly_, to enlarge in the manufacturing -centers the demand for American agricultural produce. It accomplished -the purposes of its framers. It kept in operation the mills and furnaces -so recently built. It multiplied the number of industrial workers and -enhanced the demand for the produce of the soil. It brought about -another very important result. It turned the capital and enterprise of -New England from shipping to manufacturing, and converted her statesmen, -once friends of low tariffs, into ardent advocates of protection. - -In the early years of the nineteenth century, the Yankees had bent their -energies toward building and operating ships to carry produce from -America to Europe and manufactures from Europe to America. For this -reason, they had opposed the tariff of 1816 calculated to increase -domestic production and cut down the carrying trade. Defeated in their -efforts, they accepted the inevitable and turned to manufacturing. Soon -they were powerful friends of protection for American enterprise. As the -money invested and the labor employed in the favored industries -increased, the demand for continued and heavier protection grew apace. -Even the farmers who furnished raw materials, like wool, flax, and hemp, -began to see eye to eye with the manufacturers. So the textile interests -of New England, the iron masters of Connecticut, New Jersey, and -Pennsylvania, the wool, hemp, and flax growers of Ohio, Kentucky, and -Tennessee, and the sugar planters of Louisiana developed into a -formidable combination in support of a high protective tariff. - -_The Planting States Oppose the Tariff._--In the meantime, the cotton -states on the seaboard had forgotten about the havoc wrought during the -Napoleonic wars when their produce rotted because there were no ships to -carry it to Europe. The seas were now open. The area devoted to cotton -had swiftly expanded as Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were opened -up. Cotton had in fact become "king" and the planters depended for their -prosperity, as they thought, upon the sale of their staple to English -manufacturers whose spinning and weaving mills were the wonder of the -world. Manufacturing nothing and having to buy nearly everything except -farm produce and even much of that for slaves, the planters naturally -wanted to purchase manufactures in the cheapest market, England, where -they sold most of their cotton. The tariff, they contended, raised the -price of the goods they had to buy and was thus in fact a tribute laid -on them for the benefit of the Northern mill owners. - -_The Tariff of Abominations._--They were overborne, however, in 1824 and -again in 1828 when Northern manufacturers and Western farmers forced -Congress to make an upward revision of the tariff. The Act of 1828 known -as "the Tariff of Abominations," though slightly modified in 1832, was -"the straw which broke the camel's back." Southern leaders turned in -rage against the whole system. The legislatures of Virginia, North -Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama denounced it; a general -convention of delegates held at Augusta issued a protest of defiance -against it; and South Carolina, weary of verbal battles, decided to -prevent its enforcement. - -_South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff._--The legislature of that state, -on October 26, 1832, passed a bill calling for a state convention which -duly assembled in the following month. In no mood for compromise, it -adopted the famous Ordinance of Nullification after a few days' debate. -Every line of this document was clear and firm. The tariff, it opened, -gives "bounties to classes and individuals ... at the expense and to the -injury and oppression of other classes and individuals"; it is a -violation of the Constitution of the United States and therefore null -and void; its enforcement in South Carolina is unlawful; if the federal -government attempts to coerce the state into obeying the law, "the -people of this state will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all -further obligations to maintain or preserve their political connection -with the people of the other states and will forthwith proceed to -organize a separate government and do all other acts and things which -sovereign and independent states may of right do." - -_Southern States Condemn Nullification._--The answer of the country to -this note of defiance, couched in the language used in the Kentucky -resolutions and by the New England Federalists during the war of 1812, -was quick and positive. The legislatures of the Southern states, while -condemning the tariff, repudiated the step which South Carolina had -taken. Georgia responded: "We abhor the doctrine of nullification as -neither a peaceful nor a constitutional remedy." Alabama found it -"unsound in theory and dangerous in practice." North Carolina replied -that it was "revolutionary in character, subversive of the Constitution -of the United States." Mississippi answered: "It is disunion by -force--it is civil war." Virginia spoke more softly, condemning the -tariff and sustaining the principle of the Virginia resolutions but -denying that South Carolina could find in them any sanction for her -proceedings. - -_Jackson Firmly Upholds the Union._--The eyes of the country were turned -upon Andrew Jackson. It was known that he looked with no friendly -feelings upon nullification, for, at a Jefferson dinner in the spring of -1830 while the subject was in the air, he had with laconic firmness -announced a toast: "Our federal union; it must be preserved." When two -years later the open challenge came from South Carolina, he replied that -he would enforce the law, saying with his frontier directness: "If a -single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of -the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on -engaged in such conduct upon the first tree that I can reach." He made -ready to keep his word by preparing for the use of military and naval -forces in sustaining the authority of the federal government. Then in a -long and impassioned proclamation to the people of South Carolina he -pointed out the national character of the union, and announced his -solemn resolve to preserve it by all constitutional means. Nullification -he branded as "incompatible with the existence of the union, -contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized -by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was -founded, and destructive of the great objects for which it was formed." - -_A Compromise._--In his messages to Congress, however, Jackson spoke the -language of conciliation. A few days before issuing his proclamation he -suggested that protection should be limited to the articles of domestic -manufacture indispensable to safety in war time, and shortly afterward -he asked for new legislation to aid him in enforcing the laws. With two -propositions before it, one to remove the chief grounds for South -Carolina's resistance and the other to apply force if it was continued, -Congress bent its efforts to avoid a crisis. On February 12, 1833, -Henry Clay laid before the Senate a compromise tariff bill providing for -the gradual reduction of the duties until by 1842 they would reach the -level of the law which Calhoun had supported in 1816. About the same -time the "force bill," designed to give the President ample authority in -executing the law in South Carolina, was taken up. After a short but -acrimonious debate, both measures were passed and signed by President -Jackson on the same day, March 2. Looking upon the reduction of the -tariff as a complete vindication of her policy and an undoubted victory, -South Carolina rescinded her ordinance and enacted another nullifying -the force bill. - -[Illustration: _From an old print._ - -DANIEL WEBSTER] - -_The Webster-Hayne Debate._--Where the actual victory lay in this -quarrel, long the subject of high dispute, need not concern us to-day. -Perhaps the chief result of the whole affair was a clarification of the -issue between the North and the South--a definite statement of the -principles for which men on both sides were years afterward to lay down -their lives. On behalf of nationalism and a perpetual union, the stanch -old Democrat from Tennessee had, in his proclamation on nullification, -spoken a language that admitted of only one meaning. On behalf of -nullification, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, a skilled lawyer and -courtly orator, had in a great speech delivered in the Senate in -January, 1830, set forth clearly and cogently the doctrine that the -union is a compact among sovereign states from which the parties may -lawfully withdraw. It was this address that called into the arena -Daniel Webster, Senator from Massachusetts, who, spreading the mantle -of oblivion over the Hartford convention, delivered a reply to Hayne -that has been reckoned among the powerful orations of all time--a plea -for the supremacy of the Constitution and the national character of the -union. - -=The War on the United States Bank.=--If events forced the issue of -nationalism and nullification upon Jackson, the same could not be said -of his attack on the bank. That institution, once denounced by every -true Jeffersonian, had been reestablished in 1816 under the -administration of Jefferson's disciple, James Madison. It had not been -in operation very long, however, before it aroused bitter opposition, -especially in the South and the West. Its notes drove out of circulation -the paper currency of unsound banks chartered by the states, to the -great anger of local financiers. It was accused of favoritism in making -loans, of conferring special privileges upon politicians in return for -their support at Washington. To all Jackson's followers it was "an -insidious money power." One of them openly denounced it as an -institution designed "to strengthen the arm of wealth and counterpoise -the influence of extended suffrage in the disposition of public -affairs." - -This sentiment President Jackson fully shared. In his first message to -Congress he assailed the bank in vigorous language. He declared that its -constitutionality was in doubt and alleged that it had failed to -establish a sound and uniform currency. If such an institution was -necessary, he continued, it should be a public bank, owned and managed -by the government, not a private concern endowed with special privileges -by it. In his second and third messages, Jackson came back to the -subject, leaving the decision, however, to "an enlightened people and -their representatives." - -Moved by this frank hostility and anxious for the future, the bank -applied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1832, four years -before the expiration of its life. Clay, with his eye upon the -presidency and an issue for the campaign, warmly supported the -application. Congress, deeply impressed by his leadership, passed the -bill granting the new charter, and sent the open defiance to Jackson. -His response was an instant veto. The battle was on and it raged with -fury until the close of his second administration, ending in the -destruction of the bank, a disordered currency, and a national panic. - -In his veto message, Jackson attacked the bank as unconstitutional and -even hinted at corruption. He refused to assent to the proposition that -the Supreme Court had settled the question of constitutionality by the -decision in the McCulloch case. "Each public officer," he argued, "who -takes an oath to support the Constitution, swears that he will support -it as he understands it, not as it is understood by others." - -Not satisfied with his veto and his declaration against the bank, -Jackson ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the government -deposits which formed a large part of the institution's funds. This -action he followed up by an open charge that the bank had used money -shamefully to secure the return of its supporters to Congress. The -Senate, stung by this charge, solemnly resolved that Jackson had -"assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the -Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both." - -The effects of the destruction of the bank were widespread. When its -charter expired in 1836, banking was once more committed to the control -of the states. The state legislatures, under a decision rendered by the -Supreme Court after the death of Marshall, began to charter banks under -state ownership and control, with full power to issue paper money--this -in spite of the provision in the Constitution that states shall not -issue bills of credit or make anything but gold and silver coin legal -tender in the payment of debts. Once more the country was flooded by -paper currency of uncertain value. To make matters worse, Jackson -adopted the practice of depositing huge amounts of government funds in -these banks, not forgetting to render favors to those institutions which -supported him in politics--"pet banks," as they were styled at the -time. In 1837, partially, though by no means entirely, as a result of -the abolition of the bank, the country was plunged into one of the most -disastrous panics which it ever experienced. - -=Internal Improvements Checked.=--The bank had presented to Jackson a -very clear problem--one of destruction. Other questions were not so -simple, particularly the subject of federal appropriations in aid of -roads and other internal improvements. Jefferson had strongly favored -government assistance in such matters, but his administration was -followed by a reaction. Both Madison and Monroe vetoed acts of Congress -appropriating public funds for public roads, advancing as their reason -the argument that the Constitution authorized no such laws. Jackson, -puzzled by the clamor on both sides, followed their example without -making the constitutional bar absolute. Congress, he thought, might -lawfully build highways of a national and military value, but he -strongly deprecated attacks by local interests on the federal treasury. - -=The Triumph of the Executive Branch.=--Jackson's reelection in 1832 -served to confirm his opinion that he was the chosen leader of the -people, freed and instructed to ride rough shod over Congress and even -the courts. No President before or since ever entertained in times of -peace such lofty notions of executive prerogative. The entire body of -federal employees he transformed into obedient servants of his wishes, a -sign or a nod from him making and undoing the fortunes of the humble and -the mighty. His lawful cabinet of advisers, filling all of the high -posts in the government, he treated with scant courtesy, preferring -rather to secure his counsel and advice from an unofficial body of -friends and dependents who, owing to their secret methods and back -stairs arrangements, became known as "the kitchen cabinet." Under the -leadership of a silent, astute, and resourceful politician, Amos -Kendall, this informal gathering of the faithful both gave and carried -out decrees and orders, communicating the President's lightest wish or -strictest command to the uttermost part of the country. Resolutely and -in the face of bitter opposition Jackson had removed the deposits from -the United States Bank. When the Senate protested against this arbitrary -conduct, he did not rest until it was forced to expunge the resolution -of condemnation; in time one of his lieutenants with his own hands was -able to tear the censure from the records. When Chief Justice Marshall -issued a decree against Georgia which did not suit him, Jackson, -according to tradition, blurted out that Marshall could go ahead and -enforce his own orders. To the end he pursued his willful way, finally -even choosing his own successor. - - -THE RISE OF THE WHIGS - -=Jackson's Measures Arouse Opposition.=--Measures so decided, policies -so radical, and conduct so high-handed could not fail to arouse against -Jackson a deep and exasperated opposition. The truth is the conduct of -his entire administration profoundly disturbed the business and finances -of the country. It was accompanied by conditions similar to those which -existed under the Articles of Confederation. A paper currency, almost as -unstable and irritating as the worthless notes of revolutionary days, -flooded the country, hindering the easy transaction of business. The use -of federal funds for internal improvements, so vital to the exchange of -commodities which is the very life of industry, was blocked by executive -vetoes. The Supreme Court, which, under Marshall, had held refractory -states to their obligations under the Constitution, was flouted; states' -rights judges, deliberately selected by Jackson for the bench, began to -sap and undermine the rulings of Marshall. The protective tariff, under -which the textile industry of New England, the iron mills of -Pennsylvania, and the wool, flax, and hemp farms of the West had -flourished, had received a severe blow in the compromise of 1833 which -promised a steady reduction of duties. To cap the climax, Jackson's -party, casting aside the old and reputable name of Republican, boldly -chose for its title the term "Democrat," throwing down the gauntlet to -every conservative who doubted the omniscience of the people. All these -things worked together to evoke an opposition that was sharp and -determined. - -[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON RIDICULING CLAY'S TARIFF AND INTERNAL -IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM] - -=Clay and the National Republicans.=--In this opposition movement, -leadership fell to Henry Clay, a son of Kentucky, rather than to Daniel -Webster of Massachusetts. Like Jackson, Clay was born in a home haunted -by poverty. Left fatherless early and thrown upon his own resources, he -went from Virginia into Kentucky where by sheer force of intellect he -rose to eminence in the profession of law. Without the martial gifts or -the martial spirit of Jackson, he slipped more easily into the social -habits of the East at the same time that he retained his hold on the -affections of the boisterous West. Farmers of Ohio, Indiana, and -Kentucky loved him; financiers of New York and Philadelphia trusted him. -He was thus a leader well fitted to gather the forces of opposition -into union against Jackson. - -Around Clay's standard assembled a motley collection, representing every -species of political opinion, united by one tie only--hatred for "Old -Hickory." Nullifiers and less strenuous advocates of states' rights were -yoked with nationalists of Webster's school; ardent protectionists were -bound together with equally ardent free traders, all fraternizing in one -grand confusion of ideas under the title of "National Republicans." Thus -the ancient and honorable term selected by Jefferson and his party, now -abandoned by Jacksonian Democracy, was adroitly adopted to cover the -supporters of Clay. The platform of the party, however, embraced all the -old Federalist principles: protection for American industry; internal -improvements; respect for the Supreme Court; resistance to executive -tyranny; and denunciation of the spoils system. Though Jackson was -easily victorious in 1832, the popular vote cast for Clay should have -given him some doubts about the faith of "the whole people" in the -wisdom of his "reign." - -=Van Buren and the Panic of 1837.=--Nothing could shake the General's -superb confidence. At the end of his second term he insisted on -selecting his own successor; at a national convention, chosen by party -voters, but packed with his office holders and friends, he nominated -Martin Van Buren of New York. Once more he proved his strength by -carrying the country for the Democrats. With a fine flourish, he -attended the inauguration of Van Buren and then retired, amid the -applause and tears of his devotees, to the Hermitage, his home in -Tennessee. - -Fortunately for him, Jackson escaped the odium of a disastrous panic -which struck the country with terrible force in the following summer. -Among the contributory causes of this crisis, no doubt, were the -destruction of the bank and the issuance of the "specie circular" of -1836 which required the purchasers of public lands to pay for them in -coin, instead of the paper notes of state banks. Whatever the dominating -cause, the ruin was widespread. Bank after bank went under; boom towns -in the West collapsed; Eastern mills shut down; and working people in -the industrial centers, starving from unemployment, begged for relief. -Van Buren braved the storm, offering no measure of reform or assistance -to the distracted people. He did seek security for government funds by -suggesting the removal of deposits from private banks and the -establishment of an independent treasury system, with government -depositaries for public funds, in several leading cities. This plan was -finally accepted by Congress in 1840. - -Had Van Buren been a captivating figure he might have lived down the -discredit of the panic unjustly laid at his door; but he was far from -being a favorite with the populace. Though a man of many talents, he -owed his position to the quiet and adept management of Jackson rather -than to his own personal qualities. The men of the frontier did not care -for him. They suspected that he ate from "gold plate" and they could not -forgive him for being an astute politician from New York. Still the -Democratic party, remembering Jackson's wishes, renominated him -unanimously in 1840 and saw him go down to utter defeat. - -=The Whigs and General Harrison.=--By this time, the National -Republicans, now known as Whigs--a title taken from the party of -opposition to the Crown in England, had learned many lessons. Taking a -leaf out of the Democratic book, they nominated, not Clay of Kentucky, -well known for his views on the bank, the tariff, and internal -improvements, but a military hero, General William Henry Harrison, a man -of uncertain political opinions. Harrison, a son of a Virginia signer of -the Declaration of Independence, sprang into public view by winning a -battle more famous than important, "Tippecanoe"--a brush with the -Indians in Indiana. He added to his laurels by rendering praiseworthy -services during the war of 1812. When days of peace returned he was -rewarded by a grateful people with a seat in Congress. Then he retired -to quiet life in a little village near Cincinnati. Like Jackson he was -held to be a son of the South and the West. Like Jackson he was a -military hero, a lesser light, but still a light. Like Old Hickory he -rode into office on a tide of popular feeling against an Eastern man -accused of being something of an aristocrat. His personal popularity was -sufficient. The Whigs who nominated him shrewdly refused to adopt a -platform or declare their belief in anything. When some Democrat -asserted that Harrison was a backwoodsman whose sole wants were a jug of -hard cider and a log cabin, the Whigs treated the remark not as an -insult but as proof positive that Harrison deserved the votes of Jackson -men. The jug and the cabin they proudly transformed into symbols of the -campaign, and won for their chieftain 234 electoral votes, while Van -Buren got only sixty. - -=Harrison and Tyler.=--The Hero of Tippecanoe was not long to enjoy the -fruits of his victory. The hungry horde of Whig office seekers descended -upon him like wolves upon the fold. If he went out they waylaid him; if -he stayed indoors, he was besieged; not even his bed chamber was spared. -He was none too strong at best and he took a deep cold on the day of his -inauguration. Between driving out Democrats and appeasing Whigs, he fell -mortally ill. Before the end of a month he lay dead at the capitol. - -Harrison's successor, John Tyler, the Vice President, whom the Whigs had -nominated to catch votes in Virginia, was more of a Democrat than -anything else, though he was not partisan enough to please anybody. The -Whigs railed at him because he would not approve the founding of another -United States Bank. The Democrats stormed at him for refusing, until -near the end of his term, to sanction the annexation of Texas, which had -declared its independence of Mexico in 1836. His entire administration, -marked by unseemly wrangling, produced only two measures of importance. -The Whigs, flushed by victory, with the aid of a few protectionist -Democrats, enacted, in 1842, a new tariff law destroying the compromise -which had brought about the truce between the North and the South, in -the days of nullification. The distinguished leader of the Whigs, Daniel -Webster, as Secretary of State, in negotiation with Lord Ashburton -representing Great Britain, settled the long-standing dispute between -the two countries over the Maine boundary. A year after closing this -chapter in American diplomacy, Webster withdrew to private life, leaving -the President to endure alone the buffets of political fortune. - -To the end, the Whigs regarded Tyler as a traitor to their cause; but -the judgment of history is that it was a case of the biter bitten. They -had nominated him for the vice presidency as a man of views acceptable -to Southern Democrats in order to catch their votes, little reckoning -with the chances of his becoming President. Tyler had not deceived them -and, thoroughly soured, he left the White House in 1845 not to appear in -public life again until the days of secession, when he espoused the -Southern confederacy. Jacksonian Democracy, with new leadership, serving -a new cause--slavery--was returned to power under James K. Polk, a -friend of the General from Tennessee. A few grains of sand were to run -through the hour glass before the Whig party was to be broken and -scattered as the Federalists had been more than a generation before. - - -THE INTERACTION OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OPINION - -=Democracy in England and France.=--During the period of Jacksonian -Democracy, as in all epochs of ferment, there was a close relation -between the thought of the New World and the Old. In England, the -successes of the American experiment were used as arguments in favor of -overthrowing the aristocracy which George III had manipulated with such -effect against America half a century before. In the United States, on -the other hand, conservatives like Chancellor Kent, the stout opponent -of manhood suffrage in New York, cited the riots of the British working -classes as a warning against admitting the same classes to a share in -the government of the United States. Along with the agitation of opinion -went epoch-making events. In 1832, the year of Jackson's second -triumph, the British Parliament passed its first reform bill, which -conferred the ballot--not on workingmen as yet--but on mill owners and -shopkeepers whom the landlords regarded with genuine horror. The initial -step was thus taken in breaking down the privileges of the landed -aristocracy and the rich merchants of England. - -About the same time a popular revolution occurred in France. The Bourbon -family, restored to the throne of France by the allied powers after -their victory over Napoleon in 1815, had embarked upon a policy of -arbitrary government. To use the familiar phrase, they had learned -nothing and forgotten nothing. Charles X, who came to the throne in -1824, set to work with zeal to undo the results of the French -Revolution, to stifle the press, restrict the suffrage, and restore the -clergy and the nobility to their ancient rights. His policy encountered -equally zealous opposition and in 1830 he was overthrown. The popular -party, under the leadership of Lafayette, established, not a republic as -some of the radicals had hoped, but a "liberal" middle-class monarchy -under Louis Philippe. This second French Revolution made a profound -impression on Americans, convincing them that the whole world was moving -toward democracy. The mayor, aldermen, and citizens of New York City -joined in a great parade to celebrate the fall of the Bourbons. Mingled -with cheers for the new order in France were hurrahs for "the people's -own, Andrew Jackson, the Hero of New Orleans and President of the United -States!" - -=European Interest in America.=--To the older and more settled -Europeans, the democratic experiment in America was either a menace or -an inspiration. Conservatives viewed it with anxiety; liberals with -optimism. Far-sighted leaders could see that the tide of democracy was -rising all over the world and could not be stayed. Naturally the country -that had advanced furthest along the new course was the place in which -to find arguments for and against proposals that Europe should make -experiments of the same character. - -=De Tocqueville's _Democracy in America_.=--In addition to the casual -traveler there began to visit the United States the thoughtful observer -bent on finding out what manner of nation this was springing up in the -wilderness. Those who looked with sympathy upon the growing popular -forces of England and France found in the United States, in spite of -many blemishes and defects, a guarantee for the future of the people's -rule in the Old World. One of these, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French -liberal of mildly democratic sympathies, made a journey to this country -in 1831; he described in a very remarkable volume, _Democracy in -America_, the grand experiment as he saw it. On the whole he was -convinced. After examining with a critical eye the life and labor of the -American people, as well as the constitutions of the states and the -nation, he came to the conclusion that democracy with all its faults was -both inevitable and successful. Slavery he thought was a painful -contrast to the other features of American life, and he foresaw what -proved to be the irrepressible conflict over it. He believed that -through blundering the people were destined to learn the highest of all -arts, self-government on a grand scale. The absence of a leisure class, -devoted to no calling or profession, merely enjoying the refinements of -life and adding to its graces--the flaw in American culture that gave -deep distress to many a European leader--de Tocqueville thought a -necessary virtue in the republic. "Amongst a democratic people where -there is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living, or has -worked, or is born of parents who have worked. A notion of labor is -therefore presented to the mind on every side as the necessary, natural, -and honest condition of human existence." It was this notion of a -government in the hands of people who labored that struck the French -publicist as the most significant fact in the modern world. - -=Harriet Martineau's Visit to America.=--This phase of American life -also profoundly impressed the brilliant English writer, Harriet -Martineau. She saw all parts of the country, the homes of the rich and -the log cabins of the frontier; she traveled in stagecoaches, canal -boats, and on horseback; and visited sessions of Congress and auctions -at slave markets. She tried to view the country impartially and the -thing that left the deepest mark on her mind was the solidarity of the -people in one great political body. "However various may be the tribes -of inhabitants in those states, whatever part of the world may have been -their birthplace, or that of their fathers, however broken may be their -language, however servile or noble their employments, however exalted or -despised their state, all are declared to be bound together by equal -political obligations.... In that self-governing country all are held to -have an equal interest in the principles of its institutions and to be -bound in equal duty to watch their workings." Miss Martineau was also -impressed with the passion of Americans for land ownership and -contrasted the United States favorably with England where the tillers of -the soil were either tenants or laborers for wages. - -=Adverse Criticism.=--By no means all observers and writers were -convinced that America was a success. The fastidious traveler, Mrs. -Trollope, who thought the English system of church and state was ideal, -saw in the United States only roughness and ignorance. She lamented the -"total and universal want of manners both in males and females," adding -that while "they appear to have clear heads and active intellects," -there was "no charm, no grace in their conversation." She found -everywhere a lack of reverence for kings, learning, and rank. Other -critics were even more savage. The editor of the _Foreign Quarterly_ -petulantly exclaimed that the United States was "a brigand -confederation." Charles Dickens declared the country to be "so maimed -and lame, so full of sores and ulcers that her best friends turn from -the loathsome creature in disgust." Sydney Smith, editor of the -_Edinburgh Review_, was never tired of trying his caustic wit at the -expense of America. "Their Franklins and Washingtons and all the other -sages and heroes of their revolution were born and bred subjects of the -king of England," he observed in 1820. "During the thirty or forty -years of their independence they have done absolutely nothing for the -sciences, for the arts, for literature, or even for the statesmanlike -studies of politics or political economy.... In the four quarters of the -globe who reads an American book? Or goes to an American play? Or looks -at an American picture or statue?" To put a sharp sting into his taunt -he added, forgetting by whose authority slavery was introduced and -fostered: "Under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is -every sixth man a slave whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell?" - -Some Americans, while resenting the hasty and often superficial -judgments of European writers, winced under their satire and took -thought about certain particulars in the indictments brought against -them. The mass of the people, however, bent on the great experiment, -gave little heed to carping critics who saw the flaws and not the -achievements of our country--critics who were in fact less interested in -America than in preventing the rise and growth of democracy in Europe. - - -=References= - -J.S. Bassett, _Life of Andrew Jackson_. - -J.W. Burgess, _The Middle Period_. - -H. Lodge, _Daniel Webster_. - -W. Macdonald, _Jacksonian Democracy_ (American Nation Series). - -Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_, Vol. -II. - -C.H. Peck, _The Jacksonian Epoch_. - -C. Schurz, _Henry Clay_. - - -=Questions= - -1. By what devices was democracy limited in the first days of our -Republic? - -2. On what grounds were the limitations defended? Attacked? - -3. Outline the rise of political democracy in the United States. - -4. Describe three important changes in our political system. - -5. Contrast the Presidents of the old and the new generations. - -6. Account for the unpopularity of John Adams' administration. - -7. What had been the career of Andrew Jackson before 1829? - -8. Sketch the history of the protective tariff and explain the theory -underlying it. - -9. Explain the growth of Southern opposition to the tariff. - -10. Relate the leading events connected with nullification in South -Carolina. - -11. State Jackson's views and tell the outcome of the controversy. - -12. Why was Jackson opposed to the bank? How did he finally destroy it? - -13. The Whigs complained of Jackson's "executive tyranny." What did they -mean? - -14. Give some of the leading events in Clay's career. - -15. How do you account for the triumph of Harrison in 1840? - -16. Why was Europe especially interested in America at this period? Who -were some of the European writers on American affairs? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Jackson's Criticisms of the Bank.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source -Book_, pp. 320-329. - -=Financial Aspects of the Bank Controversy.=--Dewey, _Financial History -of the United States_, Sections 86-87; Elson, _History of the United -States_, pp. 492-496. - -=Jackson's View of the Union.=--See his proclamation on nullification in -Macdonald, pp. 333-340. - -=Nullification.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United -States_, Vol. VI, pp. 153-182; Elson, pp. 487-492. - -=The Webster-Hayne Debate.=--Analyze the arguments. Extensive extracts -are given in Macdonald's larger three-volume work, _Select Documents of -United States History, 1776-1761_, pp. 239-260. - -=The Character of Jackson's Administration.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History -of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 1-87; Elson, pp. 498-501. - -=The People in 1830.=--From contemporary writings in Hart, _American -History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 509-530. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Andrew Jackson, J.Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel -Webster, J.C. Calhoun, and W.H. Harrison. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST - - -"We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred -years," exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana -purchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless had -before his mind's eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands between -the Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before him the history -of the English colonies, which told him of the two centuries required to -settle the seaboard region. To practical men, his prophecy did not seem -far wrong; but before the lapse of half that time there appeared beyond -the Mississippi a tier of new states, reaching from the Gulf of Mexico -to the southern boundary of Minnesota, and a new commonwealth on the -Pacific Ocean where American emigrants had raised the Bear flag of -California. - - -THE ADVANCE OF THE MIDDLE BORDER - -=Missouri.=--When the middle of the nineteenth century had been reached, -the Mississippi River, which Daniel Boone, the intrepid hunter, had -crossed during Washington's administration "to escape from civilization" -in Kentucky, had become the waterway for a vast empire. The center of -population of the United States had passed to the Ohio Valley. Missouri, -with its wide reaches of rich lands, low-lying, level, and fertile, well -adapted to hemp raising, had drawn to its borders thousands of planters -from the old Southern states--from Virginia and the Carolinas as well as -from Kentucky and Tennessee. When the great compromise of 1820-21 -admitted her to the union, wearing "every jewel of sovereignty," as a -florid orator announced, migratory slave owners were assured that their -property would be safe in Missouri. Along the western shore of the -Mississippi and on both banks of the Missouri to the uttermost limits of -the state, plantations tilled by bondmen spread out in broad expanses. -In the neighborhood of Jefferson City the slaves numbered more than a -fourth of the population. - -Into this stream of migration from the planting South flowed another -current of land-tilling farmers; some from Kentucky, Tennessee, and -Mississippi, driven out by the onrush of the planters buying and -consolidating small farms into vast estates; and still more from the -East and the Old World. To the northwest over against Iowa and to the -southwest against Arkansas, these yeomen laid out farms to be tilled by -their own labor. In those regions the number of slaves seldom rose above -five or six per cent of the population. The old French post, St. Louis, -enriched by the fur trade of the Far West and the steamboat traffic of -the river, grew into a thriving commercial city, including among its -seventy-five thousand inhabitants in 1850 nearly forty thousand -foreigners, German immigrants from Pennsylvania and Europe being the -largest single element. - -=Arkansas.=--Below Missouri lay the territory of Arkansas, which had -long been the paradise of the swarthy hunter and the restless -frontiersman fleeing from the advancing borders of farm and town. In -search of the life, wild and free, where the rifle supplied the game and -a few acres of ground the corn and potatoes, they had filtered into the -territory in an unending drift, "squatting" on the land. Without so much -as asking the leave of any government, territorial or national, they -claimed as their own the soil on which they first planted their feet. -Like the Cherokee Indians, whom they had as neighbors, whose very -customs and dress they sometimes adopted, the squatters spent their days -in the midst of rough plenty, beset by chills, fevers, and the ills of -the flesh, but for many years unvexed by political troubles or the -restrictions of civilized life. - -Unfortunately for them, however, the fertile valleys of the Mississippi -and Arkansas were well adapted to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco -and their sylvan peace was soon broken by an invasion of planters. The -newcomers, with their servile workers, spread upward in the valley -toward Missouri and along the southern border westward to the Red River. -In time the slaves in the tier of counties against Louisiana ranged from -thirty to seventy per cent of the population. This marked the doom of -the small farmer, swept Arkansas into the main current of planting -politics, and led to a powerful lobby at Washington in favor of -admission to the union, a boon granted in 1836. - -=Michigan.=--In accordance with a well-established custom, a free state -was admitted to the union to balance a slave state. In 1833, the people -of Michigan, a territory ten times the size of Connecticut, announced -that the time had come for them to enjoy the privileges of a -commonwealth. All along the southern border the land had been occupied -largely by pioneers from New England, who built prim farmhouses and -adopted the town-meeting plan of self-government after the fashion of -the old home. The famous post of Detroit was growing into a flourishing -city as the boats plying on the Great Lakes carried travelers, settlers, -and freight through the narrows. In all, according to the census, there -were more than ninety thousand inhabitants in the territory; so it was -not without warrant that they clamored for statehood. Congress, busy as -ever with politics, delayed; and the inhabitants of Michigan, unable to -restrain their impatience, called a convention, drew up a constitution, -and started a lively quarrel with Ohio over the southern boundary. The -hand of Congress was now forced. Objections were made to the new -constitution on the ground that it gave the ballot to all free white -males, including aliens not yet naturalized; but the protests were -overborne in a long debate. The boundary was fixed, and Michigan, though -shorn of some of the land she claimed, came into the union in 1837. - -=Wisconsin.=--Across Lake Michigan to the west lay the territory of -Wisconsin, which shared with Michigan the interesting history of the -Northwest, running back into the heroic days when French hunters and -missionaries were planning a French empire for the great monarch, Louis -XIV. It will not be forgotten that the French rangers of the woods, the -black-robed priests, prepared for sacrifice, even to death, the trappers -of the French agencies, and the French explorers--Marquette, Joliet, and -Menard--were the first white men to paddle their frail barks through the -northern waters. They first blazed their trails into the black forests -and left traces of their work in the names of portages and little -villages. It was from these forests that Red Men in full war paint -journeyed far to fight under the _fleur-de-lis_ of France when the -soldiers of King Louis made their last stand at Quebec and Montreal -against the imperial arms of Britain. It was here that the British flag -was planted in 1761 and that the great Pontiac conspiracy was formed two -years later to overthrow British dominion. - -When, a generation afterward, the Stars and Stripes supplanted the Union -Jack, the French were still almost the only white men in the region. -They were soon joined by hustling Yankee fur traders who did battle -royal against British interlopers. The traders cut their way through -forest trails and laid out the routes through lake and stream and over -portages for the settlers and their families from the states "back -East." It was the forest ranger who discovered the water power later -used to turn the busy mills grinding the grain from the spreading farm -lands. In the wake of the fur hunters, forest men, and farmers came -miners from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri crowding in to exploit the -lead ores of the northwest, some of them bringing slaves to work their -claims. Had it not been for the gold fever of 1849 that drew the -wielders of pick and shovel to the Far West, Wisconsin would early have -taken high rank among the mining regions of the country. - -From a favorable point of vantage on Lake Michigan, the village of -Milwaukee, a center for lumber and grain transport and a place of entry -for Eastern goods, grew into a thriving city. It claimed twenty thousand -inhabitants, when in 1848 Congress admitted Wisconsin to the union. -Already the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians had found their way into -the territory. They joined Americans from the older states in clearing -forests, building roads, transforming trails into highways, erecting -mills, and connecting streams with canals to make a network of routes -for the traffic that poured to and from the Great Lakes. - -=Iowa and Minnesota.=--To the southwest of Wisconsin beyond the -Mississippi, where the tall grass of the prairies waved like the sea, -farmers from New England, New York, and Ohio had prepared Iowa for -statehood. A tide of immigration that might have flowed into Missouri -went northward; for freemen, unaccustomed to slavery and slave markets, -preferred the open country above the compromise line. With incredible -swiftness, they spread farms westward from the Mississippi. With Yankee -ingenuity they turned to trading on the river, building before 1836 -three prosperous centers of traffic: Dubuque, Davenport, and Burlington. -True to their old traditions, they founded colleges and academies that -religion and learning might be cherished on the frontier as in the -states from which they came. Prepared for self-government, the Iowans -laid siege to the door of Congress and were admitted to the union in -1846. - -Above Iowa, on the Mississippi, lay the territory of Minnesota--the home -of the Dakotas, the Ojibways, and the Sioux. Like Michigan and -Wisconsin, it had been explored early by the French scouts, and the -first white settlement was the little French village of Mendota. To the -people of the United States, the resources of the country were first -revealed by the historic journey of Zebulon Pike in 1805 and by American -fur traders who were quick to take advantage of the opportunity to ply -their arts of hunting and bartering in fresh fields. In 1839 an -American settlement was planted at Marina on the St. Croix, the outpost -of advancing civilization. Within twenty years, the territory, boasting -a population of 150,000, asked for admission to the union. In 1858 the -plea was granted and Minnesota showed her gratitude three years later by -being first among the states to offer troops to Lincoln in the hour of -peril. - - -ON TO THE PACIFIC--TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR - -=The Uniformity of the Middle West.=--There was a certain monotony about -pioneering in the Northwest and on the middle border. As the long -stretches of land were cleared or prepared for the plow, they were laid -out like checkerboards into squares of forty, eighty, one hundred sixty, -or more acres, each the seat of a homestead. There was a striking -uniformity also about the endless succession of fertile fields spreading -far and wide under the hot summer sun. No majestic mountains relieved -the sweep of the prairie. Few monuments of other races and antiquity -were there to awaken curiosity about the region. No sonorous bells in -old missions rang out the time of day. The chaffering Red Man bartering -blankets and furs for powder and whisky had passed farther on. The -population was made up of plain farmers and their families engaged in -severe and unbroken labor, chopping down trees, draining fever-breeding -swamps, breaking new ground, and planting from year to year the same -rotation of crops. Nearly all the settlers were of native American stock -into whose frugal and industrious lives the later Irish and German -immigrants fitted, on the whole, with little friction. Even the Dutch -oven fell before the cast-iron cooking stove. Happiness and sorrow, -despair and hope were there, but all encompassed by the heavy tedium of -prosaic sameness. - -[Illustration: SANTA BARBARA MISSION] - -=A Contrast in the Far West and Southwest.=--As George Rogers Clark and -Daniel Boone had stirred the snug Americans of the seaboard to seek -their fortunes beyond the Appalachians, so now Kit Carson, James Bowie, -Sam Houston, Davy Crockett, and John C. Fremont were to lead the way -into a new land, only a part of which was under the American flag. The -setting for this new scene in the westward movement was thrown out in a -wide sweep from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the banks of the -Rio Grande; from the valleys of the Sabine and Red rivers to Montana and -the Pacific slope. In comparison with the middle border, this region -presented such startling diversities that only the eye of faith could -foresee the unifying power of nationalism binding its communities with -the older sections of the country. What contrasts indeed! The blue grass -region of Kentucky or the rich, black soil of Illinois--the painted -desert, the home of the sage brush and the coyote! The level prairies of -Iowa--the mighty Rockies shouldering themselves high against the -horizon! The long bleak winters of Wisconsin--California of endless -summer! The log churches of Indiana or Illinois--the quaint missions of -San Antonio, Tucson, and Santa Barbara! The little state of -Delaware--the empire of Texas, one hundred and twenty times its area! -And scattered about through the Southwest were signs of an ancient -civilization--fragments of four-and five-story dwellings, ruined dams, -aqueducts, and broken canals, which told of once prosperous peoples -who, by art and science, had conquered the aridity of the desert and -lifted themselves in the scale of culture above the savages of the -plain. - -The settlers of this vast empire were to be as diverse in their origins -and habits as those of the colonies on the coast had been. Americans of -English, Irish, and Scotch-Irish descent came as usual from the Eastern -states. To them were added the migratory Germans as well. Now for the -first time came throngs of Scandinavians. Some were to make their homes -on quiet farms as the border advanced against the setting sun. Others -were to be Indian scouts, trappers, fur hunters, miners, cowboys, Texas -planters, keepers of lonely posts on the plain and the desert, stage -drivers, pilots of wagon trains, pony riders, fruit growers, "lumber -jacks," and smelter workers. One common bond united them--a passion for -the self-government accorded to states. As soon as a few thousand -settlers came together in a single territory, there arose a mighty shout -for a position beside the staid commonwealths of the East and the South. -Statehood meant to the pioneers self-government, dignity, and the right -to dispose of land, minerals, and timber in their own way. In the quest -for this local autonomy there arose many a wordy contest in Congress, -each of the political parties lending a helping hand in the admission of -a state when it gave promise of adding new congressmen of the "right -political persuasion," to use the current phrase. - -=Southern Planters and Texas.=--While the farmers of the North found the -broad acres of the Western prairies stretching on before them apparently -in endless expanse, it was far different with the Southern planters. -Ever active in their search for new fields as they exhausted the virgin -soil of the older states, the restless subjects of King Cotton quickly -reached the frontier of Louisiana. There they paused; but only for a -moment. The fertile land of Texas just across the boundary lured them on -and the Mexican republic to which it belonged extended to them a more -than generous welcome. Little realizing the perils lurking in a -"peaceful penetration," the authorities at Mexico City opened wide the -doors and made large grants of land to American contractors, who agreed -to bring a number of families into Texas. The omnipresent Yankee, in the -person of Moses Austin of Connecticut, hearing of this good news in the -Southwest, obtained a grant in 1820 to settle three hundred Americans -near Bexar--a commission finally carried out to the letter by his son -and celebrated in the name given to the present capital of the state of -Texas. Within a decade some twenty thousand Americans had crossed the -border. - -=Mexico Closes the Door.=--The government of Mexico, unaccustomed to -such enterprise and thoroughly frightened by its extent, drew back in -dismay. Its fears were increased as quarrels broke out between the -Americans and the natives in Texas. Fear grew into consternation when -efforts were made by President Jackson to buy the territory for the -United States. Mexico then sought to close the flood gates. It stopped -all American colonization schemes, canceled many of the land grants, put -a tariff on farming implements, and abolished slavery. These barriers -were raised too late. A call for help ran through the western border of -the United States. The sentinels of the frontier answered. Davy -Crockett, the noted frontiersman, bear hunter, and backwoods politician; -James Bowie, the dexterous wielder of the knife that to this day bears -his name; and Sam Houston, warrior and pioneer, rushed to the aid of -their countrymen in Texas. Unacquainted with the niceties of diplomacy, -impatient at the formalities of international law, they soon made it -known that in spite of Mexican sovereignty they would be their own -masters. - -=The Independence of Texas Declared.=--Numbering only about one-fourth -of the population in Texas, they raised the standard of revolt in 1836 -and summoned a convention. Following in the footsteps of their -ancestors, they issued a declaration of independence signed mainly by -Americans from the slave states. Anticipating that the government of -Mexico would not quietly accept their word of defiance as final, they -dispatched a force to repel "the invading army," as General Houston -called the troops advancing under the command of Santa Ana, the Mexican -president. A portion of the Texan soldiers took their stand in the -Alamo, an old Spanish mission in the cottonwood trees in the town of San -Antonio. Instead of obeying the order to blow up the mission and retire, -they held their ground until they were completely surrounded and cut off -from all help. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the bitter end, the -last man falling a victim to the sword. Vengeance was swift. Within -three months General Houston overwhelmed Santa Ana at the San Jacinto, -taking him prisoner of war and putting an end to all hopes for the -restoration of Mexican sovereignty over Texas. - -The Lone Star Republic, with Houston at the head, then sought admission -to the United States. This seemed at first an easy matter. All that was -required to bring it about appeared to be a treaty annexing Texas to the -union. Moreover, President Jackson, at the height of his popularity, had -a warm regard for General Houston and, with his usual sympathy for rough -and ready ways of doing things, approved the transaction. Through an -American representative in Mexico, Jackson had long and anxiously -labored, by means none too nice, to wring from the Mexican republic the -cession of the coveted territory. When the Texans took matters into -their own hands, he was more than pleased; but he could not marshal the -approval of two-thirds of the Senators required for a treaty of -annexation. Cautious as well as impetuous, Jackson did not press the -issue; he went out of office in 1837 with Texas uncertain as to her -future. - -=Northern Opposition to Annexation.=--All through the North the -opposition to annexation was clear and strong. Anti-slavery agitators -could hardly find words savage enough to express their feelings. -"Texas," exclaimed Channing in a letter to Clay, "is but the first step -of aggression. I trust indeed that Providence will beat back and humble -our cupidity and ambition. I now ask whether as a people we are -prepared to seize on a neighboring territory for the end of extending -slavery? I ask whether as a people we can stand forth in the sight of -God, in the sight of nations, and adopt this atrocious policy? Sooner -perish! Sooner be our name blotted out from the record of nations!" -William Lloyd Garrison called for the secession of the Northern states -if Texas was brought into the union with slavery. John Quincy Adams -warned his countrymen that they were treading in the path of the -imperialism that had brought the nations of antiquity to judgment and -destruction. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate for President, taking into -account changing public sentiment, blew hot and cold, losing the state -of New York and the election of 1844 by giving a qualified approval of -annexation. In the same campaign, the Democrats boldly demanded the -"Reannexation of Texas," based on claims which the United States once -had to Spanish territory beyond the Sabine River. - -=Annexation.=--The politicians were disposed to walk very warily. Van -Buren, at heart opposed to slavery extension, refused to press the issue -of annexation. Tyler, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, by a strange -fling of fortune carried into office as a nominal Whig, kept his mind -firmly fixed on the idea of reelection and let the troublesome matter -rest until the end of his administration was in sight. He then listened -with favor to the voice of the South. Calhoun stated what seemed to be a -convincing argument: All good Americans have their hearts set on the -Constitution; the admission of Texas is absolutely essential to the -preservation of the union; it will give a balance of power to the South -as against the North growing with incredible swiftness in wealth and -population. Tyler, impressed by the plea, appointed Calhoun to the -office of Secretary of State in 1844, authorizing him to negotiate the -treaty of annexation--a commission at once executed. This scheme was -blocked in the Senate where the necessary two-thirds vote could not be -secured. Balked but not defeated, the advocates of annexation drew up a -joint resolution which required only a majority vote in both houses, -and in February of the next year, just before Tyler gave way to Polk, -they pushed it through Congress. So Texas, amid the groans of Boston and -the hurrahs of Charleston, folded up her flag and came into the union. - -[Illustration: TEXAS AND THE TERRITORY IN DISPUTE] - -=The Mexican War.=--The inevitable war with Mexico, foretold by the -abolitionists and feared by Henry Clay, ensued, the ostensible cause -being a dispute over the boundaries of the new state. The Texans claimed -all the lands down to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans placed the border of -Texas at the Nueces River and a line drawn thence in a northerly -direction. President Polk, accepting the Texan view of the controversy, -ordered General Zachary Taylor to move beyond the Nueces in defense of -American sovereignty. This act of power, deemed by the Mexicans an -invasion of their territory, was followed by an attack on our troops. - -President Polk, not displeased with the turn of events, announced that -American blood had been "spilled on American soil" and that war existed -"by the act of Mexico." Congress, in a burst of patriotic fervor, -brushed aside the protests of those who deplored the conduct of the -government as wanton aggression on a weaker nation and granted money and -supplies to prosecute the war. The few Whigs in the House of -Representatives, who refused to vote in favor of taking up arms, -accepted the inevitable with such good grace as they could command. All -through the South and the West the war was popular. New England -grumbled, but gave loyal, if not enthusiastic, support to a conflict -precipitated by policies not of its own choosing. Only a handful of firm -objectors held out. James Russell Lowell, in his _Biglow Papers_, flung -scorn and sarcasm to the bitter end. - -=The Outcome of the War.=--The foregone conclusion was soon reached. -General Taylor might have delivered the fatal thrust from northern -Mexico if politics had not intervened. Polk, anxious to avoid raising up -another military hero for the Whigs to nominate for President, decided -to divide the honors by sending General Scott to strike a blow at the -capital, Mexico City. The deed was done with speed and pomp and two -heroes were lifted into presidential possibilities. In the Far West a -third candidate was made, John C. Fremont, who, in cooeperation with -Commodores Sloat and Stockton and General Kearney, planted the Stars and -Stripes on the Pacific slope. - -In February, 1848, the Mexicans came to terms, ceding to the victor -California, Arizona, New Mexico, and more--a domain greater in extent -than the combined areas of France and Germany. As a salve to the wound, -the vanquished received fifteen million dollars in cash and the -cancellation of many claims held by American citizens. Five years later, -through the negotiations of James Gadsden, a further cession of lands -along the southern border of Arizona and New Mexico was secured on -payment of ten million dollars. - -=General Taylor Elected President.=--The ink was hardly dry upon the -treaty that closed the war before "rough and ready" General Taylor, a -slave owner from Louisiana, "a Whig," as he said, "but not an ultra -Whig," was put forward as the Whig candidate for President. He himself -had not voted for years and he was fairly innocent in matters political. -The tariff, the currency, and internal improvements, with a magnificent -gesture he referred to the people's representatives in Congress, -offering to enforce the laws as made, if elected. Clay's followers -mourned. Polk stormed but could not win even a renomination at the hands -of the Democrats. So it came about that the hero of Buena Vista, -celebrated for his laconic order, "Give 'em a little more grape, Captain -Bragg," became President of the United States. - - -THE PACIFIC COAST AND UTAH - -=Oregon.=--Closely associated in the popular mind with the contest about -the affairs of Texas was a dispute with Great Britain over the -possession of territory in Oregon. In their presidential campaign of -1844, the Democrats had coupled with the slogan, "The Reannexation of -Texas," two other cries, "The Reoccupation of Oregon," and "Fifty-four -Forty or Fight." The last two slogans were founded on American -discoveries and explorations in the Far Northwest. Their appearance in -politics showed that the distant Oregon country, larger in area than New -England, New York, and Pennsylvania combined, was at last receiving from -the nation the attention which its importance warranted. - -_Joint Occupation and Settlement._--Both England and the United States -had long laid claim to Oregon and in 1818 they had agreed to occupy the -territory jointly--a contract which was renewed ten years later for an -indefinite period. Under this plan, citizens of both countries were free -to hunt and settle anywhere in the region. The vanguard of British fur -traders and Canadian priests was enlarged by many new recruits, with -Americans not far behind them. John Jacob Astor, the resourceful New -York merchant, sent out trappers and hunters who established a trading -post at Astoria in 1811. Some twenty years later, American -missionaries--among them two very remarkable men, Jason Lee and Marcus -Whitman--were preaching the gospel to the Indians. - -Through news from the fur traders and missionaries, Eastern farmers -heard of the fertile lands awaiting their plows on the Pacific slope; -those with the pioneering spirit made ready to take possession of the -new country. In 1839 a band went around by Cape Horn. Four years later a -great expedition went overland. The way once broken, others followed -rapidly. As soon as a few settlements were well established, the -pioneers held a mass meeting and agreed upon a plan of government. "We, -the people of Oregon territory," runs the preamble to their compact, -"for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure peace and -prosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt the following laws and -regulations until such time as the United States of America extend their -jurisdiction over us." Thus self-government made its way across the -Rocky Mountains. - -[Illustration: THE OREGON COUNTRY AND THE DISPUTED BOUNDARY] - -_The Boundary Dispute with England Adjusted._--By this time it was -evident that the boundaries of Oregon must be fixed. Having made the -question an issue in his campaign, Polk, after his election in 1844, -pressed it upon the attention of the country. In his inaugural address -and his first message to Congress he reiterated the claim of the -Democratic platform that "our title to the whole territory of Oregon is -clear and unquestionable." This pretension Great Britain firmly -rejected, leaving the President a choice between war and compromise. - -Polk, already having the contest with Mexico on his hands, sought and -obtained a compromise. The British government, moved by a hint from the -American minister, offered a settlement which would fix the boundary at -the forty-ninth parallel instead of "fifty-four forty," and give it -Vancouver Island. Polk speedily chose this way out of the dilemma. -Instead of making the decision himself, however, and drawing up a -treaty, he turned to the Senate for "counsel." As prearranged with party -leaders, the advice was favorable to the plan. The treaty, duly drawn in -1846, was ratified by the Senate after an acrimonious debate. "Oh! -mountain that was delivered of a mouse," exclaimed Senator Benton, "thy -name shall be fifty-four forty!" Thirteen years later, the southern part -of the territory was admitted to the union as the state of Oregon, -leaving the northern and eastern sections in the status of a territory. - -=California.=--With the growth of the northwestern empire, dedicated by -nature to freedom, the planting interests might have been content, had -fortune not wrested from them the fair country of California. Upon this -huge territory they had set their hearts. The mild climate and fertile -soil seemed well suited to slavery and the planters expected to extend -their sway to the entire domain. California was a state of more than -155,000 square miles--about seventy times the size of the state of -Delaware. It could readily be divided into five or six large states, if -that became necessary to preserve the Southern balance of power. - -_Early American Relations with California._--Time and tide, it seems, -were not on the side of the planters. Already Americans of a far -different type were invading the Pacific slope. Long before Polk ever -dreamed of California, the Yankee with his cargo of notions had been -around the Horn. Daring skippers had sailed out of New England harbors -with a variety of goods, bent their course around South America to -California, on to China and around the world, trading as they went and -leaving pots, pans, woolen cloth, guns, boots, shoes, salt fish, naval -stores, and rum in their wake. "Home from Californy!" rang the cry in -many a New England port as a good captain let go his anchor on his -return from the long trading voyage in the Pacific. - -[Illustration: THE OVERLAND TRAILS] - -_The Overland Trails._--Not to be outdone by the mariners of the deep, -western scouts searched for overland routes to the Pacific. Zebulon -Pike, explorer and pathfinder, by his expedition into the Southwest -during Jefferson's administration, had discovered the resources of New -Spain and had shown his countrymen how easy it was to reach Santa Fe -from the upper waters of the Arkansas River. Not long afterward, traders -laid open the route, making Franklin, Missouri, and later Fort -Leavenworth the starting point. Along the trail, once surveyed, poured -caravans heavily guarded by armed men against marauding Indians. Sand -storms often wiped out all signs of the route; hunger and thirst did -many a band of wagoners to death; but the lure of the game and the -profits at the end kept the business thriving. Huge stocks of cottons, -glass, hardware, and ammunition were drawn almost across the continent -to be exchanged at Santa Fe for furs, Indian blankets, silver, and -mules; and many a fortune was made out of the traffic. - -_Americans in California._--Why stop at Santa Fe? The question did not -long remain unanswered. In 1829, Ewing Young broke the path to Los -Angeles. Thirteen years later Fremont made the first of his celebrated -expeditions across plain, desert, and mountain, arousing the interest of -the entire country in the Far West. In the wake of the pathfinders went -adventurers, settlers, and artisans. By 1847, more than one-fifth of the -inhabitants in the little post of two thousand on San Francisco Bay were -from the United States. The Mexican War, therefore, was not the -beginning but the end of the American conquest of California--a conquest -initiated by Americans who went to till the soil, to trade, or to follow -some mechanical pursuit. - -_The Discovery of Gold._--As if to clinch the hold on California already -secured by the friends of free soil, there came in 1848 the sudden -discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in the Sacramento Valley. When this -exciting news reached the East, a mighty rush began to California, over -the trails, across the Isthmus of Panama, and around Cape Horn. Before -two years had passed, it is estimated that a hundred thousand people, in -search of fortunes, had arrived in California--mechanics, teachers, -doctors, lawyers, farmers, miners, and laborers from the four corners of -the earth. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849] - -_California a Free State._--With this increase in population there -naturally resulted the usual demand for admission to the union. Instead -of waiting for authority from Washington, the Californians held a -convention in 1849 and framed their constitution. With impatience, the -delegates brushed aside the plea that "the balance of power between the -North and South" required the admission of their state as a slave -commonwealth. Without a dissenting voice, they voted in favor of freedom -and boldly made their request for inclusion among the United States. -President Taylor, though a Southern man, advised Congress to admit the -applicant. Robert Toombs of Georgia vowed to God that he preferred -secession. Henry Clay, the great compromiser, came to the rescue and in -1850 California was admitted as a free state. - -=Utah.=--On the long road to California, in the midst of forbidding and -barren wastes, a religious sect, the Mormons, had planted a colony -destined to a stormy career. Founded in 1830 under the leadership of -Joseph Smith of New York, the sect had suffered from many cruel buffets -of fortune. From Ohio they had migrated into Missouri where they were -set upon and beaten. Some of them were murdered by indignant neighbors. -Harried out of Missouri, they went into Illinois only to see their -director and prophet, Smith, first imprisoned by the authorities and -then shot by a mob. Having raised up a cloud of enemies on account of -both their religious faith and their practice of allowing a man to have -more than one wife, they fell in heartily with the suggestion of a new -leader, Brigham Young, that they go into the Far West beyond the plains -of Kansas--into the forlorn desert where the wicked would cease from -troubling and the weary could be at rest, as they read in the Bible. In -1847, Young, with a company of picked men, searched far and wide until -he found a suitable spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley. Returning to -Illinois, he gathered up his followers, now numbering several thousand, -and in one mighty wagon caravan they all went to their distant haven. - -_Brigham Young and His Economic System._--In Brigham Young the Mormons -had a leader of remarkable power who gave direction to the redemption of -the arid soil, the management of property, and the upbuilding of -industry. He promised them to make the desert blossom as the rose, and -verily he did it. He firmly shaped the enterprise of the colony along -co-operative lines, holding down the speculator and profiteer with one -hand and giving encouragement to the industrious poor with the other. -With the shrewdness befitting a good business man, he knew how to draw -the line between public and private interest. Land was given outright to -each family, but great care was exercised in the distribution so that -none should have great advantage over another. The purchase of supplies -and the sale of produce were carried on through a cooeperative store, the -profits of which went to the common good. Encountering for the first -time in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race the problem of aridity, the -Mormons surmounted the most perplexing obstacles with astounding skill. -They built irrigation works by cooeperative labor and granted water -rights to all families on equitable terms. - -_The Growth of Industries._--Though farming long remained the major -interest of the colony, the Mormons, eager to be self-supporting in -every possible way, bent their efforts also to manufacturing and later -to mining. Their missionaries, who hunted in the highways and byways of -Europe for converts, never failed to stress the economic advantages of -the sect. "We want," proclaimed President Young to all the earth, "a -company of woolen manufacturers to come with machinery and take the wool -from the sheep and convert it into the best clothes. We want a company -of potters; we need them; the clay is ready and the dishes wanted.... We -want some men to start a furnace forthwith; the iron, coal, and molders -are waiting.... We have a printing press and any one who can take good -printing and writing paper to the Valley will be a blessing to -themselves and the church." Roads and bridges were built; millions were -spent in experiments in agriculture and manufacturing; missionaries at a -huge cost were maintained in the East and in Europe; an army was kept -for defense against the Indians; and colonies were planted in the -outlying regions. A historian of Deseret, as the colony was called by -the Mormons, estimated in 1895 that by the labor of their hands the -people had produced nearly half a billion dollars in wealth since the -coming of the vanguard. - -_Polygamy Forbidden._--The hope of the Mormons that they might forever -remain undisturbed by outsiders was soon dashed to earth, for hundreds -of farmers and artisans belonging to other religious sects came to -settle among them. In 1850 the colony was so populous and prosperous -that it was organized into a territory of the United States and brought -under the supervision of the federal government. Protests against -polygamy were raised in the colony and at the seat of authority three -thousand miles away at Washington. The new Republican party in 1856 -proclaimed it "the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the -Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." In -due time the Mormons had to give up their marriage practices which were -condemned by the common opinion of all western civilization; but they -kept their religious faith. Monuments to their early enterprise are seen -in the Temple and the Tabernacle, the irrigation works, and the great -wealth of the Church. - - -SUMMARY OF WESTERN DEVELOPMENT AND NATIONAL POLITICS - -While the statesmen of the old generation were solving the problems of -their age, hunters, pioneers, and home seekers were preparing new -problems beyond the Alleghanies. The West was rising in population and -wealth. Between 1783 and 1829, eleven states were added to the original -thirteen. All but two were in the West. Two of them were in the -Louisiana territory beyond the Mississippi. Here the process of -colonization was repeated. Hardy frontier people cut down the forests, -built log cabins, laid out farms, and cut roads through the wilderness. -They began a new civilization just as the immigrants to Virginia or -Massachusetts had done two centuries earlier. - -Like the seaboard colonists before them, they too cherished the spirit -of independence and power. They had not gone far upon their course -before they resented the monopoly of the presidency by the East. In 1829 -they actually sent one of their own cherished leaders, Andrew Jackson, -to the White House. Again in 1840, in 1844, in 1848, and in 1860, the -Mississippi Valley could boast that one of its sons had been chosen for -the seat of power at Washington. Its democratic temper evoked a cordial -response in the towns of the East where the old aristocracy had been put -aside and artisans had been given the ballot. - -For three decades the West occupied the interest of the nation. Under -Jackson's leadership, it destroyed the second United States Bank. When -he smote nullification in South Carolina, it gave him cordial support. -It approved his policy of parceling out government offices among party -workers--"the spoils system" in all its fullness. On only one point did -it really dissent. The West heartily favored internal improvements, the -appropriation of federal funds for highways, canals, and railways. -Jackson had misgivings on this question and awakened sharp criticism by -vetoing a road improvement bill. - -From their point of vantage on the frontier, the pioneers pressed on -westward. They pushed into Texas, created a state, declared their -independence, demanded a place in the union, and precipitated a war with -Mexico. They crossed the trackless plain and desert, laying out trails -to Santa Fe, to Oregon, and to California. They were upon the scene when -the Mexican War brought California under the Stars and Stripes. They had -laid out their farms in the Willamette Valley when the slogan -"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" forced a settlement of the Oregon boundary. -California and Oregon were already in the union when there arose the -Great Civil War testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived -and so dedicated could long endure. - - -=References= - -G.P. Brown, _Westward Expansion_ (American Nation Series). - -K. Coman, _Economic Beginnings of the Far West_ (2 vols.). - -F. Parkman, _California and the Oregon Trail_. - -R.S. Ripley, _The War with Mexico_. - -W.C. Rives, _The United States and Mexico, 1821-48_ (2 vols.). - - -=Questions= - -1. Give some of the special features in the history of Missouri, -Arkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. - -2. Contrast the climate and soil of the Middle West and the Far West. - -3. How did Mexico at first encourage American immigration? - -4. What produced the revolution in Texas? Who led in it? - -5. Narrate some of the leading events in the struggle over annexation to -the United States. - -6. What action by President Polk precipitated war? - -7. Give the details of the peace settlement with Mexico. - -8. What is meant by the "joint occupation" of Oregon? - -9. How was the Oregon boundary dispute finally settled? - -10. Compare the American "invasion" of California with the migration -into Texas. - -11. Explain how California became a free state. - -12. Describe the early economic policy of the Mormons. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Independence of Texas.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the -United States_, Vol. VI, pp. 251-270. Woodrow Wilson, _History of the -American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 102-126. - -=The Annexation of Texas.=--McMaster, Vol. VII. The passages on -annexation are scattered through this volume and it is an exercise in -ingenuity to make a connected story of them. Source materials in Hart, -_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 637-655; Elson, -_History of the United States_, pp. 516-521, 526-527. - -=The War with Mexico.=--Elson, pp. 526-538. - -=The Oregon Boundary Dispute.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific -Northwest_ (rev. ed.), pp. 88-104; 173-185. - -=The Migration to Oregon.=--Schafer, pp. 105-172. Coman, _Economic -Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 113-166. - -=The Santa Fe Trail.=--Coman, _Economic Beginnings_, Vol. II, pp. 75-93. - -=The Conquest of California.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 297-319. - -=Gold in California.=--McMaster, Vol. VII, pp. 585-614. - -=The Mormon Migration.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 167-206. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Fremont, Generals Scott and Taylor, Sam -Houston, and David Crockett. - -=The Romance of Western Exploration.=--J.G. Neihardt, _The Splendid -Wayfaring_. J.G. Neihardt, _The Song of Hugh Glass_. - - - - -PART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM - - -If Jefferson could have lived to see the Stars and Stripes planted on -the Pacific Coast, the broad empire of Texas added to the planting -states, and the valley of the Willamette waving with wheat sown by -farmers from New England, he would have been more than fortified in his -faith that the future of America lay in agriculture. Even a stanch old -Federalist like Gouverneur Morris or Josiah Quincy would have mournfully -conceded both the prophecy and the claim. Manifest destiny never seemed -more clearly written in the stars. - -As the farmers from the Northwest and planters from the Southwest poured -in upon the floor of Congress, the party of Jefferson, christened anew -by Jackson, grew stronger year by year. Opponents there were, no doubt, -disgruntled critics and Whigs by conviction; but in 1852 Franklin -Pierce, the Democratic candidate for President, carried every state in -the union except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This -victory, a triumph under ordinary circumstances, was all the more -significant in that Pierce was pitted against a hero of the Mexican War, -General Scott, whom the Whigs, hoping to win by rousing the martial -ardor of the voters, had nominated. On looking at the election returns, -the new President calmly assured the planters that "the general -principle of reduction of duties with a view to revenue may now be -regarded as the settled policy of the country." With equal confidence, -he waved aside those agitators who devoted themselves "to the supposed -interests of the relatively few Africans in the United States." Like a -watchman in the night he called to the country: "All's well." - -The party of Hamilton and Clay lay in the dust. - - -THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - -As pride often goeth before a fall, so sanguine expectation is sometimes -the symbol of defeat. Jackson destroyed the bank. Polk signed the tariff -bill of 1846 striking an effective blow at the principle of protection -for manufactures. Pierce promised to silence the abolitionists. His -successor was to approve a drastic step in the direction of free trade. -Nevertheless all these things left untouched the springs of power that -were in due time to make America the greatest industrial nation on the -earth; namely, vast national resources, business enterprise, inventive -genius, and the free labor supply of Europe. Unseen by the thoughtless, -unrecorded in the diaries of wiseacres, rarely mentioned in the speeches -of statesmen, there was swiftly rising such a tide in the affairs of -America as Jefferson and Hamilton never dreamed of in their little -philosophies. - -=The Inventors.=--Watt and Boulton experimenting with steam in England, -Whitney combining wood and steel into a cotton gin, Fulton and Fitch -applying the steam engine to navigation, Stevens and Peter Cooper trying -out the "iron horse" on "iron highways," Slater building spinning mills -in Pawtucket, Howe attaching the needle to the flying wheel, Morse -spanning a continent with the telegraph, Cyrus Field linking the markets -of the new world with the old along the bed of the Atlantic, McCormick -breaking the sickle under the reaper--these men and a thousand more were -destroying in a mighty revolution of industry the world of the -stagecoach and the tallow candle which Washington and Franklin had -inherited little changed from the age of Caesar. Whitney was to make -cotton king. Watt and Fulton were to make steel and steam masters of the -world. Agriculture was to fall behind in the race for supremacy. - -=Industry Outstrips Planting.=--The story of invention, that tribute to -the triumph of mind over matter, fascinating as a romance, need not be -treated in detail here. The effects of invention on social and political -life, multitudinous and never-ending, form the very warp and woof of -American progress from the days of Andrew Jackson to the latest hour. -Neither the great civil conflict--the clash of two systems--nor the -problems of the modern age can be approached without an understanding of -the striking phases of industrialism. - -[Illustration: A NEW ENGLAND MILL BUILT IN 1793] - -First and foremost among them was the uprush of mills managed by -captains of industry and manned by labor drawn from farms, cities, and -foreign lands. For every planter who cleared a domain in the Southwest -and gathered his army of bondmen about him, there rose in the North a -magician of steam and steel who collected under his roof an army of free -workers. - -In seven league boots this new giant strode ahead of the Southern giant. -Between 1850 and 1859, to use dollars and cents as the measure of -progress, the value of domestic manufactures including mines and -fisheries rose from $1,019,106,616 to $1,900,000,000, an increase of -eighty-six per cent in ten years. In this same period the total -production of naval stores, rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton, the -staples of the South, went only from $165,000,000, in round figures, to -$204,000,000. At the halfway point of the century, the capital invested -in industry, commerce, and cities far exceeded the value of all the farm -land between the Atlantic and the Pacific; thus the course of economy -had been reversed in fifty years. Tested by figures of production, King -Cotton had shriveled by 1860 to a petty prince in comparison, for each -year the captains of industry turned out goods worth nearly twenty times -all the bales of cotton picked on Southern plantations. Iron, boots and -shoes, and leather goods pouring from Northern mills surpassed in value -the entire cotton output. - -=The Agrarian West Turns to Industry.=--Nor was this vast enterprise -confined to the old Northeast where, as Madison had sagely remarked, -commerce was early dominant. "Cincinnati," runs an official report in -1854, "appears to be a great central depot for ready-made clothing and -its manufacture for the Western markets may be said to be one of the -great trades of that city." There, wrote another traveler, "I heard the -crack of the cattle driver's whip and the hum of the factory: the West -and the East meeting." Louisville and St. Louis were already famous for -their clothing trades and the manufacture of cotton bagging. Five -hundred of the two thousand woolen mills in the country in 1860 were in -the Western states. Of the output of flour and grist mills, which almost -reached in value the cotton crop of 1850, the Ohio Valley furnished a -rapidly growing share. The old home of Jacksonian democracy, where -Federalists had been almost as scarce as monarchists, turned slowly -backward, as the needle to the pole, toward the principle of protection -for domestic industry, espoused by Hamilton and defended by Clay. - -=The Extension of Canals and Railways.=--As necessary to mechanical -industry as steel and steam power was the great market, spread over a -wide and diversified area and knit together by efficient means of -transportation. This service was supplied to industry by the steamship, -which began its career on the Hudson in 1807; by the canals, of which -the Erie opened in 1825 was the most noteworthy; and by the railways, -which came into practical operation about 1830. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -AN EARLY RAILWAY] - -With sure instinct the Eastern manufacturer reached out for the markets -of the Northwest territory where free farmers were producing annually -staggering crops of corn, wheat, bacon, and wool. The two great canal -systems--the Erie connecting New York City with the waterways of the -Great Lakes and the Pennsylvania chain linking Philadelphia with the -headwaters of the Ohio--gradually turned the tide of trade from New -Orleans to the Eastern seaboard. The railways followed the same paths. -By 1860, New York had rail connections with Chicago and St. Louis, one -of the routes running through the Hudson and Mohawk valleys and along -the Great Lakes, the other through Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and -across the rich wheat fields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Baltimore, -not to be outdone by her two rivals, reached out over the mountains for -the Western trade and in 1857 had trains running into St. Louis. - -In railway enterprise the South took more interest than in canals, and -the friends of that section came to its aid. To offset the magnet -drawing trade away from the Mississippi Valley, lines were built from -the Gulf to Chicago, the Illinois Central part of the project being a -monument to the zeal and industry of a Democrat, better known in -politics than in business, Stephen A. Douglas. The swift movement of -cotton and tobacco to the North or to seaports was of common concern to -planters and manufacturers. Accordingly lines were flung down along the -Southern coast, linking Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah with the -Northern markets. Other lines struck inland from the coast, giving a -rail outlet to the sea for Raleigh, Columbia, Atlanta, Chattanooga, -Nashville, and Montgomery. Nevertheless, in spite of this enterprise, -the mileage of all the Southern states in 1860 did not equal that of -Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois combined. - -=Banking and Finance.=--Out of commerce and manufactures and the -construction and operation of railways came such an accumulation of -capital in the Northern states as merchants of old never imagined. The -banks of the four industrial states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New -York, and Pennsylvania in 1860 had funds greater than the banks in all -the other states combined. New York City had become the money market of -America, the center to which industrial companies, railway promoters, -farmers, and planters turned for capital to initiate and carry on their -operations. The banks of Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia, and -Virginia, it is true, had capital far in excess of the banks of the -Northwest; but still they were relatively small compared with the -financial institutions of the East. - -=The Growth of the Industrial Population.=--A revolution of such -magnitude in industry, transport, and finance, overturning as it did the -agrarian civilization of the old Northwest and reaching out to the very -borders of the country, could not fail to bring in its train -consequences of a striking character. Some were immediate and obvious. -Others require a fullness of time not yet reached to reveal their -complete significance. Outstanding among them was the growth of an -industrial population, detached from the land, concentrated in cities, -and, to use Jefferson's phrase, dependent upon "the caprices and -casualties of trade" for a livelihood. This was a result, as the great -Virginian had foreseen, which flowed inevitably from public and private -efforts to stimulate industry as against agriculture. - -[Illustration: LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, IN 1838, AN EARLY INDUSTRIAL -TOWN] - -It was estimated in 1860, on the basis of the census figures, that -mechanical production gave employment to 1,100,000 men and 285,000 -women, making, if the average number of dependents upon them be -reckoned, nearly six million people or about one-sixth of the population -of the country sustained from manufactures. "This," runs the official -record, "was exclusive of the number engaged in the production of many -of the raw materials and of the food for manufacturers; in the -distribution of their products, such as merchants, clerks, draymen, -mariners, the employees of railroads, expresses, and steamboats; of -capitalists, various artistic and professional classes, as well as -carpenters, bricklayers, painters, and the members of other mechanical -trades not classed as manufactures. It is safe to assume, then, that -one-third of the whole population is supported, directly, or indirectly, -by manufacturing industry." Taking, however, the number of persons -directly supported by manufactures, namely about six millions, reveals -the astounding fact that the white laboring population, divorced from -the soil, already exceeded the number of slaves on Southern farms and -plantations. - -_Immigration._--The more carefully the rapid growth of the industrial -population is examined, the more surprising is the fact that such an -immense body of free laborers could be found, particularly when it is -recalled to what desperate straits the colonial leaders were put in -securing immigrants,--slavery, indentured servitude, and kidnapping -being the fruits of their necessities. The answer to the enigma is to be -found partly in European conditions and partly in the cheapness of -transportation after the opening of the era of steam navigation. Shrewd -observers of the course of events had long foreseen that a flood of -cheap labor was bound to come when the way was made easy. Some, among -them Chief Justice Ellsworth, went so far as to prophesy that white -labor would in time be so abundant that slavery would disappear as the -more costly of the two labor systems. The processes of nature were aided -by the policies of government in England and Germany. - -_The Coming of the Irish._--The opposition of the Irish people to the -English government, ever furious and irrepressible, was increased in the -mid forties by an almost total failure of the potato crop, the main -support of the peasants. Catholic in religion, they had been compelled -to support a Protestant church. Tillers of the soil by necessity, they -were forced to pay enormous tributes to absentee landlords in England -whose claim to their estates rested upon the title of conquest and -confiscation. Intensely loyal to their race, the Irish were subjected in -all things to the Parliament at London, in which their small minority of -representatives had little influence save in holding a balance of power -between the two contending English parties. To the constant political -irritation, the potato famine added physical distress beyond -description. In cottages and fields and along the highways the victims -of starvation lay dead by the hundreds, the relief which charity -afforded only bringing misery more sharply to the foreground. Those who -were fortunate enough to secure passage money sought escape to America. -In 1844 the total immigration into the United States was less than -eighty thousand; in 1850 it had risen by leaps and bounds to more than -three hundred thousand. Between 1820 and 1860 the immigrants from the -United Kingdom numbered 2,750,000, of whom more than one-half were -Irish. It has been said with a touch of exaggeration that the American -canals and railways of those days were built by the labor of Irishmen. - -_The German Migration._--To political discontent and economic distress, -such as was responsible for the coming of the Irish, may likewise be -traced the source of the Germanic migration. The potato blight that fell -upon Ireland visited the Rhine Valley and Southern Germany at the same -time with results as pitiful, if less extensive. The calamity inflicted -by nature was followed shortly by another inflicted by the despotic -conduct of German kings and princes. In 1848 there had occurred -throughout Europe a popular uprising in behalf of republics and -democratic government. For a time it rode on a full tide of success. -Kings were overthrown, or compelled to promise constitutional -government, and tyrannical ministers fled from their palaces. Then came -reaction. Those who had championed the popular cause were imprisoned, -shot, or driven out of the land. Men of attainments and distinction, -whose sole offense was opposition to the government of kings and -princes, sought an asylum in America, carrying with them to the land of -their adoption the spirit of liberty and democracy. In 1847 over fifty -thousand Germans came to America, the forerunners of a migration that -increased, almost steadily, for many years. The record of 1860 showed -that in the previous twenty years nearly a million and a half had found -homes in the United States. Far and wide they scattered, from the mills -and shops of the seacoast towns to the uttermost frontiers of Wisconsin -and Minnesota. - -_The Labor of Women and Children._--If the industries, canals, and -railways of the country were largely manned by foreign labor, still -important native sources must not be overlooked; above all, the women -and children of the New England textile districts. Spinning and weaving, -by a tradition that runs far beyond the written records of mankind, -belonged to women. Indeed it was the dexterous housewives, spinsters, -and boys and girls that laid the foundations of the textile industry in -America, foundations upon which the mechanical revolution was built. As -the wheel and loom were taken out of the homes to the factories operated -by water power or the steam engine, the women and, to use Hamilton's -phrase, "the children of tender years," followed as a matter of course. -"The cotton manufacture alone employs six thousand persons in Lowell," -wrote a French observer in 1836; "of this number nearly five thousand -are young women from seventeen to twenty-four years of age, the -daughters of farmers from the different New England states." It was not -until after the middle of the century that foreign lands proved to be -the chief source from which workers were recruited for the factories of -New England. It was then that the daughters of the Puritans, outdone by -the competition of foreign labor, both of men and women, left the -spinning jenny and the loom to other hands. - -=The Rise of Organized Labor.=--The changing conditions of American -life, marked by the spreading mill towns of New England, New York, and -Pennsylvania and the growth of cities like Buffalo, Cincinnati, -Louisville, St. Louis, Detroit, and Chicago in the West, naturally -brought changes, as Jefferson had prophesied, in "manners and morals." A -few mechanics, smiths, carpenters, and masons, widely scattered through -farming regions and rural villages, raise no such problems as tens of -thousands of workers collected in one center in daily intercourse, -learning the power of cooeperation and union. - -Even before the coming of steam and machinery, in the "good old days" of -handicrafts, laborers in many trades--printers, shoemakers, carpenters, -for example--had begun to draw together in the towns for the advancement -of their interests in the form of higher wages, shorter days, and -milder laws. The shoemakers of Philadelphia, organized in 1794, -conducted a strike in 1799 and held together until indicted seven years -later for conspiracy. During the twenties and thirties, local labor -unions sprang up in all industrial centers and they led almost -immediately to city federations of the several crafts. - -As the thousands who were dependent upon their daily labor for their -livelihood mounted into the millions and industries spread across the -continent, the local unions of craftsmen grew into national craft -organizations bound together by the newspapers, the telegraph, and the -railways. Before 1860 there were several such national trade unions, -including the plumbers, printers, mule spinners, iron molders, and stone -cutters. All over the North labor leaders arose--men unknown to general -history but forceful and resourceful characters who forged links binding -scattered and individual workers into a common brotherhood. An attempt -was even made in 1834 to federate all the crafts into a permanent -national organization; but it perished within three years through lack -of support. Half a century had to elapse before the American Federation -of Labor was to accomplish this task. - -All the manifestations of the modern labor movement had appeared, in -germ at least, by the time the mid-century was reached: unions, labor -leaders, strikes, a labor press, a labor political program, and a labor -political party. In every great city industrial disputes were a common -occurrence. The papers recorded about four hundred in two years, -1853-54, local affairs but forecasting economic struggles in a larger -field. The labor press seems to have begun with the founding of the -_Mechanics' Free Press_ in Philadelphia in 1828 and the establishment of -the New York _Workingman's Advocate_ shortly afterward. These -semi-political papers were in later years followed by regular trade -papers designed to weld together and advance the interests of particular -crafts. Edited by able leaders, these little sheets with limited -circulation wielded an enormous influence in the ranks of the workers. - -=Labor and Politics.=--As for the political program of labor, the main -planks were clear and specific: the abolition of imprisonment for debt, -manhood suffrage in states where property qualifications still -prevailed, free and universal education, laws protecting the safety and -health of workers in mills and factories, abolition of lotteries, repeal -of laws requiring militia service, and free land in the West. - -Into the labor papers and platforms there sometimes crept a note of -hostility to the masters of industry, a sign of bitterness that excited -little alarm while cheap land in the West was open to the discontented. -The Philadelphia workmen, in issuing a call for a local convention, -invited "all those of our fellow citizens who live by their own labor -and none other." In Newcastle county, Delaware, the association of -working people complained in 1830: "The poor have no laws; the laws are -made by the rich and of course for the rich." Here and there an -extremist went to the length of advocating an equal division of wealth -among all the people--the crudest kind of communism. - -Agitation of this character produced in labor circles profound distrust -of both Whigs and Democrats who talked principally about tariffs and -banks; it resulted in attempts to found independent labor parties. In -Philadelphia, Albany, New York City, and New England, labor candidates -were put up for elections in the early thirties and in a few cases were -victorious at the polls. "The balance of power has at length got into -the hands of the working people, where it properly belongs," -triumphantly exclaimed the _Mechanics' Free Press_ of Philadelphia in -1829. But the triumph was illusory. Dissensions appeared in the labor -ranks. The old party leaders, particularly of Tammany Hall, the -Democratic party organization in New York City, offered concessions to -labor in return for votes. Newspapers unsparingly denounced "trade union -politicians" as "demagogues," "levellers," and "rag, tag, and bobtail"; -and some of them, deeming labor unrest the sour fruit of manhood -suffrage, suggested disfranchisement as a remedy. Under the influence -of concessions and attacks the political fever quickly died away, and -the end of the decade left no remnant of the labor political parties. -Labor leaders turned to a task which seemed more substantial and -practical, that of organizing workingmen into craft unions for the -definite purpose of raising wages and reducing hours. - - -THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NATIONAL POLITICS - -=Southern Plans for Union with the West.=--It was long the design of -Southern statesmen like Calhoun to hold the West and the South together -in one political party. The theory on which they based their hope was -simple. Both sections were agricultural--the producers of raw materials -and the buyers of manufactured goods. The planters were heavy purchasers -of Western bacon, pork, mules, and grain. The Mississippi River and its -tributaries formed the natural channel for the transportation of heavy -produce southward to the plantations and outward to Europe. Therefore, -ran their political reasoning, the interests of the two sections were -one. By standing together in favor of low tariffs, they could buy their -manufactures cheaply in Europe and pay for them in cotton, tobacco, and -grain. The union of the two sections under Jackson's management seemed -perfect. - -=The East Forms Ties with the West.=--Eastern leaders were not blind to -the ambitions of Southern statesmen. On the contrary, they also -recognized the importance of forming strong ties with the agrarian West -and drawing the produce of the Ohio Valley to Philadelphia and New York. -The canals and railways were the physical signs of this economic union, -and the results, commercial and political, were soon evident. By the -middle of the century, Southern economists noted the change, one of -them, De Bow, lamenting that "the great cities of the North have -severally penetrated the interior with artificial lines until they have -taken from the open and untaxed current of the Mississippi the commerce -produced on its borders." To this writer it was an astounding thing to -behold "the number of steamers that now descend the upper Mississippi -River, loaded to the guards with produce, as far as the mouth of the -Illinois River and then turn up that stream with their cargoes to be -shipped to New York _via_ Chicago. The Illinois canal has not only swept -the whole produce along the line of the Illinois River to the East, but -it is drawing the products of the upper Mississippi through the same -channel; thus depriving New Orleans and St. Louis of a rich portion of -their former trade." - -If to any shippers the broad current of the great river sweeping down to -New Orleans offered easier means of physical communication to the sea -than the canals and railways, the difference could be overcome by the -credit which Eastern bankers were able to extend to the grain and -produce buyers, in the first instance, and through them to the farmers -on the soil. The acute Southern observer just quoted, De Bow, admitted -with evident regret, in 1852, that "last autumn, the rich regions of -Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were flooded with the local bank notes of -the Eastern States, advanced by the New York houses on produce to be -shipped by way of the canals in the spring.... These moneyed facilities -enable the packer, miller, and speculator to hold on to their produce -until the opening of navigation in the spring and they are no longer -obliged, as formerly, to hurry off their shipments during the winter by -the way of New Orleans in order to realize funds by drafts on their -shipments. The banking facilities at the East are doing as much to draw -trade from us as the canals and railways which Eastern capital is -constructing." Thus canals, railways, and financial credit were swiftly -forging bonds of union between the old home of Jacksonian Democracy in -the West and the older home of Federalism in the East. The nationalism -to which Webster paid eloquent tribute became more and more real with -the passing of time. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer was broken down -as he began to watch the produce markets of New York and Philadelphia -where the prices of corn and hogs fixed his earnings for the year. - -=The West and Manufactures.=--In addition to the commercial bonds -between the East and the West there was growing up a common interest in -manufactures. As skilled white labor increased in the Ohio Valley, the -industries springing up in the new cities made Western life more like -that of the industrial East than like that of the planting South. -Moreover, the Western states produced some important raw materials for -American factories, which called for protection against foreign -competition, notably, wool, hemp, and flax. As the South had little or -no foreign competition in cotton and tobacco, the East could not offer -protection for her raw materials in exchange for protection for -industries. With the West, however, it became possible to establish -reciprocity in tariffs; that is, for example, to trade a high rate on -wool for a high rate on textiles or iron. - -=The South Dependent on the North.=--While East and West were drawing -together, the distinctions between North and South were becoming more -marked; the latter, having few industries and producing little save raw -materials, was being forced into the position of a dependent section. As -a result of the protective tariff, Southern planters were compelled to -turn more and more to Northern mills for their cloth, shoes, hats, hoes, -plows, and machinery. Nearly all the goods which they bought in Europe -in exchange for their produce came overseas to Northern ports, whence -transshipments were made by rail and water to Southern points of -distribution. Their rice, cotton, and tobacco, in as far as they were -not carried to Europe in British bottoms, were transported by Northern -masters. In these ways, a large part of the financial operations -connected with the sale of Southern produce and the purchase of goods in -exchange passed into the hands of Northern merchants and bankers who, -naturally, made profits from their transactions. Finally, Southern -planters who wanted to buy more land and more slaves on credit borrowed -heavily in the North where huge accumulations made the rates of interest -lower than the smaller banks of the South could afford. - -=The South Reckons the Cost of Economic Dependence.=--As Southern -dependence upon Northern capital became more and more marked, Southern -leaders began to chafe at what they regarded as restraints laid upon -their enterprise. In a word, they came to look upon the planter as a -tribute-bearer to the manufacturer and financier. "The South," -expostulated De Bow, "stands in the attitude of feeding ... a vast -population of [Northern] merchants, shipowners, capitalists, and others -who, without claims on her progeny, drink up the life blood of her -trade.... Where goes the value of our labor but to those who, taking -advantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and, after -turning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with -our money to enjoy their easily earned opulence at home." - -Southern statisticians, not satisfied with generalities, attempted to -figure out how great was this tribute in dollars and cents. They -estimated that the planters annually lent to Northern merchants the full -value of their exports, a hundred millions or more, "to be used in the -manipulation of foreign imports." They calculated that no less than -forty millions all told had been paid to shipowners in profits. They -reckoned that, if the South were to work up her own cotton, she would -realize from seventy to one hundred millions a year that otherwise went -North. Finally, to cap the climax, they regretted that planters spent -some fifteen millions a year pleasure-seeking in the alluring cities and -summer resorts of the North. - -=Southern Opposition to Northern Policies.=--Proceeding from these -premises, Southern leaders drew the logical conclusion that the entire -program of economic measures demanded in the North was without exception -adverse to Southern interests and, by a similar chain of reasoning, -injurious to the corn and wheat producers of the West. Cheap labor -afforded by free immigration, a protective tariff raising prices of -manufactures for the tiller of the soil, ship subsidies increasing the -tonnage of carrying trade in Northern hands, internal improvements -forging new economic bonds between the East and the West, a national -banking system giving strict national control over the currency as a -safeguard against paper inflation--all these devices were regarded in -the South as contrary to the planting interest. They were constantly -compared with the restrictive measures by which Great Britain more than -half a century before had sought to bind American interests. - -As oppression justified a war for independence once, statesmen argued, -so it can justify it again. "It is curious as it is melancholy and -distressing," came a broad hint from South Carolina, "to see how -striking is the analogy between the colonial vassalage to which the -manufacturing states have reduced the planting states and that which -formerly bound the Anglo-American colonies to the British empire.... -England said to her American colonies: 'You shall not trade with the -rest of the world for such manufactures as are produced in the mother -country.' The manufacturing states say to their Southern colonies: 'You -shall not trade with the rest of the world for such manufactures as we -produce.'" The conclusion was inexorable: either the South must control -the national government and its economic measures, or it must declare, -as America had done four score years before, its political and economic -independence. As Northern mills multiplied, as railways spun their -mighty web over the face of the North, and as accumulated capital rose -into the hundreds of millions, the conviction of the planters and their -statesmen deepened into desperation. - -=Efforts to Start Southern Industries Fail.=--A few of them, seeing the -predominance of the North, made determined efforts to introduce -manufactures into the South. To the leaders who were averse to secession -and nullification this seemed the only remedy for the growing disparity -in the power of the two sections. Societies for the encouragement of -mechanical industries were formed, the investment of capital was sought, -and indeed a few mills were built on Southern soil. The results were -meager. The natural resources, coal and water power, were abundant; but -the enterprise for direction and the skilled labor were wanting. The -stream of European immigration flowed North and West, not South. The -Irish or German laborer, even if he finally made his home in a city, had -before him, while in the North, the alternative of a homestead on -Western land. To him slavery was a strange, if not a repelling, -institution. He did not take to it kindly nor care to fix his home where -it flourished. While slavery lasted, the economy of the South was -inevitably agricultural. While agriculture predominated, leadership with -equal necessity fell to the planting interest. While the planting -interest ruled, political opposition to Northern economy was destined to -grow in strength. - -=The Southern Theory of Sectionalism.=--In the opinion of the statesmen -who frankly represented the planting interest, the industrial system was -its deadly enemy. Their entire philosophy of American politics was -summed up in a single paragraph by McDuffie, a spokesman for South -Carolina: "Owing to the federative character of our government, the -great geographical extent of our territory, and the diversity of the -pursuits of our citizens in different parts of the union, it has so -happened that two great interests have sprung up, standing directly -opposed to each other. One of these consists of those manufactures which -the Northern and Middle states are capable of producing but which, owing -to the high price of labor and the high profits of capital in those -states, cannot hold competition with foreign manufactures without the -aid of bounties, directly or indirectly given, either by the general -government or by the state governments. The other of these interests -consists of the great agricultural staples of the Southern states which -can find a market only in foreign countries and which can be -advantageously sold only in exchange for foreign manufactures which come -in competition with those of the Northern and Middle states.... These -interests then stand diametrically and irreconcilably opposed to each -other. The interest, the pecuniary interest of the Northern -manufacturer, is directly promoted by every increase of the taxes -imposed upon Southern commerce; and it is unnecessary to add that the -interest of the Southern planter is promoted by every diminution of -taxes imposed upon the productions of their industry. If, under these -circumstances, the manufacturers were clothed with the power of imposing -taxes, at their pleasure, upon the foreign imports of the planter, no -doubt would exist in the mind of any man that it would have all the -characteristics of an absolute and unqualified despotism." The economic -soundness of this reasoning, a subject of interesting speculation for -the economist, is of little concern to the historian. The historical -point is that this opinion was widely held in the South and with the -progress of time became the prevailing doctrine of the planting -statesmen. - -Their antagonism was deepened because they also became convinced, on -what grounds it is not necessary to inquire, that the leaders of the -industrial interest thus opposed to planting formed a consolidated -"aristocracy of wealth," bent upon the pursuit and attainment of -political power at Washington. "By the aid of various associated -interests," continued McDuffie, "the manufacturing capitalists have -obtained a complete and permanent control over the legislation of -Congress on this subject [the tariff].... Men confederated together upon -selfish and interested principles, whether in pursuit of the offices or -the bounties of the government, are ever more active and vigilant than -the great majority who act from disinterested and patriotic impulses. -Have we not witnessed it on this floor, sir? Who ever knew the tariff -men to divide on any question affecting their confederated interests?... -The watchword is, stick together, right or wrong upon every question -affecting the common cause. Such, sir, is the concert and vigilance and -such the combinations by which the manufacturing party, acting upon the -interests of some and the prejudices of others, have obtained a decided -and permanent control over public opinion in all the tariff states." -Thus, as the Southern statesman would have it, the North, in matters -affecting national policies, was ruled by a "confederated interest" -which menaced the planting interest. As the former grew in magnitude and -attached to itself the free farmers of the West through channels of -trade and credit, it followed as night the day that in time the planters -would be overshadowed and at length overborne in the struggle of giants. -Whether the theory was sound or not, Southern statesmen believed it and -acted upon it. - - -=References= - -M. Beard, _Short History of the American Labor Movement_. - -E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_. - -J.R. Commons, _History of Labour in the United States_ (2 vols.). - -E.R. Johnson, _American Railway Transportation_. - -C.D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution of the United States_. - - -=Questions= - -1. What signs pointed to a complete Democratic triumph in 1852? - -2. What is the explanation of the extraordinary industrial progress of -America? - -3. Compare the planting system with the factory system. - -4. In what sections did industry flourish before the Civil War? Why? - -5. Show why transportation is so vital to modern industry and -agriculture. - -6. Explain how it was possible to secure so many people to labor in -American industries. - -7. Trace the steps in the rise of organized labor before 1860. - -8. What political and economic reforms did labor demand? - -9. Why did the East and the South seek closer ties with the West? - -10. Describe the economic forces which were drawing the East and the -West together. - -11. In what way was the South economically dependent upon the North? - -12 State the national policies generally favored in the North and -condemned in the South. - -13. Show how economic conditions in the South were unfavorable to -industry. - -14. Give the Southern explanation of the antagonism between the North -and the South. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Inventions.=--Assign one to each student. Satisfactory accounts are -to be found in any good encyclopedia, especially the Britannica. - -=River and Lake Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United -States_, pp. 313-326. - -=Railways and Canals.=--Callender, pp. 326-344; 359-387. Coman, -_Industrial History of the United States_, pp. 216-225. - -=The Growth of Industry, 1815-1840.=--Callender, pp. 459-471. From 1850 -to 1860, Callender, pp. 471-486. - -=Early Labor Conditions.=--Callender, pp. 701-718. - -=Early Immigration.=--Callender, pp. 719-732. - -=Clay's Home Market Theory of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 498-503. - -=The New England View of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 503-514. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS - - -James Madison, the father of the federal Constitution, after he had -watched for many days the battle royal in the national convention of -1787, exclaimed that the contest was not between the large and the small -states, but between the commercial North and the planting South. From -the inauguration of Washington to the election of Lincoln the sectional -conflict, discerned by this penetrating thinker, exercised a profound -influence on the course of American politics. It was latent during the -"era of good feeling" when the Jeffersonian Republicans adopted -Federalist policies; it flamed up in the contest between the Democrats -and Whigs. Finally it raged in the angry political quarrel which -culminated in the Civil War. - - -SLAVERY--NORTH AND SOUTH - -=The Decline of Slavery in the North.=--At the time of the adoption of -the Constitution, slavery was lawful in all the Northern states except -Massachusetts. There were almost as many bondmen in New York as in -Georgia. New Jersey had more than Delaware or Tennessee, indeed nearly -as many as both combined. All told, however, there were only about forty -thousand in the North as against nearly seven hundred thousand in the -South. Moreover, most of the Northern slaves were domestic servants, not -laborers necessary to keep mills going or fields under cultivation. - -There was, in the North, a steadily growing moral sentiment against the -system. Massachusetts abandoned it in 1780. In the same year, -Pennsylvania provided for gradual emancipation. New Hampshire, where -there had been only a handful, Connecticut with a few thousand -domestics, and New Jersey early followed these examples. New York, in -1799, declared that all children born of slaves after July 4 of that -year should be free, though held for a term as apprentices; and in 1827 -it swept away the last vestiges of slavery. So with the passing of the -generation that had framed the Constitution, chattel servitude -disappeared in the commercial states, leaving behind only such -discriminations as disfranchisement or high property qualifications on -colored voters. - -=The Growth of Northern Sentiment against Slavery.=--In both sections of -the country there early existed, among those more or less -philosophically inclined, a strong opposition to slavery on moral as -well as economic grounds. In the constitutional convention of 1787, -Gouverneur Morris had vigorously condemned it and proposed that the -whole country should bear the cost of abolishing it. About the same time -a society for promoting the abolition of slavery, under the presidency -of Benjamin Franklin, laid before Congress a petition that serious -attention be given to the emancipation of "those unhappy men who alone -in this land of freedom are degraded into perpetual bondage." When -Congress, acting on the recommendations of President Jefferson, provided -for the abolition of the foreign slave trade on January 1, 1808, several -Northern members joined with Southern members in condemning the system -as well as the trade. Later, colonization societies were formed to -encourage the emancipation of slaves and their return to Africa. James -Madison was president and Henry Clay vice president of such an -organization. - -The anti-slavery sentiment of which these were the signs was -nevertheless confined to narrow circles and bore no trace of bitterness. -"We consider slavery your calamity, not your crime," wrote a -distinguished Boston clergyman to his Southern brethren, "and we will -share with you the burden of putting an end to it. We will consent that -the public lands shall be appropriated to this object.... I deprecate -everything which sows discord and exasperating sectional animosities." - -=Uncompromising Abolition.=--In a little while the spirit of generosity -was gone. Just as Jacksonian Democracy rose to power there appeared a -new kind of anti-slavery doctrine--the dogmatism of the abolition -agitator. For mild speculation on the evils of the system was -substituted an imperious and belligerent demand for instant -emancipation. If a date must be fixed for its appearance, the year 1831 -may be taken when William Lloyd Garrison founded in Boston his -anti-slavery paper, _The Liberator_. With singleness of purpose and -utter contempt for all opposing opinions and arguments, he pursued his -course of passionate denunciation. He apologized for having ever -"assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition." -He chose for his motto: "Immediate and unconditional emancipation!" He -promised his readers that he would be "harsh as truth and uncompromising -as justice"; that he would not "think or speak or write with -moderation." Then he flung out his defiant call: "I am in earnest--I -will not equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single -inch--and I will be heard.... - - 'Such is the vow I take, so help me God.'" - -Though Garrison complained that "the apathy of the people is enough to -make every statue leap from its pedestal," he soon learned how alive the -masses were to the meaning of his propaganda. Abolition orators were -stoned in the street and hissed from the platform. Their meeting places -were often attacked and sometimes burned to the ground. Garrison himself -was assaulted in the streets of Boston, finding refuge from the angry -mob behind prison bars. Lovejoy, a publisher in Alton, Illinois, for his -willingness to give abolition a fair hearing, was brutally murdered; his -printing press was broken to pieces as a warning to all those who -disturbed the nation's peace of mind. The South, doubly frightened by a -slave revolt in 1831 which ended in the murder of a number of men, -women, and children, closed all discussion of slavery in that section. -"Now," exclaimed Calhoun, "it is a question which admits of neither -concession nor compromise." - -As the opposition hardened, the anti-slavery agitation gathered in force -and intensity. Whittier blew his blast from the New England hills: - - "No slave-hunt in our borders--no pirate on our strand; - No fetters in the Bay State--no slave upon our land." - -Lowell, looking upon the espousal of a great cause as the noblest aim of -his art, ridiculed and excoriated bondage in the South. Those -abolitionists, not gifted as speakers or writers, signed petitions -against slavery and poured them in upon Congress. The flood of them was -so continuous that the House of Representatives, forgetting its -traditions, adopted in 1836 a "gag rule" which prevented the reading of -appeals and consigned them to the waste basket. Not until the Whigs were -in power nearly ten years later was John Quincy Adams able, after a -relentless campaign, to carry a motion rescinding the rule. - -How deep was the impression made upon the country by this agitation for -immediate and unconditional emancipation cannot be measured. If the -popular vote for those candidates who opposed not slavery, but its -extension to the territories, be taken as a standard, it was slight -indeed. In 1844, the Free Soil candidate, Birney, polled 62,000 votes -out of over a million and a half; the Free Soil vote of the next -campaign went beyond a quarter of a million, but the increase was due to -the strength of the leader, Martin Van Buren; four years afterward it -receded to 156,000, affording all the outward signs for the belief that -the pleas of the abolitionist found no widespread response among the -people. Yet the agitation undoubtedly ran deeper than the ballot box. -Young statesmen of the North, in whose hands the destiny of frightful -years was to lie, found their indifference to slavery broken and their -consciences stirred by the unending appeal and the tireless reiteration. -Charles Sumner afterward boasted that he read the _Liberator_ two years -before Wendell Phillips, the young Boston lawyer who cast aside his -profession to take up the dangerous cause. - -=Early Southern Opposition to Slavery.=--In the South, the sentiment -against slavery was strong; it led some to believe that it would also -come to an end there in due time. Washington disliked it and directed in -his will that his own slaves should be set free after the death of his -wife. Jefferson, looking into the future, condemned the system by which -he also lived, saying: "Can the liberties of a nation be thought secure -when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of -the people that their liberties are the gift of God? Are they not to be -violated but with His wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I -reflect that God is just; that His justice cannot sleep forever." Nor -did Southern men confine their sentiments to expressions of academic -opinion. They accepted in 1787 the Ordinance which excluded slavery from -the Northwest territory forever and also the Missouri Compromise, which -shut it out of a vast section of the Louisiana territory. - -=The Revolution in the Slave System.=--Among the representatives of -South Carolina and Georgia, however, the anti-slavery views of -Washington and Jefferson were by no means approved; and the drift of -Southern economy was decidedly in favor of extending and perpetuating, -rather than abolishing, the system of chattel servitude. The invention -of the cotton gin and textile machinery created a market for cotton -which the planters, with all their skill and energy, could hardly -supply. Almost every available acre was brought under cotton culture as -the small farmers were driven steadily from the seaboard into the -uplands or to the Northwest. - -The demand for slaves to till the swiftly expanding fields was enormous. -The number of bondmen rose from 700,000 in Washington's day to more than -three millions in 1850. At the same time slavery itself was transformed. -Instead of the homestead where the same family of masters kept the same -families of slaves from generation to generation, came the plantation -system of the Far South and Southwest where masters were ever moving and -ever extending their holdings of lands and slaves. This in turn reacted -on the older South where the raising of slaves for the market became a -regular and highly profitable business. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -JOHN C. CALHOUN] - -=Slavery Defended as a Positive Good.=--As the abolition agitation -increased and the planting system expanded, apologies for slavery became -fainter and fainter in the South. Then apologies were superseded by -claims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control. Calhoun, -in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, sounded the new note by -declaring slavery "instead of an evil, a good--a positive good." His -reasoning was as follows: in every civilized society one portion of the -community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the -arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his -master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than -the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts -between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this -respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left -undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in -wealth and numbers." - -=Slave Owners Dominate Politics.=--The new doctrine of Calhoun was -eagerly seized by the planters as they came more and more to overshadow -the small farmers of the South and as they beheld the menace of -abolition growing upon the horizon. It formed, as they viewed matters, a -moral defense for their labor system--sound, logical, invincible. It -warranted them in drawing together for the protection of an institution -so necessary, so inevitable, so beneficent. - -Though in 1850 the slave owners were only about three hundred and fifty -thousand in a national population of nearly twenty million whites, they -had an influence all out of proportion to their numbers. They were knit -together by the bonds of a common interest. They had leisure and wealth. -They could travel and attend conferences and conventions. Throughout the -South and largely in the North, they had the press, the schools, and the -pulpits on their side. They formed, as it were, a mighty union for the -protection and advancement of their common cause. Aided by those -mechanics and farmers of the North who stuck by Jacksonian Democracy -through thick and thin, the planters became a power in the federal -government. "We nominate Presidents," exultantly boasted a Richmond -newspaper; "the North elects them." - -This jubilant Southern claim was conceded by William H. Seward, a -Republican Senator from New York, in a speech describing the power of -slavery in the national government. "A party," he said, "is in one sense -a joint stock association, in which those who contribute most direct the -action and management of the concern.... The slaveholders, contributing -in an overwhelming proportion to the strength of the Democratic party, -necessarily dictate and prescribe its policy." He went on: "The -slaveholding class has become the governing power in each of the -slaveholding states and it practically chooses thirty of the sixty-two -members of the Senate, ninety of the two hundred and thirty-three -members of the House of Representatives, and one hundred and five of the -two hundred and ninety-five electors of President and Vice-President of -the United States." Then he considered the slave power in the Supreme -Court. "That tribunal," he exclaimed, "consists of a chief justice and -eight associate justices. Of these, five were called from slave states -and four from free states. The opinions and bias of each of them were -carefully considered by the President and Senate when he was appointed. -Not one of them was found wanting in soundness of politics, according to -the slaveholder's exposition of the Constitution." Such was the Northern -view of the planting interest that, from the arena of national politics, -challenged the whole country in 1860. - -[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF SLAVES IN THE SOUTHERN STATES] - - -SLAVERY IN NATIONAL POLITICS - -=National Aspects of Slavery.=--It may be asked why it was that slavery, -founded originally on state law and subject to state government, was -drawn into the current of national affairs. The answer is simple. There -were, in the first place, constitutional reasons. The Congress of the -United States had to make all needful rules for the government of the -territories, the District of Columbia, the forts and other property -under national authority; so it was compelled to determine whether -slavery should exist in the places subject to its jurisdiction. Upon -Congress was also conferred the power of admitting new states; whenever -a territory asked for admission, the issue could be raised as to whether -slavery should be sanctioned or excluded. Under the Constitution, -provision was made for the return of runaway slaves; Congress had the -power to enforce this clause by appropriate legislation. Since the -control of the post office was vested in the federal government, it had -to face the problem raised by the transmission of abolition literature -through the mails. Finally citizens had the right of petition; it -inheres in all free government and it is expressly guaranteed by the -first amendment to the Constitution. It was therefore legal for -abolitionists to present to Congress their petitions, even if they asked -for something which it had no right to grant. It was thus impossible, -constitutionally, to draw a cordon around the slavery issue and confine -the discussion of it to state politics. - -There were, in the second place, economic reasons why slavery was -inevitably drawn into the national sphere. It was the basis of the -planting system which had direct commercial relations with the North and -European countries; it was affected by federal laws respecting tariffs, -bounties, ship subsidies, banking, and kindred matters. The planters of -the South, almost without exception, looked upon the protective tariff -as a tribute laid upon them for the benefit of Northern industries. As -heavy borrowers of money in the North, they were generally in favor of -"easy money," if not paper currency, as an aid in the repayment of their -debts. This threw most of them into opposition to the Whig program for a -United States Bank. All financial aids to American shipping they stoutly -resisted, preferring to rely upon the cheaper service rendered by -English shippers. Internal improvements, those substantial ties that -were binding the West to the East and turning the traffic from New -Orleans to Philadelphia and New York, they viewed with alarm. Free -homesteads from the public lands, which tended to overbalance the South -by building free states, became to them a measure dangerous to their -interests. Thus national economic policies, which could not by any twist -or turn be confined to state control, drew the slave system and its -defenders into the political conflict that centered at Washington. - -=Slavery and the Territories--the Missouri Compromise (1820).=--Though -men continually talked about "taking slavery out of politics," it could -not be done. By 1818 slavery had become so entrenched and the -anti-slavery sentiment so strong, that Missouri's quest for admission -brought both houses of Congress into a deadlock that was broken only by -compromise. The South, having half the Senators, could prevent the -admission of Missouri stripped of slavery; and the North, powerful in -the House of Representatives, could keep Missouri with slavery out of -the union indefinitely. An adjustment of pretensions was the last -resort. Maine, separated from the parent state of Massachusetts, was -brought into the union with freedom and Missouri with bondage. At the -same time it was agreed that the remainder of the vast Louisiana -territory north of the parallel of 36 deg. 30' should be, like the old -Northwest, forever free; while the southern portion was left to slavery. -In reality this was an immense gain for liberty. The area dedicated to -free farmers was many times greater than that left to the planters. The -principle was once more asserted that Congress had full power to prevent -slavery in the territories. - -[Illustration: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE] - -=The Territorial Question Reopened by the Wilmot Proviso.=--To the -Southern leaders, the annexation of Texas and the conquest of Mexico -meant renewed security to the planting interest against the increasing -wealth and population of the North. Texas, it was said, could be divided -into four slave states. The new territories secured by the treaty of -peace with Mexico contained the promise of at least three more. Thus, as -each new free soil state knocked for admission into the union, the -South could demand as the price of its consent a new slave state. No -wonder Southern statesmen saw, in the annexation of Texas and the -conquest of Mexico, slavery and King Cotton triumphant--secure for all -time against adverse legislation. Northern leaders were equally -convinced that the Southern prophecy was true. Abolitionists and -moderate opponents of slavery alike were in despair. Texas, they -lamented, would fasten slavery upon the country forevermore. "No living -man," cried one, "will see the end of slavery in the United States!" - -It so happened, however, that the events which, it was thought, would -secure slavery let loose a storm against it. A sign appeared first on -August 6, 1846, only a few months after war was declared on Mexico. On -that day, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, introduced into -the House of Representatives a resolution to the effect that, as an -express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory -from the republic of Mexico, slavery should be forever excluded from -every part of it. "The Wilmot Proviso," as the resolution was popularly -called, though defeated on that occasion, was a challenge to the South. - -The South answered the challenge. Speaking in the House of -Representatives, Robert Toombs of Georgia boldly declared: "In the -presence of the living God, if by your legislation you seek to drive us -from the territories of California and New Mexico ... I am for -disunion." South Carolina announced that the day for talk had passed and -the time had come to join her sister states "in resisting the -application of the Wilmot Proviso at any and all hazards." A conference, -assembled at Jackson, Mississippi, in the autumn of 1849, called a -general convention of Southern states to meet at Nashville the following -summer. The avowed purpose was to arrest "the course of aggression" and, -if that was not possible, to provide "in the last resort for their -separate welfare by the formation of a compact and union that will -afford protection to their liberties and rights." States that had -spurned South Carolina's plea for nullification in 1832 responded to -this new appeal with alacrity--an augury of the secession to come. - -[Illustration: _From an old print._ - -HENRY CLAY] - -=The Great Debate of 1850.=--The temper of the country was white hot -when Congress convened in December, 1849. It was a memorable session, -memorable for the great men who took part in the debates and memorable -for the grand Compromise of 1850 which it produced. In the Senate sat -for the last time three heroic figures: Webster from the North, Calhoun -from the South, and Clay from a border state. For nearly forty years -these three had been leaders of men. All had grown old and gray in -service. Calhoun was already broken in health and in a few months was to -be borne from the political arena forever. Clay and Webster had but two -more years in their allotted span. - -Experience, learning, statecraft--all these things they now marshaled in -a mighty effort to solve the slavery problem. On January 29, 1850, Clay -offered to the Senate a compromise granting concessions to both sides; -and a few days later, in a powerful oration, he made a passionate appeal -for a union of hearts through mutual sacrifices. Calhoun relentlessly -demanded the full measure of justice for the South: equal rights in the -territories bought by common blood; the return of runaway slaves as -required by the Constitution; the suppression of the abolitionists; and -the restoration of the balance of power between the North and the South. -Webster, in his notable "Seventh of March speech," condemned the Wilmot -Proviso, advocated a strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law, -denounced the abolitionists, and made a final plea for the Constitution, -union, and liberty. This was the address which called forth from -Whittier the poem, "Ichabod," deploring the fall of the mighty one whom -he thought lost to all sense of faith and honor. - -=The Terms of the Compromise of 1850.=--When the debates were closed, -the results were totaled in a series of compromise measures, all of -which were signed in September, 1850, by the new President, Millard -Fillmore, who had taken office two months before on the death of Zachary -Taylor. By these acts the boundaries of Texas were adjusted and the -territory of New Mexico created, subject to the provision that all or -any part of it might be admitted to the union "with or without slavery -as their constitution may provide at the time of their admission." The -Territory of Utah was similarly organized with the same conditions as to -slavery, thus repudiating the Wilmot Proviso without guaranteeing -slavery to the planters. California was admitted as a free state under a -constitution in which the people of the territory had themselves -prohibited slavery. - -The slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery -itself existed as before at the capital of the nation. This concession -to anti-slavery sentiment was more than offset by a fugitive slave law, -drastic in spirit and in letter. It placed the enforcement of its terms -in the hands of federal officers appointed from Washington and so -removed it from the control of authorities locally elected. It provided -that masters or their agents, on filing claims in due form, might -summarily remove their escaped slaves without affording their "alleged -fugitives" the right of trial by jury, the right to witness, the right -to offer any testimony in evidence. Finally, to "put teeth" into the -act, heavy penalties were prescribed for all who obstructed or assisted -in obstructing the enforcement of the law. Such was the Great Compromise -of 1850. - -[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON REPRESENTING WEBSTER "STEALING CLAY'S -THUNDER"] - -=The Pro-slavery Triumph in the Election of 1852.=--The results of the -election of 1852 seemed to show conclusively that the nation was weary -of slavery agitation and wanted peace. Both parties, Whigs and -Democrats, endorsed the fugitive slave law and approved the Great -Compromise. The Democrats, with Franklin Pierce as their leader, swept -the country against the war hero, General Winfield Scott, on whom the -Whigs had staked their hopes. Even Webster, broken with grief at his -failure to receive the nomination, advised his friends to vote for -Pierce and turned away from politics to meditate upon approaching death. -The verdict of the voters would seem to indicate that for the time -everybody, save a handful of disgruntled agitators, looked upon Clay's -settlement as the last word. "The people, especially the business men of -the country," says Elson, "were utterly weary of the agitation and they -gave their suffrages to the party that promised them rest." The Free -Soil party, condemning slavery as "a sin against God and a crime against -man," and advocating freedom for the territories, failed to carry a -single state. In fact it polled fewer votes than it had four years -earlier--156,000 as against nearly 3,000,000, the combined vote of the -Whigs and Democrats. It is not surprising, therefore, that President -Pierce, surrounded in his cabinet by strong Southern sympathizers, could -promise to put an end to slavery agitation and to crush the abolition -movement in the bud. - -=Anti-slavery Agitation Continued.=--The promise was more difficult to -fulfill than to utter. In fact, the vigorous execution of one measure -included in the Compromise--the fugitive slave law--only made matters -worse. Designed as security for the planters, it proved a powerful -instrument in their undoing. Slavery five hundred miles away on a -Louisiana plantation was so remote from the North that only the -strongest imagination could maintain a constant rage against it. "Slave -catching," "man hunting" by federal officers on the streets of -Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, or Milwaukee and in the hamlets -and villages of the wide-stretching farm lands of the North was another -matter. It brought the most odious aspects of slavery home to thousands -of men and women who would otherwise have been indifferent to the -system. Law-abiding business men, mechanics, farmers, and women, when -they saw peaceful negroes, who had resided in their neighborhoods -perhaps for years, torn away by federal officers and carried back to -bondage, were transformed into enemies of the law. They helped slaves to -escape; they snatched them away from officers who had captured them; -they broke open jails and carried fugitives off to Canada. - -Assistance to runaway slaves, always more or less common in the North, -was by this time organized into a system. Regular routes, known as -"underground railways," were laid out across the free states into -Canada, and trusted friends of freedom maintained "underground stations" -where fugitives were concealed in the daytime between their long night -journeys. Funds were raised and secret agents sent into the South to -help negroes to flee. One negro woman, Harriet Tubman, "the Moses of her -people," with headquarters at Philadelphia, is accredited with nineteen -invasions into slave territory and the emancipation of three hundred -negroes. Those who worked at this business were in constant peril. One -underground operator, Calvin Fairbank, spent nearly twenty years in -prison for aiding fugitives from justice. Yet perils and prisons did not -stay those determined men and women who, in obedience to their -consciences, set themselves to this lawless work. - -[Illustration: HARRIET BEECHER STOWE] - -From thrilling stories of adventure along the underground railways came -some of the scenes and themes of the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe, -"Uncle Tom's Cabin," published two years after the Compromise of 1850. -Her stirring tale set forth the worst features of slavery in vivid word -pictures that caught and held the attention of millions of readers. -Though the book was unfair to the South and was denounced as a hideous -distortion of the truth, it was quickly dramatized and played in every -city and town throughout the North. Topsy, Little Eva, Uncle Tom, the -fleeing slave, Eliza Harris, and the cruel slave driver, Simon Legree, -with his baying blood hounds, became living specters in many a home that -sought to bar the door to the "unpleasant and irritating business of -slavery agitation." - - -THE DRIFT OF EVENTS TOWARD THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT - -=Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--To practical men, after all, the -"rub-a-dub" agitation of a few abolitionists, an occasional riot over -fugitive slaves, and the vogue of a popular novel seemed of slight or -transient importance. They could point with satisfaction to the election -returns of 1852; but their very security was founded upon shifting -sands. The magnificent triumph of the pro-slavery Democrats in 1852 -brought a turn in affairs that destroyed the foundations under their -feet. Emboldened by their own strength and the weakness of their -opponents, they now dared to repeal the Missouri Compromise. The leader -in this fateful enterprise was Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from -Illinois, and the occasion for the deed was the demand for the -organization of territorial government in the regions west of Iowa and -Missouri. - -Douglas, like Clay and Webster before him, was consumed by a strong -passion for the presidency, and, to reach his goal, it was necessary to -win the support of the South. This he undoubtedly sought to do when he -introduced on January 4, 1854, a bill organizing the Nebraska territory -on the principle of the Compromise of 1850; namely, that the people in -the territory might themselves decide whether they would have slavery or -not. Unwittingly the avalanche was started. - -After a stormy debate, in which important amendments were forced on -Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854. The -measure created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and provided that -they, or territories organized out of them, could come into the union as -states "with or without slavery as their constitutions may prescribe at -the time of their admission." Not content with this, the law went on to -declare the Missouri Compromise null and void as being inconsistent with -the principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the states -and territories. Thus by a single blow the very heart of the continent, -dedicated to freedom by solemn agreement, was thrown open to slavery. A -desperate struggle between slave owners and the advocates of freedom was -the outcome in Kansas. - -If Douglas fancied that the North would receive the overthrow of the -Missouri Compromise in the same temper that it greeted Clay's -settlement, he was rapidly disillusioned. A blast of rage, terrific in -its fury, swept from Maine to Iowa. Staid old Boston hanged him in -effigy with an inscription--"Stephen A. Douglas, author of the infamous -Nebraska bill: the Benedict Arnold of 1854." City after city burned him -in effigy until, as he himself said, he could travel from the Atlantic -coast to Chicago in the light of the fires. Thousands of Whigs and -Free-soil Democrats deserted their parties which had sanctioned or at -least tolerated the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, declaring that the startling -measure showed an evident resolve on the part of the planters to rule -the whole country. A gage of defiance was thrown down to the -abolitionists. An issue was set even for the moderate and timid who had -been unmoved by the agitation over slavery in the Far South. That issue -was whether slavery was to be confined within its existing boundaries or -be allowed to spread without interference, thereby placing the free -states in the minority and surrendering the federal government wholly to -the slave power. - -=The Rise of the Republican Party.=--Events of terrible significance, -swiftly following, drove the country like a ship before a gale straight -into civil war. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill rent the old parties asunder -and called into being the Republican party. While that bill was pending -in Congress, many Northern Whigs and Democrats had come to the -conclusion that a new party dedicated to freedom in the territories must -follow the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Several places claim to be -the original home of the Republican party; but historians generally -yield it to Wisconsin. At Ripon in that state, a mass meeting of Whigs -and Democrats assembled in February, 1854, and resolved to form a new -party if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass. At a second meeting a -fusion committee representing Whigs, Free Soilers, and Democrats was -formed and the name Republican--the name of Jefferson's old party--was -selected. All over the country similar meetings were held and political -committees were organized. - -When the presidential campaign of 1856 began the Republicans entered the -contest. After a preliminary conference in Pittsburgh in February, they -held a convention in Philadelphia at which was drawn up a platform -opposing the extension of slavery to the territories. John C. Fremont, -the distinguished explorer, was named for the presidency. The results -of the election were astounding as compared with the Free-soil failure -of the preceding election. Prominent men like Longfellow, Washington -Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and George William -Curtis went over to the new party and 1,341,264 votes were rolled up for -"free labor, free speech, free men, free Kansas, and Fremont." -Nevertheless the victory of the Democrats was decisive. Their candidate, -James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, was elected by a majority of 174 to 114 -electoral votes. - -[Illustration: SLAVE AND FREE SOIL ON EVE OF CIVIL WAR] - -=The Dred Scott Decision (1857).=--In his inaugural, Buchanan vaguely -hinted that in a forthcoming decision the Supreme Court would settle one -of the vital questions of the day. This was a reference to the Dred -Scott case then pending. Scott was a slave who had been taken by his -master into the upper Louisiana territory, where freedom had been -established by the Missouri Compromise, and then carried back into his -old state of Missouri. He brought suit for his liberty on the ground -that his residence in the free territory made him free. This raised the -question whether the law of Congress prohibiting slavery north of 36 deg. -30' was authorized by the federal Constitution or not. The Court might -have avoided answering it by saying that even though Scott was free in -the territory, he became a slave again in Missouri by virtue of the law -of that state. The Court, however, faced the issue squarely. It held -that Scott had not been free anywhere and that, besides, the Missouri -Compromise violated the Constitution and was null and void. - -The decision was a triumph for the South. It meant that Congress after -all had no power to abolish slavery in the territories. Under the decree -of the highest court in the land, that could be done only by an -amendment to the Constitution which required a two-thirds vote in -Congress and the approval of three-fourths of the states. Such an -amendment was obviously impossible--the Southern states were too -numerous; but the Republicans were not daunted. "We know," said Lincoln, -"the Court that made it has often overruled its own decisions and we -shall do what we can to have it overrule this." Legislatures of Northern -states passed resolutions condemning the decision and the Republican -platform of 1860 characterized the dogma that the Constitution carried -slavery into the territories as "a dangerous political heresy at -variance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself ... with -legislative and judicial precedent ... revolutionary in tendency and -subversive of the peace and harmony of the country." - -=The Panic of 1857.=--In the midst of the acrimonious dispute over the -Dred Scott decision, came one of the worst business panics which ever -afflicted the country. In the spring and summer of 1857, fourteen -railroad corporations, including the Erie, Michigan Central, and the -Illinois Central, failed to meet their obligations; banks and insurance -companies, some of them the largest and strongest institutions in the -North, closed their doors; stocks and bonds came down in a crash on the -markets; manufacturing was paralyzed; tens of thousands of working -people were thrown out of employment; "hunger meetings" of idle men were -held in the cities and banners bearing the inscription, "We want -bread," were flung out. In New York, working men threatened to invade -the Council Chamber to demand "work or bread," and the frightened mayor -called for the police and soldiers. For this distressing state of -affairs many remedies were offered; none with more zeal and persistence -than the proposal for a higher tariff to take the place of the law of -March, 1857, a Democratic measure making drastic reductions in the rates -of duty. In the manufacturing districts of the North, the panic was -ascribed to the "Democratic assault on business." So an old issue was -again vigorously advanced, preparatory to the next presidential -campaign. - -=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--The following year the interest of the -whole country was drawn to a series of debates held in Illinois by -Lincoln and Douglas, both candidates for the United States Senate. In -the course of his campaign Lincoln had uttered his trenchant saying that -"a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government -cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." At the same time he -had accused Douglas, Buchanan, and the Supreme Court of acting in -concert to make slavery national. This daring statement arrested the -attention of Douglas, who was making his campaign on the doctrine of -"squatter sovereignty;" that is, the right of the people of each -territory "to vote slavery up or down." After a few long-distance shots -at each other, the candidates agreed to meet face to face and discuss -the issues of the day. Never had such crowds been seen at political -meetings in Illinois. Farmers deserted their plows, smiths their forges, -and housewives their baking to hear "Honest Abe" and "the Little Giant." - -The results of the series of debates were momentous. Lincoln clearly -defined his position. The South, he admitted, was entitled under the -Constitution to a fair, fugitive slave law. He hoped that there might be -no new slave states; but he did not see how Congress could exclude the -people of a territory from admission as a state if they saw fit to adopt -a constitution legalizing the ownership of slaves. He favored the -gradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the total -exclusion of it from the territories of the United States by act of -Congress. - -Moreover, he drove Douglas into a hole by asking how he squared -"squatter sovereignty" with the Dred Scott decision; how, in other -words, the people of a territory could abolish slavery when the Court -had declared that Congress, the superior power, could not do it under -the Constitution? To this baffling question Douglas lamely replied that -the inhabitants of a territory, by "unfriendly legislation," might make -property in slaves insecure and thus destroy the institution. This -answer to Lincoln's query alienated many Southern Democrats who believed -that the Dred Scott decision settled the question of slavery in the -territories for all time. Douglas won the election to the Senate; but -Lincoln, lifted into national fame by the debates, beat him in the -campaign for President two years later. - -=John Brown's Raid.=--To the abolitionists the line of argument pursued -by Lincoln, including his proposal to leave slavery untouched in the -states where it existed, was wholly unsatisfactory. One of them, a grim -and resolute man, inflamed by a hatred for slavery in itself, turned -from agitation to violence. "These men are all talk; what is needed is -action--action!" So spoke John Brown of New York. During the sanguinary -struggle in Kansas he hurried to the frontier, gun and dagger in hand, -to help drive slave owners from the free soil of the West. There he -committed deeds of such daring and cruelty that he was outlawed and a -price put upon his head. Still he kept on the path of "action." Aided by -funds from Northern friends, he gathered a small band of his followers -around him, saying to them: "If God be for us, who can be against us?" -He went into Virginia in the autumn of 1859, hoping, as he explained, -"to effect a mighty conquest even though it be like the last victory of -Samson." He seized the government armory at Harper's Ferry, declared -free the slaves whom he found, and called upon them to take up arms in -defense of their liberty. His was a hope as forlorn as it was desperate. -Armed forces came down upon him and, after a hard battle, captured him. -Tried for treason, Brown was condemned to death. The governor of -Virginia turned a deaf ear to pleas for clemency based on the ground -that the prisoner was simply a lunatic. "This is a beautiful country," -said the stern old Brown glancing upward to the eternal hills on his way -to the gallows, as calmly as if he were returning home from a long -journey. "So perish all such enemies of Virginia. All such enemies of -the Union. All such foes of the human race," solemnly announced the -executioner as he fulfilled the judgment of the law. - -The raid and its grim ending deeply moved the country. Abolitionists -looked upon Brown as a martyr and tolled funeral bells on the day of his -execution. Longfellow wrote in his diary: "This will be a great day in -our history; the date of a new revolution as much needed as the old -one." Jefferson Davis saw in the affair "the invasion of a state by a -murderous gang of abolitionists bent on inciting slaves to murder -helpless women and children"--a crime for which the leader had met a -felon's death. Lincoln spoke of the raid as absurd, the deed of an -enthusiast who had brooded over the oppression of a people until he -fancied himself commissioned by heaven to liberate them--an attempt -which ended in "little else than his own execution." To Republican -leaders as a whole, the event was very embarrassing. They were taunted -by the Democrats with responsibility for the deed. Douglas declared his -"firm and deliberate conviction that the Harper's Ferry crime was the -natural, logical, inevitable result of the doctrines and teachings of -the Republican party." So persistent were such attacks that the -Republicans felt called upon in 1860 to denounce Brown's raid "as among -the gravest of crimes." - -=The Democrats Divided.=--When the Democratic convention met at -Charleston in the spring of 1860, a few months after Brown's execution, -it soon became clear that there was danger ahead. Between the extreme -slavery advocates of the Far South and the so-called pro-slavery -Democrats of the Douglas type, there was a chasm which no appeals to -party loyalty could bridge. As the spokesman of the West, Douglas knew -that, while the North was not abolitionist, it was passionately set -against an extension of slavery into the territories by act of Congress; -that squatter sovereignty was the mildest kind of compromise acceptable -to the farmers whose votes would determine the fate of the election. -Southern leaders would not accept his opinion. Yancey, speaking for -Alabama, refused to palter with any plan not built on the proposition -that slavery was in itself right. He taunted the Northern Democrats with -taking the view that slavery was wrong, but that they could not do -anything about it. That, he said, was the fatal error--the cause of all -discord, the source of "Black Republicanism," as well as squatter -sovereignty. The gauntlet was thus thrown down at the feet of the -Northern delegates: "You must not apologize for slavery; you must -declare it right; you must advocate its extension." The challenge, so -bluntly put, was as bluntly answered. "Gentlemen of the South," -responded a delegate from Ohio, "you mistake us. You mistake us. We will -not do it." - -For ten days the Charleston convention wrangled over the platform and -balloted for the nomination of a candidate. Douglas, though in the lead, -could not get the two-thirds vote required for victory. For more than -fifty times the roll of the convention was called without a decision. -Then in sheer desperation the convention adjourned to meet later at -Baltimore. When the delegates again assembled, their passions ran as -high as ever. The division into two irreconcilable factions was -unchanged. Uncompromising delegates from the South withdrew to Richmond, -nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and put forth -a platform asserting the rights of slave owners in the territories and -the duty of the federal government to protect them. The delegates who -remained at Baltimore nominated Douglas and endorsed his doctrine of -squatter sovereignty. - -=The Constitutional Union Party.=--While the Democratic party was being -disrupted, a fragment of the former Whig party, known as the -Constitutional Unionists, held a convention at Baltimore and selected -national candidates: John Bell from Tennessee and Edward Everett from -Massachusetts. A melancholy interest attached to this assembly. It was -mainly composed of old men whose political views were those of Clay and -Webster, cherished leaders now dead and gone. In their platform they -sought to exorcise the evil spirit of partisanship by inviting their -fellow citizens to "support the Constitution of the country, the union -of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." The party that -campaigned on this grand sentiment only drew laughter from the Democrats -and derision from the Republicans and polled less than one-fourth the -votes. - -=The Republican Convention.=--With the Whigs definitely forced into a -separate group, the Republican convention at Chicago was fated to be -sectional in character, although five slave states did send delegates. -As the Democrats were split, the party that had led a forlorn hope four -years before was on the high road to success at last. New and powerful -recruits were found. The advocates of a high protective tariff and the -friends of free homesteads for farmers and workingmen mingled with -enthusiastic foes of slavery. While still firm in their opposition to -slavery in the territories, the Republicans went on record in favor of a -homestead law granting free lands to settlers and approved customs -duties designed "to encourage the development of the industrial -interests of the whole country." The platform was greeted with cheers -which, according to the stenographic report of the convention, became -loud and prolonged as the protective tariff and homestead planks were -read. - -Having skillfully drawn a platform to unite the North in opposition to -slavery and the planting system, the Republicans were also adroit in -their selection of a candidate. The tariff plank might carry -Pennsylvania, a Democratic state; but Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were -equally essential to success at the polls. The southern counties of -these states were filled with settlers from Virginia, North Carolina, -and Kentucky who, even if they had no love for slavery, were no friends -of abolition. Moreover, remembering the old fight on the United States -Bank in Andrew Jackson's day, they were suspicious of men from the East. -Accordingly, they did not favor the candidacy of Seward, the leading -Republican statesman and "favorite son" of New York. - -After much trading and discussing, the convention came to the conclusion -that Abraham Lincoln of Illinois was the most "available" candidate. He -was of Southern origin, born in Kentucky in 1809, a fact that told -heavily in the campaign in the Ohio Valley. He was a man of the soil, -the son of poor frontier parents, a pioneer who in his youth had labored -in the fields and forests, celebrated far and wide as "honest Abe, the -rail-splitter." It was well-known that he disliked slavery, but was no -abolitionist. He had come dangerously near to Seward's radicalism in his -"house-divided-against-itself" speech but he had never committed himself -to the reckless doctrine that there was a "higher law" than the -Constitution. Slavery in the South he tolerated as a bitter fact; -slavery in the territories he opposed with all his strength. Of his -sincerity there could be no doubt. He was a speaker and writer of -singular power, commanding, by the use of simple and homely language, -the hearts and minds of those who heard him speak or read his printed -words. He had gone far enough in his opposition to slavery; but not too -far. He was the man of the hour! Amid lusty cheers from ten thousand -throats, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the Republicans. In -the ensuing election, he carried all the free states except New Jersey. - - -=References= - -P.E. Chadwick, _Causes of the Civil War_ (American Nation Series). - -W.E. Dodd, _Statesmen of the Old South_. - -E. Engle, _Southern Sidelights_ (Sympathetic account of the Old South). - -A.B. Hart, _Slavery and Abolition_ (American Nation Series). - -J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II. - -T.C. Smith, _Parties and Slavery_ (American Nation Series). - - -=Questions= - -1. Trace the decline of slavery in the North and explain it. - -2. Describe the character of early opposition to slavery. - -3. What was the effect of abolition agitation? - -4. Why did anti-slavery sentiment practically disappear in the South? - -5. On what grounds did Calhoun defend slavery? - -6. Explain how slave owners became powerful in politics. - -7. Why was it impossible to keep the slavery issue out of national -politics? - -8. Give the leading steps in the long controversy over slavery in the -territories. - -9. State the terms of the Compromise of 1850 and explain its failure. - -10. What were the startling events between 1850 and 1860? - -11. Account for the rise of the Republican party. What party had used -the title before? - -12. How did the Dred Scott decision become a political issue? - -13. What were some of the points brought out in the Lincoln-Douglas -debates? - -14. Describe the party division in 1860. - -15. What were the main planks in the Republican platform? - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Extension of Cotton Planting.=--Callender, _Economic History of the -United States_, pp. 760-768. - -=Abolition Agitation.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United -States_, Vol. VI, pp. 271-298. - -=Calhoun's Defense of Slavery.=--Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating -American History_, pp. 247-257. - -=The Compromise of 1850.=--Clay's speech in Harding, _Select Orations_, -pp. 267-289. The compromise laws in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book -of American History_, pp. 383-394. Narrative account in McMaster, Vol. -VIII, pp. 1-55; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 540-548. - -=The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. -192-231; Elson, pp. 571-582. - -=The Dred Scott Case.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. 278-282. Compare the -opinion of Taney and the dissent of Curtis in Macdonald, _Documentary -Source Book_, pp. 405-420; Elson, pp. 595-598. - -=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--Analysis of original speeches in -Harding, _Select Orations_ pp. 309-341; Elson, pp. 598-604. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Calhoun, Clay, Webster, A.H. Stephens, Douglas, -W.H. Seward, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Harriet -Beecher Stowe. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION - - -"The irrepressible conflict is about to be visited upon us through the -Black Republican nominee and his fanatical, diabolical Republican -party," ran an appeal to the voters of South Carolina during the -campaign of 1860. If that calamity comes to pass, responded the governor -of the state, the answer should be a declaration of independence. In a -few days the suspense was over. The news of Lincoln's election came -speeding along the wires. Prepared for the event, the editor of the -Charleston _Mercury_ unfurled the flag of his state amid wild cheers -from an excited throng in the streets. Then he seized his pen and wrote: -"The tea has been thrown overboard; the revolution of 1860 has been -initiated." The issue was submitted to the voters in the choice of -delegates to a state convention called to cast off the yoke of the -Constitution. - - -THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY - -=Secession.=--As arranged, the convention of South Carolina assembled in -December and without a dissenting voice passed the ordinance of -secession withdrawing from the union. Bells were rung exultantly, the -roar of cannon carried the news to outlying counties, fireworks lighted -up the heavens, and champagne flowed. The crisis so long expected had -come at last; even the conservatives who had prayed that they might -escape the dreadful crash greeted it with a sigh of relief. - -[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1861 - -The border states (in purple) remained loyal.] - -South Carolina now sent forth an appeal to her sister states--states -that had in Jackson's day repudiated nullification as leading to "the -dissolution of the union." The answer that came this time was in a -different vein. A month had hardly elapsed before five other -states--Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana--had -withdrawn from the union. In February, Texas followed. Virginia, -hesitating until the bombardment of Fort Sumter forced a conclusion, -seceded in April; but fifty-five of the one hundred and forty-three -delegates dissented, foreshadowing the creation of the new state of West -Virginia which Congress admitted to the union in 1863. In May, North -Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee announced their independence. - -=Secession and the Theories of the Union.=--In severing their relations -with the union, the seceding states denied every point in the Northern -theory of the Constitution. That theory, as every one knows, was -carefully formulated by Webster and elaborated by Lincoln. According to -it, the union was older than the states; it was created before the -Declaration of Independence for the purpose of common defense. The -Articles of Confederation did but strengthen this national bond and the -Constitution sealed it forever. The federal government was not a -creature of state governments. It was erected by the people and derived -its powers directly from them. "It is," said Webster, "the people's -Constitution, the people's government; made for the people; made by the -people; and answerable to the people. The people of the United States -have declared that this Constitution shall be the supreme law." When a -state questions the lawfulness of any act of the federal government, it -cannot nullify that act or withdraw from the union; it must abide by the -decision of the Supreme Court of the United States. The union of these -states is perpetual, ran Lincoln's simple argument in the first -inaugural; the federal Constitution has no provision for its own -termination; it can be destroyed only by some action not provided for in -the instrument itself; even if it is a compact among all the states the -consent of all must be necessary to its dissolution; therefore no state -can lawfully get out of the union and acts of violence against the -United States are insurrectionary or revolutionary. This was the system -which he believed himself bound to defend by his oath of office -"registered in heaven." - -All this reasoning Southern statesmen utterly rejected. In their opinion -the thirteen original states won their independence as separate and -sovereign powers. The treaty of peace with Great Britain named them all -and acknowledged them "to be free, sovereign, and independent states." -The Articles of Confederation very explicitly declared that "each state -retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." The Constitution -was a "league of nations" formed by an alliance of thirteen separate -powers, each one of which ratified the instrument before it was put into -effect. They voluntarily entered the union under the Constitution and -voluntarily they could leave it. Such was the constitutional doctrine of -Hayne, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. In seceding, the Southern states -had only to follow legal methods, and the transaction would be correct -in every particular. So conventions were summoned, elections were held, -and "sovereign assemblies of the people" set aside the Constitution in -the same manner as it had been ratified nearly four score years before. -Thus, said the Southern people, the moral judgment was fulfilled and the -letter of the law carried into effect. - -[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS] - -=The Formation of the Confederacy.=--Acting on the call of Mississippi, -a congress of delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery, -Alabama, and on February 8, 1861, adopted a temporary plan of union. It -selected, as provisional president, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, a -man well fitted by experience and moderation for leadership, a graduate -of West Point, who had rendered distinguished service on the field of -battle in the Mexican War, in public office, and as a member of -Congress. - -In March, a permanent constitution of the Confederate states was -drafted. It was quickly ratified by the states; elections were held in -November; and the government under it went into effect the next year. -This new constitution, in form, was very much like the famous instrument -drafted at Philadelphia in 1787. It provided for a President, a Senate, -and a House of Representatives along almost identical lines. In the -powers conferred upon them, however, there were striking differences. -The right to appropriate money for internal improvements was expressly -withheld; bounties were not to be granted from the treasury nor import -duties so laid as to promote or foster any branch of industry. The -dignity of the state, if any might be bold enough to question it, was -safeguarded in the opening line by the declaration that each acted "in -its sovereign and independent character" in forming the Southern union. - -=Financing the Confederacy.=--No government ever set out upon its career -with more perplexing tasks in front of it. The North had a monetary -system; the South had to create one. The North had a scheme of taxation -that produced large revenues from numerous sources; the South had to -formulate and carry out a financial plan. Like the North, the -Confederacy expected to secure a large revenue from customs duties, -easily collected and little felt among the masses. To this expectation -the blockade of Southern ports inaugurated by Lincoln in April, 1861, -soon put an end. Following the precedent set by Congress under the -Articles of Confederation, the Southern Congress resorted to a direct -property tax apportioned among the states, only to meet the failure that -might have been foretold. - -The Confederacy also sold bonds, the first issue bringing into the -treasury nearly all the specie available in the Southern banks. This -specie by unhappy management was early sent abroad to pay for supplies, -sapping the foundations of a sound currency system. Large amounts of -bonds were sold overseas, commanding at first better terms than those -of the North in the markets of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, many an -English lord and statesman buying with enthusiasm and confidence to -lament within a few years the proofs of his folly. The difficulties of -bringing through the blockade any supplies purchased by foreign bond -issues, however, nullified the effect of foreign credit and forced the -Confederacy back upon the device of paper money. In all approximately -one billion dollars streamed from the printing presses, to fall in value -at an alarming rate, reaching in January, 1863, the astounding figure of -fifty dollars in paper money for one in gold. Every known device was -used to prevent its depreciation, without result. To the issues of the -Confederate Congress were added untold millions poured out by the states -and by private banks. - -=Human and Material Resources.=--When we measure strength for strength -in those signs of power--men, money, and supplies--it is difficult to -see how the South was able to embark on secession and war with such -confidence in the outcome. In the Confederacy at the final reckoning -there were eleven states in all, to be pitted against twenty-two; a -population of nine millions, nearly one-half servile, to be pitted -against twenty-two millions; a land without great industries to produce -war supplies and without vast capital to furnish war finances, joined in -battle with a nation already industrial and fortified by property worth -eleven billion dollars. Even after the Confederate Congress authorized -conscription in 1862, Southern man power, measured in numbers, was -wholly inadequate to uphold the independence which had been declared. -How, therefore, could the Confederacy hope to sustain itself against -such a combination of men, money, and materials as the North could -marshal? - -=Southern Expectations.=--The answer to this question is to be found in -the ideas that prevailed among Southern leaders. First of all, they -hoped, in vain, to carry the Confederacy up to the Ohio River; and, with -the aid of Missouri, to gain possession of the Mississippi Valley, the -granary of the nation. In the second place, they reckoned upon a large -and continuous trade with Great Britain--the exchange of cotton for war -materials. They likewise expected to receive recognition and open aid -from European powers that looked with satisfaction upon the breakup of -the great American republic. In the third place, they believed that -their control over several staples so essential to Northern industry -would enable them to bring on an industrial crisis in the manufacturing -states. "I firmly believe," wrote Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, in -1860, "that the slave-holding South is now the controlling power of the -world; that no other power would face us in hostility. Cotton, rice, -tobacco, and naval stores command the world; and we have the sense to -know it and are sufficiently Teutonic to carry it out successfully. The -North without us would be a motherless calf, bleating about, and die of -mange and starvation." - -There were other grounds for confidence. Having seized all of the -federal military and naval supplies in the South, and having left the -national government weak in armed power during their possession of the -presidency, Southern leaders looked to a swift war, if it came at all, -to put the finishing stroke to independence. "The greasy mechanics of -the North," it was repeatedly said, "will not fight." As to disparity in -numbers they drew historic parallels. "Our fathers, a mere handful, -overcame the enormous power of Great Britain," a saying of ex-President -Tyler, ran current to reassure the doubtful. Finally, and this point -cannot be too strongly emphasized, the South expected to see a weakened -and divided North. It knew that the abolitionists and the Southern -sympathizers were ready to let the Confederate states go in peace; that -Lincoln represented only a little more than one-third the voters of the -country; and that the vote for Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge meant a -decided opposition to the Republicans and their policies. - -=Efforts at Compromise.=--Republican leaders, on reviewing the same -facts, were themselves uncertain as to the outcome of a civil war and -made many efforts to avoid a crisis. Thurlow Weed, an Albany journalist -and politician who had done much to carry New York for Lincoln, proposed -a plan for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific. -Jefferson Davis, warning his followers that a war if it came would be -terrible, was prepared to accept the offer; but Lincoln, remembering his -campaign pledges, stood firm as a rock against it. His followers in -Congress took the same position with regard to a similar settlement -suggested by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. - -Though unwilling to surrender his solemn promises respecting slavery in -the territories, Lincoln was prepared to give to Southern leaders a -strong guarantee that his administration would not interfere directly or -indirectly with slavery in the states. Anxious to reassure the South on -this point, the Republicans in Congress proposed to write into the -Constitution a declaration that no amendment should ever be made -authorizing the abolition of or interference with slavery in any state. -The resolution, duly passed, was sent forth on March 4, 1861, with the -approval of Lincoln; it was actually ratified by three states before the -storm of war destroyed it. By the irony of fate the thirteenth amendment -was to abolish, not guarantee, slavery. - - -THE WAR MEASURES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT - -=Raising the Armies.=--The crisis at Fort Sumter, on April 12-14, 1861, -forced the President and Congress to turn from negotiations to problems -of warfare. Little did they realize the magnitude of the task before -them. Lincoln's first call for volunteers, issued on April 15, 1861, -limited the number to 75,000, put their term of service at three months, -and prescribed their duty as the enforcement of the law against -combinations too powerful to be overcome by ordinary judicial process. -Disillusionment swiftly followed. The terrible defeat of the Federals at -Bull Run on July 21 revealed the serious character of the task before -them; and by a series of measures Congress put the entire man power of -the country at the President's command. Under these acts, he issued new -calls for volunteers. Early in August, 1862, he ordered a draft of -militiamen numbering 300,000 for nine months' service. The results were -disappointing--ominous--for only about 87,000 soldiers were added to the -army. Something more drastic was clearly necessary. - -In March, 1863, Lincoln signed the inevitable draft law; it enrolled in -the national forces liable to military duty all able-bodied male -citizens and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention -to become citizens, between the ages of twenty and forty-five -years--with exemptions on grounds of physical weakness and dependency. -From the men enrolled were drawn by lot those destined to active -service. Unhappily the measure struck a mortal blow at the principle of -universal liability by excusing any person who found a substitute for -himself or paid into the war office a sum, not exceeding three hundred -dollars, to be fixed by general order. This provision, so crass and so -obviously favoring the well-to-do, sowed seeds of bitterness which -sprang up a hundredfold in the North. - -[Illustration: THE DRAFT RIOTS IN NEW YORK CITY] - -The beginning of the drawings under the draft act in New York City, on -Monday, July 13, 1863, was the signal for four days of rioting. In the -course of this uprising, draft headquarters were destroyed; the office -of the _Tribune_ was gutted; negroes were seized, hanged, and shot; the -homes of obnoxious Unionists were burned down; the residence of the -mayor of the city was attacked; and regular battles were fought in the -streets between the rioters and the police. Business stopped and a large -part of the city passed absolutely into the control of the mob. Not -until late the following Wednesday did enough troops arrive to restore -order and enable the residents of the city to resume their daily -activities. At least a thousand people had been killed or wounded and -more than a million dollars' worth of damage done to property. The draft -temporarily interrupted by this outbreak was then resumed and carried -out without further trouble. - -The results of the draft were in the end distinctly disappointing to the -government. The exemptions were numerous and the number who preferred -and were able to pay $300 rather than serve exceeded all expectations. -Volunteering, it is true, was stimulated, but even that resource could -hardly keep the thinning ranks of the army filled. With reluctance -Congress struck out the $300 exemption clause, but still favored the -well-to-do by allowing them to hire substitutes if they could find them. -With all this power in its hands the administration was able by January, -1865, to construct a union army that outnumbered the Confederates two to -one. - -=War Finance.=--In the financial sphere the North faced immense -difficulties. The surplus in the treasury had been dissipated by 1861 -and the tariff of 1857 had failed to produce an income sufficient to -meet the ordinary expenses of the government. Confronted by military and -naval expenditures of appalling magnitude, rising from $35,000,000 in -the first year of the war to $1,153,000,000 in the last year, the -administration had to tap every available source of income. The duties -on imports were increased, not once but many times, producing huge -revenues and also meeting the most extravagant demands of the -manufacturers for protection. Direct taxes were imposed on the states -according to their respective populations, but the returns were -meager--all out of proportion to the irritation involved. Stamp taxes -and taxes on luxuries, occupations, and the earnings of corporations -were laid with a weight that, in ordinary times, would have drawn forth -opposition of ominous strength. The whole gamut of taxation was run. -Even a tax on incomes and gains by the year, the first in the history of -the federal government, was included in the long list. - -Revenues were supplemented by bond issues, mounting in size and interest -rate, until in October, at the end of the war, the debt stood at -$2,208,000,000. The total cost of the war was many times the money value -of all the slaves in the Southern states. To the debt must be added -nearly half a billion dollars in "greenbacks"--paper money issued by -Congress in desperation as bond sales and revenues from taxes failed to -meet the rising expenditures. This currency issued at par on -questionable warrant from the Constitution, like all such paper, quickly -began to decline until in the worst fortunes of 1864 one dollar in gold -was worth nearly three in greenbacks. - -=The Blockade of Southern Ports.=--Four days after his call for -volunteers, April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation -blockading the ports of the Southern Confederacy. Later the blockade was -extended to Virginia and North Carolina, as they withdrew from the -union. Vessels attempting to enter or leave these ports, if they -disregarded the warnings of a blockading ship, were to be captured and -brought as prizes to the nearest convenient port. To make the order -effective, immediate steps were taken to increase the naval forces, -depleted by neglect, until the entire coast line was patrolled with such -a number of ships that it was a rare captain who ventured to run the -gantlet. The collision between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ in -March, 1862, sealed the fate of the Confederacy. The exploits of the -union navy are recorded in the falling export of cotton: $202,000,000 in -1860; $42,000,000 in 1861; and $4,000,000 in 1862. - -The deadly effect of this paralysis of trade upon Southern war power may -be readily imagined. Foreign loans, payable in cotton, could be -negotiated but not paid off. Supplies could be purchased on credit but -not brought through the drag net. With extreme difficulty could the -Confederate government secure even paper for the issue of money and -bonds. Publishers, in despair at the loss of supplies, were finally -driven to the use of brown wrapping paper and wall paper. As the -railways and rolling stock wore out, it became impossible to renew them -from England or France. Unable to export their cotton, planters on the -seaboard burned it in what were called "fires of patriotism." In their -lurid light the fatal weakness of Southern economy stood revealed. - -[Illustration: A BLOCKADE RUNNER] - -=Diplomacy.=--The war had not advanced far before the federal government -became involved in many perplexing problems of diplomacy in Europe. The -Confederacy early turned to England and France for financial aid and for -recognition as an independent power. Davis believed that the industrial -crisis created by the cotton blockade would in time literally compel -Europe to intervene in order to get this essential staple. The crisis -came as he expected but not the result. Thousands of English textile -workers were thrown out of employment; and yet, while on the point of -starvation, they adopted resolutions favoring the North instead of -petitioning their government to aid the South by breaking the blockade. - -With the ruling classes it was far otherwise. Napoleon III, the Emperor -of the French, was eager to help in disrupting the American republic; if -he could have won England's support, he would have carried out his -designs. As it turned out he found plenty of sympathy across the Channel -but not open and official cooeperation. According to the eminent -historian, Rhodes, "four-fifths of the British House of Lords and most -members of the House of Commons were favorable to the Confederacy and -anxious for its triumph." Late in 1862 the British ministers, thus -sustained, were on the point of recognizing the independence of the -Confederacy. Had it not been for their extreme caution, for the constant -and harassing criticism by English friends of the United States--like -John Bright--and for the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg, both -England and France would have doubtless declared the Confederacy to be -one of the independent powers of the earth. - -[Illustration: JOHN BRIGHT] - -While stopping short of recognizing its independence, England and France -took several steps that were in favor of the South. In proclaiming -neutrality, they early accepted the Confederates as "belligerents" and -accorded them the rights of people at war--a measure which aroused anger -in the North at first but was later admitted to be sound. Otherwise -Confederates taken in battle would have been regarded as "rebels" or -"traitors" to be hanged or shot. Napoleon III proposed to Russia in 1861 -a coalition of powers against the North, only to meet a firm refusal. -The next year he suggested intervention to Great Britain, encountering -this time a conditional rejection of his plans. In 1863, not daunted by -rebuffs, he offered his services to Lincoln as a mediator, receiving in -reply a polite letter declining his proposal and a sharp resolution from -Congress suggesting that he attend to his own affairs. - -In both England and France the governments pursued a policy of -friendliness to the Confederate agents. The British ministry, with -indifference if not connivance, permitted rams and ships to be built in -British docks and allowed them to escape to play havoc under the -Confederate flag with American commerce. One of them, the _Alabama_, -built in Liverpool by a British firm and paid for by bonds sold in -England, ran an extraordinary career and threatened to break the -blockade. The course followed by the British government, against the -protests of the American minister in London, was later regretted. By an -award of a tribunal of arbitration at Geneva in 1872, Great Britain was -required to pay the huge sum of $15,500,000 to cover the damages wrought -by Confederate cruisers fitted out in England. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM H. SEWARD] - -In all fairness it should be said that the conduct of the North -contributed to the irritation between the two countries. Seward, the -Secretary of State, was vindictive in dealing with Great Britain; had it -not been for the moderation of Lincoln, he would have pursued a course -verging in the direction of open war. The New York and Boston papers -were severe in their attacks on England. Words were, on one occasion at -least, accompanied by an act savoring of open hostility. In November, -1861, Captain Wilkes, commanding a union vessel, overhauled the British -steamer _Trent_, and carried off by force two Confederate agents, Mason -and Slidell, sent by President Davis to represent the Confederacy at -London and Paris respectively. This was a clear violation of the right -of merchant vessels to be immune from search and impressment; and, in -answer to the demand of Great Britain for the release of the two men, -the United States conceded that it was in the wrong. It surrendered the -two Confederate agents to a British vessel for safe conduct abroad, and -made appropriate apologies. - -=Emancipation.=--Among the extreme war measures adopted by the Northern -government must be counted the emancipation of the slaves in the states -in arms against the union. This step was early and repeatedly suggested -to Lincoln by the abolitionists; but was steadily put aside. He knew -that the abolitionists were a mere handful, that emancipation might -drive the border states into secession, and that the Northern soldiers -had enlisted to save the union. Moreover, he had before him a solemn -resolution passed by Congress on July 22, 1861, declaring the sole -purpose of the war to be the salvation of the union and disavowing any -intention of interfering with slavery. - -The federal government, though pledged to the preservation of slavery, -soon found itself beaten back upon its course and out upon a new tack. -Before a year had elapsed, namely on April 10, 1862, Congress resolved -that financial aid should be given to any state that might adopt gradual -emancipation. Six days later it abolished slavery in the District of -Columbia. Two short months elapsed. On June 19, 1862, it swept slavery -forever from the territories of the United States. Chief Justice Taney -still lived, the Dred Scott decision stood as written in the book, but -the Constitution had been re-read in the light of the Civil War. The -drift of public sentiment in the North was being revealed. - -While these measures were pending in Congress, Lincoln was slowly making -up his mind. By July of that year he had come to his great decision. -Near the end of that month he read to his cabinet the draft of a -proclamation of emancipation; but he laid it aside until a military -achievement would make it something more than an idle gesture. In -September, the severe check administered to Lee at Antietam seemed to -offer the golden opportunity. On the 22d, the immortal document was -given to the world announcing that, unless the states in arms returned -to the union by January 1, 1863, the fatal blow at their "peculiar -institution" would be delivered. Southern leaders treated it with slight -regard, and so on the date set the promise was fulfilled. The -proclamation was issued as a war measure, adopted by the President as -commander-in-chief of the armed forces, on grounds of military -necessity. It did not abolish slavery. It simply emancipated slaves in -places then in arms against federal authority. Everywhere else slavery, -as far as the Proclamation was concerned, remained lawful. - -[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN] - -To seal forever the proclamation of emancipation, and to extend freedom -to the whole country, Congress, in January, 1865, on the urgent -recommendation of Lincoln, transmitted to the states the thirteenth -amendment, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. By the end -of 1865 the amendment was ratified. The house was not divided against -itself; it did not fall; it was all free. - -=The Restraint of Civil Liberty.=--As in all great wars, particularly -those in the nature of a civil strife, it was found necessary to use -strong measures to sustain opinion favorable to the administration's -military policies and to frustrate the designs of those who sought to -hamper its action. Within two weeks of his first call for volunteers, -Lincoln empowered General Scott to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_ -along the line of march between Philadelphia and Washington and thus to -arrest and hold without interference from civil courts any one whom he -deemed a menace to the union. At a later date the area thus ruled by -military officers was extended by executive proclamation. By an act of -March 3, 1863, Congress, desiring to lay all doubts about the -President's power, authorized him to suspend the writ throughout the -United States or in any part thereof. It also freed military officers -from the necessity of surrendering to civil courts persons arrested -under their orders, or even making answers to writs issued from such -courts. In the autumn of that year the President, acting under the terms -of this law, declared this ancient and honorable instrument for the -protection of civil liberties, the _habeas corpus_, suspended throughout -the length and breadth of the land. The power of the government was also -strengthened by an act defining and punishing certain conspiracies, -passed on July 31, 1861--a measure which imposed heavy penalties on -those who by force, intimidation, or threat interfered with the -execution of the law. - -Thus doubly armed, the military authorities spared no one suspected of -active sympathy with the Southern cause. Editors were arrested and -imprisoned, their papers suspended, and their newsboys locked up. Those -who organized "peace meetings" soon found themselves in the toils of the -law. Members of the Maryland legislature, the mayor of Baltimore, and -local editors suspected of entertaining secessionist opinions, were -imprisoned on military orders although charged with no offense, and were -denied the privilege of examination before a civil magistrate. A Vermont -farmer, too outspoken in his criticism of the government, found himself -behind the bars until the government, in its good pleasure, saw fit to -release him. These measures were not confined to the theater of war nor -to the border states where the spirit of secession was strong enough to -endanger the cause of union. They were applied all through the Northern -states up to the very boundaries of Canada. Zeal for the national cause, -too often supplemented by a zeal for persecution, spread terror among -those who wavered in the singleness of their devotion to the union. - -These drastic operations on the part of military authorities, so foreign -to the normal course of civilized life, naturally aroused intense and -bitter hostility. Meetings of protest were held throughout the country. -Thirty-six members of the House of Representatives sought to put on -record their condemnation of the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act, -only to meet a firm denial by the supporters of the act. Chief Justice -Taney, before whom the case of a man arrested under the President's -military authority was brought, emphatically declared, in a long and -learned opinion bristling with historical examples, that the President -had no power to suspend the writ of _habeas corpus_. In Congress and -out, Democrats, abolitionists, and champions of civil liberty denounced -Lincoln and his Cabinet in unsparing terms. Vallandigham, a Democratic -leader of Ohio, afterward banished to the South for his opposition to -the war, constantly applied to Lincoln the epithet of "Caesar." Wendell -Phillips saw in him "a more unlimited despot than the world knows this -side of China." - -Sensitive to such stinging thrusts and no friend of wanton persecution, -Lincoln attempted to mitigate the rigors of the law by paroling many -political prisoners. The general policy, however, he defended in homely -language, very different in tone and meaning from the involved reasoning -of the lawyers. "Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts, -while I must not touch a hair of the wily agitator who induces him to -desert?" he asked in a quiet way of some spokesmen for those who -protested against arresting people for "talking against the war." This -summed up his philosophy. He was engaged in a war to save the union, and -all measures necessary and proper to accomplish that purpose were -warranted by the Constitution which he had sworn to uphold. - -=Military Strategy--North and South.=--The broad outlines of military -strategy followed by the commanders of the opposing forces are clear -even to the layman who cannot be expected to master the details of a -campaign or, for that matter, the maneuvers of a single great battle. -The problem for the South was one of defense mainly, though even for -defense swift and paralyzing strokes at the North were later deemed -imperative measures. The problem of the North was, to put it baldly, one -of invasion and conquest. Southern territory had to be invaded and -Southern armies beaten on their own ground or worn down to exhaustion -there. - -In the execution of this undertaking, geography, as usual, played a -significant part in the disposition of forces. The Appalachian ranges, -stretching through the Confederacy to Northern Alabama, divided the -campaigns into Eastern and Western enterprises. Both were of signal -importance. Victory in the East promised the capture of the Confederate -capital of Richmond, a stroke of moral worth, hardly to be -overestimated. Victory in the West meant severing the Confederacy and -opening the Mississippi Valley down to the Gulf. - -As it turned out, the Western forces accomplished their task first, -vindicating the military powers of union soldiers and shaking the -confidence of opposing commanders. In February, 1862, Grant captured -Fort Donelson on the Tennessee River, rallied wavering unionists in -Kentucky, forced the evacuation of Nashville, and opened the way for two -hundred miles into the Confederacy. At Shiloh, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg, -Chickamauga, Chattanooga, desperate fighting followed and, in spite of -varying fortunes, it resulted in the discomfiture and retirement of -Confederate forces to the Southeast into Georgia. By the middle of 1863, -the Mississippi Valley was open to the Gulf, the initiative taken out of -the hands of Southern commanders in the West, and the way prepared for -Sherman's final stroke--the march from Atlanta to the sea--a maneuver -executed with needless severity in the autumn of 1864. - -[Illustration: GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT] - -[Illustration: GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE] - -For the almost unbroken succession of achievements in the West by -Generals Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker against Albert Sidney -Johnston, Bragg, Pemberton, and Hood, the union forces in the East -offered at first an almost equally unbroken series of misfortunes and -disasters. Far from capturing Richmond, they had been thrown on the -defensive. General after general--McClellan, Pope, Burnside, Hooker, and -Meade--was tried and found wanting. None of them could administer a -crushing defeat to the Confederate troops and more than once the union -soldiers were beaten in a fair battle. They did succeed, however, in -delivering a severe check to advancing Confederates under General Robert -E. Lee, first at Antietam in September, 1862, and then at Gettysburg in -July, 1863--checks reckoned as victories though in each instance the -Confederates escaped without demoralization. Not until the beginning of -the next year, when General Grant, supplied with almost unlimited men -and munitions, began his irresistible hammering at Lee's army, did the -final phase of the war commence. The pitiless drive told at last. -General Lee, on April 9, 1865, seeing the futility of further conflict, -surrendered an army still capable of hard fighting, at Appomattox, not -far from the capital of the Confederacy. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -THE FEDERAL MILITARY HOSPITAL AT GETTYSBURG] - -=Abraham Lincoln.=--The services of Lincoln to the cause of union defy -description. A judicial scrutiny of the war reveals his thought and -planning in every part of the varied activity that finally crowned -Northern arms with victory. Is it in the field of diplomacy? Does -Seward, the Secretary of State, propose harsh and caustic measures -likely to draw England's sword into the scale? Lincoln counsels -moderation. He takes the irritating message and with his own hand -strikes out, erases, tones down, and interlines, exchanging for words -that sting and burn the language of prudence and caution. Is it a matter -of compromise with the South, so often proposed by men on both sides -sick of carnage? Lincoln is always ready to listen and turns away only -when he is invited to surrender principles essential to the safety of -the union. Is it high strategy of war, a question of the general best -fitted to win Gettysburg--Hooker, Sedgwick, or Meade? Lincoln goes in -person to the War Department in the dead of night to take counsel with -his Secretary and to make the fateful choice. - -Is it a complaint from a citizen, deprived, as he believes, of his civil -liberties unjustly or in violation of the Constitution? Lincoln is ready -to hear it and anxious to afford relief, if warrant can be found for it. -Is a mother begging for the life of a son sentenced to be shot as a -deserter? Lincoln hears her petition, and grants it even against the -protests made by his generals in the name of military discipline. Do -politicians sow dissensions in the army and among civilians? Lincoln -grandly waves aside their petty personalities and invites them to think -of the greater cause. Is it a question of securing votes to ratify the -thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery? Lincoln thinks it not beneath -his dignity to traffic and huckster with politicians over the trifling -jobs asked in return by the members who hold out against him. Does a New -York newspaper call him an ignorant Western boor? Lincoln's reply is a -letter to a mother who has given her all--her sons on the field of -battle--and an address at Gettysburg, both of which will live as long as -the tongue in which they were written. These are tributes not only to -his mastery of the English language but also to his mastery of all those -sentiments of sweetness and strength which are the finest flowers of -culture. - -Throughout the entire span of service, however, Lincoln was beset by -merciless critics. The fiery apostles of abolition accused him of -cowardice when he delayed the bold stroke at slavery. Anti-war Democrats -lashed out at every step he took. Even in his own party he found no -peace. Charles Sumner complained: "Our President is now dictator, -_imperator_--whichever you like; but how vain to have the power of a -god and not to use it godlike." Leaders among the Republicans sought to -put him aside in 1864 and place Chase in his chair. "I hope we may never -have a worse man," was Lincoln's quiet answer. - -Wide were the dissensions in the North during that year and the -Republicans, while selecting Lincoln as their candidate again, cast off -their old name and chose the simple title of the "Union party." -Moreover, they selected a Southern man, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, to -be associated with him as candidate for Vice President. This combination -the Northern Democrats boldly confronted with a platform declaring that -"after four years of failure to restore the union by the experiment of -war, during which, under the pretence of military necessity or war power -higher than the Constitution, the Constitution itself has been -disregarded in every part and public liberty and private right alike -trodden down ... justice, humanity, liberty, and public welfare demand -that immediate efforts be made for a cessation of hostilities, to the -end that peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of the -states." It is true that the Democratic candidate, General McClellan, -sought to break the yoke imposed upon him by the platform, saying that -he could not look his old comrades in the face and pronounce their -efforts vain; but the party call to the nation to repudiate Lincoln and -his works had gone forth. The response came, giving Lincoln 2,200,000 -votes against 1,800,000 for his opponent. The bitter things said about -him during the campaign, he forgot and forgave. When in April, 1865, he -was struck down by the assassin's hand, he above all others in -Washington was planning measures of moderation and healing. - - -THE RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR - -There is a strong and natural tendency on the part of writers to stress -the dramatic and heroic aspects of war; but the long judgment of history -requires us to include all other significant phases as well. Like every -great armed conflict, the Civil War outran the purposes of those who -took part in it. Waged over the nature of the union, it made a -revolution in the union, changing public policies and constitutional -principles and giving a new direction to agriculture and industry. - -=The Supremacy of the Union.=--First and foremost, the war settled for -all time the long dispute as to the nature of the federal system. The -doctrine of state sovereignty was laid to rest. Men might still speak of -the rights of states and think of their commonwealths with affection, -but nullification and secession were destroyed. The nation was supreme. - -=The Destruction of the Slave Power.=--Next to the vindication of -national supremacy was the destruction of the planting aristocracy of -the South--that great power which had furnished leadership of undoubted -ability and had so long contested with the industrial and commercial -interests of the North. The first paralyzing blow at the planters was -struck by the abolition of slavery. The second and third came with the -fourteenth (1868) and fifteenth (1870) amendments, giving the ballot to -freedmen and excluding from public office the Confederate -leaders--driving from the work of reconstruction the finest talents of -the South. As if to add bitterness to gall and wormwood, the fourteenth -amendment forbade the United States or any state to pay any debts -incurred in aid of the Confederacy or in the emancipation of the -slaves--plunging into utter bankruptcy the Southern financiers who had -stripped their section of capital to support their cause. So the -Southern planters found themselves excluded from public office and ruled -over by their former bondmen under the tutelage of Republican leaders. -Their labor system was wrecked and their money and bonds were as -worthless as waste paper. The South was subject to the North. That which -neither the Federalists nor the Whigs had been able to accomplish in the -realm of statecraft was accomplished on the field of battle. - -=The Triumph of Industry.=--The wreck of the planting system was -accompanied by a mighty upswing of Northern industry which made the old -Whigs of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania stare in wonderment. The demands -of the federal government for manufactured goods at unrestricted prices -gave a stimulus to business which more than replaced the lost markets of -the South. Between 1860 and 1870 the number of manufacturing -establishments increased 79.6 per cent as against 14.2 for the previous -decade; while the number of persons employed almost doubled. There was -no doubt about the future of American industry. - -=The Victory for the Protective Tariff.=--Moreover, it was henceforth to -be well protected. For many years before the war the friends of -protection had been on the defensive. The tariff act of 1857 imposed -duties so low as to presage a tariff for revenue only. The war changed -all that. The extraordinary military expenditures, requiring heavy taxes -on all sources, justified tariffs so high that a follower of Clay or -Webster might well have gasped with astonishment. After the war was over -the debt remained and both interest and principal had to be paid. -Protective arguments based on economic reasoning were supported by a -plain necessity for revenue which admitted no dispute. - -=A Liberal Immigration Policy.=--Linked with industry was the labor -supply. The problem of manning industries became a pressing matter, and -Republican leaders grappled with it. In the platform of the Union party -adopted in 1864 it was declared "that foreign immigration, which in the -past has added so much to the wealth, the development of resources, and -the increase of power to this nation--the asylum of the oppressed of all -nations--should be fostered and encouraged by a liberal and just -policy." In that very year Congress, recognizing the importance of the -problem, passed a measure of high significance, creating a bureau of -immigration, and authorizing a modified form of indentured labor, by -making it legal for immigrants to pledge their wages in advance to pay -their passage over. Though the bill was soon repealed, the practice -authorized by it was long continued. The cheapness of the passage -shortened the term of service; but the principle was older than the -days of William Penn. - -=The Homestead Act of 1862.=--In the immigration measure guaranteeing a -continuous and adequate labor supply, the manufacturers saw an offset to -the Homestead Act of 1862 granting free lands to settlers. The Homestead -law they had resisted in a long and bitter congressional battle. -Naturally, they had not taken kindly to a scheme which lured men away -from the factories or enabled them to make unlimited demands for higher -wages as the price of remaining. Southern planters likewise had feared -free homesteads for the very good reason that they only promised to add -to the overbalancing power of the North. - -In spite of the opposition, supporters of a liberal land policy made -steady gains. Free-soil Democrats,--Jacksonian farmers and -mechanics,--labor reformers, and political leaders, like Stephen A. -Douglas of Illinois and Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, kept up the -agitation in season and out. More than once were they able to force a -homestead bill through the House of Representatives only to have it -blocked in the Senate where Southern interests were intrenched. Then, -after the Senate was won over, a Democratic President, James Buchanan, -vetoed the bill. Still the issue lived. The Republicans, strong among -the farmers of the Northwest, favored it from the beginning and pressed -it upon the attention of the country. Finally the manufacturers yielded; -they received their compensation in the contract labor law. In 1862 -Congress provided for the free distribution of land in 160-acre lots -among men and women of strong arms and willing hearts ready to build -their serried lines of homesteads to the Rockies and beyond. - -=Internal Improvements.=--If farmers and manufacturers were early -divided on the matter of free homesteads, the same could hardly be said -of internal improvements. The Western tiller of the soil was as eager -for some easy way of sending his produce to market as the manufacturer -was for the same means to transport his goods to the consumer on the -farm. While the Confederate leaders were writing into their -constitution a clause forbidding all appropriations for internal -improvements, the Republican leaders at Washington were planning such -expenditures from the treasury in the form of public land grants to -railways as would have dazed the authors of the national road bill half -a century earlier. - -=Sound Finance--National Banking.=--From Hamilton's day to Lincoln's, -business men in the East had contended for a sound system of national -currency. The experience of the states with paper money, painfully -impressive in the years before the framing of the Constitution, had been -convincing to those who understood the economy of business. The -Constitution, as we have seen, bore the signs of this experience. States -were forbidden to emit bills of credit: paper money, in short. This -provision stood clear in the document; but judicial ingenuity had -circumvented it in the age of Jacksonian Democracy. The states had -enacted and the Supreme Court, after the death of John Marshall, had -sustained laws chartering banking companies and authorizing them to -issue paper money. So the country was beset by the old curse, the banks -of Western and Southern states issuing reams of paper notes to help -borrowers pay their debts. - -In dealing with war finances, the Republicans attacked this ancient -evil. By act of Congress in 1864, they authorized a series of national -banks founded on the credit of government bonds and empowered to issue -notes. The next year they stopped all bank paper sent forth under the -authority of the states by means of a prohibitive tax. In this way, by -two measures Congress restored federal control over the monetary system -although it did not reestablish the United States Bank so hated by -Jacksonian Democracy. - -=Destruction of States' Rights by Fourteenth Amendment.=--These acts and -others not cited here were measures of centralization and consolidation -at the expense of the powers and dignity of the states. They were all of -high import, but the crowning act of nationalism was the fourteenth -amendment which, among other things, forbade states to "deprive any -person of life, liberty or property without due process of law." The -immediate occasion, though not the actual cause of this provision, was -the need for protecting the rights of freedmen against hostile -legislatures in the South. The result of the amendment, as was -prophesied in protests loud and long from every quarter of the -Democratic party, was the subjection of every act of state, municipal, -and county authorities to possible annulment by the Supreme Court at -Washington. The expected happened. - -Few negroes ever brought cases under the fourteenth amendment to the -attention of the courts; but thousands of state laws, municipal -ordinances, and acts of local authorities were set aside as null and -void under it. Laws of states regulating railway rates, fixing hours of -labor in bakeshops, and taxing corporations were in due time to be -annulled as conflicting with an amendment erroneously supposed to be -designed solely for the protection of negroes. As centralized power over -tariffs, railways, public lands, and other national concerns went to -Congress, so centralized power over the acts of state and local -authorities involving an infringement of personal and property rights -was conferred on the federal judiciary, the apex of which was the -Supreme Court at Washington. Thus the old federation of "independent -states," all equal in rights and dignity, each wearing the "jewel of -sovereignty" so celebrated in Southern oratory, had gone the way of all -flesh under the withering blasts of Civil War. - - -RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH - -=Theories about the Position of the Seceded States.=--On the morning of -April 9, 1865, when General Lee surrendered his army to General Grant, -eleven states stood in a peculiar relation to the union now declared -perpetual. Lawyers and political philosophers were much perturbed and -had been for some time as to what should be done with the members of the -former Confederacy. Radical Republicans held that they were "conquered -provinces" at the mercy of Congress, to be governed under such laws as -it saw fit to enact and until in its wisdom it decided to readmit any or -all of them to the union. Men of more conservative views held that, as -the war had been waged by the North on the theory that no state could -secede from the union, the Confederate states had merely attempted to -withdraw and had failed. The corollary of this latter line of argument -was simple: "The Southern states are still in the union and it is the -duty of the President, as commander-in-chief, to remove the federal -troops as soon as order is restored and the state governments ready to -function once more as usual." - -=Lincoln's Proposal.=--Some such simple and conservative form of -reconstruction had been suggested by Lincoln in a proclamation of -December 8, 1863. He proposed pardon and a restoration of property, -except in slaves, to nearly all who had "directly or by implication -participated in the existing rebellion," on condition that they take an -oath of loyalty to the union. He then announced that when, in any of the -states named, a body of voters, qualified under the law as it stood -before secession and equal in number to one-tenth the votes cast in -1860, took the oath of allegiance, they should be permitted to -reestablish a state government. Such a government, he added, should be -recognized as a lawful authority and entitled to protection under the -federal Constitution. With reference to the status of the former slaves -Lincoln made it clear that, while their freedom must be recognized, he -would not object to any legislation "which may yet be consistent as a -temporary arrangement with their present condition as a laboring, -landless, and homeless class." - -=Andrew Johnson's Plan--His Impeachment.=--Lincoln's successor, Andrew -Johnson, the Vice President, soon after taking office, proposed to -pursue a somewhat similar course. In a number of states he appointed -military governors, instructing them at the earliest possible moment to -assemble conventions, chosen "by that portion of the people of the said -states who are loyal to the United States," and proceed to the -organization of regular civil government. Johnson, a Southern man and a -Democrat, was immediately charged by the Republicans with being too -ready to restore the Southern states. As the months went by, the -opposition to his measures and policies in Congress grew in size and -bitterness. The contest resulted in the impeachment of Johnson by the -House of Representatives in March, 1868, and his acquittal by the Senate -merely because his opponents lacked one vote of the two-thirds required -for conviction. - -=Congress Enacts "Reconstruction Laws."=--In fact, Congress was in a -strategic position. It was the law-making body, and it could, moreover, -determine the conditions under which Senators and Representatives from -the South were to be readmitted. It therefore proceeded to pass a series -of reconstruction acts--carrying all of them over Johnson's veto. These -measures, the first of which became a law on March 2, 1867, betrayed an -animus not found anywhere in Lincoln's plans or Johnson's proclamations. - -They laid off the ten states--the whole Confederacy with the exception -of Tennessee--still outside the pale, into five military districts, each -commanded by a military officer appointed by the President. They ordered -the commanding general to prepare a register of voters for the election -of delegates to conventions chosen for the purpose of drafting new -constitutions. Such voters, however, were not to be, as Lincoln had -suggested, loyal persons duly qualified under the law existing before -secession but "the male citizens of said state, twenty-one years old and -upward, of whatever race, color, or previous condition, ... except such -as may be disfranchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony -at common law." This was the death knell to the idea that the leaders of -the Confederacy and their white supporters might be permitted to share -in the establishment of the new order. Power was thus arbitrarily thrust -into the hands of the newly emancipated male negroes and the handful of -whites who could show a record of loyalty. That was not all. Each state -was, under the reconstruction acts, compelled to ratify the fourteenth -amendment to the federal Constitution as a price of restoration to the -union. - -The composition of the conventions thus authorized may be imagined. -Bondmen without the asking and without preparation found themselves the -governing power. An army of adventurers from the North, "carpet baggers" -as they were called, poured in upon the scene to aid in -"reconstruction." Undoubtedly many men of honor and fine intentions gave -unstinted service, but the results of their deliberations only -aggravated the open wound left by the war. Any number of political -doctors offered their prescriptions; but no effective remedy could be -found. Under measures admittedly open to grave objections, the Southern -states were one after another restored to the union by the grace of -Congress, the last one in 1870. Even this grudging concession of the -formalities of statehood did not mean a full restoration of honors and -privileges. The last soldier was not withdrawn from the last Southern -capital until 1877, and federal control over elections long remained as -a sign of congressional supremacy. - -=The Status of the Freedmen.=--Even more intricate than the issues -involved in restoring the seceded states to the union was the question -of what to do with the newly emancipated slaves. That problem, often put -to abolitionists before the war, had become at last a real concern. The -thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery had not touched it at all. It -declared bondmen free, but did nothing to provide them with work or -homes and did not mention the subject of political rights. All these -matters were left to the states, and the legislatures of some of them, -by their famous "black codes," restored a form of servitude under the -guise of vagrancy and apprentice laws. Such methods were in fact partly -responsible for the reaction that led Congress to abandon Lincoln's -policies and undertake its own program of reconstruction. - -Still no extensive effort was made to solve by law the economic problems -of the bondmen. Radical abolitionists had advocated that the slaves when -emancipated should be given outright the fields of their former -masters; but Congress steadily rejected the very idea of confiscation. -The necessity of immediate assistance it recognized by creating in 1865 -the Freedmen's Bureau to take care of refugees. It authorized the issue -of food and clothing to the destitute and the renting of abandoned and -certain other lands under federal control to former slaves at reasonable -rates. But the larger problem of the relation of the freedmen to the -land, it left to the slow working of time. - -Against sharp protests from conservative men, particularly among the -Democrats, Congress did insist, however, on conferring upon the freedmen -certain rights by national law. These rights fell into broad divisions, -civil and political. By an act passed in 1866, Congress gave to former -slaves the rights of white citizens in the matter of making contracts, -giving testimony in courts, and purchasing, selling, and leasing -property. As it was doubtful whether Congress had the power to enact -this law, there was passed and submitted to the states the fourteenth -amendment which gave citizenship to the freedmen, assured them of the -privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declared -that no state should deprive any person of his life, liberty, or -property without due process of law. Not yet satisfied, Congress -attempted to give social equality to negroes by the second civil rights -bill of 1875 which promised to them, among other things, the full and -equal enjoyment of inns, theaters, public conveyances, and places of -amusement--a law later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. - -The matter of political rights was even more hotly contested; but the -radical Republicans, like Charles Sumner, asserted that civil rights -were not secure unless supported by the suffrage. In this same -fourteenth amendment they attempted to guarantee the ballot to all negro -men, leaving the women to take care of themselves. The amendment -declared in effect that when any state deprived adult male citizens of -the right to vote, its representation in Congress should be reduced in -the proportion such persons bore to the voting population. - -This provision having failed to accomplish its purpose, the fifteenth -amendment was passed and ratified, expressly declaring that no citizen -should be deprived of the right to vote "on account of race, color, or -previous condition of servitude." To make assurance doubly secure, -Congress enacted in 1870, 1872, and 1873 three drastic laws, sometimes -known as "force bills," providing for the use of federal authorities, -civil and military, in supervising elections in all parts of the Union. -So the federal government, having destroyed chattel slavery, sought by -legal decree to sweep away all its signs and badges, civil, social, and -political. Never, save perhaps in some of the civil conflicts of Greece -or Rome, had there occurred in the affairs of a nation a social -revolution so complete, so drastic, and far-reaching in its results. - - -SUMMARY OF THE SECTIONAL CONFLICT - -Just as the United States, under the impetus of Western enterprise, -rounded out the continental domain, its very existence as a nation was -challenged by a fratricidal conflict between two sections. This storm -had been long gathering upon the horizon. From the very beginning in -colonial times there had been a marked difference between the South and -the North. The former by climate and soil was dedicated to a planting -system--the cultivation of tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar cane--and in -the course of time slave labor became the foundation of the system. The -North, on the other hand, supplemented agriculture by commerce, trade, -and manufacturing. Slavery, though lawful, did not flourish there. An -abundant supply of free labor kept the Northern wheels turning. - -This difference between the two sections, early noted by close -observers, was increased with the advent of the steam engine and the -factory system. Between 1815 and 1860 an industrial revolution took -place in the North. Its signs were gigantic factories, huge aggregations -of industrial workers, immense cities, a flourishing commerce, and -prosperous banks. Finding an unfavorable reception in the South, the new -industrial system was confined mainly to the North. By canals and -railways New York, Boston, and Philadelphia were linked with the -wheatfields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. A steel net wove North and -Northwest together. A commercial net supplemented it. Western trade was -diverted from New Orleans to the East and Eastern credit sustained -Western enterprise. - -In time, the industrial North and the planting South evolved different -ideas of political policy. The former looked with favor on protective -tariffs, ship subsidies, a sound national banking system, and internal -improvements. The farmers of the West demanded that the public domain be -divided up into free homesteads for farmers. The South steadily swung -around to the opposite view. Its spokesmen came to regard most of these -policies as injurious to the planting interests. - -The economic questions were all involved in a moral issue. The Northern -states, in which slavery was of slight consequence, had early abolished -the institution. In the course of a few years there appeared -uncompromising advocates of universal emancipation. Far and wide the -agitation spread. The South was thoroughly frightened. It demanded -protection against the agitators, the enforcement of its rights in the -case of runaway slaves, and equal privileges for slavery in the new -territories. - -With the passing years the conflict between the two sections increased -in bitterness. It flamed up in 1820 and was allayed by the Missouri -compromise. It took on the form of a tariff controversy and -nullification in 1832. It appeared again after the Mexican war when the -question of slavery in the new territories was raised. Again -compromise--the great settlement of 1850--seemed to restore peace, only -to prove an illusion. A series of startling events swept the country -into war: the repeal of the Missouri compromise in 1854, the rise of the -Republican party pledged to the prohibition of slavery in the -territories, the Dred Scott decision of 1857, the Lincoln-Douglas -debates, John Brown's raid, the election of Lincoln, and secession. - -The Civil War, lasting for four years, tested the strength of both North -and South, in leadership, in finance, in diplomatic skill, in material -resources, in industry, and in armed forces. By the blockade of Southern -ports, by an overwhelming weight of men and materials, and by relentless -hammering on the field of battle, the North was victorious. - -The results of the war were revolutionary in character. Slavery was -abolished and the freedmen given the ballot. The Southern planters who -had been the leaders of their section were ruined financially and almost -to a man excluded from taking part in political affairs. The union was -declared to be perpetual and the right of a state to secede settled by -the judgment of battle. Federal control over the affairs of states, -counties, and cities was established by the fourteenth amendment. The -power and prestige of the federal government were enhanced beyond -imagination. The North was now free to pursue its economic policies: a -protective tariff, a national banking system, land grants for railways, -free lands for farmers. Planting had dominated the country for nearly a -generation. Business enterprise was to take its place. - - -=References= - -NORTHERN ACCOUNTS - -J.K. Hosmer, _The Appeal to Arms_ and _The Outcome of the Civil War_ -(American Nation Series). - -J. Ropes, _History of the Civil War_ (best account of military -campaigns). - -J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. III, IV, and V. - -J.T. Morse, _Abraham Lincoln_ (2 vols.). - - -SOUTHERN ACCOUNTS - -W.E. Dodd, _Jefferson Davis_. - -Jefferson Davis, _Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_. - -E. Pollard, _The Lost Cause_. - -A.H. Stephens, _The War between the States_. - - -=Questions= - -1. Contrast the reception of secession in 1860 with that given to -nullification in 1832. - -2. Compare the Northern and Southern views of the union. - -3. What were the peculiar features of the Confederate constitution? - -4. How was the Confederacy financed? - -5. Compare the resources of the two sections. - -6. On what foundations did Southern hopes rest? - -7. Describe the attempts at a peaceful settlement. - -8. Compare the raising of armies for the Civil War with the methods -employed in the World War. (See below, chapter XXV.) - -9. Compare the financial methods of the government in the two wars. - -10. Explain why the blockade was such a deadly weapon. - -11. Give the leading diplomatic events of the war. - -12. Trace the growth of anti-slavery sentiment. - -13. What measures were taken to restrain criticism of the government? - -14. What part did Lincoln play in all phases of the war? - -15. State the principal results of the war. - -16. Compare Lincoln's plan of reconstruction with that adopted by -Congress. - -17. What rights did Congress attempt to confer upon the former slaves? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Was Secession Lawful?=--The Southern view by Jefferson Davis in -Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 364-369. -Lincoln's view, Harding, pp. 371-381. - -=The Confederate Constitution.=--Compare with the federal Constitution -in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 424-433 and pp. 271-279. - -=Federal Legislative Measures.=--Prepare a table and brief digest of the -important laws relating to the war. Macdonald, pp. 433-482. - -=Economic Aspects of the War.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United -States_, pp. 279-301. Dewey, _Financial History of the United States_, -Chaps. XII and XIII. Tabulate the economic measures of Congress in -Macdonald. - -=Military Campaigns.=--The great battles are fully treated in Rhodes, -_History of the Civil War_, and teachers desiring to emphasize military -affairs may assign campaigns to members of the class for study and -report. A briefer treatment in Elson, _History of the United States_, -pp. 641-785. - -=Biographical Studies.=--Lincoln, Davis, Lee, Grant, Sherman, and other -leaders in civil and military affairs, with reference to local "war -governors." - -=English and French Opinion of the War.=--Rhodes, _History of the United -States_, Vol. IV, pp. 337-394. - -=The South during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 343-382. - -=The North during the War.=--Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. 189-342. - -=Reconstruction Measures.=--Macdonald, _Source Book_, pp. 500-511; -514-518; 529-530; Elson, pp. 786-799. - -=The Force Bills.=--Macdonald, pp. 547-551; 554-564. - - - - -PART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH - - -The outcome of the Civil War in the South was nothing short of a -revolution. The ruling class, the law, and the government of the old -order had been subverted. To political chaos was added the havoc wrought -in agriculture, business, and transportation by military operations. And -as if to fill the cup to the brim, the task of reconstruction was -committed to political leaders from another section of the country, -strangers to the life and traditions of the South. - - -THE SOUTH AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR - -=A Ruling Class Disfranchised.=--As the sovereignty of the planters had -been the striking feature of the old regime, so their ruin was the -outstanding fact of the new. The situation was extraordinary. The -American Revolution was carried out by people experienced in the arts of -self-government, and at its close they were free to follow the general -course to which they had long been accustomed. The French Revolution -witnessed the overthrow of the clergy and the nobility; but middle -classes who took their places had been steadily rising in intelligence -and wealth. - -The Southern Revolution was unlike either of these cataclysms. It was -not brought about by a social upheaval, but by an external crisis. It -did not enfranchise a class that sought and understood power, but -bondmen who had played no part in the struggle. Moreover it struck down -a class equipped to rule. The leading planters were almost to a man -excluded from state and federal offices, and the fourteenth amendment -was a bar to their return. All civil and military places under the -authority of the United States and of the states were closed to every -man who had taken an oath to support the Constitution as a member of -Congress, as a state legislator, or as a state or federal officer, and -afterward engaged in "insurrection or rebellion," or "given aid and -comfort to the enemies" of the United States. This sweeping provision, -supplemented by the reconstruction acts, laid under the ban most of the -talent, energy, and spirit of the South. - -=The Condition of the State Governments.=--The legislative, executive, -and judicial branches of the state governments thus passed into the -control of former slaves, led principally by Northern adventurers or -Southern novices, known as "Scalawags." The result was a carnival of -waste, folly, and corruption. The "reconstruction" assembly of South -Carolina bought clocks at $480 apiece and chandeliers at $650. To -purchase land for former bondmen the sum of $800,000 was appropriated; -and swamps bought at seventy-five cents an acre were sold to the state -at five times the cost. In the years between 1868 and 1873, the debt of -the state rose from about $5,800,000 to $24,000,000, and millions of the -increase could not be accounted for by the authorities responsible for -it. - -=Economic Ruin--Urban and Rural.=--No matter where Southern men turned -in 1865 they found devastation--in the towns, in the country, and along -the highways. Atlanta, the city to which Sherman applied the torch, lay -in ashes; Nashville and Chattanooga had been partially wrecked; Richmond -and Augusta had suffered severely from fires. Charleston was described -by a visitor as "a city of ruins, of desolation, of vacant houses, of -rotten wharves, of deserted warehouses, of weed gardens, of miles of -grass-grown streets.... How few young men there are, how generally the -young women are dressed in black! The flower of their proud aristocracy -is buried on scores of battle fields." - -Those who journeyed through the country about the same time reported -desolation equally widespread and equally pathetic. An English traveler -who made his way along the course of the Tennessee River in 1870 wrote: -"The trail of war is visible throughout the valley in burnt-up gin -houses, ruined bridges, mills, and factories ... and large tracts of -once cultivated land are stripped of every vestige of fencing. The -roads, long neglected, are in disorder and, having in many places become -impassable, new tracks have been made through the woods and fields -without much respect to boundaries." Many a great plantation had been -confiscated by the federal authorities while the owner was in -Confederate service. Many more lay in waste. In the wake of the armies -the homes of rich and poor alike, if spared the torch, had been -despoiled of the stock and seeds necessary to renew agriculture. - -=Railways Dilapidated.=--Transportation was still more demoralized. This -is revealed in the pages of congressional reports based upon first-hand -investigations. One eloquent passage illustrates all the rest. From -Pocahontas to Decatur, Alabama, a distance of 114 miles, we are told, -the railroad was "almost entirely destroyed, except the road bed and -iron rails, and they were in a very bad condition--every bridge and -trestle destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water tanks -gone, tracks grown up in weeds and bushes, not a saw mill near the line -and the labor system of the country gone. About forty miles of the track -were burned, the cross-ties entirely destroyed, and the rails bent and -twisted in such a manner as to require great labor to straighten and a -large portion of them requiring renewal." - -=Capital and Credit Destroyed.=--The fluid capital of the South, money -and credit, was in the same prostrate condition as the material capital. -The Confederate currency, inflated to the bursting point, had utterly -collapsed and was as worthless as waste paper. The bonds of the -Confederate government were equally valueless. Specie had nearly -disappeared from circulation. The fourteenth amendment to the federal -Constitution had made all "debts, obligations, and claims" incurred in -aid of the Confederate cause "illegal and void." Millions of dollars -owed to Northern creditors before the war were overdue and payment was -pressed upon the debtors. Where such debts were secured by mortgages on -land, executions against the property could be obtained in federal -courts. - - -THE RESTORATION OF WHITE SUPREMACY - -=Intimidation.=--In both politics and economics, the process of -reconstruction in the South was slow and arduous. The first battle in -the political contest for white supremacy was won outside the halls of -legislatures and the courts of law. It was waged, in the main, by secret -organizations, among which the Ku Klux Klan and the White Camelia were -the most prominent. The first of these societies appeared in Tennessee -in 1866 and held its first national convention the following year. It -was in origin a social club. According to its announcement, its objects -were "to protect the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless from the -indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the -brutal; and to succor the suffering, especially the widows and orphans -of the Confederate soldiers." The whole South was called "the Empire" -and was ruled by a "Grand Wizard." Each state was a realm and each -county a province. In the secret orders there were enrolled over half a -million men. - -The methods of the Ku Klux and the White Camelia were similar. Solemn -parades of masked men on horses decked in long robes were held, -sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at the dead of night. Notices -were sent to obnoxious persons warning them to stop certain practices. -If warning failed, something more convincing was tried. Fright was the -emotion most commonly stirred. A horseman, at the witching hour of -midnight, would ride up to the house of some offender, lift his head -gear, take off a skull, and hand it to the trembling victim with the -request that he hold it for a few minutes. Frequently violence was -employed either officially or unofficially by members of the Klan. Tar -and feathers were freely applied; the whip was sometimes laid on -unmercifully, and occasionally a brutal murder was committed. Often the -members were fired upon from bushes or behind trees, and swift -retaliation followed. So alarming did the clashes become that in 1870 -Congress forbade interference with electors or going in disguise for the -purpose of obstructing the exercise of the rights enjoyed under federal -law. - -In anticipation of such a step on the part of the federal government, -the Ku Klux was officially dissolved by the "Grand Wizard" in 1869. -Nevertheless, the local societies continued their organization and -methods. The spirit survived the national association. "On the whole," -says a Southern writer, "it is not easy to see what other course was -open to the South.... Armed resistance was out of the question. And yet -there must be some control had of the situation.... If force was denied, -craft was inevitable." - -=The Struggle for the Ballot Box.=--The effects of intimidation were -soon seen at elections. The freedman, into whose inexperienced hand the -ballot had been thrust, was ordinarily loath to risk his head by the -exercise of his new rights. He had not attained them by a long and -laborious contest of his own and he saw no urgent reason why he should -battle for the privilege of using them. The mere show of force, the mere -existence of a threat, deterred thousands of ex-slaves from appearing at -the polls. Thus the whites steadily recovered their dominance. Nothing -could prevent it. Congress enacted force bills establishing federal -supervision of elections and the Northern politicians protested against -the return of former Confederates to practical, if not official, power; -but all such opposition was like resistance to the course of nature. - -=Amnesty for Southerners.=--The recovery of white supremacy in this way -was quickly felt in national councils. The Democratic party in the North -welcomed it as a sign of its return to power. The more moderate -Republicans, anxious to heal the breach in American unity, sought to -encourage rather than to repress it. So it came about that amnesty for -Confederates was widely advocated. Yet it must be said that the struggle -for the removal of disabilities was stubborn and bitter. Lincoln, with -characteristic generosity, in the midst of the war had issued a general -proclamation of amnesty to nearly all who had been in arms against the -Union, on condition that they take an oath of loyalty; but Johnson, -vindictive toward Southern leaders and determined to make "treason -infamous," had extended the list of exceptions. Congress, even more -relentless in its pursuit of Confederates, pushed through the fourteenth -amendment which worked the sweeping disabilities we have just described. - -To appeals for comprehensive clemency, Congress was at first adamant. In -vain did men like Carl Schurz exhort their colleagues to crown their -victory in battle with a noble act of universal pardon and oblivion. -Congress would not yield. It would grant amnesty in individual cases; -for the principle of proscription it stood fast. When finally in 1872, -seven years after the surrender at Appomattox, it did pass the general -amnesty bill, it insisted on certain exceptions. Confederates who had -been members of Congress just before the war, or had served in other -high posts, civil or military, under the federal government, were still -excluded from important offices. Not until the summer of 1898, when the -war with Spain produced once more a union of hearts, did Congress relent -and abolish the last of the disabilities imposed on the Confederates. - -=The Force Bills Attacked and Nullified.=--The granting of amnesty -encouraged the Democrats to redouble their efforts all along the line. -In 1874 they captured the House of Representatives and declared war on -the "force bills." As a Republican Senate blocked immediate repeal, they -resorted to an ingenious parliamentary trick. To the appropriation bill -for the support of the army they attached a "rider," or condition, to -the effect that no troops should be used to sustain the Republican -government in Louisiana. The Senate rejected the proposal. A deadlock -ensued and Congress adjourned without making provision for the army. -Satisfied with the technical victory, the Democrats let the army bill -pass the next session, but kept up their fight on the force laws until -they wrung from President Hayes a measure forbidding the use of United -States troops in supervising elections. The following year they again -had recourse to a rider on the army bill and carried it through, putting -an end to the use of money for military control of elections. The -reconstruction program was clearly going to pieces, and the Supreme -Court helped along the process of dissolution by declaring parts of the -laws invalid. In 1878 the Democrats even won a majority in the Senate -and returned to power a large number of men once prominent in the -Confederate cause. - -The passions of the war by this time were evidently cooling. A new -generation of men was coming on the scene. The supremacy of the whites -in the South, if not yet complete, was at least assured. Federal -marshals, their deputies, and supervisors of elections still possessed -authority over the polls, but their strength had been shorn by the -withdrawal of United States troops. The war on the remaining remnants of -the "force bills" lapsed into desultory skirmishing. When in 1894 the -last fragment was swept away, the country took little note of the fact. -The only task that lay before the Southern leaders was to write in the -constitutions of their respective states the provisions of law which -would clinch the gains so far secured and establish white supremacy -beyond the reach of outside intervention. - -=White Supremacy Sealed by New State Constitutions.=--The impetus to -this final step was given by the rise of the Populist movement in the -South, which sharply divided the whites and in many communities threw -the balance of power into the hands of the few colored voters who -survived the process of intimidation. Southern leaders now devised new -constitutions so constructed as to deprive negroes of the ballot by law. -Mississippi took the lead in 1890; South Carolina followed five years -later; Louisiana, in 1898; North Carolina, in 1900; Alabama and -Maryland, in 1901; and Virginia, in 1902. - -The authors of these measures made no attempt to conceal their purposes. -"The intelligent white men of the South," said Governor Tillman, "intend -to govern here." The fifteenth amendment to the federal Constitution, -however, forbade them to deprive any citizen of the right to vote on -account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This made -necessary the devices of indirection. They were few, simple, and -effective. The first and most easily administered was the ingenious -provision requiring each prospective voter to read a section of the -state constitution or "understand and explain it" when read to him by -the election officers. As an alternative, the payment of taxes or the -ownership of a small amount of property was accepted as a qualification -for voting. Southern leaders, unwilling to disfranchise any of the poor -white men who had stood side by side with them "in the dark days of -reconstruction," also resorted to a famous provision known as "the -grandfather clause." This plan admitted to the suffrage any man who did -not have either property or educational qualifications, provided he had -voted on or before 1867 or was the son or grandson of any such person. - -The devices worked effectively. Of the 147,000 negroes in Mississippi -above the age of twenty-one, only about 8600 registered under the -constitution of 1890. Louisiana had 127,000 colored voters enrolled in -1896; under the constitution drafted two years later the registration -fell to 5300. An analysis of the figures for South Carolina in 1900 -indicates that only about one negro out of every hundred adult males of -that race took part in elections. Thus was closed this chapter of -reconstruction. - -=The Supreme Court Refuses to Intervene.=--Numerous efforts were made to -prevail upon the Supreme Court of the United States to declare such laws -unconstitutional; but the Court, usually on technical grounds, avoided -coming to a direct decision on the merits of the matter. In one case -the Court remarked that it could not take charge of and operate the -election machinery of Alabama; it concluded that "relief from a great -political wrong, if done as alleged, by the people of a state and by the -state itself, must be given by them, or by the legislative and executive -departments of the government of the United States." Only one of the -several schemes employed, namely, the "grandfather clause," was held to -be a violation of the federal Constitution. This blow, effected in 1915 -by the decision in the Oklahoma and Maryland cases, left, however, the -main structure of disfranchisement unimpaired. - -=Proposals to Reduce Southern Representation in Congress.=--These -provisions excluding thousands of male citizens from the ballot did not, -in express terms, deprive any one of the vote on account of race or -color. They did not, therefore, run counter to the letter of the -fifteenth amendment; but they did unquestionably make the states which -adopted them liable to the operations of the fourteenth amendment. The -latter very explicitly provides that whenever any state deprives adult -male citizens of the right to vote (except in certain minor cases) the -representation of the state in Congress shall be reduced in the -proportion which such number of disfranchised citizens bears to the -whole number of male citizens over twenty-one years of age. - -Mindful of this provision, those who protested against disfranchisement -in the South turned to the Republican party for relief, asking for -action by the political branches of the federal government as the -Supreme Court had suggested. The Republicans responded in their platform -of 1908 by condemning all devices designed to deprive any one of the -ballot for reasons of color alone; they demanded the enforcement in -letter and spirit of the fourteenth as well as all other amendments. -Though victorious in the election, the Republicans refrained from -reopening the ancient contest; they made no attempt to reduce Southern -representation in the House. Southern leaders, while protesting against -the declarations of their opponents, were able to view them as idle -threats in no way endangering the security of the measures by which -political reconstruction had been undone. - -=The Solid South.=--Out of the thirty-year conflict against "carpet-bag -rule" there emerged what was long known as the "solid South"--a South -that, except occasionally in the border states, never gave an electoral -vote to a Republican candidate for President. Before the Civil War, the -Southern people had been divided on political questions. Take, for -example, the election of 1860. In all the fifteen slave states the -variety of opinion was marked. In nine of them--Delaware, Virginia, -Tennessee, Missouri, Maryland, Louisiana, Kentucky, Georgia, and -Arkansas--the combined vote against the representative of the extreme -Southern point of view, Breckinridge, constituted a safe majority. In -each of the six states which were carried by Breckinridge, there was a -large and powerful minority. In North Carolina Breckinridge's majority -over Bell and Douglas was only 849 votes. Equally astounding to those -who imagine the South united in defense of extreme views in 1860 was the -vote for Bell, the Unionist candidate, who stood firmly for the -Constitution and silence on slavery. In every Southern state Bell's vote -was large. In Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee it was greater -than that received by Breckinridge; in Georgia, it was 42,000 against -51,000; in Louisiana, 20,000 against 22,000; in Mississippi, 25,000 -against 40,000. - -The effect of the Civil War upon these divisions was immediate and -decisive, save in the border states where thousands of men continued to -adhere to the cause of Union. In the Confederacy itself nearly all -dissent was silenced by war. Men who had been bitter opponents joined -hands in defense of their homes; when the armed conflict was over they -remained side by side working against "Republican misrule and negro -domination." By 1890, after Northern supremacy was definitely broken, -they boasted that there were at least twelve Southern states in which no -Republican candidate for President could win a single electoral vote. - -=Dissent in the Solid South.=--Though every one grew accustomed to speak -of the South as "solid," it did not escape close observers that in a -number of Southern states there appeared from time to time a fairly -large body of dissenters. In 1892 the Populists made heavy inroads upon -the Democratic ranks. On other occasions, the contests between factions -within the Democratic party over the nomination of candidates revealed -sharp differences of opinion. In some places, moreover, there grew up a -Republican minority of respectable size. For example, in Georgia, Mr. -Taft in 1908 polled 41,000 votes against 72,000 for Mr. Bryan; in North -Carolina, 114,000 against 136,000; in Tennessee, 118,000 against -135,000; in Kentucky, 235,000 against 244,000. In 1920, Senator Harding, -the Republican candidate, broke the record by carrying Tennessee as well -as Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Maryland. - - -THE ECONOMIC ADVANCE OF THE SOUTH - -=The Break-up of the Great Estates.=--In the dissolution of chattel -slavery it was inevitable that the great estate should give way before -the small farm. The plantation was in fact founded on slavery. It was -continued and expanded by slavery. Before the war the prosperous -planter, either by inclination or necessity, invested his surplus in -more land to add to his original domain. As his slaves increased in -number, he was forced to increase his acreage or sell them, and he -usually preferred the former, especially in the Far South. Still another -element favored the large estate. Slave labor quickly exhausted the soil -and of its own force compelled the cutting of the forests and the -extension of the area under cultivation. Finally, the planter took a -natural pride in his great estate; it was a sign of his prowess and his -social prestige. - -In 1865 the foundations of the planting system were gone. It was -difficult to get efficient labor to till the vast plantations. The -planters themselves were burdened with debts and handicapped by lack of -capital. Negroes commonly preferred tilling plots of their own, rented -or bought under mortgage, to the more irksome wage labor under white -supervision. The land hunger of the white farmer, once checked by the -planting system, reasserted itself. Before these forces the plantation -broke up. The small farm became the unit of cultivation in the South as -in the North. Between 1870 and 1900 the number of farms doubled in every -state south of the line of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, except in -Arkansas and Louisiana. From year to year the process of breaking up -continued, with all that it implied in the creation of land-owning -farmers. - -=The Diversification of Crops.=--No less significant was the concurrent -diversification of crops. Under slavery, tobacco, rice, and sugar were -staples and "cotton was king." These were standard crops. The methods of -cultivation were simple and easily learned. They tested neither the -skill nor the ingenuity of the slaves. As the returns were quick, they -did not call for long-time investments of capital. After slavery was -abolished, they still remained the staples, but far-sighted -agriculturists saw the dangers of depending upon a few crops. The mild -climate all the way around the coast from Virginia to Texas and the -character of the alluvial soil invited the exercise of more imagination. -Peaches, oranges, peanuts, and other fruits and vegetables were found to -grow luxuriantly. Refrigeration for steamships and freight cars put the -markets of great cities at the doors of Southern fruit and vegetable -gardeners. The South, which in planting days had relied so heavily upon -the Northwest for its foodstuffs, began to battle for independence. -Between 1880 and the close of the century the value of its farm crops -increased from $660,000,000 to $1,270,000,000. - -=The Industrial and Commercial Revolution.=--On top of the radical -changes in agriculture came an industrial and commercial revolution. The -South had long been rich in natural resources, but the slave system had -been unfavorable to their development. Rivers that would have turned -millions of spindles tumbled unheeded to the seas. Coal and iron beds -lay unopened. Timber was largely sacrificed in clearing lands for -planting, or fell to earth in decay. Southern enterprise was consumed in -planting. Slavery kept out the white immigrants who might have supplied -the skilled labor for industry. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -STEEL MILLS--BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA] - -After 1865, achievement and fortune no longer lay on the land alone. As -soon as the paralysis of the war was over, the South caught the -industrial spirit that had conquered feudal Europe and the agricultural -North. In the development of mineral wealth, enormous strides were -taken. Iron ore of every quality was found, the chief beds being in -Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, Georgia, -Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. Five important coal basins were uncovered: -in Virginia, North Carolina, the Appalachian chain from Maryland to -Northern Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Texas. Oil pools were found -in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. Within two decades, 1880 to 1900, the -output of mineral wealth multiplied tenfold: from ten millions a year to -one hundred millions. The iron industries of West Virginia and Alabama -began to rival those of Pennsylvania. Birmingham became the Pittsburgh -and Atlanta the Chicago of the South. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A SOUTHERN COTTON MILL IN A COTTON FIELD] - -In other lines of industry, lumbering and cotton manufacturing took a -high rank. The development of Southern timber resources was in every -respect remarkable, particularly in Louisiana, Arkansas, and -Mississippi. At the end of the first decade of the twentieth century, -primacy in lumber had passed from the Great Lakes region to the South. -In 1913 eight Southern states produced nearly four times as much lumber -as the Lake states and twice as much as the vast forests of Washington -and Oregon. - -The development of the cotton industry, in the meantime, was similarly -astounding. In 1865 cotton spinning was a negligible matter in the -Southern states. In 1880 they had one-fourth of the mills of the -country. At the end of the century they had one-half the mills, the two -Carolinas taking the lead by consuming more than one-third of their -entire cotton crop. Having both the raw materials and the power at hand, -they enjoyed many advantages over the New England rivals, and at the -opening of the new century were outstripping the latter in the -proportion of spindles annually put into operation. Moreover, the cotton -planters, finding a market at the neighboring mills, began to look -forward to a day when they would be somewhat emancipated from absolute -dependence upon the cotton exchanges of New York, New Orleans, and -Liverpool. - -Transportation kept pace with industry. In 1860, the South had about ten -thousand miles of railway. By 1880 the figure had doubled. During the -next twenty years over thirty thousand miles were added, most of the -increase being in Texas. About 1898 there opened a period of -consolidation in which scores of short lines were united, mainly under -the leadership of Northern capitalists, and new through service opened -to the North and West. Thus Southern industries were given easy outlets -to the markets of the nation and brought within the main currents of -national business enterprise. - -=The Social Effects of the Economic Changes.=--As long as the slave -system lasted and planting was the major interest, the South was bound -to be sectional in character. With slavery gone, crops diversified, -natural resources developed, and industries promoted, the social order -of the ante-bellum days inevitably dissolved; the South became more and -more assimilated to the system of the North. In this process several -lines of development are evident. - -In the first place we see the steady rise of the small farmer. Even in -the old days there had been a large class of white yeomen who owned no -slaves and tilled the soil with their own hands, but they labored under -severe handicaps. They found the fertile lands of the coast and river -valleys nearly all monopolized by planters, and they were by the force -of circumstances driven into the uplands where the soil was thin and the -crops were light. Still they increased in numbers and zealously worked -their freeholds. - -The war proved to be their opportunity. With the break-up of the -plantations, they managed to buy land more worthy of their plows. By -intelligent labor and intensive cultivation they were able to restore -much of the worn-out soil to its original fertility. In the meantime -they rose with their prosperity in the social and political scale. It -became common for the sons of white farmers to enter the professions, -while their daughters went away to college and prepared for teaching. -Thus a more democratic tone was given to the white society of the South. -Moreover the migration to the North and West, which had formerly carried -thousands of energetic sons and daughters to search for new homesteads, -was materially reduced. The energy of the agricultural population went -into rehabilitation. - -The increase in the number of independent farmers was accompanied by the -rise of small towns and villages which gave diversity to the life of the -South. Before 1860 it was possible to travel through endless stretches -of cotton and tobacco. The social affairs of the planter's family -centered in the homestead even if they were occasionally interrupted by -trips to distant cities or abroad. Carpentry, bricklaying, and -blacksmithing were usually done by slaves skilled in simple handicrafts. -Supplies were bought wholesale. In this way there was little place in -plantation economy for villages and towns with their stores and -mechanics. - -The abolition of slavery altered this. Small farms spread out where -plantations had once stood. The skilled freedmen turned to agriculture -rather than to handicrafts; white men of a business or mechanical bent -found an opportunity to serve the needs of their communities. So local -merchants and mechanics became an important element in the social -system. In the county seats, once dominated by the planters, business -and professional men assumed the leadership. - -Another vital outcome of this revolution was the transference of a large -part of planting enterprise to business. Mr. Bruce, a Southern historian -of fine scholarship, has summed up this process in a single telling -paragraph: "The higher planting class that under the old system gave so -much distinction to rural life has, so far as it has survived at all, -been concentrated in the cities. The families that in the time of -slavery would have been found only in the country are now found, with a -few exceptions, in the towns. The transplantation has been practically -universal. The talent, the energy, the ambition that formerly sought -expression in the management of great estates and the control of hosts -of slaves, now seek a field of action in trade, in manufacturing -enterprises, or in the general enterprises of development. This was for -the ruling class of the South the natural outcome of the great economic -revolution that followed the war." - -As in all other parts of the world, the mechanical revolution was -attended by the growth of a population of industrial workers dependent -not upon the soil but upon wages for their livelihood. When Jefferson -Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy, there were -approximately only one hundred thousand persons employed in Southern -manufactures as against more than a million in Northern mills. Fifty -years later, Georgia and Alabama alone had more than one hundred and -fifty thousand wage-earners. Necessarily this meant also a material -increase in urban population, although the wide dispersion of cotton -spinning among small centers prevented the congestion that had -accompanied the rise of the textile industry in New England. In 1910, -New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Nashville, and Houston stood in the same -relation to the New South that Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, and -Detroit had stood to the New West fifty years before. The problems of -labor and capital and municipal administration, which the earlier -writers boasted would never perplex the planting South, had come in full -force. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A GLIMPSE OF MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE] - -=The Revolution in the Status of the Slaves.=--No part of Southern -society was so profoundly affected by the Civil War and economic -reconstruction as the former slaves. On the day of emancipation, they -stood free, but empty-handed, the owners of no tools or property, the -masters of no trade and wholly inexperienced in the arts of self-help -that characterized the whites in general. They had never been accustomed -to looking out for themselves. The plantation bell had called them to -labor and released them. Doles of food and clothing had been regularly -made in given quantities. They did not understand wages, ownership, -renting, contracts, mortgages, leases, bills, or accounts. - -When they were emancipated, four courses were open to them. They could -flee from the plantation to the nearest town or city, or to the distant -North, to seek a livelihood. Thousands of them chose this way, -overcrowding cities where disease mowed them down. They could remain -where they, were in their cabins and work for daily wages instead of -food, clothing, and shelter. This second course the major portion of -them chose; but, as few masters had cash to dispense, the new relation -was much like the old, in fact. It was still one of barter. The planter -offered food, clothing, and shelter; the former slaves gave their labor -in return. That was the best that many of them could do. - -A third course open to freedmen was that of renting from the former -master, paying him usually with a share of the produce of the land. This -way a large number of them chose. It offered them a chance to become -land owners in time and it afforded an easier life, the renter being, to -a certain extent at least, master of his own hours of labor. The final -and most difficult path was that to ownership of land. Many a master -helped his former slaves to acquire small holdings by offering easy -terms. The more enterprising and the more fortunate who started life as -renters or wage-earners made their way upward to ownership in so many -cases that by the end of the century, one-fourth of the colored laborers -on the land owned the soil they tilled. - -In the meantime, the South, though relatively poor, made relatively -large expenditures for the education of the colored population. By the -opening of the twentieth century, facilities were provided for more than -one-half of the colored children of school age. While in many respects -this progress was disappointing, its significance, to be appreciated, -must be derived from a comparison with the total illiteracy which -prevailed under slavery. - -In spite of all that happened, however, the status of the negroes in the -South continued to give a peculiar character to that section of the -country. They were almost entirely excluded from the exercise of the -suffrage, especially in the Far South. Special rooms were set aside for -them at the railway stations and special cars on the railway lines. In -the field of industry calling for technical skill, it appears, from the -census figures, that they lost ground between 1890 and 1900--a condition -which their friends ascribed to discriminations against them in law and -in labor organizations and their critics ascribed to their lack of -aptitude. Whatever may be the truth, the fact remained that at the -opening of the twentieth century neither the hopes of the emancipators -nor the fears of their opponents were realized. The marks of the -"peculiar institution" were still largely impressed upon Southern -society. - -The situation, however, was by no means unchanging. On the contrary -there was a decided drift in affairs. For one thing, the proportion of -negroes in the South had slowly declined. By 1900 they were in a -majority in only two states, South Carolina and Mississippi. In -Arkansas, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina the proportion of -the white population was steadily growing. The colored migration -northward increased while the westward movement of white farmers which -characterized pioneer days declined. At the same time a part of the -foreign immigration into the United States was diverted southward. As -the years passed these tendencies gained momentum. The already huge -colored quarters in some Northern cities were widely expanded, as whole -counties in the South were stripped of their colored laborers. The race -question, in its political and economic aspects, became less and less -sectional, more and more national. The South was drawn into the main -stream of national life. The separatist forces which produced the -cataclysm of 1861 sank irresistibly into the background. - - -=References= - -H.W. Grady, _The New South_ (1890). - -H.A. Herbert, _Why the Solid South_. - -W.G. Brown, _The Lower South_. - -E.G. Murphy, _Problems of the Present South_. - -B.T. Washington, _The Negro Problem_; _The Story of the Negro_; _The -Future of the Negro_. - -A.B. Hart, _The Southern South_ and R.S. Baker, _Following the Color -Line_ (two works by Northern writers). - -T.N. Page, _The Negro, the Southerner's Problem_. - - -=Questions= - -1. Give the three main subdivisions of the chapter. - -2. Compare the condition of the South in 1865 with that of the North. -Compare with the condition of the United States at the close of the -Revolutionary War. At the close of the World War in 1918. - -3. Contrast the enfranchisement of the slaves with the enfranchisement -of white men fifty years earlier. - -4. What was the condition of the planters as compared with that of the -Northern manufacturers? - -5. How does money capital contribute to prosperity? Describe the plight -of Southern finance. - -6. Give the chief steps in the restoration of white supremacy. - -7. Do you know of any other societies to compare with the Ku Klux Klan? - -8. Give Lincoln's plan for amnesty. What principles do you think should -govern the granting of amnesty? - -9. How were the "Force bills" overcome? - -10. Compare the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments with regard to the -suffrage provisions. - -11. Explain how they may be circumvented. - -12. Account for the Solid South. What was the situation before 1860? - -13. In what ways did Southern agriculture tend to become like that of -the North? What were the social results? - -14. Name the chief results of an "industrial revolution" in general. In -the South, in particular. - -15. What courses were open to freedmen in 1865? - -16. Give the main features in the economic and social status of the -colored population in the South. - -17. Explain why the race question is national now, rather than -sectional. - - - -=Research Topics= - -=Amnesty for Confederates.=--Study carefully the provisions of the -fourteenth amendment in the Appendix. Macdonald, _Documentary Source -Book of American History_, pp. 470 and 564. A plea for amnesty in -Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating American History_, pp. 467-488. - -=Political Conditions in the South in 1868.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction, -Political and Economic_ (American Nation Series), pp. 109-123; Hart, -_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 445-458, -497-500; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 799-805. - -=Movement for White Supremacy.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 266-280; -Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 39-58; Beard, _American -Government and Politics_, pp. 454-457. - -=The Withdrawal of Federal Troops from the South.=--Sparks, _National -Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 84-102; Rhodes, _History of -the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 1-12. - -=Southern Industry.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_, pp. 192-207; T.M. Young, -_The American Cotton Industry_, pp. 54-99. - -=The Race Question.=--B.T. Washington, _Up From Slavery_ (sympathetic -presentation); A.H. Stone, _Studies in the American Race Problem_ -(coldly analytical); Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 647-649, -652-654, 663-669. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY - - -If a single phrase be chosen to characterize American life during the -generation that followed the age of Douglas and Lincoln, it must be -"business enterprise"--the tremendous, irresistible energy of a virile -people, mounting in numbers toward a hundred million and applied without -let or hindrance to the developing of natural resources of unparalleled -richness. The chief goal of this effort was high profits for the -captains of industry, on the one hand; and high wages for the workers, -on the other. Its signs, to use the language of a Republican orator in -1876, were golden harvest fields, whirling spindles, turning wheels, -open furnace doors, flaming forges, and chimneys filled with eager fire. -The device blazoned on its shield and written over its factory doors was -"prosperity." A Republican President was its "advance agent." Released -from the hampering interference of the Southern planters and the -confusing issues of the slavery controversy, business enterprise sprang -forward to the task of winning the entire country. Then it flung its -outposts to the uttermost parts of the earth--Europe, Africa, and the -Orient--where were to be found markets for American goods and natural -resources for American capital to develop. - - -RAILWAYS AND INDUSTRY - -=The Outward Signs of Enterprise.=--It is difficult to comprehend all -the multitudinous activities of American business energy or to appraise -its effects upon the life and destiny of the American people; for beyond -the horizon of the twentieth century lie consequences as yet undreamed -of in our poor philosophy. Statisticians attempt to record its -achievements in terms of miles of railways built, factories opened, men -and women employed, fortunes made, wages paid, cities founded, rivers -spanned, boxes, bales, and tons produced. Historians apply standards of -comparison with the past. Against the slow and leisurely stagecoach, -they set the swift express, rushing from New York to San Francisco in -less time than Washington consumed in his triumphal tour from Mt. Vernon -to New York for his first inaugural. Against the lazy sailing vessel -drifting before a genial breeze, they place the turbine steamer crossing -the Atlantic in five days or the still swifter airplane, in fifteen -hours. For the old workshop where a master and a dozen workmen and -apprentices wrought by hand, they offer the giant factory where ten -thousand persons attend the whirling wheels driven by steam. They write -of the "romance of invention" and the "captains of industry." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A CORNER IN THE BETHLEHEM STEEL WORKS] - -=The Service of the Railway.=--All this is fitting in its way. Figures -and contrasts cannot, however, tell the whole story. Take, for example, -the extension of railways. It is easy to relate that there were 30,000 -miles in 1860; 166,000 in 1890; and 242,000 in 1910. It is easy to show -upon the map how a few straggling lines became a perfect mesh of closely -knitted railways; or how, like the tentacles of a great monster, the few -roads ending in the Mississippi Valley in 1860 were extended and -multiplied until they tapped every wheat field, mine, and forest beyond -the valley. All this, eloquent of enterprise as it truly is, does not -reveal the significance of railways for American life. It does not -indicate how railways made a continental market for American goods; nor -how they standardized the whole country, giving to cities on the -advancing frontier the leading features of cities in the old East; nor -how they carried to the pioneer the comforts of civilization; nor yet -how in the West they were the forerunners of civilization, the makers of -homesteads, the builders of states. - -=Government Aid for Railways.=--Still the story is not ended. The -significant relation between railways and politics must not be -overlooked. The bounty of a lavish government, for example, made -possible the work of railway promoters. By the year 1872 the Federal -government had granted in aid of railways 155,000,000 acres of land--an -area estimated as almost equal to Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, -Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The -Union Pacific Company alone secured from the federal government a free -right of way through the public domain, twenty sections of land with -each mile of railway, and a loan up to fifty millions of dollars secured -by a second mortgage on the company's property. More than half of the -northern tier of states lying against Canada from Lake Michigan to the -Pacific was granted to private companies in aid of railways and wagon -roads. About half of New Mexico, Arizona, and California was also given -outright to railway companies. These vast grants from the federal -government were supplemented by gifts from the states in land and by -subscriptions amounting to more than two hundred million dollars. The -history of these gifts and their relation to the political leaders that -engineered them would alone fill a large and interesting volume. - -=Railway Fortunes and Capital.=--Out of this gigantic railway promotion, -the first really immense American fortunes were made. Henry Adams, the -grandson of John Quincy Adams, related that his grandfather on his -mother's side, Peter Brooks, on his death in 1849, left a fortune of two -million dollars, "supposed to be the largest estate in Boston," then one -of the few centers of great riches. Compared with the opulence that -sprang out of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Southern -Pacific, with their subsidiary and component lines, the estate of Peter -Brooks was a poor man's heritage. - -The capital invested in these railways was enormous beyond the -imagination of the men of the stagecoach generation. The total debt of -the United States incurred in the Revolutionary War--a debt which those -of little faith thought the country could never pay--was reckoned at a -figure well under $75,000,000. When the Union Pacific Railroad was -completed, there were outstanding against it $27,000,000 in first -mortgage bonds, $27,000,000 in second mortgage bonds held by the -government, $10,000,000 in income bonds, $10,000,000 in land grant -bonds, and, on top of that huge bonded indebtedness, $36,000,000 in -stock--making $110,000,000 in all. If the amount due the United States -government be subtracted, still there remained, in private hands, stocks -and bonds exceeding in value the whole national debt of Hamilton's -day--a debt that strained all the resources of the Federal government in -1790. Such was the financial significance of the railways. - -[Illustration: RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1918] - -=Growth and Extension of Industry.=--In the field of manufacturing, -mining, and metal working, the results of business enterprise far -outstripped, if measured in mere dollars, the results of railway -construction. By the end of the century there were about ten billion -dollars invested in factories alone and five million wage-earners -employed in them; while the total value of the output, fourteen billion -dollars, was fifteen times the figure for 1860. In the Eastern states -industries multiplied. In the Northwest territory, the old home of -Jacksonian Democracy, they overtopped agriculture. By the end of the -century, Ohio had almost reached and Illinois had surpassed -Massachusetts in the annual value of manufacturing output. - -That was not all. Untold wealth in the form of natural resources was -discovered in the South and West. Coal deposits were found in the -Appalachians stretching from Pennsylvania down to Alabama, in Michigan, -in the Mississippi Valley, and in the Western mountains from North -Dakota to New Mexico. In nearly every coal-bearing region, iron was also -discovered and the great fields of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota -soon rivaled those of the Appalachian area. Copper, lead, gold, and -silver in fabulous quantities were unearthed by the restless prospectors -who left no plain or mountain fastness unexplored. Petroleum, first -pumped from the wells of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1859, made new -fortunes equaling those of trade, railways, and land speculation. It -scattered its riches with an especially lavish hand through Oklahoma, -Texas, and California. - -=The Trust--an Instrument of Industrial Progress.=--Business enterprise, -under the direction of powerful men working single-handed, or of small -groups of men pooling their capital for one or more undertakings, had -not advanced far before there appeared upon the scene still mightier -leaders of even greater imagination. New constructive genius now brought -together and combined under one management hundreds of concerns or -thousands of miles of railways, revealing the magic strength of -cooeperation on a national scale. Price-cutting in oil, threatening ruin -to those engaged in the industry, as early as 1879, led a number of -companies in Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia to unite in -price-fixing. Three years later a group of oil interests formed a close -organization, placing all their stocks in the hands of trustees, among -whom was John D. Rockefeller. The trustees, in turn, issued -certificates representing the share to which each participant was -entitled; and took over the management of the entire business. Such was -the nature of the "trust," which was to play such an unique role in the -progress of America. - -The idea of combination was applied in time to iron and steel, copper, -lead, sugar, cordage, coal, and other commodities, until in each field -there loomed a giant trust or corporation, controlling, if not most of -the output, at least enough to determine in a large measure the prices -charged to consumers. With the passing years, the railways, mills, -mines, and other business concerns were transferred from individual -owners to corporations. At the end of the nineteenth century, the whole -face of American business was changed. Three-fourths of the output from -industries came from factories under corporate management and only -one-fourth from individual and partnership undertakings. - -[Illustration: JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER] - -=The Banking Corporation.=--Very closely related to the growth of -business enterprise on a large scale was the system of banking. In the -old days before banks, a person with savings either employed them in his -own undertakings, lent them to a neighbor, or hid them away where they -set no industry in motion. Even in the early stages of modern business, -it was common for a manufacturer to rise from small beginnings by -financing extensions out of his own earnings and profits. This state of -affairs was profoundly altered by the growth of the huge corporations -requiring millions and even billions of capital. The banks, once an -adjunct to business, became the leaders in business. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -WALL STREET, NEW YORK CITY] - -It was the banks that undertook to sell the stocks and bonds issued by -new corporations and trusts and to supply them with credit to carry on -their operations. Indeed, many of the great mergers or combinations in -business were initiated by magnates in the banking world with millions -and billions under their control. Through their connections with one -another, the banks formed a perfect network of agencies gathering up the -pennies and dollars of the masses as well as the thousands of the rich -and pouring them all into the channels of business and manufacturing. -In this growth of banking on a national scale, it was inevitable that a -few great centers, like Wall Street in New York or State Street in -Boston, should rise to a position of dominance both in concentrating the -savings and profits of the nation and in financing new as well as old -corporations. - -=The Significance of the Corporation.=--The corporation, in fact, became -the striking feature of American business life, one of the most -marvelous institutions of all time, comparable in wealth and power and -the number of its servants with kingdoms and states of old. The effect -of its rise and growth cannot be summarily estimated; but some special -facts are obvious. It made possible gigantic enterprises once entirely -beyond the reach of any individual, no matter how rich. It eliminated -many of the futile and costly wastes of competition in connection with -manufacture, advertising, and selling. It studied the cheapest methods -of production and shut down mills that were poorly equipped or -disadvantageously located. It established laboratories for research in -industry, chemistry, and mechanical inventions. Through the sale of -stocks and bonds, it enabled tens of thousands of people to become -capitalists, if only in a small way. The corporation made it possible -for one person to own, for instance, a $50 share in a million dollar -business concern--a thing entirely impossible under a regime of -individual owners and partnerships. - -There was, of course, another side to the picture. Many of the -corporations sought to become monopolies and to make profits, not by -economies and good management, but by extortion from purchasers. -Sometimes they mercilessly crushed small business men, their -competitors, bribed members of legislatures to secure favorable laws, -and contributed to the campaign funds of both leading parties. Wherever -a trust approached the position of a monopoly, it acquired a dominion -over the labor market which enabled it to break even the strongest trade -unions. In short, the power of the trust in finance, in manufacturing, -in politics, and in the field of labor control can hardly be measured. - -=The Corporation and Labor.=--In the development of the corporation -there was to be observed a distinct severing of the old ties between -master and workmen, which existed in the days of small industries. For -the personal bond between the owner and the employees was substituted a -new relation. "In most parts of our country," as President Wilson once -said, "men work, not for themselves, not as partners in the old way in -which they used to work, but generally as employees--in a higher or -lower grade--of great corporations." The owner disappeared from the -factory and in his place came the manager, representing the usually -invisible stockholders and dependent for his success upon his ability to -make profits for the owners. Hence the term "soulless corporation," -which was to exert such a deep influence on American thinking about -industrial relations. - -=Cities and Immigration.=--Expressed in terms of human life, this era of -unprecedented enterprise meant huge industrial cities and an immense -labor supply, derived mainly from European immigration. Here, too, -figures tell only a part of the story. In Washington's day nine-tenths -of the American people were engaged in agriculture and lived in the -country; in 1890 more than one-third of the population dwelt in towns of -2500 and over; in 1920 more than half of the population lived in towns -of over 2500. In forty years, between 1860 and 1900, Greater New York -had grown from 1,174,000 to 3,437,000; San Francisco from 56,000 to -342,000; Chicago from 109,000 to 1,698,000. The miles of city tenements -began to rival, in the number of their residents, the farm homesteads of -the West. The time so dreaded by Jefferson had arrived. People were -"piled upon one another in great cities" and the republic of small -farmers had passed away. - -To these industrial centers flowed annually an ever-increasing tide of -immigration, reaching the half million point in 1880; rising to -three-quarters of a million three years later; and passing the million -mark in a single year at the opening of the new century. Immigration was -as old as America but new elements now entered the situation. In the -first place, there were radical changes in the nationality of the -newcomers. The migration from Northern Europe--England, Ireland, -Germany, and Scandinavia--diminished; that from Italy, Russia, and -Austria-Hungary increased, more than three-fourths of the entire number -coming from these three lands between the years 1900 and 1910. These -later immigrants were Italians, Poles, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks, -Russians, and Jews, who came from countries far removed from the -language and the traditions of England whence came the founders of -America. - -In the second place, the reception accorded the newcomers differed from -that given to the immigrants in the early days. By 1890 all the free -land was gone. They could not, therefore, be dispersed widely among the -native Americans to assimilate quickly and unconsciously the habits and -ideas of American life. On the contrary, they were diverted mainly to -the industrial centers. There they crowded--nay, overcrowded--into -colonies of their own where they preserved their languages, their -newspapers, and their old-world customs and views. - -So eager were American business men to get an enormous labor supply that -they asked few questions about the effect of this "alien invasion" upon -the old America inherited from the fathers. They even stimulated the -invasion artificially by importing huge armies of foreigners under -contract to work in specified mines and mills. There seemed to be no -limit to the factories, forges, refineries, and railways that could be -built, to the multitudes that could be employed in conquering a -continent. As for the future, that was in the hands of Providence! - -=Business Theories of Politics.=--As the statesmen of Hamilton's school -and the planters of Calhoun's had their theories of government and -politics, so the leaders in business enterprise had theirs. It was -simple and easily stated. "It is the duty of the government," they -urged, "to protect American industry against foreign competition by -means of high tariffs on imported goods, to aid railways by generous -grants of land, to sell mineral and timber lands at low prices to -energetic men ready to develop them, and then to leave the rest to the -initiative and drive of individuals and companies." All government -interference with the management, prices, rates, charges, and conduct of -private business they held to be either wholly pernicious or intolerably -impertinent. Judging from their speeches and writings, they conceived -the nation as a great collection of individuals, companies, and labor -unions all struggling for profits or high wages and held together by a -government whose principal duty was to keep the peace among them and -protect industry against the foreign manufacturer. Such was the -political theory of business during the generation that followed the -Civil War. - - -THE SUPREMACY OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY (1861-85) - -=Business Men and Republican Policies.=--Most of the leaders in industry -gravitated to the Republican ranks. They worked in the North and the -Republican party was essentially Northern. It was moreover--at least so -far as the majority of its members were concerned--committed to -protective tariffs, a sound monetary and banking system, the promotion -of railways and industry by land grants, and the development of internal -improvements. It was furthermore generous in its immigration policy. It -proclaimed America to be an asylum for the oppressed of all countries -and flung wide the doors for immigrants eager to fill the factories, man -the mines, and settle upon Western lands. In a word the Republicans -stood for all those specific measures which favored the enlargement and -prosperity of business. At the same time they resisted government -interference with private enterprise. They did not regulate railway -rates, prosecute trusts for forming combinations, or prevent railway -companies from giving lower rates to some shippers than to others. To -sum it up, the political theories of the Republican party for three -decades after the Civil War were the theories of American -business--prosperous and profitable industries for the owners and "the -full dinner pail" for the workmen. Naturally a large portion of those -who flourished under its policies gave their support to it, voted for -its candidates, and subscribed to its campaign funds. - -=Sources of Republican Strength in the North.=--The Republican party was -in fact a political organization of singular power. It originated in a -wave of moral enthusiasm, having attracted to itself, if not the -abolitionists, certainly all those idealists, like James Russell Lowell -and George William Curtis, who had opposed slavery when opposition was -neither safe nor popular. To moral principles it added practical -considerations. Business men had confidence in it. Workingmen, who -longed for the independence of the farmer, owed to its indulgent land -policy the opportunity of securing free homesteads in the West. The -immigrant, landing penniless on these shores, as a result of the same -beneficent system, often found himself in a little while with an estate -as large as many a baronial domain in the Old World. Under a Republican -administration, the union had been saved. To it the veterans of the war -could turn with confidence for those rewards of service which the -government could bestow: pensions surpassing in liberality anything that -the world had ever seen. Under a Republican administration also the -great debt had been created in the defense of the union, and to the -Republican party every investor in government bonds could look for the -full and honorable discharge of the interest and principal. The spoils -system, inaugurated by Jacksonian Democracy, in turn placed all the -federal offices in Republican hands, furnishing an army of party workers -to be counted on for loyal service in every campaign. - -Of all these things Republican leaders made full and vigorous use, -sometimes ascribing to the party, in accordance with ancient political -usage, merits and achievements not wholly its own. Particularly was this -true in the case of saving the union. "When in the economy of -Providence, this land was to be purged of human slavery ... the -Republican party came into power," ran a declaration in one platform. -"The Republican party suppressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four -million slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established -universal suffrage," ran another. As for the aid rendered by the -millions of Northern Democrats who stood by the union and the tens of -thousands of them who actually fought in the union army, the Republicans -in their zeal were inclined to be oblivious. They repeatedly charged the -Democratic party "with being the same in character and spirit as when it -sympathized with treason." - -=Republican Control of the South.=--To the strength enjoyed in the -North, the Republicans for a long time added the advantages that came -from control over the former Confederate states where the newly -enfranchised negroes, under white leadership, gave a grateful support to -the party responsible for their freedom. In this branch of politics, -motives were so mixed that no historian can hope to appraise them all at -their proper values. On the one side of the ledger must be set the -vigorous efforts of the honest and sincere friends of the freedmen to -win for them complete civil and political equality, wiping out not only -slavery but all its badges of misery and servitude. On the same side -must be placed the labor of those who had valiantly fought in forum and -field to save the union and who regarded continued Republican supremacy -after the war as absolutely necessary to prevent the former leaders in -secession from coming back to power. At the same time there were -undoubtedly some men of the baser sort who looked on politics as a game -and who made use of "carpet-bagging" in the South to win the spoils that -might result from it. At all events, both by laws and presidential acts, -the Republicans for many years kept a keen eye upon the maintenance of -their dominion in the South. Their declaration that neither the law nor -its administration should admit any discrimination in respect of -citizens by reason of race, color, or previous condition of servitude -appealed to idealists and brought results in elections. Even South -Carolina, where reposed the ashes of John C. Calhoun, went Republican in -1872 by a vote of three to one! - -Republican control was made easy by the force bills described in a -previous chapter--measures which vested the supervision of elections in -federal officers appointed by Republican Presidents. These drastic -measures, departing from American tradition, the Republican authors -urged, were necessary to safeguard the purity of the ballot, not merely -in the South where the timid freedman might readily be frightened from -using it; but also in the North, particularly in New York City, where it -was claimed that fraud was regularly practiced by Democratic leaders. - -The Democrats, on their side, indignantly denied the charges, replying -that the force bills were nothing but devices created by the Republicans -for the purpose of securing their continued rule through systematic -interference with elections. Even the measures of reconstruction were -deemed by Democratic leaders as thinly veiled schemes to establish -Republican power throughout the country. "Nor is there the slightest -doubt," exclaimed Samuel J. Tilden, spokesman of the Democrats in New -York and candidate for President in 1876, "that the paramount object and -motive of the Republican party is by these means to secure itself -against a reaction of opinion adverse to it in our great populous -Northern commonwealths.... When the Republican party resolved to -establish negro supremacy in the ten states in order to gain to itself -the representation of those states in Congress, it had to begin by -governing the people of those states by the sword.... The next was the -creation of new electoral bodies for those ten states, in which, by -exclusions, by disfranchisements and proscriptions, by control over -registration, by applying test oaths ... by intimidation and by every -form of influence, three million negroes are made to predominate over -four and a half million whites." - -=The War as a Campaign Issue.=--Even the repeal of force bills could not -allay the sectional feelings engendered by the war. The Republicans -could not forgive the men who had so recently been in arms against the -union and insisted on calling them "traitors" and "rebels." The -Southerners, smarting under the reconstruction acts, could regard the -Republicans only as political oppressors. The passions of the war had -been too strong; the distress too deep to be soon forgotten. The -generation that went through it all remembered it all. For twenty -years, the Republicans, in their speeches and platforms, made "a -straight appeal to the patriotism of the Northern voters." They -maintained that their party, which had saved the union and emancipated -the slaves, was alone worthy of protecting the union and uplifting the -freedmen. - -Though the Democrats, especially in the North, resented this policy and -dubbed it with the expressive but inelegant phrase, "waving the bloody -shirt," the Republicans refused to surrender a slogan which made such a -ready popular appeal. As late as 1884, a leader expressed the hope that -they might "wring one more President from the bloody shirt." They -refused to let the country forget that the Democratic candidate, Grover -Cleveland, had escaped military service by hiring a substitute; and they -made political capital out of the fact that he had "insulted the -veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic" by going fishing on -Decoration Day. - -=Three Republican Presidents.=--Fortified by all these elements of -strength, the Republicans held the presidency from 1869 to 1885. The -three Presidents elected in this period, Grant, Hayes, and Garfield, had -certain striking characteristics in common. They were all of origin -humble enough to please the most exacting Jacksonian Democrat. They had -been generals in the union army. Grant, next to Lincoln, was regarded as -the savior of the Constitution. Hayes and Garfield, though lesser lights -in the military firmament, had honorable records duly appreciated by -veterans of the war, now thoroughly organized into the Grand Army of the -Republic. It is true that Grant was not a politician and had never voted -the Republican ticket; but this was readily overlooked. Hayes and -Garfield on the other hand were loyal party men. The former had served -in Congress and for three terms as governor of his state. The latter had -long been a member of the House of Representatives and was Senator-elect -when he received the nomination for President. - -All of them possessed, moreover, another important asset, which was not -forgotten by the astute managers who led in selecting candidates. All -of them were from Ohio--though Grant had been in Illinois when the -summons to military duties came--and Ohio was a strategic state. It lay -between the manufacturing East and the agrarian country to the West. -Having growing industries and wool to sell it benefited from the -protective tariff. Yet being mainly agricultural still, it was not -without sympathy for the farmers who showed low tariff or free trade -tendencies. Whatever share the East had in shaping laws and framing -policies, it was clear that the West was to have the candidates. This -division in privileges--not uncommon in political management--was always -accompanied by a judicious selection of the candidate for Vice -President. With Garfield, for example, was associated a prominent New -York politician, Chester A. Arthur, who, as fate decreed, was destined -to more than three years' service as chief magistrate, on the -assassination of his superior in office. - -=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--While taking note of the long years of -Republican supremacy, it must be recorded that grave doubts exist in the -minds of many historians as to whether one of the three Presidents, -Hayes, was actually the victor in 1876 or not. His Democratic opponent, -Samuel J. Tilden, received a popular plurality of a quarter of a million -and had a plausible claim to a majority of the electoral vote. At all -events, four states sent in double returns, one set for Tilden and -another for Hayes; and a deadlock ensued. Both parties vehemently -claimed the election and the passions ran so high that sober men did not -shrink from speaking of civil war again. Fortunately, in the end, the -counsels of peace prevailed. Congress provided for an electoral -commission of fifteen men to review the contested returns. The -Democrats, inspired by Tilden's moderation, accepted the judgment in -favor of Hayes even though they were not convinced that he was really -entitled to the office. - - -THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO REPUBLICAN RULE - -=Abuses in American Political Life.=--During their long tenure of -office, the Republicans could not escape the inevitable consequences of -power; that is, evil practices and corrupt conduct on the part of some -who found shelter within the party. For that matter neither did the -Democrats manage to avoid such difficulties in those states and cities -where they had the majority. In New York City, for instance, the local -Democratic organization, known as Tammany Hall, passed under the sway of -a group of politicians headed by "Boss" Tweed. He plundered the city -treasury until public-spirited citizens, supported by Samuel J. Tilden, -the Democratic leader of the state, rose in revolt, drove the ringleader -from power, and sent him to jail. In Philadelphia, the local Republican -bosses were guilty of offenses as odious as those committed by New York -politicians. Indeed, the decade that followed the Civil War was marred -by so many scandals in public life that one acute editor was moved to -inquire: "Are not all the great communities of the Western World growing -more corrupt as they grow in wealth?" - -In the sphere of national politics, where the opportunities were -greater, betrayals of public trust were even more flagrant. One -revelation after another showed officers, high and low, possessed with -the spirit of peculation. Members of Congress, it was found, accepted -railway stock in exchange for votes in favor of land grants and other -concessions to the companies. In the administration as well as the -legislature the disease was rife. Revenue officers permitted whisky -distillers to evade their taxes and received heavy bribes in return. A -probe into the post-office department revealed the malodorous "star -route frauds"--the deliberate overpayment of certain mail carriers whose -lines were indicated in the official record by asterisks or stars. Even -cabinet officers did not escape suspicion, for the trail of the serpent -led straight to the door of one of them. - -In the lower ranges of official life, the spoils system became more -virulent as the number of federal employees increased. The holders of -offices and the seekers after them constituted a veritable political -army. They crowded into Republican councils, for the Republicans, being -in power, could alone dispense federal favors. They filled positions in -the party ranging from the lowest township committee to the national -convention. They helped to nominate candidates and draft platforms and -elbowed to one side the busy citizen, not conversant with party -intrigues, who could only give an occasional day to political matters. -Even the Civil Service Act of 1883, wrung from a reluctant Congress two -years after the assassination of Garfield, made little change for a long -time. It took away from the spoilsmen a few thousand government -positions, but it formed no check on the practice of rewarding party -workers from the public treasury. - -On viewing this state of affairs, many a distinguished citizen became -profoundly discouraged. James Russell Lowell, for example, thought he -saw a steady decline in public morals. In 1865, hearing of Lee's -surrender, he had exclaimed: "There is something magnificent in having a -country to love!" Ten years later, when asked to write an ode for the -centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, he could think only of a biting -satire on the nation: - - "Show your state legislatures; show your Rings; - And challenge Europe to produce such things - As high officials sitting half in sight - To share the plunder and fix things right. - If that don't fetch her, why, you need only - To show your latest style in martyrs,--Tweed: - She'll find it hard to hide her spiteful tears - At such advance in one poor hundred years." - -When his critics condemned him for this "attack upon his native land," -Lowell replied in sadness: "These fellows have no notion of what love of -country means. It was in my very blood and bones. If I am not an -American who ever was?... What fills me with doubt and dismay is the -degradation of the moral tone. Is it or is it not a result of democracy? -Is ours a 'government of the people, by the people, for the people,' or -a Kakistocracy [a government of the worst], rather for the benefit of -knaves at the cost of fools?" - -=The Reform Movement in Republican Ranks.=--The sentiments expressed by -Lowell, himself a Republican and for a time American ambassador to -England, were shared by many men in his party. Very soon after the close -of the Civil War some of them began to protest vigorously against the -policies and conduct of their leaders. In 1872, the dissenters, calling -themselves Liberal Republicans, broke away altogether, nominated a -candidate of their own, Horace Greeley, and put forward a platform -indicting the Republican President fiercely enough to please the most -uncompromising Democrat. They accused Grant of using "the powers and -opportunities of his high office for the promotion of personal ends." -They charged him with retaining "notoriously corrupt and unworthy men in -places of power and responsibility." They alleged that the Republican -party kept "alive the passions and resentments of the late civil war to -use them for their own advantages," and employed the "public service of -the government as a machinery of corruption and personal influence." - -It was not apparent, however, from the ensuing election that any -considerable number of Republicans accepted the views of the Liberals. -Greeley, though indorsed by the Democrats, was utterly routed and died -of a broken heart. The lesson of his discomfiture seemed to be that -independent action was futile. So, at least, it was regarded by most men -of the rising generation like Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, and -Theodore Roosevelt, of New York. Profiting by the experience of Greeley -they insisted in season and out that reformers who desired to rid the -party of abuses should remain loyal to it and do their work "on the -inside." - -=The Mugwumps and Cleveland Democracy in 1884.=--Though aided by -Republican dissensions, the Democrats were slow in making headway -against the political current. They were deprived of the energetic and -capable leadership once afforded by the planters, like Calhoun, Davis, -and Toombs; they were saddled by their opponents with responsibility for -secession; and they were stripped of the support of the prostrate -South. Not until the last Southern state was restored to the union, not -until a general amnesty was wrung from Congress, not until white -supremacy was established at the polls, and the last federal soldier -withdrawn from Southern capitals did they succeed in capturing the -presidency. - -The opportune moment for them came in 1884 when a number of -circumstances favored their aspirations. The Republicans, leaving the -Ohio Valley in their search for a candidate, nominated James G. Blaine -of Maine, a vigorous and popular leader but a man under fire from the -reformers in his own party. The Democrats on their side were able to -find at this juncture an able candidate who had no political enemies in -the sphere of national politics, Grover Cleveland, then governor of New -York and widely celebrated as a man of "sterling honesty." At the same -time a number of dissatisfied Republicans openly espoused the Democratic -cause,--among them Carl Schurz, George William Curtis, Henry Ward -Beecher, and William Everett, men of fine ideals and undoubted -integrity. Though the "regular" Republicans called them "Mugwumps" and -laughed at them as the "men milliners, the dilettanti, and carpet -knights of politics," they had a following that was not to be despised. - -The campaign which took place that year was one of the most savage in -American history. Issues were thrust into the background. The tariff, -though mentioned, was not taken seriously. Abuse of the opposition was -the favorite resource of party orators. The Democrats insisted that "the -Republican party so far as principle is concerned is a reminiscence. In -practice it is an organization for enriching those who control its -machinery." For the Republican candidate, Blaine, they could hardly find -words to express their contempt. The Republicans retaliated in kind. -They praised their own good works, as of old, in saving the union, and -denounced the "fraud and violence practiced by the Democracy in the -Southern states." Seeing little objectionable in the public record of -Cleveland as mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York, they attacked -his personal character. Perhaps never in the history of political -campaigns did the discussions on the platform and in the press sink to -so low a level. Decent people were sickened. Even hot partisans shrank -from their own words when, after the election, they had time to reflect -on their heedless passions. Moreover, nothing was decided by the -balloting. Cleveland was elected, but his victory was a narrow one. A -change of a few hundred votes in New York would have sent his opponent -to the White House instead. - -=Changing Political Fortunes (1888-96).=--After the Democrats had -settled down to the enjoyment of their hard-earned victory, President -Cleveland in his message of 1887 attacked the tariff as "vicious, -inequitable, and illogical"; as a system of taxation that laid a burden -upon "every consumer in the land for the benefit of our manufacturers." -Business enterprise was thoroughly alarmed. The Republicans -characterized the tariff message as a free-trade assault upon the -industries of the country. Mainly on that issue they elected in 1888 -Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, a shrewd lawyer, a reticent politician, a -descendant of the hero of Tippecanoe, and a son of the old Northwest. -Accepting the outcome of the election as a vindication of their -principles, the Republicans, under the leadership of William McKinley in -the House of Representatives, enacted in 1890 a tariff law imposing the -highest duties yet laid in our history. To their utter surprise, -however, they were instantly informed by the country that their program -was not approved. That very autumn they lost in the congressional -elections, and two years later they were decisively beaten in the -presidential campaign, Cleveland once more leading his party to victory. - - -=References= - -L.H. Haney, _Congressional History of Railways_ (2 vols.). - -J.P. Davis, _Union Pacific Railway_. - -J.M. Swank, _History of the Manufacture of Iron_. - -M.T. Copeland, _The Cotton Manufacturing Industry in the United States_ -(Harvard Studies). - -E.W. Bryce, _Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century_. - -Ida Tarbell, _History of the Standard Oil Company_ (Critical). - -G.H. Montague, _Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company_ -(Friendly). - -H.P. Fairchild, _Immigration_, and F.J. Warne, _The Immigrant Invasion_ -(Both works favor exclusion). - -I.A. Hourwich, _Immigration_ (Against exclusionist policies). - -J.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States, 1877-1896_, Vol. VIII. - -Edward Stanwood, _A History of the Presidency_, Vol. I, for the -presidential elections of the period. - - -=Questions= - -1. Contrast the state of industry and commerce at the close of the Civil -War with its condition at the close of the Revolutionary War. - -2. Enumerate the services rendered to the nation by the railways. - -3. Explain the peculiar relation of railways to government. - -4. What sections of the country have been industrialized? - -5. How do you account for the rise and growth of the trusts? Explain -some of the economic advantages of the trust. - -6. Are the people in cities more or less independent than the farmers? -What was Jefferson's view? - -7. State some of the problems raised by unrestricted immigration. - -8. What was the theory of the relation of government to business in this -period? Has it changed in recent times? - -9. State the leading economic policies sponsored by the Republican -party. - -10. Why were the Republicans especially strong immediately after the -Civil War? - -11. What illustrations can you give showing the influence of war in -American political campaigns? - -12. Account for the strength of middle-western candidates. - -13. Enumerate some of the abuses that appeared in American political -life after 1865. - -14. Sketch the rise and growth of the reform movement. - -15. How is the fluctuating state of public opinion reflected in the -elections from 1880 to 1896? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Invention, Discovery, and Transportation.=--Sparks, _National -Development_ (American Nation Series), pp. 37-67; Bogart, _Economic -History of the United States_, Chaps. XXI, XXII, and XXIII. - -=Business and Politics.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), -pp. 92-107; Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VII, pp. 1-29, -64-73, 175-206; Wilson, _History of the American People_, Vol. IV, pp. -78-96. - -=Immigration.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United States_ (2d -ed.), pp. 369-374; E.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_, -pp. 420-422, 434-437; Jenks and Lauck, _Immigration Problems_, Commons, -_Races and Immigrants_. - -=The Disputed Election of 1876.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own -Time_, pp. 82-94; Dunning, _Reconstruction, Political and Economic_ -(American Nation Series), pp. 294-341; Elson, _History of the United -States_, pp. 835-841. - -=Abuses in Political Life.=--Dunning, _Reconstruction_, pp. 281-293; see -criticisms in party platforms in Stanwood, _History of the Presidency_, -Vol. I; Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (1910 ed.), Vol. II, pp. 379-448; -136-167. - -=Studies of Presidential Administrations.=--(_a_) Grant, (_b_) Hayes, -(_c_) Garfield-Arthur, (_d_) Cleveland, and (_e_) Harrison, in Haworth, -_The United States in Our Own Time_, or in Paxson, _The New Nation_ -(Riverside Series), or still more briefly in Elson. - -=Cleveland Democracy.=--Haworth, _The United States_, pp. 164-183; -Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 240-327; Elson, -pp. 857-887. - -=Analysis of Modern Immigration Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New -York State, 1919), pp. 110-112. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST - - -At the close of the Civil War, Kansas and Texas were sentinel states on -the middle border. Beyond the Rockies, California, Oregon, and Nevada -stood guard, the last of them having been just admitted to furnish -another vote for the fifteenth amendment abolishing slavery. Between the -near and far frontiers lay a vast reach of plain, desert, plateau, and -mountain, almost wholly undeveloped. A broad domain, extending from -Canada to Mexico, and embracing the regions now included in Washington, -Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Dakotas, and -Oklahoma, had fewer than half a million inhabitants. It was laid out -into territories, each administered under a governor appointed by the -President and Senate and, as soon as there was the requisite number of -inhabitants, a legislature elected by the voters. No railway line -stretched across the desert. St. Joseph on the Missouri was the terminus -of the Eastern lines. It required twenty-five days for a passenger to -make the overland journey to California by the stagecoach system, -established in 1858, and more than ten days for the swift pony express, -organized in 1860, to carry a letter to San Francisco. Indians still -roamed the plain and desert and more than one powerful tribe disputed -the white man's title to the soil. - - -THE RAILWAYS AS TRAIL BLAZERS - -=Opening Railways to the Pacific.=--A decade before the Civil War the -importance of rail connection between the East and the Pacific Coast had -been recognized. Pressure had already been brought to bear on Congress -to authorize the construction of a line and to grant land and money in -its aid. Both the Democrats and Republicans approved the idea, but it -was involved in the slavery controversy. Indeed it was submerged in it. -Southern statesmen wanted connections between the Gulf and the Pacific -through Texas, while Northerners stood out for a central route. - -The North had its way during the war. Congress, by legislation initiated -in 1862, provided for the immediate organization of companies to build a -line from the Missouri River to California and made grants of land and -loans of money to aid in the enterprise. The Western end, the Central -Pacific, was laid out under the supervision of Leland Stanford. It was -heavily financed by the Mormons of Utah and also by the state -government, the ranchmen, miners, and business men of California; and it -was built principally by Chinese labor. The Eastern end, the Union -Pacific, starting at Omaha, was constructed mainly by veterans of the -Civil War and immigrants from Ireland and Germany. In 1869 the two -companies met near Ogden in Utah and the driving of the last spike, -uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific, was the occasion of a great -demonstration. - -Other lines to the Pacific were projected at the same time; but the -panic of 1873 checked railway enterprise for a while. With the revival -of prosperity at the end of that decade, construction was renewed with -vigor and the year 1883 marked a series of railway triumphs. In February -trains were running from New Orleans through Houston, San Antonio, and -Yuma to San Francisco, as a result of a union of the Texas Pacific with -the Southern Pacific and its subsidiary corporations. In September the -last spike was driven in the Northern Pacific at Helena, Montana. Lake -Superior was connected with Puget Sound. The waters explored by Joliet -and Marquette were joined to the waters plowed by Sir Francis Drake -while he was searching for a route around the world. That same year also -a third line was opened to the Pacific by way of the Atchison, Topeka -and Santa Fe, making connections through Albuquerque and Needles with -San Francisco. The fondest hopes of railway promoters seemed to be -realized. - -[Illustration: UNITED STATES IN 1870] - -=Western Railways Precede Settlement.=--In the Old World and on our -Atlantic seaboard, railways followed population and markets. In the Far -West, railways usually preceded the people. Railway builders planned -cities on paper before they laid tracks connecting them. They sent -missionaries to spread the gospel of "Western opportunity" to people in -the Middle West, in the Eastern cities, and in Southern states. Then -they carried their enthusiastic converts bag and baggage in long trains -to the distant Dakotas and still farther afield. So the development of -the Far West was not left to the tedious processes of time. It was -pushed by men of imagination--adventurers who made a romance of -money-making and who had dreams of empire unequaled by many kings of the -past. - -These empire builders bought railway lands in huge tracts; they got more -from the government; they overcame every obstacle of canon, mountain, -and stream with the aid of science; they built cities according to the -plans made by the engineers. Having the towns ready and railway and -steamboat connections formed with the rest of the world, they carried -out the people to use the railways, the steamships, the houses, and the -land. It was in this way that "the frontier speculator paved the way for -the frontier agriculturalist who had to be near a market before he could -farm." The spirit of this imaginative enterprise, which laid out -railways and towns in advance of the people, is seen in an advertisement -of that day: "This extension will run 42 miles from York, northeast -through the Island Lake country, and will have five good North Dakota -towns. The stations on the line will be well equipped with elevators and -will be constructed and ready for operation at the commencement of the -grain season. Prospective merchants have been active in securing -desirable locations at the different towns on the line. There are still -opportunities for hotels, general merchandise, hardware, furniture, and -drug stores, etc." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A TOWN ON THE PRAIRIE] - -Among the railway promoters and builders in the West, James J. Hill, -of the Great Northern and allied lines, was one of the most forceful -figures. He knew that tracks and trains were useless without passengers -and freight; without a population of farmers and town dwellers. He -therefore organized publicity in the Virginias, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana, -Illinois, Wisconsin, and Nebraska especially. He sent out agents to tell -the story of Western opportunity in this vein: "You see your children -come out of school with no chance to get farms of their own because the -cost of land in your older part of the country is so high that you can't -afford to buy land to start your sons out in life around you. They have -to go to the cities to make a living or become laborers in the mills or -hire out as farm hands. There is no future for them there. If you are -doing well where you are and can safeguard the future of your children -and see them prosper around you, don't leave here. But if you want -independence, if you are renting your land, if the money-lender is -carrying you along and you are running behind year after year, you can -do no worse by moving.... You farmers talk of free trade and protection -and what this or that political party will do for you. Why don't you -vote a homestead for yourself? That is the only thing Uncle Sam will -ever give you. Jim Hill hasn't an acre of land to sell you. We are not -in the real estate business. We don't want you to go out West and make a -failure of it because the rates at which we haul you and your goods make -the first transaction a loss.... We must have landless men for a manless -land." - -Unlike steamship companies stimulating immigration to get the fares, -Hill was seeking permanent settlers who would produce, manufacture, and -use the railways as the means of exchange. Consequently he fixed low -rates and let his passengers take a good deal of live stock and -household furniture free. By doing this he made an appeal that was -answered by eager families. In 1894 the vanguard of home seekers left -Indiana in fourteen passenger coaches, filled with men, women, and -children, and forty-eight freight cars carrying their household goods -and live stock. In the ten years that followed, 100,000 people from the -Middle West and the South, responding to his call, went to the Western -country where they brought eight million acres of prairie land under -cultivation. - -When Hill got his people on the land, he took an interest in everything -that increased the productivity of their labor. Was the output of food -for his freight cars limited by bad drainage on the farms? Hill then -interested himself in practical ways of ditching and tiling. Were -farmers hampered in hauling their goods to his trains by bad roads? In -that case, he urged upon the states the improvement of highways. Did the -traffic slacken because the food shipped was not of the best quality? -Then live stock must be improved and scientific farming promoted. Did -the farmers need credit? Banks must be established close at hand to -advance it. In all conferences on scientific farm management, -conservation of natural resources, banking and credit in relation to -agriculture and industry, Hill was an active participant. His was the -long vision, seeing in conservation and permanent improvements the -foundation of prosperity for the railways and the people. - -Indeed, he neglected no opportunity to increase the traffic on the -lines. He wanted no empty cars running in either direction and no wheat -stored in warehouses for the lack of markets. So he looked to the Orient -as well as to Europe as an outlet for the surplus of the farms. He sent -agents to China and Japan to discover what American goods and produce -those countries would consume and what manufactures they had to offer to -Americans in exchange. To open the Pacific trade he bought two ocean -monsters, the _Minnesota_ and the _Dakota_, thus preparing for -emergencies West as well as East. When some Japanese came to the United -States on their way to Europe to buy steel rails, Hill showed them how -easy it was for them to make their purchase in this country and ship by -way of American railways and American vessels. So the railway builder -and promoter, who helped to break the virgin soil of the prairies, lived -through the pioneer epoch and into the age of great finance. Before he -died he saw the wheat fields of North Dakota linked with the spinning -jennies of Manchester and the docks of Yokohama. - - -THE EVOLUTION OF GRAZING AND AGRICULTURE - -=The Removal of the Indians.=--Unlike the frontier of New England in -colonial days or that of Kentucky later, the advancing lines of home -builders in the Far West had little difficulty with warlike natives. -Indian attacks were made on the railway construction gangs; General -Custer had his fatal battle with the Sioux in 1876 and there were minor -brushes; but they were all of relatively slight consequence. The former -practice of treating with the Indians as independent nations was -abandoned in 1871 and most of them were concentrated in reservations -where they were mainly supported by the government. The supervision of -their affairs was vested in a board of commissioners created in 1869 and -instructed to treat them as wards of the nation--a trust which -unfortunately was often betrayed. A further step in Indian policy was -taken in 1887 when provision was made for issuing lands to individual -Indians, thus permitting them to become citizens and settle down among -their white neighbors as farmers or cattle raisers. The disappearance of -the buffalo, the main food supply of the wild Indians, had made them -more tractable and more willing to surrender the freedom of the hunter -for the routine of the reservation, ranch, or wheat field. - -=The Cowboy and Cattle Ranger.=--Between the frontier of farms and the -mountains were plains and semi-arid regions in vast reaches suitable for -grazing. As soon as the railways were open into the Missouri Valley, -affording an outlet for stock, there sprang up to the westward cattle -and sheep raising on an immense scale. The far-famed American cowboy was -the hero in this scene. Great herds of cattle were bred in Texas; with -the advancing spring and summer seasons, they were driven northward -across the plains and over the buffalo trails. In a single year, 1884, -it is estimated that nearly one million head of cattle were moved out of -Texas to the North by four thousand cowboys, supplied with 30,000 -horses and ponies. - -During the two decades from 1870 to 1890 both the cattle men and the -sheep raisers had an almost free run of the plains, using public lands -without paying for the privilege and waging war on one another over the -possession of ranges. At length, however, both had to go, as the -homesteaders and land companies came and fenced in the plain and desert -with endless lines of barbed wire. Already in 1893 a writer familiar -with the frontier lamented the passing of the picturesque days: "The -unique position of the cowboys among the Americans is jeopardized in a -thousand ways. Towns are growing up on their pasture lands; irrigation -schemes of a dozen sorts threaten to turn bunch-grass scenery into -farm-land views; farmers are pre-empting valleys and the sides of -waterways; and the day is not far distant when stock-raising must be -done mainly in small herds, with winter corrals, and then the cowboy's -days will end. Even now his condition disappoints those who knew him -only half a dozen years ago. His breed seems to have deteriorated and -his ranks are filling with men who work for wages rather than for the -love of the free life and bold companionship that once tempted men into -that calling. Splendid Cheyenne saddles are less and less numerous in -the outfits; the distinctive hat that made its way up from Mexico may or -may not be worn; all the civil authorities in nearly all towns in the -grazing country forbid the wearing of side arms; nobody shoots up these -towns any more. The fact is the old simon-pure cowboy days are gone -already." - -=Settlement under the Homestead Act of 1862.=--Two factors gave a -special stimulus to the rapid settlement of Western lands which swept -away the Indians and the cattle rangers. The first was the policy of the -railway companies in selling large blocks of land received from the -government at low prices to induce immigration. The second was the -operation of the Homestead law passed in 1862. This measure practically -closed the long controversy over the disposition of the public domain -that was suitable for agriculture. It provided for granting, without any -cost save a small registration fee, public lands in lots of 160 acres -each to citizens and aliens who declared their intention of becoming -citizens. The one important condition attached was that the settler -should occupy the farm for five years before his title was finally -confirmed. Even this stipulation was waived in the case of the Civil War -veterans who were allowed to count their term of military service as a -part of the five years' occupancy required. As the soldiers of the -Revolutionary and Mexican wars had advanced in great numbers to the -frontier in earlier days, so now veterans led in the settlement of the -middle border. Along with them went thousands of German, Irish, and -Scandinavian immigrants, fresh from the Old World. Between 1867 and -1874, 27,000,000 acres were staked out in quarter-section farms. In -twenty years (1860-80), the population of Nebraska leaped from 28,000 to -almost half a million; Kansas from 100,000 to a million; Iowa from -600,000 to 1,600,000; and the Dakotas from 5000 to 140,000. - -=The Diversity of Western Agriculture.=--In soil, produce, and -management, Western agriculture presented many contrasts to that of the -East and South. In the region of arable and watered lands the typical -American unit--the small farm tilled by the owner--appeared as usual; -but by the side of it many a huge domain owned by foreign or Eastern -companies and tilled by hired labor. Sometimes the great estate took the -shape of the "bonanza farm" devoted mainly to wheat and corn and -cultivated on a large scale by machinery. Again it assumed the form of -the cattle ranch embracing tens of thousands of acres. Again it was a -vast holding of diversified interest, such as the Santa Anita ranch near -Los Angeles, a domain of 60,000 acres "cultivated in a glorious sweep of -vineyards and orange and olive orchards, rich sheep and cattle pastures -and horse ranches, their life and customs handed down from the Spanish -owners of the various ranches which were swept into one estate." - -=Irrigation.=--In one respect agriculture in the Far West was unique. In -a large area spreading through eight states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, -Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of adjoining -states, the rainfall was so slight that the ordinary crops to which the -American farmer was accustomed could not be grown at all. The Mormons -were the first Anglo-Saxons to encounter aridity, and they were baffled -at first; but they studied it and mastered it by magnificent irrigation -systems. As other settlers poured into the West the problem of the -desert was attacked with a will, some of them replying to the -commiseration of Eastern farmers by saying that it was easier to scoop -out an irrigation ditch than to cut forests and wrestle with stumps and -stones. Private companies bought immense areas at low prices, built -irrigation works, and disposed of their lands in small plots. Some -ranchers with an instinct for water, like that of the miner for metal, -sank wells into the dry sand and were rewarded with gushers that "soused -the thirsty desert and turned its good-for-nothing sand into -good-for-anything loam." The federal government came to the aid of the -arid regions in 1894 by granting lands to the states to be used for -irrigation purposes. In this work Wyoming took the lead with a law which -induced capitalists to invest in irrigation and at the same time -provided for the sale of the redeemed lands to actual settlers. Finally -in 1902 the federal government by its liberal Reclamation Act added its -strength to that of individuals, companies, and states in conquering -"arid America." - -"Nowhere," writes Powell, a historian of the West, in his picturesque -_End of the Trail_, "has the white man fought a more courageous fight or -won a more brilliant victory than in Arizona. His weapons have been the -transit and the level, the drill and the dredge, the pick and the spade; -and the enemy which he has conquered has been the most stubborn of all -foes--the hostile forces of Nature.... The story of how the white man -within the space of less than thirty years penetrated, explored, and -mapped this almost unknown region; of how he carried law, order, and -justice into a section which had never had so much as a speaking -acquaintance with any one of the three before; of how, realizing the -necessity for means of communication, he built highways of steel across -this territory from east to west and from north to south; of how, -undismayed by the savageness of the countenance which the desert turned -upon him, he laughed and rolled up his sleeves, and spat upon his hands, -and slashed the face of the desert with canals and irrigating ditches, -and filled those ditches with water brought from deep in the earth or -high in the mountains; and of how, in the conquered and submissive soil, -he replaced the aloe with alfalfa, the mesquite with maize, the cactus -with cotton, forms one of the most inspiring chapters in our history. It -is one of the epics of civilization, this reclamation of the Southwest, -and its heroes, thank God, are Americans. - -"Other desert regions have been redeemed by irrigation--Egypt, for -example, and Mesopotamia and parts of the Sudan--but the people of all -those regions lay stretched out in the shade of a convenient palm, -metaphorically speaking, and waited for some one with more energy than -themselves to come along and do the work. But the Arizonians, mindful of -the fact that God, the government, and Carnegie help those who help -themselves, spent their days wielding the pick and shovel, and their -evenings in writing letters to Washington with toil-hardened hands. -After a time the government was prodded into action and the great dams -at Laguna and Roosevelt are the result. Then the people, organizing -themselves into cooeperative leagues and water-users' associations, took -up the work of reclamation where the government left off; it is to these -energetic, persevering men who have drilled wells, plowed fields, and -dug ditches through the length and breadth of that great region which -stretches from Yuma to Tucson, that the metamorphosis of Arizona is -due." - -The effect of irrigation wherever introduced was amazing. Stretches of -sand and sagebrush gave way to fertile fields bearing crops of wheat, -corn, fruits, vegetables, and grass. Huge ranches grazed by browsing -sheep were broken up into small plots. The cowboy and ranchman vanished. -In their place rose the prosperous community--a community unlike the -township of Iowa or the industrial center of the East. Its intensive -tillage left little room for hired labor. Its small holdings drew -families together in village life rather than dispersing them on the -lonely plain. Often the development of water power in connection with -irrigation afforded electricity for labor-saving devices and lifted many -a burden that in other days fell heavily upon the shoulders of the -farmer and his family. - - -MINING AND MANUFACTURING IN THE WEST - -=Mineral Resources.=--In another important particular the Far West -differed from the Mississippi Valley states. That was in the -predominance of mining over agriculture throughout a vast section. -Indeed it was the minerals rather than the land that attracted the -pioneers who first opened the country. The discovery of gold in -California in 1848 was the signal for the great rush of prospectors, -miners, and promoters who explored the valleys, climbed the hills, -washed the sands, and dug up the soil in their feverish search for gold, -silver, copper, coal, and other minerals. In Nevada and Montana the -development of mineral resources went on all during the Civil War. Alder -Gulch became Virginia City in 1863; Last Chance Gulch was named Helena -in 1864; and Confederate Gulch was christened Diamond City in 1865. At -Butte the miners began operations in 1864 and within five years had -washed out eight million dollars' worth of gold. Under the gold they -found silver; under silver they found copper. - -Even at the end of the nineteenth century, after agriculture was well -advanced and stock and sheep raising introduced on a large scale, -minerals continued to be the chief source of wealth in a number of -states. This was revealed by the figures for 1910. The gold, silver, -iron, and copper of Colorado were worth more than the wheat, corn, and -oats combined; the copper of Montana sold for more than all the cereals -and four times the price of the wheat. The interest of Nevada was also -mainly mining, the receipts from the mineral output being $43,000,000 or -more than one-half the national debt of Hamilton's day. The yield of the -mines of Utah was worth four or five times the wheat crop; the coal of -Wyoming brought twice as much as the great wool clip; the minerals of -Arizona were totaled at $43,000,000 as against a wool clip reckoned at -$1,200,000; while in Idaho alone of this group of states did the wheat -crop exceed in value the output of the mines. - -[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -LOGGING] - -=Timber Resources.=--The forests of the great West, unlike those of the -Ohio Valley, proved a boon to the pioneers rather than a foe to be -attacked. In Ohio and Indiana, for example, the frontier line of -homemakers had to cut, roll, and burn thousands of trees before they -could put out a crop of any size. Beyond the Mississippi, however, -there were all ready for the breaking plow great reaches of almost -treeless prairie, where every stick of timber was precious. In the other -parts, often rough and mountainous, where stood primeval forests of the -finest woods, the railroads made good use of the timber. They consumed -acres of forests themselves in making ties, bridge timbers, and -telegraph poles, and they laid a heavy tribute upon the forests for -their annual upkeep. The surplus trees, such as had burdened the -pioneers of the Northwest Territory a hundred years before, they carried -off to markets on the east and west coasts. - -=Western Industries.=--The peculiar conditions of the Far West -stimulated a rise of industries more rapid than is usual in new country. -The mining activities which in many sections preceded agriculture called -for sawmills to furnish timber for the mines and smelters to reduce and -refine ores. The ranches supplied sheep and cattle for the packing -houses of Kansas City as well as Chicago. The waters of the Northwest -afforded salmon for 4000 cases in 1866 and for 1,400,000 cases in 1916. -The fruits and vegetables of California brought into existence -innumerable canneries. The lumber industry, starting with crude sawmills -to furnish rough timbers for railways and mines, ended in specialized -factories for paper, boxes, and furniture. As the railways preceded -settlement and furnished a ready outlet for local manufactures, so they -encouraged the early establishment of varied industries, thus creating a -state of affairs quite unlike that which obtained in the Ohio Valley in -the early days before the opening of the Erie Canal. - -=Social Effects of Economic Activities.=--In many respects the social -life of the Far West also differed from that of the Ohio Valley. The -treeless prairies, though open to homesteads, favored the great estate -tilled in part by tenant labor and in part by migratory seasonal labor, -summoned from all sections of the country for the harvests. The mineral -resources created hundreds of huge fortunes which made the accumulations -of eastern mercantile families look trivial by comparison. Other -millionaires won their fortunes in the railway business and still more -from the cattle and sheep ranges. In many sections the "cattle king," as -he was called, was as dominant as the planter had been in the old South. -Everywhere in the grazing country he was a conspicuous and important -person. He "sometimes invested money in banks, in railroad stocks, or in -city property.... He had his rating in the commercial reviews and could -hobnob with bankers, railroad presidents, and metropolitan merchants.... -He attended party caucuses and conventions, ran for the state -legislature, and sometimes defeated a lawyer or metropolitan 'business -man' in the race for a seat in Congress. In proportion to their numbers, -the ranchers ... have constituted a highly impressive class." - -Although many of the early capitalists of the great West, especially -from Nevada, spent their money principally in the East, others took -leadership in promoting the sections in which they had made their -fortunes. A railroad pioneer, General Palmer, built his home at Colorado -Springs, founded the town, and encouraged local improvements. Denver -owed its first impressive buildings to the civic patriotism of Horace -Tabor, a wealthy mine owner. Leland Stanford paid his tribute to -California in the endowment of a large university. Colonel W.F. Cody, -better known as "Buffalo Bill," started his career by building a "boom -town" which collapsed, and made a large sum of money supplying buffalo -meat to construction hands (hence his popular name). By his famous Wild -West Show, he increased it to a fortune which he devoted mainly to the -promotion of a western reclamation scheme. - -While the Far West was developing this vigorous, aggressive leadership -in business, a considerable industrial population was springing up. Even -the cattle ranges and hundreds of farms were conducted like factories in -that they were managed through overseers who hired plowmen, harvesters, -and cattlemen at regular wages. At the same time there appeared other -peculiar features which made a lasting impression on western economic -life. Mining, lumbering, and fruit growing, for instance, employed -thousands of workers during the rush months and turned them out at other -times. The inevitable result was an army of migratory laborers wandering -from camp to camp, from town to town, and from ranch to ranch, without -fixed homes or established habits of life. From this extraordinary -condition there issued many a long and lawless conflict between capital -and labor, giving a distinct color to the labor movement in whole -sections of the mountain and coast states. - - -THE ADMISSION OF NEW STATES - -=The Spirit of Self-Government.=--The instinct of self-government was -strong in the western communities. In the very beginning, it led to the -organization of volunteer committees, known as "vigilantes," to suppress -crime and punish criminals. As soon as enough people were settled -permanently in a region, they took care to form a more stable kind of -government. An illustration of this process is found in the Oregon -compact made by the pioneers in 1843, the spirit of which is reflected -in an editorial in an old copy of the _Rocky Mountain News_: "We claim -that any body or community of American citizens which from any cause or -under any circumstances is cut off from or from isolation is so situated -as not to be under any active and protecting branch of the central -government, have a right, if on American soil, to frame a government and -enact such laws and regulations as may be necessary for their own -safety, protection, and happiness, always with the condition precedent, -that they shall, at the earliest moment when the central government -shall extend an effective organization and laws over them, give it their -unqualified support and obedience." - -People who turned so naturally to the organization of local -administration were equally eager for admission to the union as soon as -any shadow of a claim to statehood could be advanced. As long as a -region was merely one of the territories of the United States, the -appointment of the governor and other officers was controlled by -politics at Washington. Moreover the disposition of land, mineral -rights, forests, and water power was also in the hands of national -leaders. Thus practical considerations were united with the spirit of -independence in the quest for local autonomy. - -=Nebraska and Colorado.=--Two states, Nebraska and Colorado, had little -difficulty in securing admission to the union. The first, Nebraska, had -been organized as a territory by the famous Kansas-Nebraska bill which -did so much to precipitate the Civil War. Lying to the north of Kansas, -which had been admitted in 1861, it escaped the invasion of slave owners -from Missouri and was settled mainly by farmers from the North. Though -it claimed a population of only 67,000, it was regarded with kindly -interest by the Republican Congress at Washington and, reduced to its -present boundaries, it received the coveted statehood in 1867. - -This was hardly accomplished before the people of Colorado to the -southwest began to make known their demands. They had been organized -under territorial government in 1861 when they numbered only a handful; -but within ten years the aspect of their affairs had completely changed. -The silver and gold deposits of the Leadville and Cripple Creek regions -had attracted an army of miners and prospectors. The city of Denver, -founded in 1858 and named after the governor of Kansas whence came many -of the early settlers, had grown from a straggling camp of log huts into -a prosperous center of trade. By 1875 it was reckoned that the -population of the territory was not less than one hundred thousand; the -following year Congress, yielding to the popular appeal, made Colorado a -member of the American union. - -=Six New States (1889-1890).=--For many years there was a deadlock in -Congress over the admission of new states. The spell was broken in 1889 -under the leadership of the Dakotas. For a long time the Dakota -territory, organized in 1861, had been looked upon as the home of the -powerful Sioux Indians whose enormous reservation blocked the advance of -the frontier. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, however, marked -their doom. Even before Congress could open their lands to prospectors, -pioneers were swarming over the country. Farmers from the adjoining -Minnesota and the Eastern states, Scandinavians, Germans, and Canadians, -came in swelling waves to occupy the fertile Dakota lands, now famous -even as far away as the fjords of Norway. Seldom had the plow of man cut -through richer soil than was found in the bottoms of the Red River -Valley, and it became all the more precious when the opening of the -Northern Pacific in 1883 afforded a means of transportation east and -west. The population, which had numbered 135,000 in 1880, passed the -half million mark before ten years had elapsed. - -Remembering that Nebraska had been admitted with only 67,000 -inhabitants, the Dakotans could not see why they should be kept under -federal tutelage. At the same time Washington, far away on the Pacific -Coast, Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, boasting of their populations and -their riches, put in their own eloquent pleas. But the members of -Congress were busy with politics. The Democrats saw no good reason for -admitting new Republican states until after their defeat in 1888. Near -the end of their term the next year they opened the door for North and -South Dakota, Washington, and Montana. In 1890, a Republican Congress -brought Idaho and Wyoming into the union, the latter with woman -suffrage, which had been granted twenty-one years before. - -=Utah.=--Although Utah had long presented all the elements of a -well-settled and industrious community, its admission to the union was -delayed on account of popular hostility to the practice of polygamy. The -custom, it is true, had been prohibited by act of Congress in 1862; but -the law had been systematically evaded. In 1882 Congress made another -and more effective effort to stamp out polygamy. Five years later it -even went so far as to authorize the confiscation of the property of the -Mormon Church in case the practice of plural marriages was not stopped. -Meanwhile the Gentile or non-Mormon population was steadily increasing -and the leaders in the Church became convinced that the battle -against the sentiment of the country was futile. At last in 1896 Utah -was admitted as a state under a constitution which forbade plural -marriages absolutely and forever. Horace Greeley, who visited Utah in -1859, had prophesied that the Pacific Railroad would work a revolution -in the land of Brigham Young. His prophecy had come true. - -[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1912] - -=Rounding out the Continent.=--Three more territories now remained out -of the Union. Oklahoma, long an Indian reservation, had been opened for -settlement to white men in 1889. The rush upon the fertile lands of this -region, the last in the history of America, was marked by all the frenzy -of the final, desperate chance. At a signal from a bugle an army of men -with families in wagons, men and women on horseback and on foot, burst -into the territory. During the first night a city of tents was raised at -Guthrie and Oklahoma City. In ten days wooden houses rose on the plains. -In a single year there were schools, churches, business blocks, and -newspapers. Within fifteen years there was a population of more than -half a million. To the west, Arizona with a population of about 125,000 -and New Mexico with 200,000 inhabitants joined Oklahoma in asking for -statehood. Congress, then Republican, looked with reluctance upon the -addition of more Democratic states; but in 1907 it was literally -compelled by public sentiment and a sense of justice to admit Oklahoma. -In 1910 the House of Representatives went to the Democrats and within -two years Arizona and New Mexico were "under the roof." So the -continental domain was rounded out. - - -THE INFLUENCE OF THE FAR WEST ON NATIONAL LIFE - -=The Last of the Frontier.=--When Horace Greeley made his trip west in -1859 he thus recorded the progress of civilization in his journal: - - "May 12th, Chicago.--Chocolate and morning journals last - seen on the hotel breakfast table. - - 23rd, Leavenworth (Kansas).--Room bells and bath tubs make - their final appearance. - - 26th, Manhattan.--Potatoes and eggs last recognized among - the blessings that 'brighten as they take their flight.' - - 27th, Junction City.--Last visitation of a boot-black, with - dissolving views of a board bedroom. Beds bid us good-by." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Panama-California Exposition_ - -THE CANADIAN BUILDING AT THE PANAMA-CALIFORNIA INTERNATIONAL -EXPOSITION, SAN DIEGO, 1915] - -Within thirty years travelers were riding across that country in Pullman -cars and enjoying at the hotels all the comforts of a standardized -civilization. The "wild west" was gone, and with it that frontier of -pioneers and settlers who had long given such a bent and tone to -American life and had "poured in upon the floor of Congress" such a long -line of "backwoods politicians," as they were scornfully styled. - -=Free Land and Eastern Labor.=--It was not only the picturesque features -of the frontier that were gone. Of far more consequence was the -disappearance of free lands with all that meant for American labor. For -more than a hundred years, any man of even moderate means had been able -to secure a homestead of his own and an independent livelihood. For a -hundred years America had been able to supply farms to as many -immigrants as cared to till the soil. Every new pair of strong arms -meant more farms and more wealth. Workmen in Eastern factories, mines, -or mills who did not like their hours, wages, or conditions of labor, -could readily find an outlet to the land. Now all that was over. By -about 1890 most of the desirable land available under the Homestead act -had disappeared. American industrial workers confronted a new situation. - -=Grain Supplants King Cotton.=--In the meantime a revolution was taking -place in agriculture. Until 1860 the chief staples sold by America were -cotton and tobacco. With the advance of the frontier, corn and wheat -supplanted them both in agrarian economy. The West became the granary of -the East and of Western Europe. The scoop shovel once used to handle -grain was superseded by the towering elevator, loading and unloading -thousands of bushels every hour. The refrigerator car and ship made the -packing industry as stable as the production of cotton or corn, and gave -an immense impetus to cattle raising and sheep farming. So the meat of -the West took its place on the English dinner table by the side of bread -baked from Dakotan wheat. - -=Aid in American Economic Independence.=--The effects of this economic -movement were manifold and striking. Billions of dollars' worth of -American grain, dairy produce, and meat were poured into European -markets where they paid off debts due money lenders and acquired -capital to develop American resources. Thus they accelerated the -progress of American financiers toward national independence. The -country, which had timidly turned to the Old World for capital in -Hamilton's day and had borrowed at high rates of interest in London in -Lincoln's day, moved swiftly toward the time when it would be among the -world's first bankers and money lenders itself. Every grain of wheat and -corn pulled the balance down on the American side of the scale. - -=Eastern Agriculture Affected.=--In the East as well as abroad the -opening of the western granary produced momentous results. The -agricultural economy of that part of the country was changed in many -respects. Whole sections of the poorest land went almost out of -cultivation, the abandoned farms of the New England hills bearing solemn -witness to the competing power of western wheat fields. Sheep and cattle -raising, as well as wheat and corn production, suffered at least a -relative decline. Thousands of farmers cultivating land of the lower -grade were forced to go West or were driven to the margin of -subsistence. Even the herds that supplied Eastern cities with milk were -fed upon grain brought halfway across the continent. - -=The Expansion of the American Market.=--Upon industry as well as -agriculture, the opening of vast food-producing regions told in a -thousand ways. The demand for farm machinery, clothing, boots, shoes, -and other manufactures gave to American industries such a market as even -Hamilton had never foreseen. Moreover it helped to expand far into the -Mississippi Valley the industrial area once confined to the Northern -seaboard states and to transform the region of the Great Lakes into an -industrial empire. Herein lies the explanation of the growth of -mid-western cities after 1865. Chicago, with its thirty-five railways, -tapped every locality of the West and South. To the railways were added -the water routes of the Lakes, thus creating a strategic center for -industries. Long foresight carried the McCormick reaper works to -Chicago before 1860. From Troy, New York, went a large stove plant. That -was followed by a shoe factory from Massachusetts. The packing industry -rose as a matter of course at a point so advantageous for cattle raisers -and shippers and so well connected with Eastern markets. - -To the opening of the Far West also the Lake region was indebted for a -large part of that water-borne traffic which made it "the Mediterranean -basin of North America." The produce of the West and the manufactures of -the East poured through it in an endless stream. The swift growth of -shipbuilding on the Great Lakes helped to compensate for the decline of -the American marine on the high seas. In response to this stimulus -Detroit could boast that her shipwrights were able to turn out a ten -thousand ton Leviathan for ore or grain about "as quickly as carpenters -could put up an eight-room house." Thus in relation to the Far West the -old Northwest territory--the wilderness of Jefferson's time--had taken -the position formerly occupied by New England alone. It was supplying -capital and manufactures for a vast agricultural empire West and South. - -=America on the Pacific.=--It has been said that the Mediterranean Sea -was the center of ancient civilization; that modern civilization has -developed on the shores of the Atlantic; and that the future belongs to -the Pacific. At any rate, the sweep of the United States to the shores -of the Pacific quickly exercised a powerful influence on world affairs -and it undoubtedly has a still greater significance for the future. - -Very early regular traffic sprang up between the Pacific ports and the -Hawaiian Islands, China, and Japan. Two years before the adjustment of -the Oregon controversy with England, namely in 1844, the United States -had established official and trading relations with China. Ten years -later, four years after the admission of California to the union, the -barred door of Japan was forced open by Commodore Perry. The commerce -which had long before developed between the Pacific ports and Hawaii, -China, and Japan now flourished under official care. In 1865 a ship -from Honolulu carried sugar, molasses, and fruits from Hawaii to the -Oregon port of Astoria. The next year a vessel from Hongkong brought -rice, mats, and tea from China. An era of lucrative trade was opened. -The annexation of Hawaii in 1898, the addition of the Philippines at the -same time, and the participation of American troops in the suppression -of the Boxer rebellion in Peking in 1900, were but signs and symbols of -American power on the Pacific. - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -COMMODORE PERRY'S MEN MAKING PRESENTS TO THE JAPANESE] - -=Conservation and the Land Problem.=--The disappearance of the frontier -also brought new and serious problems to the governments of the states -and the nation. The people of the whole United States suddenly were -forced to realize that there was a limit to the rich, new land to -exploit and to the forests and minerals awaiting the ax and the pick. -Then arose in America the questions which had long perplexed the -countries of the Old World--the scientific use of the soils and -conservation of natural resources. Hitherto the government had followed -the easy path of giving away arable land and selling forest and mineral -lands at low prices. Now it had to face far more difficult and complex -problems. It also had to consider questions of land tenure again, -especially if the ideal of a nation of home-owning farmers was to be -maintained. While there was plenty of land for every man or woman who -wanted a home on the soil, it made little difference if single landlords -or companies got possession of millions of acres, if a hundred men in -one western river valley owned 17,000,000 acres; but when the good land -for small homesteads was all gone, then was raised the real issue. At -the opening of the twentieth century the nation, which a hundred years -before had land and natural resources apparently without limit, was -compelled to enact law after law conserving its forests and minerals. -Then it was that the great state of California, on the very border of -the continent, felt constrained to enact a land settlement measure -providing government assistance in an effort to break up large holdings -into small lots and to make it easy for actual settlers to acquire small -farms. America was passing into a new epoch. - - -=References= - -Henry Inman, _The Old Santa Fe Trail_. - -R.I. Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_ (1877). - -C.H. Shinn, _The Story of the Mine_. - -Cy Warman, _The Story of the Railroad_. - -Emerson Hough, _The Story of the Cowboy_. - -H.H. Bancroft is the author of many works on the West but his writings -will be found only in the larger libraries. - -Joseph Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_ (ed. 1918). - -T.H. Hittel, _History of California_ (4 vols.). - -W.H. Olin, _American Irrigation Farming_. - -W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid America_. - -H.A. Millis, _The American-Japanese Problem_. - -E.S. Meany, _History of the State of Washington_. - -H.K. Norton, _The Story of California_. - - -=Questions= - -1. Name the states west of the Mississippi in 1865. - -2. In what manner was the rest of the western region governed? - -3. How far had settlement been carried? - -4. What were the striking physical features of the West? - -5. How was settlement promoted after 1865? - -6. Why was admission to the union so eagerly sought? - -7. Explain how politics became involved in the creation of new states. - -8. Did the West rapidly become like the older sections of the country? - -9. What economic peculiarities did it retain or develop? - -10. How did the federal government aid in western agriculture? - -11. How did the development of the West affect the East? The South? - -12. What relation did the opening of the great grain areas of the West -bear to the growth of America's commercial and financial power? - -13. State some of the new problems of the West. - -14. Discuss the significance of American expansion to the Pacific Ocean. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Passing of the Wild West.=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own -Times_, pp. 100-124. - -=The Indian Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_ (American Nation -Series), pp. 265-281. - -=The Chinese Question.=--Sparks, _National Development_, pp. 229-250; -Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 180-196. - -=The Railway Age.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific Northwest_, pp. -230-245; E.V. Smalley, _The Northern Pacific Railroad_; Paxson, _The New -Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. 20-26, especially the map on p. 23, and -pp. 142-148. - -=Agriculture and Business.=--Schafer, _Pacific Northwest_, pp. 246-289. - -=Ranching in the Northwest.=--Theodore Roosevelt, _Ranch Life_, and -_Autobiography_, pp. 103-143. - -=The Conquest of the Desert.=--W.E. Smythe, _The Conquest of Arid -America_. - -=Studies of Individual Western States.=--Consult any good encyclopedia. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897) - - -For thirty years after the Civil War the leading political parties, -although they engaged in heated presidential campaigns, were not sharply -and clearly opposed on many matters of vital significance. During none -of that time was there a clash of opinion over specific issues such as -rent the country in 1800 when Jefferson rode a popular wave to victory, -or again in 1828 when Jackson's western hordes came sweeping into power. -The Democrats, who before 1860 definitely opposed protective tariffs, -federal banking, internal improvements, and heavy taxes, now spoke -cautiously on all these points. The Republicans, conscious of the fact -that they had been a minority of the voters in 1860 and warned by the -early loss of the House of Representatives in 1874, also moved with -considerable prudence among the perplexing problems of the day. Again -and again the votes in Congress showed that no clear line separated all -the Democrats from all the Republicans. There were Republicans who -favored tariff reductions and "cheap money." There were Democrats who -looked with partiality upon high protection or with indulgence upon the -contraction of the currency. Only on matters relating to the coercion of -the South was the division between the parties fairly definite; this -could be readily accounted for on practical as well as sentimental -grounds. - -After all, the vague criticisms and proposals that found their way into -the political platforms did but reflect the confusion of mind prevailing -in the country. The fact that, out of the eighteen years between 1875 -and 1893, the Democrats held the House of Representatives for fourteen -years while the Republicans had every President but one showed that the -voters, like the politicians, were in a state of indecision. Hayes had a -Democratic House during his entire term and a Democratic Senate for two -years of the four. Cleveland was confronted by a belligerent Republican -majority in the Senate during his first administration; and at the same -time was supported by a Democratic majority in the House. Harrison was -sustained by continuous Republican successes in Senatorial elections; -but in the House he had the barest majority from 1889 to 1891 and lost -that altogether at the election held in the middle of his term. The -opinion of the country was evidently unsettled and fluctuating. It was -still distracted by memories of the dead past and uncertain as to the -trend of the future. - - -THE CURRENCY QUESTION - -Nevertheless these years of muddled politics and nebulous issues proved -to be a period in which social forces were gathering for the great -campaign of 1896. Except for three new features--the railways, the -trusts, and the trade unions--the subjects of debate among the people -were the same as those that had engaged their attention since the -foundation of the republic: the currency, the national debt, banking, -the tariff, and taxation. - -=Debtors and the Fall in Prices.=--For many reasons the currency -question occupied the center of interest. As of old, the farmers and -planters of the West and South were heavily in debt to the East for -borrowed money secured by farm mortgages; and they counted upon the sale -of cotton, corn, wheat, and hogs to meet interest and principal when -due. During the war, the Western farmers had been able to dispose of -their produce at high prices and thus discharge their debts with -comparative ease; but after the war prices declined. Wheat that sold at -two dollars a bushel in 1865 brought sixty-four cents twenty years -later. The meaning of this for the farmers in debt--and nearly -three-fourths of them were in that class--can be shown by a single -illustration. A thousand-dollar mortgage on a Western farm could be paid -off by five hundred bushels of wheat when prices were high; whereas it -took about fifteen hundred bushels to pay the same debt when wheat was -at the bottom of the scale. For the farmer, it must be remembered, wheat -was the measure of his labor, the product of his toil under the summer -sun; and in its price he found the test of his prosperity. - -=Creditors and Falling Prices.=--To the bondholders or creditors, on the -other hand, falling prices were clear gain. If a fifty-dollar coupon on -a bond bought seventy or eighty bushels of wheat instead of twenty or -thirty, the advantage to the owner of the coupon was obvious. Moreover -the advantage seemed to him entirely just. Creditors had suffered heavy -losses when the Civil War carried prices skyward while the interest -rates on their old bonds remained stationary. For example, if a man had -a $1000 bond issued before 1860 and paying interest at five per cent, he -received fifty dollars a year from it. Before the war each dollar would -buy a bushel of wheat; in 1865 it would only buy half a bushel. When -prices--that is, the cost of living--began to go down, creditors -therefore generally regarded the change with satisfaction as a return to -normal conditions. - -=The Cause of Falling Prices.=--The fall in prices was due, no doubt, to -many factors. Among them must be reckoned the discontinuance of -government buying for war purposes, labor-saving farm machinery, -immigration, and the opening of new wheat-growing regions. The currency, -too, was an element in the situation. Whatever the cause, the -discontented farmers believed that the way to raise prices was to issue -more money. They viewed it as a case of supply and demand. If there was -a small volume of currency in circulation, prices would be low; if there -was a large volume, prices would be high. Hence they looked with favor -upon all plans to increase the amount of money in circulation. First -they advocated more paper notes--greenbacks--and then they turned to -silver as the remedy. The creditors, on the other hand, naturally -approved the reduction of the volume of currency. They wished to see the -greenbacks withdrawn from circulation and gold--a metal more limited in -volume than silver--made the sole basis of the national monetary system. - -=The Battle over the Greenbacks.=--The contest between these factions -began as early as 1866. In that year, Congress enacted a law authorizing -the Treasury to withdraw the greenbacks from circulation. The paper -money party set up a shrill cry of protest, and kept up the fight until, -in 1878, it forced Congress to provide for the continuous re-issue of -the legal tender notes as they came into the Treasury in payment of -taxes and other dues. Then could the friends of easy money rejoice: - - "Thou, Greenback, 'tis of thee - Fair money of the free, - Of thee we sing." - -=Resumption of Specie Payment.=--There was, however, another side to -this victory. The opponents of the greenbacks, unable to stop the -circulation of paper, induced Congress to pass a law in 1875 providing -that on and after January 1, 1879, "the Secretary of the Treasury shall -redeem in coin the United States legal tender notes then outstanding on -their presentation at the office of the Assistant Treasurer of the -United States in the City of New York in sums of not less than fifty -dollars." "The way to resume," John Sherman had said, "is to resume." -When the hour for redemption arrived, the Treasury was prepared with a -large hoard of gold. "On the appointed day," wrote the assistant -secretary, "anxiety reigned in the office of the Treasury. Hour after -hour passed; no news from New York. Inquiry by wire showed that all was -quiet. At the close of the day this message came: '$135,000 of notes -presented for coin--$400,000 of gold for notes.' That was all. -Resumption was accomplished with no disturbance. By five o'clock the -news was all over the land, and the New York bankers were sipping their -tea in absolute safety." - -=The Specie Problem--the Parity of Gold and Silver.=--Defeated in their -efforts to stop "the present suicidal and destructive policy of -contraction," the advocates of an abundant currency demanded an increase -in the volume of silver in circulation. This precipitated one of the -sharpest political battles in American history. The issue turned on -legal as well as economic points. The Constitution gave Congress the -power to coin money and it forbade the states to make anything but gold -and silver legal tender in the payment of debts. It evidently -contemplated the use of both metals in the currency system. Such, at -least, was the view of many eminent statesmen, including no less a -personage than James G. Blaine. The difficulty, however, lay in -maintaining gold and silver coins on a level which would permit them to -circulate with equal facility. Obviously, if the gold in a gold dollar -exceeds the value of the silver in a silver dollar on the open market, -men will hoard gold money and leave silver money in circulation. When, -for example, Congress in 1792 fixed the ratio of the two metals at one -to fifteen--one ounce of gold declared worth fifteen of silver--it was -soon found that gold had been undervalued. When again in 1834 the ratio -was put at one to sixteen, it was found that silver was undervalued. -Consequently the latter metal was not brought in for coinage and silver -almost dropped out of circulation. Many a silver dollar was melted down -by silverware factories. - -=Silver Demonetized in 1873.=--So things stood in 1873. At that time, -Congress, in enacting a mintage law, discontinued the coinage of the -standard silver dollar, then practically out of circulation. This act -was denounced later by the friends of silver as "the crime of '73," a -conspiracy devised by the money power and secretly carried out. This -contention the debates in Congress do not seem to sustain. In the course -of the argument on the mint law it was distinctly said by one speaker at -least: "This bill provides for the making of changes in the legal tender -coin of the country and for substituting as legal tender, coin of only -one metal instead of two as heretofore." - -=The Decline in the Value of Silver.=--Absorbed in the greenback -controversy, the people apparently did not appreciate, at the time, the -significance of the "demonetization" of silver; but within a few years -several events united in making it the center of a political storm. -Germany, having abandoned silver in 1871, steadily increased her demand -for gold. Three years later, the countries of the Latin Union followed -this example, thus helping to enhance the price of the yellow metal. All -the while, new silver lodes, discovered in the Far West, were pouring -into the market great streams of the white metal, bearing down the -price. Then came the resumption of specie payment, which, in effect, -placed the paper money on a gold basis. Within twenty years silver was -worth in gold only about half the price of 1870. - -That there had been a real decline in silver was denied by the friends -of that metal. They alleged that gold had gone up because it had been -given a monopoly in the coinage markets of civilized governments. This -monopoly, they continued, was the fruit of a conspiracy against the -people conceived by the bankers of the world. Moreover, they went on, -the placing of the greenbacks on a gold basis had itself worked a -contraction of the currency; it lowered the prices of labor and produce -to the advantage of the holders of long-term investments bearing a fixed -rate of interest. When wheat sold at sixty-four cents a bushel, their -search for relief became desperate, and they at last concentrated their -efforts on opening the mints of the government for the free coinage of -silver at the ratio of sixteen to one. - -=Republicans and Democrats Divided.=--On this question both Republicans -and Democrats were divided, the line being drawn between the East on the -one hand and the South and West on the other, rather than between the -two leading parties. So trusted a leader as James G. Blaine avowed, in a -speech delivered in the Senate in 1878, that, as the Constitution -required Congress to make both gold and silver the money of the land, -the only question left was that of fixing the ratio between them. He -affirmed, moreover, the main contention of the silver faction that a -reopening of the government mints of the world to silver would bring it -up to its old relation with gold. He admitted also that their most -ominous warnings were well founded, saying: "I believe the struggle now -going on in this country and in other countries for a single gold -standard would, if successful, produce widespread disaster throughout -the commercial world. The destruction of silver as money and the -establishment of gold as the sole unit of value must have a ruinous -effect on all forms of property, except those investments which yield a -fixed return." - -This was exactly the concession that the silver party wanted. -"Three-fourths of the business enterprises of this country are conducted -on borrowed capital," said Senator Jones, of Nevada. "Three-fourths of -the homes and farms that stand in the names of the actual occupants have -been bought on time and a very large proportion of them are mortgaged -for the payment of some part of the purchase money. Under the operation -of a shrinkage in the volume of money, this enormous mass of borrowers, -at the maturity of their respective debts, though nominally paying no -more than the amount borrowed, with interest, are in reality, in the -amount of the principal alone, returning a percentage of value greater -than they received--more in equity than they contracted to pay.... In -all discussions of the subject the creditors attempt to brush aside the -equities involved by sneering at the debtors." - -=The Silver Purchase Act (1878).=--Even before the actual resumption of -specie payment, the advocates of free silver were a power to be reckoned -with, particularly in the Democratic party. They had a majority in the -House of Representatives in 1878 and they carried a silver bill through -that chamber. Blocked by the Republican Senate they accepted a -compromise in the Bland-Allison bill, which provided for huge monthly -purchases of silver by the government for coinage into dollars. So -strong was the sentiment that a two-thirds majority was mustered after -President Hayes vetoed the measure. - -The effect of this act, as some had anticipated, was disappointing. It -did not stay silver on its downward course. Thereupon the silver faction -pressed through Congress in 1886 a bill providing for the issue of paper -certificates based on the silver accumulated in the Treasury. Still -silver continued to fall. Then the advocates of inflation declared that -they would be content with nothing short of free coinage at the ratio of -sixteen to one. If the issue had been squarely presented in 1890, there -is good reason for believing that free silver would have received a -majority in both houses of Congress; but it was not presented. - -=The Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the Bond Sales.=--Republican -leaders, particularly from the East, stemmed the silver tide by a -diversion of forces. They passed the Sherman Act of 1890 providing for -large monthly purchases of silver and for the issue of notes redeemable -in gold or silver at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. In -a clause of superb ambiguity they announced that it was "the established -policy of the United States to maintain the two metals on a parity with -each other upon the present legal ratio or such other ratio as may be -provided by law." For a while silver was buoyed up. Then it turned once -more on its downward course. In the meantime the Treasury was in a sad -plight. To maintain the gold reserve, President Cleveland felt compelled -to sell government bonds; and to his dismay he found that as soon as the -gold was brought in at the front door of the Treasury, notes were -presented for redemption and the gold was quickly carried out at the -back door. Alarmed at the vicious circle thus created, he urged upon -Congress the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. For this he was -roundly condemned by many of his own followers who branded his conduct -as "treason to the party"; but the Republicans, especially from the -East, came to his rescue and in 1893 swept the troublesome sections of -the law from the statute book. The anger of the silver faction knew no -bounds, and the leaders made ready for the approaching presidential -campaign. - - -THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF AND TAXATION - -=Fluctuation in Tariff Policy.=--As each of the old parties was divided -on the currency question, it is not surprising that there was some -confusion in their ranks over the tariff. Like the silver issue, the -tariff tended to align the manufacturing East against the agricultural -West and South rather than to cut directly between the two parties. -Still the Republicans on the whole stood firmly by the rates imposed -during the Civil War. If we except the reductions of 1872 which were -soon offset by increases, we may say that those rates were substantially -unchanged for nearly twenty years. When a revision was brought about, -however, it was initiated by Republican leaders. Seeing a huge surplus -of revenue in the Treasury in 1883, they anticipated popular clamor by -revising the tariff on the theory that it ought to be reformed by its -friends rather than by its enemies. On the other hand, it was the -Republicans also who enacted the McKinley tariff bill of 1890, which -carried protection to its highest point up to that time. - -The Democrats on their part were not all confirmed free traders or even -advocates of tariff for revenue only. In Cleveland's first -administration they did attack the protective system in the House, where -they had a majority, and in this they were vigorously supported by the -President. The assault, however, proved to be a futile gesture for it -was blocked by the Republicans in the Senate. When, after the sweeping -victory of 1892, the Democrats in the House again attempted to bring -down the tariff by the Wilson bill of 1894, they were checkmated by -their own party colleagues in the upper chamber. In the end they were -driven into a compromise that looked more like a McKinley than a Calhoun -tariff. The Republicans taunted them with being "babes in the woods." -President Cleveland was so dissatisfied with the bill that he refused to -sign it, allowing it to become a law, on the lapse of ten days, without -his approval. - -=The Income Tax of 1894.=--The advocates of tariff reduction usually -associated with their proposal a tax on incomes. The argument which -they advanced in support of their program was simple. Most of the -industries, they said, are in the East and the protective tariff which -taxes consumers for the benefit of manufacturers is, in effect, a -tribute laid upon the rest of the country. As an offset they offered a -tax on large incomes; this owing to the heavy concentration of rich -people in the East, would fall mainly upon the beneficiaries of -protection. "We propose," said one of them, "to place a part of the -burden upon the accumulated wealth of the country instead of placing it -all upon the consumption of the people." In this spirit the sponsors of -the Wilson tariff bill laid a tax upon all incomes of $4000 a year or -more. - -In taking this step, the Democrats encountered opposition in their own -party. Senator Hill, of New York, turned fiercely upon them, exclaiming: -"The professors with their books, the socialists with their schemes, the -anarchists with their bombs are all instructing the people in the ... -principles of taxation." Even the Eastern Republicans were hardly as -savage in their denunciation of the tax. But all this labor was wasted. -The next year the Supreme Court of the United States declared the income -tax to be a direct tax, and therefore null and void because it was laid -on incomes wherever found and not apportioned among the states according -to population. The fact that four of the nine judges dissented from this -decision was also an index to the diversity of opinion that divided both -parties. - - -THE RAILWAYS AND TRUSTS - -=The Grangers and State Regulation.=--The same uncertainty about the -railways and trusts pervaded the ranks of the Republicans and Democrats. -As to the railways, the first firm and consistent demand for their -regulation came from the West. There the farmers, in the early -seventies, having got control in state legislatures, particularly in -Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, enacted drastic laws prescribing the -maximum charges which companies could make for carrying freight and -passengers. The application of these measures, however, was limited -because the state could not fix the rates for transporting goods and -passengers beyond its own borders. The power of regulating interstate -commerce, under the Constitution, belonged to Congress. - -=The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.=--Within a few years, the movement -which had been so effective in western legislatures appeared at -Washington in the form of demands for the federal regulation of -interstate rates. In 1887, the pressure became so strong that Congress -created the interstate commerce commission and forbade many abuses on -the part of railways; such as discriminating in charges between one -shipper and another and granting secret rebates to favored persons. This -law was a significant beginning; but it left the main question of -rate-fixing untouched, much to the discontent of farmers and shippers. - -=The Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890.=--As in the case of the railways, -attacks upon the trusts were first made in state legislatures, where it -became the fashion to provide severe penalties for those who formed -monopolies and "conspired to enhance prices." Republicans and Democrats -united in the promotion of measures of this kind. As in the case of the -railways also, the movement to curb the trusts soon had spokesmen at -Washington. Though Blaine had declared that "trusts were largely a -private affair with which neither the President nor any private citizen -had any particular right to interfere," it was a Republican Congress -that enacted in 1890 the first measure--the Sherman Anti-Trust -Law--directed against great combinations in business. This act declared -illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, -or conspiracy in restraint of trade and commerce among the several -states or with foreign nations." - -=The Futility of the Anti-Trust Law.=--Whether the Sherman law was -directed against all combinations or merely those which placed an -"unreasonable restraint" on trade and competition was not apparent. -Senator Platt of Connecticut, a careful statesman of the old school, -averred: "The questions of whether the bill would be operative, of how -it would operate, or whether it was within the power of Congress to -enact it, have been whistled down the wind in this Senate as idle talk -and the whole effort has been to get some bill headed: 'A bill to punish -trusts,' with which to go to the country." Whatever its purpose, its -effect upon existing trusts and upon the formation of new combinations -was negligible. It was practically unenforced by President Harrison and -President Cleveland, in spite of the constant demand for harsh action -against "monopolies." It was patent that neither the Republicans nor the -Democrats were prepared for a war on the trusts to the bitter end. - - -THE MINOR PARTIES AND UNREST - -=The Demands of Dissenting Parties.=--From the election of 1872, when -Horace Greeley made his ill-fated excursion into politics, onward, there -appeared in each presidential campaign one, and sometimes two or more -parties, stressing issues that appealed mainly to wage-earners and -farmers. Whether they chose to call themselves Labor Reformers, -Greenbackers, or Anti-monopolists, their slogans and their platforms all -pointed in one direction. Even the Prohibitionists, who in 1872 started -on their career with a single issue, the abolition of the liquor -traffic, found themselves making declarations of faith on other matters -and hopelessly split over the money question in 1896. - -A composite view of the platforms put forth by the dissenting parties -from the administration of Grant to the close of Cleveland's second term -reveals certain notions common to them all. These included among many -others: the earliest possible payment of the national debt; regulation -of the rates of railways and telegraph companies; repeal of the specie -resumption act of 1875; the issue of legal tender notes by the -government convertible into interest-bearing obligations on demand; -unlimited coinage of silver as well as gold; a graduated inheritance -tax; legislation to take from "land, railroad, money, and other gigantic -corporate monopolies ... the powers they have so corruptly and unjustly -usurped"; popular or direct election of United States Senators; woman -suffrage; and a graduated income tax, "placing the burden of government -on those who can best afford to pay instead of laying it on the farmers -and producers." - -=Criticism of the Old Parties.=--To this long program of measures the -reformers added harsh and acrid criticism of the old parties and -sometimes, it must be said, of established institutions of government. -"We denounce," exclaimed the Labor party in 1888, "the Democratic and -Republican parties as hopelessly and shamelessly corrupt and by reason -of their affiliation with monopolies equally unworthy of the suffrages -of those who do not live upon public plunder." "The United States -Senate," insisted the Greenbackers, "is a body composed largely of -aristocratic millionaires who according to their own party papers -generally purchased their elections in order to protect the great -monopolies which they represent." Indeed, if their platforms are to be -accepted at face value, the Greenbackers believed that the entire -government had passed out of the hands of the people. - -=The Grangers.=--This unsparing, not to say revolutionary, criticism of -American political life, appealed, it seems, mainly to farmers in the -Middle West. Always active in politics, they had, before the Civil War, -cast their lot as a rule with one or the other of the leading parties. -In 1867, however, there grew up among them an association known as the -"Patrons of Husbandry," which was destined to play a large role in the -partisan contests of the succeeding decades. This society, which -organized local lodges or "granges" on principles of secrecy and -fraternity, was originally designed to promote in a general way the -interests of the farmers. Its political bearings were apparently not -grasped at first by its promoters. Yet, appealing as it did to the most -active and independent spirits among the farmers and gathering to itself -the strength that always comes from organization, it soon found itself -in the hands of leaders more or less involved in politics. Where a few -votes are marshaled together in a democracy, there is power. - -=The Greenback Party.=--The first extensive activity of the Grangers was -connected with the attack on the railways in the Middle West which -forced several state legislatures to reduce freight and passenger rates -by law. At the same time, some leaders in the movement, no doubt -emboldened by this success, launched in 1876 a new political party, -popularly known as the Greenbackers, favoring a continued re-issue of -the legal tenders. The beginnings were disappointing; but two years -later, in the congressional elections, the Greenbackers swept whole -sections of the country. Their candidates polled more than a million -votes and fourteen of them were returned to the House of -Representatives. To all outward signs a new and formidable party had -entered the lists. - -The sanguine hopes of the leaders proved to be illusory. The quiet -operations of the resumption act the following year, a revival of -industry from a severe panic which had set in during 1873, the Silver -Purchase Act, and the re-issue of Greenbacks cut away some of the -grounds of agitation. There was also a diversion of forces to the silver -faction which had a substantial support in the silver mine owners of the -West. At all events the Greenback vote fell to about 300,000 in the -election of 1880. A still greater drop came four years later and the -party gave up the ghost, its sponsors returning to their former -allegiance or sulking in their tents. - -=The Rise of the Populist Party.=--Those leaders of the old parties who -now looked for a happy future unvexed by new factions were doomed to -disappointment. The funeral of the Greenback party was hardly over -before there arose two other political specters in the agrarian -sections: the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union, -particularly strong in the South and West; and the Farmers' Alliance, -operating in the North. By 1890 the two orders claimed over three -million members. As in the case of the Grangers many years before, the -leaders among them found an easy way into politics. In 1892 they held a -convention, nominated a candidate for President, and adopted the name of -"People's Party," from which they were known as Populists. Their -platform, in every line, breathed a spirit of radicalism. They declared -that "the newspapers are largely subsidized or muzzled; public opinion -silenced; business prostrate; our homes covered with mortgages; and the -land concentrating in the hands of capitalists.... The fruits of the -toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a -few." Having delivered this sweeping indictment, the Populists put -forward their remedies: the free coinage of silver, a graduated income -tax, postal savings banks, and government ownership of railways and -telegraphs. At the same time they approved the initiative, referendum, -and popular election of Senators, and condemned the use of federal -troops in labor disputes. On this platform, the Populists polled over a -million votes, captured twenty-two presidential electors, and sent a -powerful delegation to Congress. - -=Industrial Distress Augments Unrest.=--The four years intervening -between the campaign of 1892 and the next presidential election brought -forth many events which aggravated the ill-feeling expressed in the -portentous platform of Populism. Cleveland, a consistent enemy of free -silver, gave his powerful support to the gold standard and insisted on -the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act, thus alienating an increasing -number of his own party. In 1893 a grave industrial crisis fell upon the -land: banks and business houses went into bankruptcy with startling -rapidity; factories were closed; idle men thronged the streets hunting -for work; and the prices of wheat and corn dropped to a ruinous level. -Labor disputes also filled the crowded record. A strike at the Pullman -car works in Chicago spread to the railways. Disorders ensued. President -Cleveland, against the protests of the governor of Illinois, John P. -Altgeld, dispatched troops to the scene of action. The United States -district court at Chicago issued an injunction forbidding the president -of the Railway Union, Eugene V. Debs, or his assistants to interfere -with the transmission of the mails or interstate commerce in any form. -For refusing to obey the order, Debs was arrested and imprisoned. With -federal troops in possession of the field, with their leader in jail, -the strikers gave up the battle, defeated but not subdued. To cap the -climax the Supreme Court of the United States, the following year (1895) -declared null and void the income tax law just enacted by Congress, thus -fanning the flames of Populist discontent all over the West and South. - - -THE SOUND MONEY BATTLE OF 1896 - -=Conservative Men Alarmed.=--Men of conservative thought and leaning in -both parties were by this time thoroughly disturbed. They looked upon -the rise of Populism and the growth of labor disputes as the signs of a -revolutionary spirit, indeed nothing short of a menace to American -institutions and ideals. The income tax law of 1894, exclaimed the -distinguished New York advocate, Joseph H. Choate, in an impassioned -speech before the Supreme Court, "is communistic in its purposes and -tendencies and is defended here upon principles as communistic, -socialistic--what shall I call them--populistic as ever have been -addressed to any political assembly in the world." Mr. Justice Field in -the name of the Court replied: "The present assault upon capital is but -the beginning. It will be but the stepping stone to others larger and -more sweeping till our political conditions will become a war of the -poor against the rich." In declaring the income tax unconstitutional, he -believed that he was but averting greater evils lurking under its guise. -As for free silver, nearly all conservative men were united in calling -it a measure of confiscation and repudiation; an effort of the debtors -to pay their obligations with money worth fifty cents on the dollar; the -climax of villainies openly defended; a challenge to law, order, and -honor. - -=The Republicans Come Out for the Gold Standard.=--It was among the -Republicans that this opinion was most widely shared and firmly held. It -was they who picked up the gauge thrown down by the Populists, though a -host of Democrats, like Cleveland and Hill of New York, also battled -against the growing Populist defection in Democratic ranks. When the -Republican national convention assembled in 1896, the die was soon -cast; a declaration of opposition to free silver save by international -agreement was carried by a vote of eight to one. The Republican party, -to use the vigorous language of Mr. Lodge, arrayed itself against "not -only that organized failure, the Democratic party, but all the wandering -forces of political chaos and social disorder ... in these bitter times -when the forces of disorder are loose and the wreckers with their false -lights gather at the shore to lure the ship of state upon the rocks." -Yet it is due to historic truth to state that McKinley, whom the -Republicans nominated, had voted in Congress for the free coinage of -silver, was widely known as a bimetallist, and was only with difficulty -persuaded to accept the unequivocal indorsement of the gold standard -which was pressed upon him by his counselors. Having accepted it, -however, he proved to be a valiant champion, though his major interest -was undoubtedly in the protective tariff. To him nothing was more -reprehensible than attempts "to array class against class, 'the classes -against the masses,' section against section, labor against capital, -'the poor against the rich,' or interest against interest." Such was the -language of his acceptance speech. The whole program of Populism he now -viewed as a "sudden, dangerous, and revolutionary assault upon law and -order." - -=The Democratic Convention at Chicago.=--Never, save at the great -disruption on the eve of the Civil War, did a Democratic national -convention display more feeling than at Chicago in 1896. From the -opening prayer to the last motion before the house, every act, every -speech, every scene, every resolution evoked passions and sowed -dissensions. Departing from long party custom, it voted down in anger a -proposal to praise the administration of the Democratic President, -Cleveland. When the platform with its radical planks, including free -silver, was reported, a veritable storm broke. Senator Hill, trembling -with emotion, protested against the departure from old tests of -Democratic allegiance; against principles that must drive out of the -party men who had grown gray in its service; against revolutionary, -unwise, and unprecedented steps in the history of the party. Senator -Vilas of Wisconsin, in great fervor, avowed that there was no difference -in principle between the free coinage of silver--"the confiscation of -one-half of the credits of the nation for the benefit of debtors"--and -communism itself--"a universal distribution of property." In the triumph -of that cause he saw the beginning of "the overthrow of all law, all -justice, all security and repose in the social order." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -WILLIAM J. BRYAN IN 1898] - -=The Crown of Thorns Speech.=--The champions of free silver replied in -strident tones. They accused the gold advocates of being the aggressors -who had assailed the labor and the homes of the people. William Jennings -Bryan, of Nebraska, voiced their sentiments in a memorable oration. He -declared that their cause "was as holy as the cause of liberty--the -cause of humanity." He exclaimed that the contest was between the idle -holders of idle capital and the toiling millions. Then he named those -for whom he spoke--the wage-earner, the country lawyer, the small -merchant, the farmer, and the miner. "The man who is employed for wages -is as much a business man as his employer. The attorney in a country -town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great -metropolis. The merchant at the cross roads store is as much a business -man as the merchant of New York. The farmer ... is as much a business -man as the man who goes upon the board of trade and bets upon the price -of grain. The miners who go a thousand feet into the earth or climb two -thousand feet upon the cliffs ... are as much business men as the few -financial magnates who in a back room corner the money of the world.... -It is for these that we speak. We do not come as aggressors. Ours is not -a war of conquest. We are fighting in defense of our homes, our -families, and our posterity. We have petitioned and our petitions have -been scorned. We have entreated and our entreaties have been -disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked when our calamity came. -We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy -them.... We shall answer their demands for a gold standard by saying to -them, 'You shall not press upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. -You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'" - -=Bryan Nominated.=--In all the history of national conventions never had -an orator so completely swayed a multitude; not even Yancey in his -memorable plea in the Charleston convention of 1860 when, with grave and -moving eloquence, he espoused the Southern cause against the impending -fates. The delegates, after cheering Mr. Bryan until they could cheer no -more, tore the standards from the floor and gathered around the Nebraska -delegation to renew the deafening applause. The platform as reported was -carried by a vote of two to one and the young orator from the West, -hailed as America's Tiberius Gracchus, was nominated as the Democratic -candidate for President. The South and West had triumphed over the East. -The division was sectional, admittedly sectional--the old combination of -power which Calhoun had so anxiously labored to build up a century -earlier. The Gold Democrats were repudiated in terms which were clear to -all. A few, unable to endure the thought of voting the Republican -ticket, held a convention at Indianapolis where, with the sanction of -Cleveland, they nominated candidates of their own and endorsed the gold -standard in a forlorn hope. - -=The Democratic Platform.=--It was to the call from Chicago that the -Democrats gave heed and the Republicans made answer. The platform on -which Mr. Bryan stood, unlike most party manifestoes, was explicit in -its language and its appeal. It denounced the practice of allowing -national banks to issue notes intended to circulate as money on the -ground that it was "in derogation of the Constitution," recalling -Jackson's famous attack on the Bank in 1832. It declared that tariff -duties should be laid "for the purpose of revenue"--Calhoun's doctrine. -In demanding the free coinage of silver, it recurred to the practice -abandoned in 1873. The income tax came next on the program. The platform -alleged that the law of 1894, passed by a Democratic Congress, was "in -strict pursuance of the uniform decisions of the Supreme Court for -nearly a hundred years," and then hinted that the decision annulling the -law might be reversed by the same body "as it may hereafter be -constituted." - -The appeal to labor voiced by Mr. Bryan in his "crown of thorns" speech -was reinforced in the platform. "As labor creates the wealth of the -country," ran one plank, "we demand the passage of such laws as may be -necessary to protect it in all its rights." Referring to the recent -Pullman strike, the passions of which had not yet died away, the -platform denounced "arbitrary interference by federal authorities in -local affairs as a violation of the Constitution of the United States -and a crime against free institutions." A special objection was lodged -against "government by injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of -oppression by which federal judges, in contempt of the laws of states -and rights of citizens, become at once legislators, judges, and -executioners." The remedy advanced was a federal law assuring trial by -jury in all cases of contempt in labor disputes. Having made this -declaration of faith, the Democrats, with Mr. Bryan at the head, raised -their standard of battle. - -=The Heated Campaign.=--The campaign which ensued outrivaled in the -range of its educational activities and the bitterness of its tone all -other political conflicts in American history, not excepting the fateful -struggle of 1860. Immense sums of money were contributed to the funds of -both parties. Railway, banking, and other corporations gave generously -to the Republicans; the silver miners, less lavishly but with the same -anxiety, supported the Democrats. The country was flooded with -pamphlets, posters, and handbills. Every public forum, from the great -auditoriums of the cities to the "red schoolhouses" on the countryside, -was occupied by the opposing forces. - -Mr. Bryan took the stump himself, visiting all parts of the country in -special trains and addressing literally millions of people in the open -air. Mr. McKinley chose the older and more formal plan. He received -delegations at his home in Canton and discussed the issues of the -campaign from his front porch, leaving to an army of well-organized -orators the task of reaching the people in their home towns. Parades, -processions, and monster demonstrations filled the land with politics. -Whole states were polled in advance by the Republicans and the doubtful -voters personally visited by men equipped with arguments and literature. -Manufacturers, frightened at the possibility of disordered public -credit, announced that they would close their doors if the Democrats won -the election. Men were dismissed from public and private places on -account of their political views, one eminent college president being -forced out for advocating free silver. The language employed by -impassioned and embittered speakers on both sides roused the public to a -state of frenzy, once more showing the lengths to which men could go in -personal and political abuse. - -=The Republican Victory.=--The verdict of the nation was decisive. -McKinley received 271 of the 447 electoral votes, and 7,111,000 popular -votes as against Bryan's 6,509,000. The congressional elections were -equally positive although, on account of the composition of the Senate, -the "hold-over" Democrats and Populists still enjoyed a power out of -proportion to their strength as measured at the polls. Even as it was, -the Republicans got full control of both houses--a dominion of the -entire government which they were to hold for fourteen years--until the -second half of Mr. Taft's administration, when they lost possession of -the House of Representatives. The yoke of indecision was broken. The -party of sound finance and protective tariffs set out upon its lease of -power with untroubled assurance. - - -REPUBLICAN MEASURES AND RESULTS - -=The Gold Standard and the Tariff.=--Yet strange as it may seem, the -Republicans did not at once enact legislation making the gold dollar the -standard for the national currency. Not until 1900 did they take that -positive step. In his first inaugural President McKinley, as if still -uncertain in his own mind or fearing a revival of the contest just -closed, placed the tariff, not the money question, in the forefront. -"The people have decided," he said, "that such legislation should be had -as will give ample protection and encouragement to the industries and -development of our country." Protection for American industries, -therefore, he urged, is the task before Congress. "With adequate revenue -secured, but not until then, we can enter upon changes in our fiscal -laws." As the Republicans had only forty-six of the ninety Senators, and -at least four of them were known advocates of free silver, the -discretion exercised by the President in selecting the tariff for -congressional debate was the better part of valor. - -Congress gave heed to the warning. Under the direction of Nelson P. -Dingley, whose name was given to the bill, a tariff measure levying the -highest rates yet laid in the history of American imposts was prepared -and driven through the House of Representatives. The opposition -encountered in the Senate, especially from the West, was overcome by -concessions in favor of that section; but the duties on sugar, tin, -steel, lumber, hemp, and in fact all of the essential commodities -handled by combinations and trusts, were materially raised. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -PRESIDENT MCKINLEY AND HIS CABINET] - -=Growth of Combinations.=--The years that followed the enactment of the -Dingley law were, whatever the cause, the most prosperous the country -had witnessed for many a decade. Industries of every kind were soon -running full blast; labor was employed; commerce spread more swiftly -than ever to the markets of the world. Coincident with this progress was -the organization of the greatest combinations and trusts the world had -yet seen. In 1899 the smelters formed a trust with a capital of -$65,000,000; in the same year the Standard Oil Company with a capital of -over one hundred millions took the place of the old trust; and the -Copper Trust was incorporated under the laws of New Jersey, its par -value capital being fixed shortly afterward at $175,000,000. A year -later the National Sugar Refining Company, of New Jersey, started with a -capital of $90,000,000, adopting the policy of issuing to the -stockholders no public statement of its earnings or financial condition. -Before another twelvemonth had elapsed all previous corporate financing -was reduced to small proportions by the flotation of the United States -Steel Corporation with a capital of more than a billion dollars, an -enterprise set in motion by the famous Morgan banking house of New York. - -In nearly all these gigantic undertakings, the same great leaders in -finance were more or less intimately associated. To use the language of -an eminent authority: "They are all allied and intertwined by their -various mutual interests. For instance, the Pennsylvania Railroad -interests are on the one hand allied with the Vanderbilts and on the -other with the Rockefellers. The Vanderbilts are closely allied with the -Morgan group.... Viewed as a whole we find the dominating influences in -the trusts to be made up of a network of large and small capitalists, -many allied to one another by ties of more or less importance, but all -being appendages to or parts of the greater groups which are themselves -dependent on and allied with the two mammoth or Rockefeller and Morgan -groups. These two mammoth groups jointly ... constitute the heart of the -business and commercial life of the nation." Such was the picture of -triumphant business enterprise drawn by a financier within a few years -after the memorable campaign of 1896. - -America had become one of the first workshops of the world. It was, by -virtue of the closely knit organization of its business and finance, one -of the most powerful and energetic leaders in the struggle of the giants -for the business of the earth. The capital of the Steel Corporation -alone was more than ten times the total national debt which the apostles -of calamity in the days of Washington and Hamilton declared the nation -could never pay. American industry, filling domestic markets to -overflowing, was ready for new worlds to conquer. - - -=References= - -F.W. Taussig, _Tariff History of the United States_. - -J.L. Laughlin, _Bimetallism in the United States_. - -A.B. Hepburn, _History of Coinage and Currency in the United States_. - -E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_. - -S.J. Buck, _The Granger Movement_ (Harvard Studies). - -F.H. Dixon, _State Railroad Control_. - -H.R. Meyer, _Government Regulation of Railway Rates_. - -W.Z. Ripley (editor), _Trusts, Pools, and Corporations_. - -R.T. Ely, _Monopolies and Trusts_. - -J.B. Clark, _The Control of Trusts_. - - -=Questions= - -1. What proof have we that the political parties were not clearly -divided over issues between 1865 and 1896? - -2. Why is a fall in prices a loss to farmers and a gain to holders of -fixed investments? - -3. Explain the theory that the quantity of money determines the prices -of commodities. - -4. Why was it difficult, if not impossible, to keep gold and silver at a -parity? - -5. What special conditions favored a fall in silver between 1870 and -1896? - -6. Describe some of the measures taken to raise the value of silver. - -7. Explain the relation between the tariff and the income tax in 1894. - -8. How did it happen that the farmers led in regulating railway rates? - -9. Give the terms of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. What was its immediate -effect? - -10. Name some of the minor parties. Enumerate the reforms they -advocated. - -11. Describe briefly the experiments of the farmers in politics. - -12. How did industrial conditions increase unrest? - -13. Why were conservative men disturbed in the early nineties? - -14. Explain the Republican position in 1896. - -15. Give Mr. Bryan's doctrines in 1896. Enumerate the chief features of -the Democratic platform. - -16. What were the leading measures adopted by the Republicans after -their victory in 1896? - - -=Research Topics= - -=Greenbacks and Resumption.=--Dewey, _Financial History of the United -States_ (6th ed.), Sections 122-125, 154, and 378; MacDonald, -_Documentary Source Book of American History_, pp. 446, 566; Hart, -_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 531-533; Rhodes, -_History of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 97-101. - -=Demonetization and Coinage of Silver.=--Dewey, _Financial History_, -Sections 170-173, 186, 189, 194; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, -pp. 174, 573, 593, 595; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 529-531; -Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 93-97. - -=Free Silver and the Campaign of 1896.=--Dewey, _National Problems_ -(American Nation Series), pp. 220-237, 314-328; Hart, _Contemporaries_, -Vol. IV, pp. 533-538. - -=Tariff Revision.=--Dewey, _Financial History_, Sections 167, 180, 181, -187, 192, 196; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 518-525; Rhodes, -_History_, Vol. VIII, pp. 168-179, 346-351, 418-422. - -=Federal Regulation of Railways.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp. -91-111; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 581-590; Hart, -_Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 521-523; Rhodes, _History_, Vol. VIII, -pp. 288-292. - -=The Rise and Regulation of Trusts.=--Dewey, _National Problems_, pp. -188-202; MacDonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 591-593. - -=The Grangers and Populism.=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside -Series), pp. 20-37, 177-191, 208-223. - -=General Analysis of Domestic Problems.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New -York State, 1920), pp. 137-142. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900) - - -It has now become a fashion, sanctioned by wide usage and by eminent -historians, to speak of America, triumphant over Spain and possessed of -new colonies, as entering the twentieth century in the role of "a world -power," for the first time. Perhaps at this late day, it is useless to -protest against the currency of the idea. Nevertheless, the truth is -that from the fateful moment in March, 1775, when Edmund Burke unfolded -to his colleagues in the British Parliament the resources of an -invincible America, down to the settlement at Versailles in 1919 closing -the drama of the World War, this nation has been a world power, -influencing by its example, by its institutions, by its wealth, trade, -and arms the course of international affairs. And it should be said also -that neither in the field of commercial enterprise nor in that of -diplomacy has it been wanting in spirit or ingenuity. - -When John Hay, Secretary of State, heard that an American citizen, -Perdicaris, had been seized by Raisuli, a Moroccan bandit, in 1904, he -wired his brusque message: "We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead." -This was but an echo of Commodore Decatur's equally characteristic -answer, "Not a minute," given nearly a hundred years before to the -pirates of Algiers begging for time to consider whether they would cease -preying upon American merchantmen. Was it not as early as 1844 that the -American commissioner, Caleb Cushing, taking advantage of the British -Opium War on China, negotiated with the Celestial Empire a successful -commercial treaty? Did he not then exultantly exclaim: "The laws of the -Union follow its citizens and its banner protects them even within the -domain of the Chinese Empire"? Was it not almost half a century before -the battle of Manila Bay in 1898, that Commodore Perry with an adequate -naval force "gently coerced Japan into friendship with us," leading all -the nations of the earth in the opening of that empire to the trade of -the Occident? Nor is it inappropriate in this connection to recall the -fact that the Monroe Doctrine celebrates in 1923 its hundredth -anniversary. - - -AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS (1865-98) - -=French Intrigues in Mexico Blocked.=--Between the war for the union and -the war with Spain, the Department of State had many an occasion to -present the rights of America among the powers of the world. Only a -little while after the civil conflict came to a close, it was called -upon to deal with a dangerous situation created in Mexico by the -ambitions of Napoleon III. During the administration of Buchanan, Mexico -had fallen into disorder through the strife of the Liberal and the -Clerical parties; the President asked for authority to use American -troops to bring to a peaceful haven "a wreck upon the ocean, drifting -about as she is impelled by different factions." Our own domestic crisis -then intervened. - -Observing the United States heavily involved in its own problems, the -great powers, England, France, and Spain, decided in the autumn of 1861 -to take a hand themselves in restoring order in Mexico. They entered -into an agreement to enforce the claims of their citizens against Mexico -and to protect their subjects residing in that republic. They invited -the United States to join them, and, on meeting a polite refusal, they -prepared for a combined military and naval demonstration on their own -account. In the midst of this action England and Spain, discovering the -sinister purposes of Napoleon, withdrew their troops and left the field -to him. - -The French Emperor, it was well known, looked with jealousy upon the -growth of the United States and dreamed of establishing in the Western -hemisphere an imperial power to offset the American republic. -Intervention to collect debts was only a cloak for his deeper designs. -Throwing off that guise in due time, he made the Archduke Maximilian, a -brother of the ruler of Austria, emperor in Mexico, and surrounded his -throne by French soldiers, in spite of all protests. - -This insolent attack upon the Mexican republic, deeply resented in the -United States, was allowed to drift in its course until 1865. At that -juncture General Sheridan was dispatched to the Mexican border with a -large armed force; General Grant urged the use of the American army to -expel the French from this continent. The Secretary of State, Seward, -counseled negotiation first, and, applying the Monroe Doctrine, was able -to prevail upon Napoleon III to withdraw his troops. Without the support -of French arms, the sham empire in Mexico collapsed like a house of -cards and the unhappy Maximilian, the victim of French ambition and -intrigue, met his death at the hands of a Mexican firing squad. - -=Alaska Purchased.=--The Mexican affair had not been brought to a close -before the Department of State was busy with negotiations which resulted -in the purchase of Alaska from Russia. The treaty of cession, signed on -March 30, 1867, added to the United States a domain of nearly six -hundred thousand square miles, a territory larger than Texas and nearly -three-fourths the size of the Louisiana purchase. Though it was a -distant colony separated from our continental domain by a thousand miles -of water, no question of "imperialism" or "colonization foreign to -American doctrines" seems to have been raised at the time. The treaty -was ratified promptly by the Senate. The purchase price, $7,200,000, was -voted by the House of Representatives after the display of some -resentment against a system that compelled it to appropriate money to -fulfill an obligation which it had no part in making. Seward, who -formulated the treaty, rejoiced, as he afterwards said, that he had kept -Alaska out of the hands of England. - -=American Interest in the Caribbean.=--Having achieved this diplomatic -triumph, Seward turned to the increase of American power in another -direction. He negotiated, with Denmark, a treaty providing for the -purchase of the islands of St. John and St. Thomas in the West Indies, -strategic points in the Caribbean for sea power. This project, long -afterward brought to fruition by other men, was defeated on this -occasion by the refusal of the Senate to ratify the treaty. Evidently it -was not yet prepared to exercise colonial dominion over other races. - -Undaunted by the misadventure in Caribbean policies, President Grant -warmly advocated the acquisition of Santo Domingo. This little republic -had long been in a state of general disorder. In 1869 a treaty of -annexation was concluded with its president. The document Grant -transmitted to the Senate with his cordial approval, only to have it -rejected. Not at all changed in his opinion by the outcome of his -effort, he continued to urge the subject of annexation. Even in his last -message to Congress he referred to it, saying that time had only proved -the wisdom of his early course. The addition of Santo Domingo to the -American sphere of protection was the work of a later generation. The -State Department, temporarily checked, had to bide its time. - -=The _Alabama_ Claims Arbitrated.=--Indeed, it had in hand a far more -serious matter, a vexing issue that grew out of Civil War diplomacy. The -British government, as already pointed out in other connections, had -permitted Confederate cruisers, including the famous _Alabama_, built in -British ports, to escape and prey upon the commerce of the Northern -states. This action, denounced at the time by our government as a grave -breach of neutrality as well as a grievous injury to American citizens, -led first to remonstrances and finally to repeated claims for damages -done to American ships and goods. For a long time Great Britain was -firm. Her foreign secretary denied all obligations in the premises, -adding somewhat curtly that "he wished to say once for all that Her -Majesty's government disclaimed any responsibility for the losses and -hoped that they had made their position perfectly clear." Still -President Grant was not persuaded that the door of diplomacy, though -closed, was barred. Hamilton Fish, his Secretary of State, renewed the -demand. Finally he secured from the British government in 1871 the -treaty of Washington providing for the arbitration not merely of the -_Alabama_ and other claims but also all points of serious controversy -between the two countries. - -The tribunal of arbitration thus authorized sat at Geneva in -Switzerland, and after a long and careful review of the arguments on -both sides awarded to the United States the lump sum of $15,500,000 to -be distributed among the American claimants. The damages thus allowed -were large, unquestionably larger than strict justice required and it is -not surprising that the decision excited much adverse comment in -England. Nevertheless, the prompt payment by the British government -swept away at once a great cloud of ill-feeling in America. Moreover, -the spectacle of two powerful nations choosing the way of peaceful -arbitration to settle an angry dispute seemed a happy, if illusory, omen -of a modern method for avoiding the arbitrament of war. - -=Samoa.=--If the Senate had its doubts at first about the wisdom of -acquiring strategic points for naval power in distant seas, the same -could not be said of the State Department or naval officers. In 1872 -Commander Meade, of the United States navy, alive to the importance of -coaling stations even in mid-ocean, made a commercial agreement with the -chief of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands, far below the equator, in -the southern Pacific, nearer to Australia than to California. This -agreement, providing among other things for our use of the harbor of -Pago Pago as a naval base, was six years later changed into a formal -treaty ratified by the Senate. - -Such enterprise could not escape the vigilant eyes of England and -Germany, both mindful of the course of the sea power in history. The -German emperor, seizing as a pretext a quarrel between his consul in the -islands and a native king, laid claim to an interest in the Samoan -group. England, aware of the dangers arising from German outposts in the -southern seas so near to Australia, was not content to stand aside. So -it happened that all three countries sent battleships to the Samoan -waters, threatening a crisis that was fortunately averted by friendly -settlement. If, as is alleged, Germany entertained a notion of -challenging American sea power then and there, the presence of British -ships must have dispelled that dream. - -The result of the affair was a tripartite agreement by which the three -powers in 1889 undertook a protectorate over the islands. But joint -control proved unsatisfactory. There was constant friction between the -Germans and the English. The spheres of authority being vague and open -to dispute, the plan had to be abandoned at the end of ten years. -England withdrew altogether, leaving to Germany all the islands except -Tutuila, which was ceded outright to the United States. Thus one of the -finest harbors in the Pacific, to the intense delight of the American -navy, passed permanently under American dominion. Another triumph in -diplomacy was set down to the credit of the State Department. - -=Cleveland and the Venezuela Affair.=--In the relations with South -America, as well as in those with the distant Pacific, the diplomacy of -the government at Washington was put to the test. For some time it had -been watching a dispute between England and Venezuela over the western -boundary of British Guiana and, on an appeal from Venezuela, it had -taken a lively interest in the contest. In 1895 President Cleveland saw -that Great Britain would yield none of her claims. After hearing the -arguments of Venezuela, his Secretary of State, Richard T. Olney, in a -note none too conciliatory, asked the British government whether it was -willing to arbitrate the points in controversy. This inquiry he -accompanied by a warning to the effect that the United States could not -permit any European power to contest its mastery in this hemisphere. -"The United States," said the Secretary, "is practically sovereign on -this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it -confines its interposition.... Its infinite resources, combined with its -isolated position, render it master of the situation and practically -invulnerable against any or all other powers." - -The reply evoked from the British government by this strong statement -was firm and clear. The Monroe Doctrine, it said, even if not so widely -stretched by interpretation, was not binding in international law; the -dispute with Venezuela was a matter of interest merely to the parties -involved; and arbitration of the question was impossible. This response -called forth President Cleveland's startling message of 1895. He asked -Congress to create a commission authorized to ascertain by researches -the true boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. He added that it -would be the duty of this country "to resist by every means in its -power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests, the -appropriation by Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of -governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation, -we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." The serious character -of this statement he thoroughly understood. He declared that he was -conscious of his responsibilities, intimating that war, much as it was -to be deplored, was not comparable to "a supine submission to wrong and -injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and honor." - -[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND] - -The note of defiance which ran through this message, greeted by shrill -cries of enthusiasm in many circles, was viewed in other quarters as a -portent of war. Responsible newspapers in both countries spoke of an -armed settlement of the dispute as inevitable. Congress created the -commission and appropriated money for the investigation; a body of -learned men was appointed to determine the merits of the conflicting -boundary claims. The British government, deaf to the clamor of the -bellicose section of the London press, deplored the incident, -courteously replied in the affirmative to a request for assistance in -the search for evidence, and finally agreed to the proposition that the -issue be submitted to arbitration. The outcome of this somewhat perilous -dispute contributed not a little to Cleveland's reputation as "a -sterling representative of the true American spirit." This was not -diminished when the tribunal of arbitration found that Great Britain was -on the whole right in her territorial claims against Venezuela. - -=The Annexation of Hawaii.=--While engaged in the dangerous Venezuela -controversy, President Cleveland was compelled by a strange turn in -events to consider the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in the -mid-Pacific. For more than half a century American missionaries had been -active in converting the natives to the Christian faith and enterprising -American business men had been developing the fertile sugar plantations. -Both the Department of State and the Navy Department were fully -conscious of the strategic relation of the islands to the growth of sea -power and watched with anxiety any developments likely to bring them -under some other Dominion. - -The country at large was indifferent, however, until 1893, when a -revolution, headed by Americans, broke out, ending in the overthrow of -the native government, the abolition of the primitive monarchy, and the -retirement of Queen Liliuokalani to private life. This crisis, a -repetition of the Texas affair in a small theater, was immediately -followed by a demand from the new Hawaiian government for annexation to -the United States. President Harrison looked with favor on the proposal, -negotiated the treaty of annexation, and laid it before the Senate for -approval. There it still rested when his term of office was brought to a -close. - -Harrison's successor, Cleveland, it was well known, had doubts about the -propriety of American action in Hawaii. For the purpose of making an -inquiry into the matter, he sent a special commissioner to the islands. -On the basis of the report of his agent, Cleveland came to the -conclusion that "the revolution in the island kingdom had been -accomplished by the improper use of the armed forces of the United -States and that the wrong should be righted by a restoration of the -queen to her throne." Such being his matured conviction, though the -facts upon which he rested it were warmly controverted, he could do -nothing but withdraw the treaty from the Senate and close the incident. - -To the Republicans this sharp and cavalier disposal of their plans, -carried out in a way that impugned the motives of a Republican -President, was nothing less than "a betrayal of American interests." In -their platform of 1896 they made clear their position: "Our foreign -policy should be at all times firm, vigorous, and dignified and all our -interests in the Western hemisphere carefully watched and guarded. The -Hawaiian Islands should be controlled by the United States and no -foreign power should be permitted to interfere with them." There was no -mistaking this view of the issue. As the vote in the election gave -popular sanction to Republican policies, Congress by a joint resolution, -passed on July 6, 1898, annexed the islands to the United States and -later conferred upon them the ordinary territorial form of government. - - -CUBA AND THE SPANISH WAR - -=Early American Relations with Cuba.=--The year that brought Hawaii -finally under the American flag likewise drew to a conclusion another -long controversy over a similar outpost in the Atlantic, one of the last -remnants of the once glorious Spanish empire--the island of Cuba. - -For a century the Department of State had kept an anxious eye upon this -base of power, knowing full well that both France and England, already -well established in the West Indies, had their attention also fixed upon -Cuba. In the administration of President Fillmore they had united in -proposing to the United States a tripartite treaty guaranteeing Spain in -her none too certain ownership. This proposal, squarely rejected, -furnished the occasion for a statement of American policy which stood -the test of all the years that followed; namely, that the affair was one -between Spain and the United States alone. - -In that long contest in the United States for the balance of power -between the North and South, leaders in the latter section often thought -of bringing Cuba into the union to offset the free states. An -opportunity to announce their purposes publicly was afforded in 1854 by -a controversy over the seizure of an American ship by Cuban authorities. -On that occasion three American ministers abroad, stationed at Madrid, -Paris, and London respectively, held a conference and issued the -celebrated "Ostend Manifesto." They united in declaring that Cuba, by -her geographical position, formed a part of the United States, that -possession by a foreign power was inimical to American interests, and -that an effort should be made to purchase the island from Spain. In case -the owner refused to sell, they concluded, with a menacing flourish, "by -every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from -Spain if we possess the power." This startling proclamation to the world -was promptly disowned by the United States government. - -[Illustration: _=An old cartoon.=_ - -A SIGHT TOO BAD - -_Struggling Cuba._ "You must be awfully near-sighted, Mr. President, not -to recognize me." _U.S.G._ "No, I am far-sighted: for I can recognize -France."] - -=Revolutions in Cuba.=--For nearly twenty years afterwards the Cuban -question rested. Then it was revived in another form during President -Grant's administrations, when the natives became engaged in a -destructive revolt against Spanish officials. For ten years--1868-78--a -guerrilla warfare raged in the island. American citizens, by virtue of -their ancient traditions of democracy, naturally sympathized with a war -for independence and self-government. Expeditions to help the insurgents -were fitted out secretly in American ports. Arms and supplies were -smuggled into Cuba. American soldiers of fortune joined their ranks. The -enforcement of neutrality against the friends of Cuban independence, no -pleasing task for a sympathetic President, the protection of American -lives and property in the revolutionary area, and similar matters kept -our government busy with Cuba for a whole decade. - -A brief lull in Cuban disorders was followed in 1895 by a renewal of the -revolutionary movement. The contest between the rebels and the Spanish -troops, marked by extreme cruelty and a total disregard for life and -property, exceeded all bounds of decency, and once more raised the old -questions that had tormented Grant's administration. Gomez, the leader -of the revolt, intent upon provoking American interference, laid waste -the land with fire and sword. By a proclamation of November 6, 1895, he -ordered the destruction of sugar plantations and railway connections and -the closure of all sugar factories. The work of ruin was completed by -the ruthless Spanish general, Weyler, who concentrated the inhabitants -from rural regions into military camps, where they died by the hundreds -of disease and starvation. Stories of the atrocities, bad enough in -simple form, became lurid when transmuted into American news and deeply -moved the sympathies of the American people. Sermons were preached about -Spanish misdeeds; orators demanded that the Cubans be sustained "in -their heroic struggle for independence"; newspapers, scouting the -ordinary forms of diplomatic negotiation, spurned mediation and demanded -intervention and war if necessary. - -[Illustration: _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -CUBAN REVOLUTIONISTS] - -=President Cleveland's Policy.=--Cleveland chose the way of peace. He -ordered the observance of the rule of neutrality. He declined to act on -a resolution of Congress in favor of giving to the Cubans the rights of -belligerents. Anxious to bring order to the distracted island, he -tendered to Spain the good offices of the United States as mediator in -the contest--a tender rejected by the Spanish government with the broad -hint that President Cleveland might be more vigorous in putting a stop -to the unlawful aid in money, arms, and supplies, afforded to the -insurgents by American sympathizers. Thereupon the President returned to -the course he had marked out for himself, leaving "the public nuisance" -to his successor, President McKinley. - -=Republican Policies.=--The Republicans in 1897 found themselves in a -position to employ that "firm, vigorous, and dignified" foreign policy -which they had approved in their platform. They had declared: "The -government of Spain having lost control of Cuba and being unable to -protect the property or lives of resident American citizens or to comply -with its treaty obligations, we believe that the government of the -United States should actively use its influence and good offices to -restore peace and give independence to the island." The American -property in Cuba to which the Republicans referred in their platform -amounted by this time to more than fifty million dollars; the commerce -with the island reached more than one hundred millions annually; and the -claims of American citizens against Spain for property destroyed totaled -sixteen millions. To the pleas of humanity which made such an effective -appeal to the hearts of the American people, there were thus added -practical considerations of great weight. - -=President McKinley Negotiates.=--In the face of the swelling tide of -popular opinion in favor of quick, drastic, and positive action, -McKinley chose first the way of diplomacy. A short time after his -inauguration he lodged with the Spanish government a dignified protest -against its policies in Cuba, thus opening a game of thrust and parry -with the suave ministers at Madrid. The results of the exchange of -notes were the recall of the obnoxious General Weyler, the appointment -of a governor-general less bloodthirsty in his methods, a change in the -policy of concentrating civilians in military camps, and finally a -promise of "home rule" for Cuba. There is no doubt that the Spanish -government was eager to avoid a war that could have but one outcome. The -American minister at Madrid, General Woodford, was convinced that firm -and patient pressure would have resulted in the final surrender of Cuba -by the Spanish government. - -=The De Lome and the _Maine_ Incidents.=--Such a policy was defeated by -events. In February, 1898, a private letter written by Senor de Lome, -the Spanish ambassador at Washington, expressing contempt for the -President of the United States, was filched from the mails and passed -into the hands of a journalist, William R. Hearst, who published it to -the world. In the excited state of American opinion, few gave heed to -the grave breach of diplomatic courtesy committed by breaking open -private correspondence. The Spanish government was compelled to recall -De Lome, thus officially condemning his conduct. - -At this point a far more serious crisis put the pacific relations of the -two negotiating countries in dire peril. On February 15, the battleship -_Maine_, riding in the harbor of Havana, was blown up and sunk, carrying -to death two officers and two hundred and fifty-eight members of the -crew. This tragedy, ascribed by the American public to the malevolence -of Spanish officials, profoundly stirred an already furious nation. -When, on March 21, a commission of inquiry reported that the ill-fated -ship had been blown up by a submarine mine which had in turn set off -some of the ship's magazines, the worst suspicions seemed confirmed. If -any one was inclined to be indifferent to the Cuban war for -independence, he was now met by the vehement cry: "Remember the -_Maine_!" - -=Spanish Concessions.=--Still the State Department, under McKinley's -steady hand, pursued the path of negotiation, Spain proving more pliable -and more ready with promises of reform in the island. Early in April, -however, there came a decided change in the tenor of American diplomacy. -On the 4th, McKinley, evidently convinced that promises did not mean -performances, instructed our minister at Madrid to warn the Spanish -government that as no effective armistice had been offered to the -Cubans, he would lay the whole matter before Congress. This decision, -every one knew, from the temper of Congress, meant war--a prospect which -excited all the European powers. The Pope took an active interest in the -crisis. France and Germany, foreseeing from long experience in world -politics an increase of American power and prestige through war, sought -to prevent it. Spain, hopeless and conscious of her weakness, at last -dispatched to the President a note promising to suspend hostilities, to -call a Cuban parliament, and to grant all the autonomy that could be -reasonably asked. - -=President McKinley Calls for War.=--For reasons of his own--reasons -which have never yet been fully explained--McKinley ignored the final -program of concessions presented by Spain. At the very moment when his -patient negotiations seemed to bear full fruit, he veered sharply from -his course and launched the country into the war by sending to Congress -his militant message of April 11, 1898. Without making public the last -note he had received from Spain, he declared that he was brought to the -end of his effort and the cause was in the hands of Congress. Humanity, -the protection of American citizens and property, the injuries to -American commerce and business, the inability of Spain to bring about -permanent peace in the island--these were the grounds for action that -induced him to ask for authority to employ military and naval forces in -establishing a stable government in Cuba. They were sufficient for a -public already straining at the leash. - -=The Resolution of Congress.=--There was no doubt of the outcome when -the issue was withdrawn from diplomacy and placed in charge of Congress. -Resolutions were soon introduced into the House of Representatives -authorizing the President to employ armed force in securing peace and -order in the island and "establishing by the free action of the people -thereof a stable and independent government of their own." To the form -and spirit of this proposal the Democrats and Populists took exception. -In the Senate, where they were stronger, their position had to be -reckoned with by the narrow Republican majority. As the resolution -finally read, the independence of Cuba was recognized; Spain was called -upon to relinquish her authority and withdraw from the island; and the -President was empowered to use force to the extent necessary to carry -the resolutions into effect. Furthermore the United States disclaimed -"any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or -control over said island except for the pacification thereof." Final -action was taken by Congress on April 19, 1898, and approved by the -President on the following day. - -=War and Victory.=--Startling events then followed in swift succession. -The navy, as a result in no small measure of the alertness of Theodore -Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Department, was ready for the -trial by battle. On May 1, Commodore Dewey at Manila Bay shattered the -Spanish fleet, marking the doom of Spanish dominion in the Philippines. -On July 3, the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, in attempting to -escape from Havana, was utterly destroyed by American forces under -Commodore Schley. On July 17, Santiago, invested by American troops -under General Shafter and shelled by the American ships, gave up the -struggle. On July 25 General Miles landed in Porto Rico. On August 13, -General Merritt and Admiral Dewey carried Manila by storm. The war was -over. - -=The Peace Protocol.=--Spain had already taken cognizance of stern -facts. As early as July 26, 1898, acting through the French ambassador, -M. Cambon, the Madrid government approached President McKinley for a -statement of the terms on which hostilities could be brought to a close. -After some skirmishing Spain yielded reluctantly to the ultimatum. On -August 12, the preliminary peace protocol was signed, stipulating that -Cuba should be free, Porto Rico ceded to the United States, and Manila -occupied by American troops pending the formal treaty of peace. On -October 1, the commissioners of the two countries met at Paris to bring -about the final settlement. - -=Peace Negotiations.=--When the day for the first session of the -conference arrived, the government at Washington apparently had not made -up its mind on the final disposition of the Philippines. Perhaps, before -the battle of Manila Bay, not ten thousand people in the United States -knew or cared where the Philippines were. Certainly there was in the -autumn of 1898 no decided opinion as to what should be done with the -fruits of Dewey's victory. President McKinley doubtless voiced the -sentiment of the people when he stated to the peace commissioners on the -eve of their departure that there had originally been no thought of -conquest in the Pacific. - -The march of events, he added, had imposed new duties on the country. -"Incidental to our tenure in the Philippines," he said, "is the -commercial opportunity to which American statesmanship cannot be -indifferent. It is just to use every legitimate means for the -enlargement of American trade." On this ground he directed the -commissioners to accept not less than the cession of the island of -Luzon, the chief of the Philippine group, with its harbor of Manila. It -was not until the latter part of October that he definitely instructed -them to demand the entire archipelago, on the theory that the occupation -of Luzon alone could not be justified "on political, commercial, or -humanitarian grounds." This departure from the letter of the peace -protocol was bitterly resented by the Spanish agents. It was with -heaviness of heart that they surrendered the last sign of Spain's -ancient dominion in the far Pacific. - -=The Final Terms of Peace.=--The treaty of peace, as finally agreed -upon, embraced the following terms: the independence of Cuba; the -cession of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States; -the settlement of claims filed by the citizens of both countries; the -payment of twenty million dollars to Spain by the United States for the -Philippines; and the determination of the status of the inhabitants of -the ceded territories by Congress. The great decision had been made. Its -issue was in the hands of the Senate where the Democrats and the -Populists held the balance of power under the requirement of the -two-thirds vote for ratification. - -=The Contest in America over the Treaty of Peace.=--The publication of -the treaty committing the United States to the administration of distant -colonies directed the shifting tides of public opinion into two distinct -channels: support of the policy and opposition to it. The trend in -Republican leadership, long in the direction marked out by the treaty, -now came into the open. Perhaps a majority of the men highest in the -councils of that party had undergone the change of heart reflected in -the letters of John Hay, Secretary of State. In August of 1898 he had -hinted, in a friendly letter to Andrew Carnegie, that he sympathized -with the latter's opposition to "imperialism"; but he had added quickly: -"The only question in my mind is how far it is now possible for us to -withdraw from the Philippines." In November of the same year he wrote to -Whitelaw Reid, one of the peace commissioners at Paris: "There is a wild -and frantic attack now going on in the press against the whole -Philippine transaction. Andrew Carnegie really seems to be off his -head.... But all this confusion of tongues will go its way. The country -will applaud the resolution that has been reached and you will return in -the role of conquering heroes with your 'brows bound with oak.'" - -Senator Beveridge of Indiana and Senator Platt of Connecticut, accepting -the verdict of history as the proof of manifest destiny, called for -unquestioning support of the administration in its final step. "Every -expansion of our territory," said the latter, "has been in accordance -with the irresistible law of growth. We could no more resist the -successive expansions by which we have grown to be the strongest nation -on earth than a tree can resist its growth. The history of territorial -expansion is the history of our nation's progress and glory. It is a -matter to be proud of, not to lament. We should rejoice that Providence -has given us the opportunity to extend our influence, our institutions, -and our civilization into regions hitherto closed to us, rather than -contrive how we can thwart its designs." - -This doctrine was savagely attacked by opponents of McKinley's policy, -many a stanch Republican joining with the majority of Democrats in -denouncing the treaty as a departure from the ideals of the republic. -Senator Vest introduced in the Senate a resolution that "under the -Constitution of the United States, no power is given to the federal -Government to acquire territory to be held and governed permanently as -colonies." Senator Hoar, of Massachusetts, whose long and honorable -career gave weight to his lightest words, inveighed against the whole -procedure and to the end of his days believed that the new drift into -rivalry with European nations as a colonial power was fraught with -genuine danger. "Our imperialistic friends," he said, "seem to have -forgotten the use of the vocabulary of liberty. They talk about giving -good government. 'We shall give them such a government as we think they -are fitted for.' 'We shall give them a better government than they had -before.' Why, Mr. President, that one phrase conveys to a free man and a -free people the most stinging of insults. In that little phrase, as in a -seed, is contained the germ of all despotism and of all tyranny. -Government is not a gift. Free government is not to be given by all the -blended powers of earth and heaven. It is a birthright. It belongs, as -our fathers said, and as their children said, as Jefferson said, and as -President McKinley said, to human nature itself." - -The Senate, more conservative on the question of annexation than the -House of Representatives composed of men freshly elected in the stirring -campaign of 1896, was deliberate about ratification of the treaty. The -Democrats and Populists were especially recalcitrant. Mr. Bryan hurried -to Washington and brought his personal influence to bear in favor of -speedy action. Patriotism required ratification, it was said in one -quarter. The country desires peace and the Senate ought not to delay, it -was urged in another. Finally, on February 6, 1899, the requisite -majority of two-thirds was mustered, many a Senator who voted for the -treaty, however, sharing the misgivings of Senator Hoar as to the -"dangers of imperialism." Indeed at the time, the Senators passed a -resolution declaring that the policy to be adopted in the Philippines -was still an open question, leaving to the future, in this way, the -possibility of retracing their steps. - -=The Attitude of England.=--The Spanish war, while accomplishing the -simple objects of those who launched the nation on that course, like all -other wars, produced results wholly unforeseen. In the first place, it -exercised a profound influence on the drift of opinion among European -powers. In England, sympathy with the United States was from the first -positive and outspoken. "The state of feeling here," wrote Mr. Hay, then -ambassador in London, "is the best I have ever known. From every quarter -the evidences of it come to me. The royal family by habit and tradition -are most careful not to break the rules of strict neutrality, but even -among them I find nothing but hearty kindness and--so far as is -consistent with propriety--sympathy. Among the political leaders on both -sides I find not only sympathy but a somewhat eager desire that 'the -other fellows' shall not seem more friendly." - -Joseph Chamberlain, the distinguished Liberal statesman, thinking no -doubt of the continental situation, said in a political address at the -very opening of the war that the next duty of Englishmen "is to -establish and maintain bonds of permanent unity with our kinsmen across -the Atlantic.... I even go so far as to say that, terrible as war may -be, even war would be cheaply purchased if, in a great and noble cause, -the Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack should wave together over an -Anglo-Saxon alliance." To the American ambassador he added -significantly that he did not "care a hang what they say about it on the -continent," which was another way of expressing the hope that the -warning to Germany and France was sufficient. This friendly English -opinion, so useful to the United States when a combination of powers to -support Spain was more than possible, removed all fears as to the -consequences of the war. Henry Adams, recalling days of humiliation in -London during the Civil War, when his father was the American -ambassador, coolly remarked that it was "the sudden appearance of -Germany as the grizzly terror" that "frightened England into America's -arms"; but the net result in keeping the field free for an easy triumph -of American arms was none the less appreciated in Washington where, -despite outward calm, fears of European complications were never absent. - - -AMERICAN POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES AND THE ORIENT - -=The Filipino Revolt against American Rule.=--In the sphere of domestic -politics, as well as in the field of foreign relations, the outcome of -the Spanish war exercised a marked influence. It introduced at once -problems of colonial administration and difficulties in adjusting trade -relations with the outlying dominions. These were furthermore -complicated in the very beginning by the outbreak of an insurrection -against American sovereignty in the Philippines. The leader of the -revolt, Aguinaldo, had been invited to join the American forces in -overthrowing Spanish dominion, and he had assumed, apparently without -warrant, that independence would be the result of the joint operations. -When the news reached him that the American flag had been substituted -for the Spanish flag, his resentment was keen. In February, 1899, there -occurred a slight collision between his men and some American soldiers. -The conflict thus begun was followed by serious fighting which finally -dwindled into a vexatious guerrilla warfare lasting three years and -costing heavily in men and money. Atrocities were committed by the -native insurrectionists and, sad to relate, they were repaid in kind; -it was argued in defense of the army that the ordinary rules of warfare -were without terror to men accustomed to fighting like savages. In vain -did McKinley assure the Filipinos that the institutions and laws -established in the islands would be designed "not for our satisfaction -or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, -peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands." Nothing -short of military pressure could bring the warring revolutionists to -terms. - -=Attacks on Republican "Imperialism."=--The Filipino insurrection, -following so quickly upon the ratification of the treaty with Spain, -moved the American opponents of McKinley's colonial policies to redouble -their denunciation of what they were pleased to call "imperialism." -Senator Hoar was more than usually caustic in his indictment of the new -course. The revolt against American rule did but convince him of the -folly hidden in the first fateful measures. Everywhere he saw a -conspiracy of silence and injustice. "I have failed to discover in the -speeches, public or private, of the advocates of this war," he contended -in the Senate, "or in the press which supports it and them, a single -expression anywhere of a desire to do justice to the people of the -Philippine Islands, or of a desire to make known to the people of the -United States the truth of the case.... The catchwords, the cries, the -pithy and pregnant phrases of which their speech is full, all mean -dominion. They mean perpetual dominion.... There is not one of these -gentlemen who will rise in his place and affirm that if he were a -Filipino he would not do exactly as the Filipinos are doing; that he -would not despise them if they were to do otherwise. So much at least -they owe of respect to the dead and buried history--the dead and buried -history so far as they can slay and bury it--of their country." In the -way of practical suggestions, the Senator offered as a solution of the -problem: the recognition of independence, assistance in establishing -self-government, and an invitation to all powers to join in a guarantee -of freedom to the islands. - -=The Republican Answer.=--To McKinley and his supporters, engaged in a -sanguinary struggle to maintain American supremacy, such talk was more -than quixotic; it was scarcely short of treasonable. They pointed out -the practical obstacles in the way of uniform self-government for a -collection of seven million people ranging in civilization from the most -ignorant hill men to the highly cultivated inhabitants of Manila. The -incidents of the revolt and its repression, they admitted, were painful -enough; but still nothing as compared with the chaos that would follow -the attempt of a people who had never had experience in such matters to -set up and sustain democratic institutions. They preferred rather the -gradual process of fitting the inhabitants of the islands for -self-government. This course, in their eyes, though less poetic, was -more in harmony with the ideals of humanity. Having set out upon it, -they pursued it steadfastly to the end. First, they applied force -without stint to the suppression of the revolt. Then they devoted such -genius for colonial administration as they could command to the -development of civil government, commerce, and industry. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A PHILIPPINE HOME] - -=The Boxer Rebellion in China.=--For a nation with a world-wide trade, -steadily growing, as the progress of home industries redoubled the zeal -for new markets, isolation was obviously impossible. Never was this -clearer than in 1900 when a native revolt against foreigners in China, -known as the Boxer uprising, compelled the United States to join with -the powers of Europe in a military expedition and a diplomatic -settlement. The Boxers, a Chinese association, had for some time carried -on a campaign of hatred against all aliens in the Celestial empire, -calling upon the natives to rise in patriotic wrath and drive out the -foreigners who, they said, "were lacerating China like tigers." In the -summer of 1900 the revolt flamed up in deeds of cruelty. Missionaries -and traders were murdered in the provinces; foreign legations were -stoned; the German ambassador, one of the most cordially despised -foreigners, was killed in the streets of Peking; and to all appearances -a frightful war of extermination had begun. In the month of June nearly -five hundred men, women, and children, representing all nations, were -besieged in the British quarters in Peking under constant fire of -Chinese guns and in peril of a terrible death. - -=Intervention in China.=--Nothing but the arrival of armed forces, made -up of Japanese, Russian, British, American, French, and German soldiers -and marines, prevented the destruction of the beleaguered aliens. When -once the foreign troops were in possession of the Chinese capital, -diplomatic questions of the most delicate character arose. For more than -half a century, the imperial powers of Europe had been carving up the -Chinese empire, taking to themselves territory, railway concessions, -mining rights, ports, and commercial privileges at the expense of the -huge but helpless victim. The United States alone among the great -nations, while as zealous as any in the pursuit of peaceful trade, had -refrained from seizing Chinese territory or ports. Moreover, the -Department of State had been urging European countries to treat China -with fairness, to respect her territorial integrity, and to give her -equal trading privileges with all nations. - -=The American Policy of the "Open Door."=--In the autumn of 1899, -Secretary Hay had addressed to London, Berlin, Rome, Paris, Tokyo, and -St. Petersburg his famous note on the "open door" policy in China. In -this document he proposed that existing treaty ports and vested -interests of the several foreign countries should be respected; that -the Chinese government should be permitted to extend its tariffs to all -ports held by alien powers except the few free ports; and that there -should be no discrimination in railway and port charges among the -citizens of foreign countries operating in the empire. To these -principles the governments addressed by Mr. Hay, finally acceded with -evident reluctance. - -[Illustration: AMERICAN DOMINIONS IN THE PACIFIC] - -On this basis he then proposed the settlement that had to follow the -Boxer uprising. "The policy of the Government of the United States," he -said to the great powers, in the summer of 1900, "is to seek a solution -which may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve -Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights -guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and -safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with -all parts of the Chinese empire." This was a friendly warning to the -world that the United States would not join in a scramble to punish the -Chinese by carving out more territory. "The moment we acted," said Mr. -Hay, "the rest of the world paused and finally came over to our ground; -and the German government, which is generally brutal but seldom silly, -recovered its senses, and climbed down off its perch." - -In taking this position, the Secretary of State did but reflect the -common sense of America. "We are, of course," he explained, "opposed to -the dismemberment of that empire and we do not think that the public -opinion of the United States would justify this government in taking -part in the great game of spoliation now going on." Heavy damages were -collected by the European powers from China for the injuries inflicted -upon their citizens by the Boxers; but the United States, finding the -sum awarded in excess of the legitimate claims, returned the balance in -the form of a fund to be applied to the education of Chinese students in -American universities. "I would rather be, I think," said Mr. Hay, "the -dupe of China than the chum of the Kaiser." By pursuing a liberal -policy, he strengthened the hold of the United States upon the -affections of the Chinese people and, in the long run, as he remarked -himself, safeguarded "our great commercial interests in that Empire." - -=Imperialism in the Presidential Campaign of 1900.=--It is not strange -that the policy pursued by the Republican administration in disposing of -the questions raised by the Spanish War became one of the first issues -in the presidential campaign of 1900. Anticipating attacks from every -quarter, the Republicans, in renominating McKinley, set forth their -position in clear and ringing phrases: "In accepting by the treaty of -Paris the just responsibility of our victories in the Spanish War the -President and Senate won the undoubted approval of the American people. -No other course was possible than to destroy Spain's sovereignty -throughout the West Indies and in the Philippine Islands. That course -created our responsibility, before the world and with the unorganized -population whom our intervention had freed from Spain, to provide for -the maintenance of law and order, and for the establishment of good -government and for the performance of international obligations. Our -authority could not be less than our responsibility, and wherever -sovereign rights were extended it became the high duty of the government -to maintain its authority, to put down armed insurrection, and to confer -the blessings of liberty and civilization upon all the rescued peoples. -The largest measure of self-government consistent with their welfare and -our duties shall be secured to them by law." To give more strength to -their ticket, the Republican convention, in a whirlwind of enthusiasm, -nominated for the vice presidency, against his protest, Theodore -Roosevelt, the governor of New York and the hero of the Rough Riders, so -popular on account of their Cuban campaign. - -The Democrats, as expected, picked up the gauntlet thrown down with such -defiance by the Republicans. Mr. Bryan, whom they selected as their -candidate, still clung to the currency issue; but the main emphasis, -both of the platform and the appeal for votes, was on the "imperialistic -program" of the Republican administration. The Democrats denounced the -treatment of Cuba and Porto Rico and condemned the Philippine policy in -sharp and vigorous terms. "As we are not willing," ran the platform, "to -surrender our civilization or to convert the Republic into an empire, we -favor an immediate declaration of the Nation's purpose to give to the -Filipinos, first, a stable form of government; second, independence; -third, protection from outside interference.... The greedy commercialism -which dictated the Philippine policy of the Republican administration -attempts to justify it with the plea that it will pay, but even this -sordid and unworthy plea fails when brought to the test of facts. The -war of 'criminal aggression' against the Filipinos entailing an annual -expense of many millions has already cost more than any possible profit -that could accrue from the entire Philippine trade for years to come.... -We oppose militarism. It means conquest abroad and intimidation and -oppression at home. It means the strong arm which has ever been fatal to -free institutions. It is what millions of our citizens have fled from in -Europe. It will impose upon our peace-loving people a large standing -army, an unnecessary burden of taxation, and would be a constant menace -to their liberties." Such was the tenor of their appeal to the voters. - -With the issues clearly joined, the country rejected the Democratic -candidate even more positively than four years before. The popular vote -cast for McKinley was larger and that cast for Bryan smaller than in the -silver election. Thus vindicated at the polls, McKinley turned with -renewed confidence to the development of the policies he had so far -advanced. But fate cut short his designs. In the September following his -second inauguration, he was shot by an anarchist while attending the -Buffalo exposition. "What a strange and tragic fate it has been of -mine," wrote the Secretary of State, John Hay, on the day of the -President's death, "to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends, -Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen -to the head of the state and all done to death by assassins." On -September 14, 1901, the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, took up the -lines of power that had fallen from the hands of his distinguished -chief, promising to continue "absolutely unbroken" the policies he had -inherited. - - -SUMMARY OF NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS - -The economic aspects of the period between 1865 and 1900 may be readily -summed up: the recovery of the South from the ruin of the Civil War, the -extension of the railways, the development of the Great West, and the -triumph of industry and business enterprise. In the South many of the -great plantations were broken up and sold in small farms, crops were -diversified, the small farming class was raised in the scale of social -importance, the cotton industry was launched, and the coal, iron, -timber, and other resources were brought into use. In the West the free -arable land was practically exhausted by 1890 under the terms of the -Homestead Act; gold, silver, copper, coal and other minerals were -discovered in abundance; numerous rail connections were formed with the -Atlantic seaboard; the cowboy and the Indian were swept away before a -standardized civilization of electric lights and bathtubs. By the end of -the century the American frontier had disappeared. The wild, primitive -life so long associated with America was gone. The unity of the nation -was established. - -In the field of business enterprise, progress was most marked. The -industrial system, which had risen and flourished before the Civil War, -grew into immense proportions and the industrial area was extended from -the Northeast into all parts of the country. Small business concerns -were transformed into huge corporations. Individual plants were merged -under the management of gigantic trusts. Short railway lines were -consolidated into national systems. The industrial population of -wage-earners rose into the tens of millions. The immigration of aliens -increased by leaps and bounds. The cities overshadowed the country. The -nation that had once depended upon Europe for most of its manufactured -goods became a competitor of Europe in the markets of the earth. - -In the sphere of politics, the period witnessed the recovery of white -supremacy in the South; the continued discussion of the old questions, -such as the currency, the tariff, and national banking; and the -injection of new issues like the trusts and labor problems. As of old, -foreign affairs were kept well at the front. Alaska was purchased from -Russia; attempts were made to extend American influence in the Caribbean -region; a Samoan island was brought under the flag; and the Hawaiian -islands were annexed. The Monroe Doctrine was applied with vigor in the -dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain. - -Assistance was given to the Cubans in their revolutionary struggle -against Spain and thus there was precipitated a war which ended in the -annexation of Porto Rico and the Philippines. American influence in the -Pacific and the Orient was so enlarged as to be a factor of great weight -in world affairs. Thus questions connected with foreign and "imperial" -policies were united with domestic issues to make up the warp and woof -of politics. In the direction of affairs, the Republicans took the -leadership, for they held the presidency during all the years, except -eight, between 1865 and 1900. - - -=References= - -J.W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_; _American Diplomacy in -the Orient_. - -W.F. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_. - -J.H. Latane, _The United States and Spanish America_. - -A.C. Coolidge, _United States as a World Power_. - -A.T. Mahan, _Interest of the United States in the Sea Power_. - -F.E. Chadwick, _Spanish-American War_. - -D.C. Worcester, _The Philippine Islands and Their People_. - -M.M. Kalaw, _Self-Government in the Philippines_. - -L.S. Rowe, _The United States and Porto Rico_. - -F.E. Chadwick, _The Relations of the United States and Spain_. - -W.R. Shepherd, _Latin America_; _Central and South America_. - - -=Questions= - -1. Tell the story of the international crisis that developed soon after -the Civil War with regard to Mexico. - -2. Give the essential facts relating to the purchase of Alaska. - -3. Review the early history of our interest in the Caribbean. - -4. Amid what circumstances was the Monroe Doctrine applied in -Cleveland's administration? - -5. Give the causes that led to the war with Spain. - -6. Tell the leading events in that war. - -7. What was the outcome as far as Cuba was concerned? The outcome for -the United States? - -8. Discuss the attitude of the Filipinos toward American sovereignty in -the islands. - -9. Describe McKinley's colonial policy. - -10. How was the Spanish War viewed in England? On the Continent? - -11. Was there a unified American opinion on American expansion? - -12. Was this expansion a departure from our traditions? - -13. What events led to foreign intervention in China? - -14. Explain the policy of the "open door." - - -=Research Topics= - -=Hawaii and Venezuela.=--Dewey, _National Problems_ (American Nation -Series), pp. 279-313; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 600-602; -Hart, _American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 612-616. - -=Intervention in Cuba.=--Latane, _America as a World Power_ (American -Nation Series), pp. 3-28; Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. -597-598; Roosevelt, _Autobiography_, pp. 223-277; Haworth, _The United -States in Our Own Time_, pp. 232-256; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, -pp. 573-578. - -=The War with Spain.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. -889-896. - -=Terms of Peace with Spain.=--Latane, pp. 63-81; Macdonald, pp. 602-608; -Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 588-590. - -=The Philippine Insurrection.=--Latane, pp. 82-99. - -=Imperialism as a Campaign Issue.=--Latane, pp. 120-132; Haworth, pp. -257-277; Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. IV, pp. 604-611. - -=Biographical Studies.=--William McKinley, M.A. Hanna, John Hay; -Admirals, George Dewey, W.T. Sampson, and W.S. Schley; and Generals, -W.R. Shafter, Joseph Wheeler, and H.W. Lawton. - -=General Analysis of American Expansion.=--_Syllabus in History_ (New -York State, 1920), pp. 142-147. - - - - -PART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-13) - - -=The Personality and Early Career of Roosevelt.=--On September 14, 1901, -when Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office, the presidency passed -to a new generation and a leader of a new type recalling, if comparisons -must be made, Andrew Jackson rather than any Republican predecessor. -Roosevelt was brusque, hearty, restless, and fond of action--"a young -fellow of infinite dash and originality," as John Hay remarked of him; -combining the spirit of his old college, Harvard, with the breezy -freedom of the plains; interested in everything--a new species of game, -a new book, a diplomatic riddle, or a novel theory of history or -biology. Though only forty-three years old he was well versed in the art -of practical politics. Coming upon the political scene in the early -eighties, he had associated himself with the reformers in the Republican -party; but he was no Mugwump. From the first he vehemently preached the -doctrine of party loyalty; if beaten in the convention, he voted the -straight ticket in the election. For twenty years he adhered to this -rule and during a considerable portion of that period he held office as -a spokesman of his party. He served in the New York legislature, as head -of the metropolitan police force, as federal civil service commissioner -under President Harrison, as assistant secretary of the navy under -President McKinley, and as governor of the Empire state. Political -managers of the old school spoke of him as "brilliant but erratic"; they -soon found him equal to the shrewdest in negotiation and action. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -ROOSEVELT TALKING TO THE ENGINEER OF A RAILROAD TRAIN] - - -FOREIGN AFFAIRS - -=The Panama Canal.=--The most important foreign question confronting -President Roosevelt on the day of his inauguration, that of the Panama -Canal, was a heritage from his predecessor. The idea of a water route -across the isthmus, long a dream of navigators, had become a living -issue after the historic voyage of the battleship _Oregon_ around South -America during the Spanish War. But before the United States could act -it had to undo the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made with Great Britain in -1850, providing for the construction of the canal under joint -supervision. This was finally effected by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of -1901 authorizing the United States to proceed alone, on condition that -there should be no discriminations against other nations in the matter -of rates and charges. - -This accomplished, it was necessary to decide just where the canal -should be built. One group in Congress favored the route through -Nicaragua; in fact, two official commissions had already approved that -location. Another group favored cutting the way through Panama after -purchasing the rights of the old French company which, under the -direction of De Lesseps, the hero of the Suez Canal, had made a costly -failure some twenty years before. After a heated argument over the -merits of the two plans, preference was given to the Panama route. As -the isthmus was then a part of Colombia, President Roosevelt proceeded -to negotiate with the government at Bogota a treaty authorizing the -United States to cut a canal through its territory. The treaty was -easily framed, but it was rejected by the Colombian senate, much to the -President's exasperation. "You could no more make an agreement with the -Colombian rulers," he exclaimed, "than you could nail jelly to a wall." -He was spared the necessity by a timely revolution. On November 3, 1903, -Panama renounced its allegiance to Colombia and three days later the -United States recognized its independence. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Panama Canal, Washington, D.C._ - -DEEPEST EXCAVATED PORTION OF PANAMA CANAL, SHOWING GOLD HILL ON -RIGHT AND CONTRACTOR'S HILL ON LEFT. JUNE, 1913] - -This amazing incident was followed shortly by the signature of a treaty -between Panama and the United States in which the latter secured the -right to construct the long-discussed canal, in return for a guarantee -of independence and certain cash payments. The rights and property of -the French concern were then bought, and the final details settled. A -lock rather than a sea-level canal was agreed upon. Construction by the -government directly instead of by private contractors was adopted. -Scientific medicine was summoned to stamp out the tropical diseases -that had made Panama a plague spot. Finally, in 1904, as the President -said, "the dirt began to fly." After surmounting formidable -difficulties--engineering, labor, and sanitary--the American forces in -1913 joined the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific. Nearly eight -thousand miles were cut off the sea voyage from New York to San -Francisco. If any were inclined to criticize President Roosevelt for -the way in which he snapped off negotiations with Colombia and -recognized the Panama revolutionists, their attention was drawn to the -magnificent outcome of the affair. Notwithstanding the treaty with Great -Britain, Congress passed a tolls bill discriminating in rates in favor -of American ships. It was only on the urgent insistence of President -Wilson that the measure was later repealed. - -=The Conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War.=--The applause which greeted -the President's next diplomatic stroke was unmarred by censure of any -kind. In the winter of 1904 there broke out between Japan and Russia a -terrible conflict over the division of spoils in Manchuria. The fortunes -of war were with the agile forces of Nippon. In this struggle, it seems, -President Roosevelt's sympathies were mainly with the Japanese, although -he observed the proprieties of neutrality. At all events, Secretary Hay -wrote in his diary on New Year's Day, 1905, that the President was -"quite firm in his view that we cannot permit Japan to be robbed a -second time of her victory," referring to the fact that Japan, ten years -before, after defeating China on the field of battle, had been forced by -Russia, Germany, and France to forego the fruits of conquest. - -Whatever the President's personal feelings may have been, he was aware -that Japan, despite her triumphs over Russia, was staggering under a -heavy burden of debt. At a suggestion from Tokyo, he invited both -belligerents in the summer of 1905 to join in a peace conference. The -celerity of their reply was aided by the pressure of European bankers, -who had already come to a substantial agreement that the war must stop. -After some delay, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was chosen as the meeting -place for the spokesmen of the two warring powers. Roosevelt presided -over the opening ceremonies with fine urbanity, thoroughly enjoying the -justly earned honor of being for the moment at the center of the world's -interest. He had the satisfaction of seeing the conference end in a -treaty of peace and amity. - -=The Monroe Doctrine Applied to Germany.=--Less spectacular than the -Russo-Japanese settlement but not less important was a diplomatic -passage-at-arms with Germany over the Monroe Doctrine. This clash grew -out of the inability or unwillingness of the Venezuelan government to -pay debts due foreign creditors. Having exhausted their patience in -negotiations, England and Germany, in December 1901, sent battleships to -establish what they characterized as "a peaceful blockade" of Venezuelan -ports. Their action was followed by the rupture of diplomatic relations; -there was a possibility that war and the occupation of Venezuelan -territory might result. - -While unwilling to stand between a Latin-American country and its -creditors, President Roosevelt was determined that debt collecting -should not be made an excuse for European countries to seize territory. -He therefore urged arbitration of the dispute, winning the assent of -England and Italy. Germany, with a somewhat haughty air, refused to take -the milder course. The President, learning of this refusal, called the -German ambassador to the White House and informed him in very precise -terms that, unless the Imperial German Government consented to -arbitrate, Admiral Dewey would be ordered to the scene with instructions -to prevent Germany from seizing any Venezuelan territory. A week passed -and no answer came from Berlin. Not baffled, the President again took -the matter up with the ambassador, this time with even more firmness; he -stated in language admitting of but one meaning that, unless within -forty-eight hours the Emperor consented to arbitration, American -battleships, already coaled and cleared, would sail for Venezuelan -waters. The hint was sufficient. The Kaiser accepted the proposal and -the President, with the fine irony of diplomacy, complimented him -publicly on "being so stanch an advocate of arbitration." In terms of -the Monroe Doctrine this action meant that the United States, while not -denying the obligations of debtors, would not permit any move on the -part of European powers that might easily lead to the temporary or -permanent occupation of Latin-American territory. - -=The Santo Domingo Affair.=--The same issue was involved in a -controversy over Santo Domingo which arose in 1904. The Dominican -republic, like Venezuela, was heavily in debt, and certain European -countries declared that, unless the United States undertook to look -after the finances of the embarrassed debtor, they would resort to armed -coercion. What was the United States to do? The danger of having some -European power strongly intrenched in Santo Domingo was too imminent to -be denied. President Roosevelt acted with characteristic speed, and -notwithstanding strong opposition in the Senate was able, in 1907, to -effect a treaty arrangement which placed Dominican finances under -American supervision. - -In the course of the debate over this settlement, a number of -interesting questions arose. It was pertinently asked whether the -American navy should be used to help creditors collect their debts -anywhere in Latin-America. It was suggested also that no sanction should -be given to the practice among European governments of using armed force -to collect private claims. Opponents of President Roosevelt's policy, -and they were neither few nor insignificant, urged that such matters -should be referred to the Hague Court or to special international -commissions for arbitration. To this the answer was made that the United -States could not surrender any question coming under the terms of the -Monroe Doctrine to the decision of an international tribunal. The -position of the administration was very clearly stated by President -Roosevelt himself. "The country," he said, "would certainly decline to -go to war to prevent a foreign government from collecting a just debt; -on the other hand, it is very inadvisable to permit any foreign power to -take possession, even temporarily, of the customs houses of an American -republic in order to enforce the payment of its obligations; for such a -temporary occupation might turn into a permanent occupation. The only -escape from these alternatives may at any time be that we must -ourselves undertake to bring about some arrangement by which so much as -possible of a just obligation shall be paid." The Monroe Doctrine was -negative. It denied to European powers a certain liberty of operation in -this hemisphere. The positive obligations resulting from its application -by the United States were points now emphasized and developed. - -=The Hague Conference.=--The controversies over Latin-American relations -and his part in bringing the Russo-Japanese War to a close naturally -made a deep impression upon Roosevelt, turning his mind in the direction -of the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The subject was -moreover in the air. As if conscious of impending calamity, the -statesmen of the Old World, to all outward signs at least, seemed -searching for a way to reduce armaments and avoid the bloody and costly -trial of international causes by the ancient process of battle. It was -the Czar, Nicholas II, fated to die in one of the terrible holocausts -which he helped to bring upon mankind, who summoned the delegates of the -nations in the first Hague Peace Conference in 1899. The conference did -nothing to reduce military burdens or avoid wars but it did recognize -the right of friendly nations to offer the services of mediation to -countries at war and did establish a Court at the Hague for the -arbitration of international disputes. - -Encouraged by this experiment, feeble as it was, President Roosevelt in -1904 proposed a second conference, yielding to the Czar the honor of -issuing the call. At this great international assembly, held at the -Hague in 1907, the representatives of the United States proposed a plan -for the compulsory arbitration of certain matters of international -dispute. This was rejected with contempt by Germany. Reduction of -armaments, likewise proposed in the conference, was again deferred. In -fact, nothing was accomplished beyond agreement upon certain rules for -the conduct of "civilized warfare," casting a somewhat lurid light upon -the "pacific" intentions of most of the powers assembled. - -=The World Tour of the Fleet.=--As if to assure the world then that the -United States placed little reliance upon the frail reed of peace -conferences, Roosevelt the following year (1908) made an imposing -display of American naval power by sending a fleet of sixteen -battleships on a tour around the globe. On his own authority, he ordered -the ships to sail out of Hampton Roads and circle the earth by way of -the Straits of Magellan, San Francisco, Australia, the Philippines, -China, Japan, and the Suez Canal. This enterprise was not, as some -critics claimed, a "mere boyish flourish." President Roosevelt knew how -deep was the influence of sea power on the fate of nations. He was aware -that no country could have a wide empire of trade and dominion without -force adequate to sustain it. The voyage around the world therefore -served a double purpose. It interested his own country in the naval -program of the government, and it reminded other powers that the -American giant, though quiet, was not sleeping in the midst of -international rivalries. - - -COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION - -=A Constitutional Question Settled.=--In colonial administration, as in -foreign policy, President Roosevelt advanced with firm step in a path -already marked out. President McKinley had defined the principles that -were to control the development of Porto Rico and the Philippines. The -Republican party had announced a program of pacification, gradual -self-government, and commercial improvement. The only remaining question -of importance, to use the popular phrase,--"Does the Constitution follow -the flag?"--had been answered by the Supreme Court of the United States. -Although it was well known that the Constitution did not contemplate the -government of dependencies, such as the Philippines and Porto Rico, the -Court, by generous and ingenious interpretations, found a way for -Congress to apply any reasonable rules required by the occasion. - -=Porto Rico.=--The government of Porto Rico was a relatively simple -matter. It was a single island with a fairly homogeneous population -apart from the Spanish upper class. For a time after military occupation -in 1898, it was administered under military rule. This was succeeded by -the establishment of civil government under the "organic act" passed by -Congress in 1900. The law assured to the Porto Ricans American -protection but withheld American citizenship--a boon finally granted in -1917. It provided for a governor and six executive secretaries appointed -by the President with the approval of the Senate; and for a legislature -of two houses--one elected by popular native vote, and an upper chamber -composed of the executive secretaries and five other persons appointed -in the same manner. Thus the United States turned back to the provincial -system maintained by England in Virginia or New York in old colonial -days. The natives were given a voice in their government and the power -of initiating laws; but the final word both in law-making and -administration was vested in officers appointed in Washington. Such was -the plan under which the affairs of Porto Rico were conducted by -President Roosevelt. It lasted until the new organic act of 1917. - -[Illustration: _Photograph from Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -A SUGAR MILL, PORTO RICO] - -=The Philippines.=--The administration of the Philippines presented far -more difficult questions. The number of islands, the variety of -languages and races, the differences in civilization all combined to -challenge the skill of the government. Moreover, there was raging in -1901 a stubborn revolt against American authority, which had to be -faced. Following the lines laid down by President McKinley, the -evolution of American policy fell into three stages. At first the -islands were governed directly by the President under his supreme -military power. In 1901 a civilian commission, headed by William Howard -Taft, was selected by the President and charged with the government of -the provinces in which order had been restored. Six years later, under -the terms of an organic act, passed by Congress in 1902, the third stage -was reached. The local government passed into the hands of a governor -and commission, appointed by the President and Senate, and a -legislature--one house elected by popular vote and an upper chamber -composed of the commission. This scheme, like that obtaining in Porto -Rico, remained intact until a Democratic Congress under President -Wilson's leadership carried the colonial administration into its fourth -phase by making both houses elective. Thus, by the steady pursuit of a -liberal policy, self-government was extended to the dependencies; but it -encouraged rather than extinguished the vigorous movement among the -Philippine natives for independence. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -MR TAFT IN THE PHILIPPINES] - -=Cuban Relations.=--Within the sphere of colonial affairs, Cuba, though -nominally independent, also presented problems to the government at -Washington. In the fine enthusiasm that accompanied the declaration of -war on Spain, Congress, unmindful of practical considerations, -recognized the independence of Cuba and disclaimed "any disposition or -intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said -island except for the pacification thereof." In the settlement that -followed the war, however, it was deemed undesirable to set the young -republic adrift upon the stormy sea of international politics without a -guiding hand. Before withdrawing American troops from the island, -Congress, in March, 1901, enacted, and required Cuba to approve, a -series of restrictions known as the Platt amendment, limiting her power -to incur indebtedness, securing the right of the United States to -intervene whenever necessary to protect life and property, and reserving -to the United States coaling stations at certain points to be agreed -upon. The Cubans made strong protests against what they deemed -"infringements of their sovereignty"; but finally with good grace -accepted their fate. Even when in 1906 President Roosevelt landed -American troops in the island to quell a domestic dissension, they -acquiesced in the action, evidently regarding it as a distinct warning -that they should learn to manage their elections in an orderly manner. - - -THE ROOSEVELT DOMESTIC POLICIES - -=Social Questions to the Front.=--From the day of his inauguration to -the close of his service in 1909, President Roosevelt, in messages, -speeches, and interviews, kept up a lively and interesting discussion of -trusts, capital, labor, poverty, riches, lawbreaking, good citizenship, -and kindred themes. Many a subject previously touched upon only by -representatives of the minor and dissenting parties, he dignified by a -careful examination. That he did this with any fixed design or policy in -mind does not seem to be the case. He admitted himself that when he -became President he did not have in hand any settled or far-reaching -plan of social betterment. He did have, however, serious convictions on -general principles. "I was bent upon making the government," he wrote, -"the most efficient possible instrument in helping the people of the -United States to better themselves in every way, politically, socially, -and industrially. I believed with all my heart in real and -thorough-going democracy and I wished to make the democracy industrial -as well as political, although I had only partially formulated the -method I believed we should follow." It is thus evident at least that he -had departed a long way from the old idea of the government as nothing -but a great policeman keeping order among the people in a struggle over -the distribution of the nation's wealth and resources. - -=Roosevelt's View of the Constitution.=--Equally significant was -Roosevelt's attitude toward the Constitution and the office of -President. He utterly repudiated the narrow construction of our national -charter. He held that the Constitution "should be treated as the -greatest document ever devised by the wit of man to aid a people in -exercising every power necessary for its own betterment, not as a -strait-jacket cunningly fashioned to strangle growth." He viewed the -presidency as he did the Constitution. Strict constructionists of the -Jeffersonian school, of whom there were many on occasion even in the -Republican party, had taken a view that the President could do nothing -that he was not specifically authorized by the Constitution to do. -Roosevelt took exactly the opposite position. It was his opinion that it -was not only the President's right but his duty "to do anything that the -needs of the nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by the -Constitution or the laws." He went on to say that he acted "for the -common well-being of all our people whenever and in whatever manner was -necessary, unless prevented by direct constitutional or legislative -prohibition." - -=The Trusts and Railways.=--To the trust question, Roosevelt devoted -especial attention. This was unavoidable. By far the larger part of the -business of the country was done by corporations as distinguished from -partnerships and individual owners. The growth of these gigantic -aggregations of capital had been the leading feature in American -industrial development during the last two decades of the nineteenth -century. In the conquest of business by trusts and "the resulting -private fortunes of great magnitude," the Populists and the Democrats -had seen a grievous danger to the republic. "Plutocracy has taken the -place of democracy; the tariff breeds trusts; let us destroy therefore -the tariff and the trusts"--such was the battle cry which had been taken -up by Bryan and his followers. - -President Roosevelt countered vigorously. He rejected the idea that the -trusts were the product of the tariff or of governmental action of any -kind. He insisted that they were the outcome of "natural economic -forces": (1) destructive competition among business men compelling them -to avoid ruin by cooeperation in fixing prices; (2) the growth of markets -on a national scale and even international scale calling for vast -accumulations of capital to carry on such business; (3) the possibility -of immense savings by the union of many plants under one management. In -the corporation he saw a new stage in the development of American -industry. Unregulated competition he regarded as "the source of evils -which all men concede must be remedied if this civilization of ours is -to survive." The notion, therefore, that these immense business concerns -should be or could be broken up by a decree of law, Roosevelt considered -absurd. - -At the same time he proposed that "evil trusts" should be prevented from -"wrong-doing of any kind"; that is, punished for plain swindling, for -making agreements to limit output, for refusing to sell to customers who -dealt with rival firms, and for conspiracies with railways to ruin -competitors by charging high freight rates and for similar abuses. -Accordingly, he proposed, not the destruction of the trusts, but their -regulation by the government. This, he contended, would preserve the -advantages of business on a national scale while preventing the evils -that accompanied it. The railway company he declared to be a public -servant. "Its rates should be just to and open to all shippers alike." -So he answered those who thought that trusts and railway combinations -were private concerns to be managed solely by their owners without let -or hindrance and also those who thought trusts and railway combinations -could be abolished by tariff reduction or criminal prosecution. - -=The Labor Question.=--On the labor question, then pressing to the front -in public interest, President Roosevelt took advanced ground for his -time. He declared that the working-man, single-handed and empty-handed, -threatened with starvation if unemployed, was no match for the employer -who was able to bargain and wait. This led him, accordingly, to accept -the principle of the trade union; namely, that only by collective -bargaining can labor be put on a footing to measure its strength equally -with capital. While he severely arraigned labor leaders who advocated -violence and destructive doctrines, he held that "the organization of -labor into trade unions and federations is necessary, is beneficent, and -is one of the greatest possible agencies in the attainment of a true -industrial, as well as a true political, democracy in the United -States." The last resort of trade unions in labor disputes, the strike, -he approved in case negotiations failed to secure "a fair deal." - -He thought, however, that labor organizations, even if wisely managed, -could not solve all the pressing social questions of the time. The aid -of the government at many points he believed to be necessary to -eliminate undeserved poverty, industrial diseases, unemployment, and the -unfortunate consequences of industrial accidents. In his first message -of 1901, for instance, he urged that workers injured in industry should -have certain and ample compensation. From time to time he advocated -other legislation to obtain what he called "a larger measure of social -and industrial justice." - -=Great Riches and Taxation.=--Even the challenge of the radicals, such -as the Populists, who alleged that "the toil of millions is boldly -stolen to build up colossal fortunes for a few"--challenges which his -predecessors did not consider worthy of notice--President Roosevelt -refused to let pass without an answer. In his first message he denied -the truth of the common saying that the rich were growing richer and the -poor were growing poorer. He asserted that, on the contrary, the average -man, wage worker, farmer, and small business man, was better off than -ever before in the history of our country. That there had been abuses in -the accumulation of wealth he did not pretend to ignore, but he believed -that even immense fortunes, on the whole, represented positive benefits -conferred upon the country. Nevertheless he felt that grave dangers to -the safety and the happiness of the people lurked in great inequalities -of wealth. In 1906 he wrote that he wished it were in his power to -prevent the heaping up of enormous fortunes. The next year, to the -astonishment of many leaders in his own party, he boldly announced in a -message to Congress that he approved both income and inheritance taxes, -then generally viewed as Populist or Democratic measures. He even took -the stand that such taxes should be laid in order to bring about a more -equitable distribution of wealth and greater equality of opportunity -among citizens. - - -LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE ACTIVITIES - -=Economic Legislation.=--When President Roosevelt turned from the field -of opinion he found himself in a different sphere. Many of his views -were too advanced for the members of his party in Congress, and where -results depended upon the making of new laws, his progress was slow. -Nevertheless, in his administrations several measures were enacted that -bore the stamp of his theories, though it could hardly be said that he -dominated Congress to the same degree as did some other Presidents. The -Hepburn Railway Act of 1906 enlarged the interstate commerce commission; -it extended the commission's power over oil pipe lines, express -companies, and other interstate carriers; it gave the commission the -right to reduce rates found to be unreasonable and discriminatory; it -forbade "midnight tariffs," that is, sudden changes in rates favoring -certain shippers; and it prohibited common carriers from transporting -goods owned by themselves, especially coal, except for their own proper -use. Two important pure food and drug laws, enacted during the same -year, were designed to protect the public against diseased meats and -deleterious foods and drugs. A significant piece of labor legislation -was an act of the same Congress making interstate railways liable to -damages for injuries sustained by their employees. When this measure was -declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court it was reenacted with the -objectionable clauses removed. A second installment of labor legislation -was offered in the law of 1908 limiting the hours of railway employees -engaged as trainmen or telegraph operators. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy United States Reclamation Service._ - -THE ROOSEVELT DAM, PHOENIX, ARIZONA] - -=Reclamation and Conservation.=--The open country--the deserts, the -forests, waterways, and the public lands--interested President Roosevelt -no less than railway and industrial questions. Indeed, in his first -message to Congress he placed the conservation of natural resources -among "the most vital internal problems" of the age, and forcibly -emphasized an issue that had been discussed in a casual way since -Cleveland's first administration. The suggestion evoked an immediate -response in Congress. Under the leadership of Senator Newlands, of -Nevada, the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed, providing for the -redemption of the desert areas of the West. The proceeds from the sale -of public lands were dedicated to the construction of storage dams and -sluiceways to hold water and divert it as needed to the thirsty sands. -Furthermore it was stipulated that the rents paid by water users should -go into a reclamation fund to continue the good work forever. -Construction was started immediately under the terms of the law. Within -seventeen years about 1,600,000 acres had been reclaimed and more than a -million were actually irrigated. In the single year 1918, the crops of -the irrigated districts were valued at approximately $100,000,000. - -In his first message, also, President Roosevelt urged the transfer of -all control over national forests to trained men in the Bureau of -Forestry--a recommendation carried out in 1907 when the Forestry Service -was created. In every direction noteworthy advances were made in the -administration of the national domain. The science of forestry was -improved and knowledge of the subject spread among the people. Lands in -the national forest available for agriculture were opened to settlers. -Water power sites on the public domain were leased for a term of years -to private companies instead of being sold outright. The area of the -national forests was enlarged from 43 million acres to 194 million acres -by presidential proclamation--more than 43 million acres being added in -one year, 1907. The men who turned sheep and cattle to graze on the -public lands were compelled to pay a fair rental, much to their -dissatisfaction. Fire prevention work was undertaken in the forests on a -large scale, reducing the appalling, annual destruction of timber. -Millions of acres of coal land, such as the government had been -carelessly selling to mining companies at low figures, were withdrawn -from sale and held until Congress was prepared to enact laws for the -disposition of them in the public interest. Prosecutions were -instituted against men who had obtained public lands by fraud and vast -tracts were recovered for the national domain. An agitation was begun -which bore fruit under the administrations of Taft and Wilson in laws -reserving to the federal government the ownership of coal, water power, -phosphates, and other natural resources while authorizing corporations -to develop them under leases for a period of years. - -=The Prosecution of the Trusts.=--As an executive, President Roosevelt -was also a distinct "personality." His discrimination between "good" and -"bad" trusts led him to prosecute some of them with vigor. On his -initiative, the Northern Securities Company, formed to obtain control of -certain great western railways, was dissolved by order of the Supreme -Court. Proceedings were instituted against the American Tobacco Company -and the Standard Oil Company as monopolies in violation of the Sherman -Anti-Trust law. The Sugar Trust was found guilty of cheating the New -York customs house and some of the minor officers were sent to prison. -Frauds in the Post-office Department were uncovered and the offenders -brought to book. In fact hardly a week passed without stirring news of -"wrong doers" and "malefactors" haled into federal courts. - -=The Great Coal Strike.=--The Roosevelt theory that the President could -do anything for public welfare not forbidden by the Constitution and the -laws was put to a severe test in 1902. A strike of the anthracite coal -miners, which started in the summer, ran late into the autumn. -Industries were paralyzed for the want of coal; cities were threatened -with the appalling menace of a winter without heat. Governors and mayors -were powerless and appealed for aid. The mine owners rejected the -demands of the men and refused to permit the arbitration of the points -in dispute, although John Mitchell, the leader of the miners, repeatedly -urged it. After observing closely the course affairs, President -Roosevelt made up his mind that the situation was intolerable. He -arranged to have the federal troops, if necessary, take possession of -the mines and operate them until the strike could be settled. He then -invited the contestants to the White House and by dint of hard labor -induced them to accept, as a substitute or compromise, arbitration by a -commission which he appointed. Thus, by stepping outside the -Constitution and acting as the first citizen of the land, President -Roosevelt averted a crisis of great magnitude. - -=The Election of 1904.=--The views and measures which he advocated with -such vigor aroused deep hostility within as well as without his party. -There were rumors of a Republican movement to defeat his nomination in -1904 and it was said that the "financial and corporation interests" were -in arms against him. A prominent Republican paper in New York City -accused him of having "stolen Mr. Bryan's thunder," by harrying the -trusts and favoring labor unions. When the Republican convention -assembled in Chicago, however, the opposition disappeared and Roosevelt -was nominated by acclamation. - -This was the signal for a change on the part of Democratic leaders. They -denounced the President as erratic, dangerous, and radical and decided -to assume the moderate role themselves. They put aside Mr. Bryan and -selected as their candidate, Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, a man -who repudiated free silver and made a direct appeal for the conservative -vote. The outcome of the reversal was astounding. Judge Parker's vote -fell more than a million below that cast for Bryan in 1900; of the 476 -electoral votes he received only 140. Roosevelt, in addition to sweeping -the Republican sections, even invaded Democratic territory, carrying the -state of Missouri. Thus vindicated at the polls, he became more -outspoken than ever. His leadership in the party was so widely -recognized that he virtually selected his own successor. - - -THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT TAFT - -=The Campaign of 1908.=--Long before the end of his elective term, -President Roosevelt let it be known that he favored as his successor, -William Howard Taft, of Ohio, his Secretary of War. To attain this end -he used every shred of his powerful influence. When the Republican -convention assembled, Mr. Taft easily won the nomination. Though the -party platform was conservative in tone, he gave it a progressive tinge -by expressing his personal belief in the popular election of United -States Senators, an income tax, and other liberal measures. President -Roosevelt announced his faith in the Republican candidate and appealed -to the country for his election. - -The turn in Republican affairs now convinced Mr. Bryan that the signs -were propitious for a third attempt to win the presidency. The disaster -to Judge Parker had taught the party that victory did not lie in a -conservative policy. With little difficulty, therefore, the veteran -leader from Nebraska once more rallied the Democrats around his -standard, won the nomination, and wrote a platform vigorously attacking -the tariff, trusts, and monopolies. Supported by a loyal following, he -entered the lists, only to meet another defeat. Though he polled almost -a million and a half more votes than did Judge Parker in 1904, the palm -went to Mr. Taft. - -=The Tariff Revision and Party Dissensions.=--At the very beginning of -his term, President Taft had to face the tariff issue. He had met it in -the campaign. Moved by the Democratic demand for a drastic reduction, he -had expressed opinions which were thought to imply a "downward -revision." The Democrats made much of the implication and the -Republicans from the Middle West rejoiced in it. Pressure was coming -from all sides. More than ten years had elapsed since the enactment of -the Dingley bill and the position of many industries had been altered -with the course of time. Evidently the day for revision--at best a -thankless task--had arrived. Taft accepted the inevitable and called -Congress in a special session. Until the midsummer of 1909, Republican -Senators and Representatives wrangled over tariff schedules, the -President making little effort to influence their decisions. When on -August 5 the Payne-Aldrich bill became a law, a breach had been made in -Republican ranks. Powerful Senators from the Middle West had spoken -angrily against many of the high rates imposed by the bill. They had -even broken with their party colleagues to vote against the entire -scheme of tariff revision. - -=The Income Tax Amendment.=--The rift in party harmony was widened by -another serious difference of opinion. During the debate on the tariff -bill, there was a concerted movement to include in it an income tax -provision--this in spite of the decision of the Supreme Court in 1895 -declaring it unconstitutional. Conservative men were alarmed by the -evident willingness of some members to flout a solemn decree of that -eminent tribunal. At the same time they saw a powerful combination of -Republicans and Democrats determined upon shifting some of the burden of -taxation to large incomes. In the press of circumstances, a compromise -was reached. The income tax bill was dropped for the present; but -Congress passed the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, authorizing -taxes upon incomes from whatever source they might be derived, without -reference to any apportionment among the states on the basis of -population. The states ratified the amendment and early in 1913 it was -proclaimed. - -=President Taft's Policies.=--After the enactment of the tariff bill, -Taft continued to push forward with his legislative program. He -recommended, and Congress created, a special court of commerce with -jurisdiction, among other things, over appeals from the interstate -commerce commission, thus facilitating judicial review of the railway -rates fixed and the orders issued by that body. This measure was quickly -followed by an act establishing a system of postal savings banks in -connection with the post office--a scheme which had long been opposed by -private banks. Two years later, Congress defied the lobby of the express -companies and supplemented the savings banks with a parcels post system, -thus enabling the American postal service to catch up with that of other -progressive nations. With a view to improving the business -administration of the federal government, the President obtained from -Congress a large appropriation for an economy and efficiency commission -charged with the duty of inquiring into wasteful and obsolete methods -and recommending improved devices and practices. The chief result of -this investigation was a vigorous report in favor of a national budget -system, which soon found public backing. - -President Taft negotiated with England and France general treaties -providing for the arbitration of disputes which were "justiciable" in -character even though they might involve questions of "vital interest -and national honor." They were coldly received in the Senate and so -amended that Taft abandoned them altogether. A tariff reciprocity -agreement with Canada, however, he forced through Congress in the face -of strong opposition from his own party. After making a serious breach -in Republican ranks, he was chagrined to see the whole scheme come to -naught by the overthrow of the Liberals in the Canadian elections of -1911. - -=Prosecution of the Trusts.=--The party schism was even enlarged by what -appeared to be the successful prosecution of several great combinations. -In two important cases, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the -Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company on the ground that -they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust law. In taking this step Chief -Justice White was at some pains to state that the law did not apply to -combinations which did not "unduly" restrain trade. His remark, -construed to mean that the Court would not interfere with corporations -as such, became the subject of a popular outcry against the President -and the judges. - - -PROGRESSIVE INSURGENCY AND THE ELECTION OF 1912 - -=Growing Dissensions.=--All in all, Taft's administration from the first -day had been disturbed by party discord. High words had passed over the -tariff bill and disgruntled members of Congress could not forget them. -To differences over issues were added quarrels between youth and old -age. In the House of Representatives there developed a group of young -"insurgent" Republicans who resented the dominance of the Speaker, -Joseph G. Cannon, and other members of the "old guard," as they named -the men of long service and conservative minds. In 1910, the insurgents -went so far as to join with the Democrats in a movement to break the -Speaker's sway by ousting him from the rules committee and depriving him -of the power to appoint its members. The storm was brewing. In the -autumn of that year the Democrats won a clear majority in the House of -Representatives and began an open battle with President Taft by -demanding an immediate downward revision of the tariff. - -=The Rise of the Progressive Republicans.=--Preparatory to the campaign -of 1912, the dissenters within the Republican party added the prefix -"Progressive" to their old title and began to organize a movement to -prevent the renomination of Mr. Taft. As early as January 21, 1911, they -formed a Progressive Republican League at the home of Senator La -Follette of Wisconsin and launched an attack on the Taft measures and -policies. In October they indorsed Mr. La Follette as "the logical -Republican candidate" and appealed to the party for support. The -controversy over the tariff had grown into a formidable revolt against -the occupant of the White House. - -=Roosevelt in the Field.=--After looking on for a while, ex-President -Roosevelt took a hand in the fray. Soon after his return in 1910 from a -hunting trip in Africa and a tour in Europe, he made a series of -addresses in which he formulated a progressive program. In a speech in -Kansas, he favored regulation of the trusts, a graduated income tax -bearing heavily on great fortunes, tariff revision schedule by schedule, -conservation of natural resources, labor legislation, the direct -primary, and the recall of elective officials. In an address before the -Ohio state constitutional convention in February, 1912, he indorsed the -initiative and referendum and announced a doctrine known as the "recall -of judicial decisions." This was a new and radical note in American -politics. An ex-President of the United States proposed that the people -at the polls should have the right to reverse the decision of a judge -who set aside any act of a state legislature passed in the interests of -social welfare. The Progressive Republicans, impressed by these -addresses, turned from La Follette to Roosevelt and on February 24, -induced him to come out openly as a candidate against Taft for the -Republican nomination. - -=The Split in the Republican Party.=--The country then witnessed the -strange spectacle of two men who had once been close companions engaged -in a bitter rivalry to secure a majority of the delegates to the -Republican convention to be held at Chicago. When the convention -assembled, about one-fourth of the seats were contested, the delegates -for both candidates loudly proclaiming the regularity of their election. -In deciding between the contestants the national committee, after the -usual hearings, settled the disputes in such a way that Taft received a -safe majority. After a week of negotiation, Roosevelt and his followers -left the Republican party. Most of his supporters withdrew from the -convention and the few who remained behind refused to answer the roll -call. Undisturbed by this formidable bolt, the regular Republicans went -on with their work. They renominated Mr. Taft and put forth a platform -roundly condemning such Progressive doctrines as the recall of judges. - -=The Formation of the Progressive Party.=--The action of the Republicans -in seating the Taft delegates was vigorously denounced by Roosevelt. He -declared that the convention had no claim to represent the voters of the -Republican party; that any candidate named by it would be "the -beneficiary of a successful fraud"; and that it would be deeply -discreditable to any man to accept the convention's approval under such -circumstances. The bitterness of his followers was extreme. On July 8, a -call went forth for a "Progressive" convention to be held in Chicago on -August 5. The assembly which duly met on that day was a unique political -conference. Prominence was given to women delegates, and "politicians" -were notably absent. Roosevelt himself, who was cheered as a conquering -hero, made an impassioned speech setting forth his "confession of -faith." He was nominated by acclamation; Governor Hiram Johnson of -California was selected as his companion candidate for Vice President. -The platform endorsed such political reforms as woman suffrage, direct -primaries, the initiative, referendum, and recall, popular election of -United States Senators, and the short ballot. It favored a program of -social legislation, including the prohibition of child labor and minimum -wages for women. It approved the regulation, rather than the -dissolution, of the trusts. Like apostles in a new and lofty cause, the -Progressives entered a vigorous campaign for the election of their -distinguished leader. - -=Woodrow Wilson and the Election of 1912.=--With the Republicans -divided, victory loomed up before the Democrats. Naturally, a terrific -contest over the nomination occurred at their convention in Baltimore. -Champ Clark, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Governor -Woodrow Wilson, of New Jersey, were the chief contestants. After tossing -to and fro for seven long, hot days, and taking forty-six ballots, the -delegates, powerfully influenced by Mr. Bryan, finally decided in favor -of the governor. As a professor, a writer on historical and political -subjects, and the president of Princeton University, Mr. Wilson had -become widely known in public life. As the governor of New Jersey he had -attracted the support of the progressives in both parties. With grim -determination he had "waged war on the bosses," and pushed through the -legislature measures establishing direct primaries, regulating public -utilities, and creating a system of workmen's compensation in -industries. During the presidential campaign that followed Governor -Wilson toured the country and aroused great enthusiasm by a series of -addresses later published under the title of _The New Freedom_. He -declared that "the government of the United States is at present the -foster child of the special interests." He proposed to free the country -by breaking the dominance of "the big bankers, the big manufacturers, -the big masters of commerce, the heads of railroad corporations and of -steamship corporations." - -In the election Governor Wilson easily secured a majority of the -electoral votes, and his party, while retaining possession of the House -of Representatives, captured the Senate as well. The popular verdict, -however, indicated a state of confusion in the country. The combined -Progressive and Republican vote exceeded that of the Democrats by -1,300,000. The Socialists, with Eugene V. Debs as their candidate again, -polled about 900,000 votes, more than double the number received four -years before. Thus, as the result of an extraordinary upheaval the -Republicans, after holding the office of President for sixteen years, -passed out of power, and the government of the country was intrusted to -the Democrats under the leadership of a man destined to be one of the -outstanding figures of the modern age, Woodrow Wilson. - - -=General References= - -J.B. Bishop, _Theodore Roosevelt and His Time_ (2 vols.). - -Theodore Roosevelt, _Autobiography_; _New Nationalism_; _Progressive -Principles_. - -W.H. Taft, _Popular Government_. - -Walter Weyl, _The New Democracy_. - -H. Croly, _The Promise of American Life_. - -J.B. Bishop, _The Panama Gateway_. - -J.B. Scott, _The Hague Peace Conferences_. - -W.B. Munro (ed.), _Initiative, Referendum, and Recall_. - -C.R. Van Hise, _The Conservation of Natural Resources_. - -Gifford Pinchot, _The Fight for Conservation_. - -W.F. Willoughby, _Territories and Dependencies of the United States_ -(1905). - - -=Research Topics= - -=Roosevelt and "Big Business."=--Haworth, _The United States in Our Own -Time_, pp. 281-289; F.A. Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation -Series), pp. 40-75; Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. -293-307. - -=Our Insular Possessions.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. -896-904. - -=Latin-American Relations.=--Haworth, pp. 294-299; Ogg, pp. 254-257. - -=The Panama Canal.=--Haworth, pp. 300-309; Ogg, pp. 266-277; Paxson, pp. -286-292; Elson, pp. 906-911. - -=Conservation.=--Haworth, pp. 331-334; Ogg, pp. 96-115; Beard, _American -Government and Politics_ (3d ed.), pp. 401-416. - -=Republican Dissensions under Taft's Administration.=--Haworth, pp. -351-360; Ogg, pp. 167-186; Paxson, pp. 324-342; Elson, pp. 916-924. - -=The Campaign of 1912.=--Haworth, pp. 360-379; Ogg, pp. 187-208. - - -=Questions= - -1. Compare the early career of Roosevelt with that of some other -President. - -2. Name the chief foreign and domestic questions of the Roosevelt-Taft -administrations. - -3. What international complications were involved in the Panama Canal -problem? - -4. Review the Monroe Doctrine. Discuss Roosevelt's applications of it. - -5. What is the strategic importance of the Caribbean to the United -States? - -6. What is meant by the sea power? Trace the voyage of the fleet around -the world and mention the significant imperial and commercial points -touched. - -7. What is meant by the question: "Does the Constitution follow the -flag?" - -8. Trace the history of self-government in Porto Rico. In the -Philippines. - -9. What is Cuba's relation to the United States? - -10. What was Roosevelt's theory of our Constitution? - -11. Give Roosevelt's views on trusts, labor, taxation. - -12. Outline the domestic phases of Roosevelt's administrations. - -13. Account for the dissensions under Taft. - -14. Trace the rise of the Progressive movement. - -15. What was Roosevelt's progressive program? - -16. Review Wilson's early career and explain the underlying theory of -_The New Freedom_. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA - - -AN AGE OF CRITICISM - -=Attacks on Abuses in American Life.=--The crisis precipitated by the -Progressive uprising was not a sudden and unexpected one. It had been -long in preparation. The revolt against corruption in politics which -produced the Liberal Republican outbreak in the seventies and the -Mugwump movement of the eighties was followed by continuous criticism of -American political and economic development. From 1880 until his death -in 1892, George William Curtis, as president of the Civil Service Reform -Association, kept up a running fire upon the abuses of the spoils -system. James Bryce, an observant English scholar and man of affairs, in -his great work, _The American Commonwealth_, published in 1888, by -picturing fearlessly the political rings and machines which dominated -the cities, gave the whole country a fresh shock. Six years later Henry -D. Lloyd, in a powerful book entitled _Wealth against Commonwealth_, -attacked in scathing language certain trusts which had destroyed their -rivals and bribed public officials. In 1903 Miss Ida Tarbell, an author -of established reputation in the historical field, gave to the public an -account of the Standard Oil Company, revealing the ruthless methods of -that corporation in crushing competition. About the same time Lincoln -Steffens exposed the sordid character of politics in several -municipalities in a series of articles bearing the painful heading: _The -Shame of the Cities_. The critical spirit appeared in almost every form; -in weekly and monthly magazines, in essays and pamphlets, in editorials -and news stories, in novels like Churchill's _Coniston_ and Sinclair's -_The Jungle_. It became so savage and so wanton that the opening years -of the twentieth century were well named "the age of the muckrakers." - -=The Subjects of the Criticism.=--In this outburst of invective, nothing -was spared. It was charged that each of the political parties had fallen -into the hands of professional politicians who devoted their time to -managing conventions, making platforms, nominating candidates, and -dictating to officials; in return for their "services" they sold offices -and privileges. It was alleged that mayors and councils had bargained -away for private benefit street railway and other franchises. It was -asserted that many powerful labor unions were dominated by men who -blackmailed employers. Some critics specialized in descriptions of the -poverty, slums, and misery of great cities. Others took up "frenzied -finance" and accused financiers of selling worthless stocks and bonds to -an innocent public. Still others professed to see in the accumulations -of millionaires the downfall of our republic. - -=The Attack on "Invisible Government."=--Some even maintained that the -control of public affairs had passed from the people to a sinister -minority called "the invisible government." So eminent and conservative -a statesman as the Hon. Elihu Root lent the weight of his great name to -such an imputation. Speaking of his native state, New York, he said: -"What is the government of this state? What has it been during the forty -years of my acquaintance with it? The government of the Constitution? -Oh, no; not half the time or half way.... From the days of Fenton and -Conkling and Arthur and Cornell and Platt, from the days of David B. -Hill down to the present time, the government of the state has presented -two different lines of activity: one, of the constitutional and -statutory officers of the state and the other of the party leaders; they -call them party bosses. They call the system--I don't coin the -phrase--the system they call 'invisible government.' For I don't know -how many years Mr. Conkling was the supreme ruler in this state. The -governor did not count, the legislature did not count, comptrollers and -secretaries of state and what not did not count. It was what Mr. -Conkling said, and in a great outburst of public rage he was pulled -down. Then Mr. Platt ruled the state; for nigh upon twenty years he -ruled it. It was not the governor; it was not the legislature; it was -Mr. Platt. And the capital was not here [in Albany]; it was at 49 -Broadway; Mr. Platt and his lieutenants. It makes no difference what -name you give, whether you call it Fenton or Conkling or Cornell or -Arthur or Platt or by the names of men now living. The ruler of the -state during the greater part of the forty years of my acquaintance with -the state government has not been any man authorized by the constitution -or by law.... The party leader is elected by no one, accountable to no -one, bound by no oath of office, removable by no one." - -=The Nation Aroused.=--With the spirit of criticism came also the spirit -of reform. The charges were usually exaggerated; often wholly false; but -there was enough truth in them to warrant renewed vigilance on the part -of American democracy. President Roosevelt doubtless summed up the -sentiment of the great majority of citizens when he demanded the -punishment of wrong-doers in 1907, saying: "It makes not a particle of -difference whether these crimes are committed by a capitalist or by a -laborer, by a leading banker or manufacturer or railroad man or by a -leading representative of a labor union. Swindling in stocks, corrupting -legislatures, making fortunes by the inflation of securities, by -wrecking railroads, by destroying competitors through rebates--these -forms of wrong-doing in the capitalist are far more infamous than any -ordinary form of embezzlement or forgery." The time had come, he added, -to stop "muckraking" and proceed to the constructive work of removing -the abuses that had grown up. - - -POLITICAL REFORMS - -=The Public Service.=--It was a wise comprehension of the needs of -American democracy that led the friends of reform to launch and to -sustain for more than half a century a movement to improve the public -service. On the one side they struck at the spoils system; at the right -of the politicians to use public offices as mere rewards for partisan -work. The federal civil service act of 1883 opened the way to reform by -establishing five vital principles in law: (1) admission to office, not -on the recommendation of party workers, but on the basis of competitive -examinations; (2) promotion for meritorious service of the government -rather than of parties; (3) no assessment of office holders for campaign -funds; (4) permanent tenure during good behavior; and (5) no dismissals -for political reasons. The act itself at first applied to only 14,000 -federal offices, but under the constant pressure from the reformers it -was extended until in 1916 it covered nearly 300,000 employees out of an -executive force of approximately 414,000. While gaining steadily at -Washington, civil service reformers carried their agitation into the -states and cities. By 1920 they were able to report ten states with -civil service commissions and the merit system well intrenched in more -than three hundred municipalities. - -In excluding spoilsmen from public office, the reformers were, in a -sense, engaged in a negative work: that of "keeping the rascals out." -But there was a second and larger phase to their movement, one -constructive in character: that of getting skilled, loyal, and efficient -servants into the places of responsibility. Everywhere on land and sea, -in town and country, new burdens were laid upon public officers. They -were called upon to supervise the ships sailing to and from our ports; -to inspect the water and milk supplies of our cities; to construct and -operate great public works, such as the Panama and Erie canals; to -regulate the complicated rates of railway companies; to safeguard health -and safety in a thousand ways; to climb the mountains to fight forest -fires; and to descend into the deeps of the earth to combat the deadly -coal gases that assail the miners. In a word, those who labored to -master the secrets and the powers of nature were summoned to the aid of -the government: chemists, engineers, architects, nurses, surgeons, -foresters--the skilled in all the sciences, arts, and crafts. - -Keeping rascals out was no task at all compared with the problem of -finding competent people for all the technical offices. "Now," said the -reformers, "we must make attractive careers in the government work for -the best American talent; we must train those applying for admission and -increase the skill of those already in positions of trust; we must see -to it that those entering at the bottom have a chance to rise to the -top; in short, we must work for a government as skilled and efficient as -it is strong, one commanding all the wisdom and talent of America that -public welfare requires." - -=The Australian Ballot.=--A second line of attack on the political -machines was made in connection with the ballot. In the early days -elections were frequently held in the open air and the poll was taken by -a show of hands or by the enrollment of the voters under names of their -favorite candidates. When this ancient practice was abandoned in favor -of the printed ballot, there was still no secrecy about elections. Each -party prepared its own ballot, often of a distinctive color, containing -the names of its candidates. On election day, these papers were handed -out to the voters by party workers. Any one could tell from the color of -the ballot dropped into the box, or from some mark on the outside of the -folded ballot, just how each man voted. Those who bought votes were sure -that their purchases were "delivered." Those who intimidated voters -could know when their intimidation was effective. In this way the party -ballot strengthened the party machine. - -As a remedy for such abuses, reformers, learning from the experience of -Australia, urged the adoption of the "Australian ballot." That ballot, -though it appeared in many forms, had certain constant features. It was -official, that is, furnished by the government, not by party workers; it -contained the names of all candidates of all parties; it was given out -only in the polling places; and it was marked in secret. The first state -to introduce it was Massachusetts. The year was 1888. Before the end of -the century it had been adopted by nearly all the states in the union. -The salutary effect of the reform in reducing the amount of cheating -and bribery in elections was beyond all question. - -=The Direct Primary.=--In connection with the uprising against machine -politics, came a call for the abolition of the old method of nominating -candidates by conventions. These time-honored party assemblies, which -had come down from the days of Andrew Jackson, were, it was said, merely -conclaves of party workers, sustained by the spoils system, and -dominated by an inner circle of bosses. The remedy offered in this case -was again "more democracy," namely, the abolition of the party -convention and the adoption of the direct primary. Candidates were no -longer to be chosen by secret conferences. Any member of a party was to -be allowed to run for any office, to present his name to his party by -securing signatures to a petition, and to submit his candidacy to his -fellow partisans at a direct primary--an election within the party. In -this movement Governor La Follette of Wisconsin took the lead and his -state was the first in the union to adopt the direct primary for -state-wide purposes. The idea spread, rapidly in the West, more slowly -in the East. The public, already angered against "the bosses," grasped -eagerly at it. Governor Hughes in New York pressed it upon the unwilling -legislature. State after state accepted it until by 1918 Rhode Island, -Delaware, Connecticut, and New Mexico were the only states that had not -bowed to the storm. Still the results were disappointing and at that -very time the pendulum was beginning to swing backward. - -=Popular Election of Federal Senators.=--While the movement for direct -primaries was still advancing everywhere, a demand for the popular -election of Senators, usually associated with it, swept forward to -victory. Under the original Constitution, it had been expressly provided -that Senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the states. In -practice this rule transferred the selection of Senators to secret -caucuses of party members in the state legislatures. In connection with -these caucuses there had been many scandals, some direct proofs of -brazen bribery and corruption, and dark hints besides. The Senate was -called by its detractors "a millionaires' club" and it was looked upon -as the "citadel of conservatism." The prescription in this case was -likewise "more democracy"--direct election of Senators by popular vote. - -This reform was not a new idea. It had been proposed in Congress as -early as 1826. President Johnson, an ardent advocate, made it the -subject of a special message in 1868 Not long afterward it appeared in -Congress. At last in 1893, the year after the great Populist upheaval, -the House of Representatives by the requisite two-thirds vote -incorporated it in an amendment to the federal Constitution. Again and -again it passed the House; but the Senate itself was obdurate. Able -Senators leveled their batteries against it. Mr. Hoar of Massachusetts -declared that it would transfer the seat of power to the "great cities -and masses of population"; that it would "overthrow the whole scheme of -the Senate and in the end the whole scheme of the national Constitution -as designed and established by the framers of the Constitution and the -people who adopted it." - -Failing in the Senate, advocates of popular election made a rear assault -through the states. They induced state legislatures to enact laws -requiring the nomination of candidates for the Senate by the direct -primary, and then they bound the legislatures to abide by the popular -choice. Nevada took the lead in 1899. Shortly afterward Oregon, by the -use of the initiative and referendum, practically bound legislators to -accept the popular nominee and the country witnessed the spectacle of a -Republican legislature "electing" a Democrat to represent the state in -the Senate at Washington. By 1910 three-fourths of the states had -applied the direct primary in some form to the choice of Senators. Men -selected by that method began to pour in upon the floors of Congress; -finally in 1912 the two-thirds majority was secured for an amendment to -the federal Constitution providing for the popular election of Senators. -It was quickly ratified by the states. The following year it was -proclaimed in effect. - -=The Initiative and Referendum.=--As a corrective for the evils which -had grown up in state legislatures there arose a demand for the -introduction of a Swiss device known as the initiative and referendum. -The initiative permits any one to draw up a proposed bill; and, on -securing a certain number of signatures among the voters, to require the -submission of the measure to the people at an election. If the bill thus -initiated receives a sufficient majority, it becomes a law. The -referendum allows citizens who disapprove any act passed by the -legislature to get up a petition against it and thus bring about a -reference of the measure to the voters at the polls for approval or -rejection. These two practices constitute a form of "direct government." - -These devices were prescribed "to restore the government to the people." -The Populists favored them in their platform of 1896. Mr. Bryan, two -years later, made them a part of his program, and in the same year South -Dakota adopted them. In 1902 Oregon, after a strenuous campaign, added a -direct legislation amendment to the state constitution. Within ten years -all the Southwestern, Mountain, and Pacific states, except Texas and -Wyoming, had followed this example. To the east of the Mississippi, -however, direct legislation met a chilly reception. By 1920 only five -states in this section had accepted it: Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio, -Michigan, and Maryland, the last approving the referendum only. - -=The Recall.=--Executive officers and judges, as well as legislatures, -had come in for their share of criticism, and it was proposed that they -should likewise be subjected to a closer scrutiny by the public. For -this purpose there was advanced a scheme known as the recall--which -permitted a certain percentage of the voters to compel any officer, at -any time during his term, to go before the people at a new election. -This feature of direct government, tried out first in the city of Los -Angeles, was extended to state-wide uses in Oregon in 1908. It failed, -however, to capture popular imagination to the same degree as the -initiative and referendum. At the end of ten years' agitation, only ten -states, mainly in the West, had adopted it for general purposes, and -four of them did not apply it to the judges of the courts. Still it was -extensively acclaimed in cities and incorporated into hundreds of -municipal laws and charters. - -As a general proposition, direct government in all its forms was -bitterly opposed by men of a conservative cast of mind. It was denounced -by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as "nothing less than a complete revolution -in the fabric of our government and in the fundamental principles upon -which that government rests." In his opinion, it promised to break down -the representative principle and "undermine and overthrow the bulwarks -of ordered liberty and individual freedom." Mr. Taft shared Mr. Lodge's -views and spoke of direct government with scorn. "Votes," he exclaimed, -"are not bread ... referendums do not pay rent or furnish houses, -recalls do not furnish clothes, initiatives do not supply employment or -relieve inequalities of condition or of opportunity." - -=Commission Government for Cities.=--In the restless searching out of -evils, the management of cities early came under critical scrutiny. City -government, Mr. Bryce had remarked, was the one conspicuous failure in -America. This sharp thrust, though resented by some, was accepted as a -warning by others. Many prescriptions were offered by doctors of the -body politic. Chief among them was the idea of simplifying the city -government so that the light of public scrutiny could shine through it. -"Let us elect only a few men and make them clearly responsible for the -city government!" was the new cry in municipal reform. So, many city -councils were reduced in size; one of the two houses, which several -cities had adopted in imitation of the federal government, was -abolished; and in order that the mayor could be held to account, he was -given the power to appoint all the chief officials. This made the mayor, -in some cases, the only elective city official and gave the voters a -"short ballot" containing only a few names--an idea which some proposed -to apply also to the state government. - -A further step in the concentration of authority was taken in Galveston, -Texas, where the people, looking upon the ruin of their city wrought by -the devastating storm of 1901, and confronted by the difficult problems -of reconstruction, felt the necessity for a more businesslike management -of city affairs and instituted a new form of local administration. They -abolished the old scheme of mayor and council and vested all power in -five commissioners, one of whom, without any special prerogatives, was -assigned to the office of "mayor president." In 1908, the commission -form of government, as it was soon characterized, was adopted by Des -Moines, Iowa. The attention of all municipal reformers was drawn to it -and it was hailed as the guarantee of a better day. By 1920, more than -four hundred cities, including Memphis, Spokane, Birmingham, Newark, and -Buffalo, had adopted it. Still the larger cities like New York and -Chicago kept their boards of aldermen. - -=The City Manager Plan.=--A few years' experience with commission -government revealed certain patent defects. The division of the work -among five men was frequently found to introduce dissensions and -irresponsibility. Commissioners were often lacking in the technical -ability required to manage such difficult matters as fire and police -protection, public health, public works, and public utilities. Some one -then proposed to carry over into city government an idea from the -business world. In that sphere the stockholders of each corporation -elect the directors and the directors, in turn, choose a business -manager to conduct the affairs of the company. It was suggested that the -city commissioners, instead of attempting to supervise the details of -the city administration, should select a manager to do this. The scheme -was put into effect in Sumter, South Carolina, in 1912. Like the -commission plan, it became popular. Within eight years more than one -hundred and fifty towns and cities had adopted it. Among the larger -municipalities were Dayton, Springfield (Ohio), Akron, Kalamazoo, and -Phoenix. It promised to create a new public service profession, that of -city manager. - - -MEASURES OF ECONOMIC REFORM - -=The Spirit of American Reform.=--The purification of the ballot, the -restriction of the spoils system, the enlargement of direct popular -control over the organs of government were not the sole answers made by -the reformers to the critics of American institutions. Nor were they the -most important. In fact, they were regarded not as ends in themselves, -but as means to serve a wider purpose. That purpose was the promotion of -the "general welfare." The concrete objects covered by that broad term -were many and varied; but they included the prevention of extortion by -railway and other corporations, the protection of public health, the -extension of education, the improvement of living conditions in the -cities, the elimination of undeserved poverty, the removal of gross -inequalities in wealth, and more equality of opportunity. - -All these things involved the use of the powers of government. Although -a few clung to the ancient doctrine that the government should not -interfere with private business at all, the American people at large -rejected that theory as vigorously as they rejected the doctrines of an -extreme socialism which exalts the state above the individual. Leaders -representing every shade of opinion proclaimed the government an -instrument of common welfare to be used in the public interest. "We must -abandon definitely," said Roosevelt, "the _laissez-faire_ theory of -political economy and fearlessly champion a system of increased -governmental control, paying no attention to the cries of worthy people -who denounce this as socialistic." This view was shared by Mr. Taft, who -observed: "Undoubtedly the government can wisely do much more ... to -relieve the oppressed, to create greater equality of opportunity, to -make reasonable terms for labor in employment, and to furnish vocational -education." He was quick to add his caution that "there is a line beyond -which the government cannot go with any good practical results in -seeking to make men and society better." - -=The Regulation of Railways.=--The first attempts to use the government -in a large way to control private enterprise in the public interest were -made by the Northwestern states in the decade between 1870 and 1880. -Charges were advanced by the farmers, particularly those organized into -Granges, that the railways extorted the highest possible rates for -freight and passengers, that favoritism was shown to large shippers, -that fraudulent stocks and bonds were sold to the innocent public. It -was claimed that railways were not like other enterprises, but were -"quasi-public" concerns, like the roads and ferries, and thus subject to -government control. Accordingly laws were enacted bringing the railroads -under state supervision. In some cases the state legislature fixed the -maximum rates to be charged by common carriers, and in other cases -commissions were created with the power to establish the rates after an -investigation. This legislation was at first denounced in the East as -nothing less than the "confiscation" of the railways in the interest of -the farmers. Attempts to have the Supreme Court of the United States -declare it unconstitutional were made without avail; still a principle -was finally laid down to the effect that in fixing rates state -legislatures and commissions must permit railway companies to earn a -"fair" return on the capital invested. - -In a few years the Granger spirit appeared in Congress. An investigation -revealed a long list of abuses committed by the railways against -shippers and travelers. The result was the interstate commerce act of -1887, which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, forbade -discriminations in rates, and prohibited other objectionable practices -on the part of railways. This measure was loosely enforced and the -abuses against which it was directed continued almost unabated. A demand -for stricter control grew louder and louder. Congress was forced to -heed. In 1903 it enacted the Elkins law, forbidding railways to charge -rates other than those published, and laid penalties upon the officers -and agents of companies, who granted secret favors to shippers, and upon -shippers who accepted them. Three years later a still more drastic step -was taken by the passage of the Hepburn act. The Interstate Commerce -Commission was authorized, upon complaint of some party aggrieved, and -after a public hearing, to determine whether just and reasonable rates -had been charged by the companies. In effect, the right to fix freight -and passenger rates was taken out of the hands of the owners of the -railways engaged in interstate commerce and vested in the hands of the -Interstate Commerce Commission. Thus private property to the value of -$20,000,000,000 or more was declared to be a matter of public concern -and subject to government regulation in the common interest. - -=Municipal Utilities.=--Similar problems arose in connection with the -street railways, electric light plants, and other utilities in the great -cities. In the beginning the right to construct such undertakings was -freely, and often corruptly, granted to private companies by city -councils. Distressing abuses arose in connection with such practices. -Many grants or franchises were made perpetual, or perhaps for a term of -999 years. The rates charged and services rendered were left largely to -the will of the companies holding the franchises. Mergers or unions of -companies were common and the public was deluged with stocks and bonds -of doubtful value; bankruptcies were frequent. The connection between -the utility companies and the politicians was, to say the least, not -always in the public interest. - -American ingenuity was quick to devise methods for eliminating such -evils. Three lines of progress were laid out by the reformers. One group -proposed that such utilities should be subject to municipal or state -regulation, that the formation of utility companies should be under -public control, and that the issue of stocks and bonds must be approved -by public authority. In some cases state, and in other cases municipal, -commissions were created to exercise this great power over "quasi-public -corporations." Wisconsin, by laws enacted in 1907, put all heat, light, -water works, telephone, and street railway companies under the -supervision of a single railway commission. Other states followed this -example rapidly. By 1920 the principle of public control over municipal -utilities was accepted in nearly every section of the union. - -A second line of reform appeared in the "model franchise" for utility -corporations. An illustration of this tendency was afforded by the -Chicago street railway settlement of 1906. The total capital of the -company was fixed at a definite sum, its earnings were agreed upon, and -the city was given the right to buy and operate the system if it desired -to do so. In many states, about the same time, it was provided that no -franchises to utility companies could run more than twenty-five years. - -A third group of reformers were satisfied with nothing short of -municipal ownership. They proposed to drive private companies entirely -out of the field and vest the ownership and management of municipal -plants in the city itself. This idea was extensively applied to electric -light and water works plants, but to street railways in only a few -cities, including San Francisco and Seattle. In New York the subways are -owned by the city but leased for operation. - -=Tenement House Control.=--Among the other pressing problems of the -cities was the overcrowding in houses unfit for habitation. An inquiry -in New York City made under the authority of the state in 1902 revealed -poverty, misery, slums, dirt, and disease almost beyond imagination. The -immediate answer was the enactment of a tenement house law prescribing -in great detail the size of the rooms, the air space, the light and the -sanitary arrangement for all new buildings. An immense improvement -followed and the idea was quickly taken up in other states having large -industrial centers. In 1920 New York made a further invasion of the -rights of landlords by assuring to the public "reasonable rents" for -flats and apartments. - -=Workmen's Compensation.=--No small part of the poverty in cities was -due to the injury of wage-earners while at their trade. Every year the -number of men and women killed or wounded in industry mounted higher. -Under the old law, the workman or his family had to bear the loss unless -the employer had been guilty of some extraordinary negligence. Even in -that case an expensive lawsuit was usually necessary to recover -"damages." In short, although employers insured their buildings and -machinery against necessary risks from fire and storm, they allowed -their employees to assume the heavy losses due to accidents. The -injustice of this, though apparent enough now, was once not generally -recognized. It was said to be unfair to make the employer pay for -injuries for which he was not personally responsible; but the argument -was overborne. - -[Illustration: AN EAST SIDE STREET IN NEW YORK] - -About 1910 there set in a decided movement in the direction of lifting -the burden of accidents from the unfortunate victims. In the first -place, laws were enacted requiring employers to pay damages in certain -amounts according to the nature of the case, no matter how the accident -occurred, as long as the injured person was not guilty of willful -negligence. By 1914 more than one-half the states had such laws. In the -second place, there developed schemes of industrial insurance in the -form of automatic grants made by state commissions to persons injured in -industries, the funds to be provided by the employers or the state or by -both. By 1917 thirty-six states had legislation of this type. - -=Minimum Wages and Mothers' Pensions.=--Another source of poverty, -especially among women and children, was found to be the low wages paid -for their labor. Report after report showed this. In 1912 Massachusetts -took a significant step in the direction of declaring the minimum wages -which might be paid to women and children. Oregon, the following year, -created a commission with power to prescribe minimum wages in certain -industries, based on the cost of living, and to enforce the rates fixed. -Within a short time one-third of the states had legislation of this -character. To cut away some of the evils of poverty and enable widows to -keep their homes intact and bring up their children, a device known as -mothers' pensions became popular during the second decade of the -twentieth century. At the opening of 1913 two states, Colorado and -Illinois, had laws authorizing the payment from public funds of definite -sums to widows with children. Within four years, thirty-five states had -similar legislation. - -=Taxation and Great Fortunes.=--As a part of the campaign waged against -poverty by reformers there came a demand for heavy taxes upon great -fortunes, particularly taxes upon inheritances or estates passing to -heirs on the decease of the owners. Roosevelt was an ardent champion of -this type of taxation and dwelt upon it at length in his message to -Congress in 1907. "Such a tax," he said, "would help to preserve a -measurable equality of opportunity for the people of the generations -growing to manhood.... Our aim is to recognize what Lincoln pointed out: -the fact that there are some respects in which men are obviously not -equal; but also to insist that there should be equality of self-respect -and of mutual respect, an equality of rights before the law, and at -least an approximate equality in the conditions under which each man -obtains the chance to show the stuff that is in him when compared with -his fellows." - -The spirit of the new age was, therefore, one of reform, not of -revolution. It called for no evolutionary or utopian experiments, but -for the steady and progressive enactment of measures aimed at admitted -abuses and designed to accomplish tangible results in the name of public -welfare. - - -=General References= - -J. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_. - -R.C. Brooks, _Corruption in American Life_. - -E.A. Ross, _Changing America_. - -P.L. Haworth, _America in Ferment_. - -E.R.A. Seligman, _The Income Tax_. - -W.Z. Ripley, _Railroads: Rates and Regulation_. - -E.S. Bradford, _Commission Government in American Cities_. - -H.R. Seager, _A Program of Social Reform_. - -C. Zueblin, _American Municipal Progress_. - -W.E. Walling, _Progressivism and After_. - -_The American Year Book_ (an annual publication which contains reviews -of reform legislation). - - -=Research Topics= - -="The Muckrakers."=--Paxson, _The New Nation_ (Riverside Series), pp. -309-323. - -=Civil Service Reform.=--Beard, _American Government and Politics_ (3d -ed.), pp. 222-230; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation Series), -pp. 135-142. - -=Direct Government.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 461-473; Ogg, -pp. 160-166. - -=Popular Election of Senators.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. -241-244; Ogg, pp. 149-150. - -=Party Methods.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 656-672. - -=Ballot Reform.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. 672-705. - -=Social and Economic Legislation.=--Beard, _American Government_, pp. -721-752. - - -=Questions= - -1. Who were some of the critics of abuses in American life? - -2. What particular criticisms were advanced? - -3. How did Elihu Root define "invisible government"? - -4. Discuss the use of criticism as an aid to progress in a democracy. - -5. Explain what is meant by the "merit system" in the civil service. -Review the rise of the spoils system. - -6. Why is the public service of increasing importance? Give some of its -new problems. - -7. Describe the Australian ballot and the abuses against which it is -directed. - -8. What are the elements of direct government? Sketch their progress in -the United States. - -9. Trace the history of popular election of Senators. - -10. Explain the direct primary. Commission government. The city manager -plan. - -11. How does modern reform involve government action? On what theory is -it justified? - -12. Enumerate five lines of recent economic reform. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY - - -=Women in Public Affairs.=--The social legislation enacted in response -to the spirit of reform vitally affected women in the home and in -industry and was promoted by their organizations. Where they did not -lead, they were affiliated with movements for social improvement. No -cause escaped their attention; no year passed without widening the range -of their interests. They served on committees that inquired into the -problems of the day; they appeared before legislative assemblies to -advocate remedies for the evils they discovered. By 1912 they were a -force to be reckoned with in national politics. In nine states complete -and equal suffrage had been established, and a widespread campaign for a -national suffrage amendment was in full swing. On every hand lay -evidences that their sphere had been broadened to include public -affairs. This was the culmination of forces that had long been -operating. - -=A New Emphasis in History.=--A movement so deeply affecting important -interests could not fail to find a place in time in the written record -of human progress. History often began as a chronicle of kings and -queens, knights and ladies, written partly to amuse and partly to -instruct the classes that appeared in its pages. With the growth of -commerce, parliaments, and international relations, politics and -diplomacy were added to such chronicles of royal and princely doings. -After the rise of democracy, industry, and organized labor, the -transactions of everyday life were deemed worthy of a place in the pages -of history. In each case history was rewritten and the past rediscovered -in the light of the new age. So it will be with the rise and growth of -women's political power. The history of their labor, their education, -their status in society, their influence on the course of events will be -explored and given its place in the general record. - -It will be a history of change. The superior position which women enjoy -in America to-day is the result of a slow evolution from an almost -rightless condition in colonial times. The founders of America brought -with them the English common law. Under that law, a married woman's -personal property--jewels, money, furniture, and the like--became her -husband's property; the management of her lands passed into his control. -Even the wages she earned, if she worked for some one else, belonged to -him. Custom, if not law, prescribed that women should not take part in -town meetings or enter into public discussions of religious questions. -Indeed it is a far cry from the banishment of Anne Hutchinson from -Massachusetts in 1637, for daring to dispute with the church fathers, to -the political conventions of 1920 in which women sat as delegates, made -nominating speeches, and served on committees. In the contrast between -these two scenes may be measured the change in the privileges of women -since the landing of the Pilgrims. The account of this progress is a -narrative of individual effort on the part of women, of organizations -among them, of generous aid from sympathetic men in the long agitation -for the removal of civil and political disabilities. It is in part also -a narrative of irresistible economic change which drew women into -industry, created a leisure class, gave women wages and incomes, and -therewith economic independence. - - -THE RISE OF THE WOMAN MOVEMENT - -=Protests of Colonial Women.=--The republican spirit which produced -American independence was of slow and steady growth. It did not spring -up full-armed in a single night. It was, on the contrary, nourished -during a long period of time by fireside discussions as well as by -debates in the public forum. Women shared that fireside sifting of -political principles and passed on the findings of that scrutiny in -letters to their friends, newspaper articles, and every form of written -word. How widespread was this potent, though not spectacular force, is -revealed in the collections of women's letters, articles, songs, dramas, -and satirical "skits" on English rule that have come down to us. In this -search into the reasons of government, some women began to take thought -about laws that excluded them from the ballot. Two women at least left -their protests on record. Abigail, the ingenious and witty wife of John -Adams, wrote to her husband, in March, 1776, that women objected "to all -arbitrary power whether of state or males" and demanded political -privileges in the new order then being created. Hannah Lee Corbin, the -sister of "Lighthorse" Harry Lee, protested to her brother against the -taxation of women without representation. - -[Illustration: ABIGAIL ADAMS] - -=The Stir among European Women.=--Ferment in America, in the case of -women as of men, was quickened by events in Europe. In 1792, Mary -Wollstonecraft published in England the _Vindication of the Rights of -Women_--a book that was destined to serve the cause of liberty among -women as the writings of Locke and Paine had served that of men. The -specific grievances which stirred English women were men's invasion of -women's industries, such as spinning and weaving; the denial of equal -educational opportunities; and political disabilities. In France also -the great Revolution raised questionings about the status of women. The -rights of "citizenesses" as well as the rights of "citizens" were -examined by the boldest thinkers. This in turn reacted upon women in the -United States. - -=Leadership in America.=--The origins of the American woman movement are -to be found in the writings of a few early intellectual leaders. During -the first decades of the nineteenth century, books, articles, and -pamphlets about women came in increasing numbers from the press. Lydia -Maria Child wrote a history of women; Margaret Fuller made a critical -examination of the status of women in her time; and Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet -supplemented the older histories by showing what an important part women -had played in the American Revolution. - -=The Struggle for Education.=--Along with criticism, there was carried -on a constructive struggle for better educational facilities for women -who had been from the beginning excluded from every college in the -country. In this long battle, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon led the way; -the former founded a seminary at Troy, New York; and the latter made the -beginnings of Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts. Oberlin College in -Ohio, established in 1833, opened its doors to girls and from it were -graduated young students to lead in the woman movement. Sarah J. Hale, -who in 1827 became the editor of a "Ladies' Magazine," published in -Boston, conducted a campaign for equal educational opportunities which -helped to bear fruit in the founding of Vassar College shortly after the -Civil War. - -=The Desire to Effect Reforms.=--As they came to study their own history -and their own part in civilization, women naturally became deeply -interested in all the controversies going on around them. The temperance -question made a special appeal to them and they organized to demand the -right to be heard on it. In 1846 the "Daughters of Temperance" formed a -secret society favoring prohibition. They dared to criticize the -churches for their indifference and were so bold as to ask that -drunkenness be made a ground for divorce. - -The slavery issue even more than temperance called women into public -life. The Grimke sisters of South Carolina emancipated their bondmen, -and one of these sisters, exiled from Charleston for her "Appeal to the -Christian Women of the South," went North to work against the slavery -system. In 1837 the National Women's Anti-Slavery Convention met in New -York; seventy-one women delegates represented eight states. Three years -later eight American women, five of them in Quaker costume, attended the -World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, much to the horror of the men, -who promptly excluded them from the sessions on the ground that it was -not fitting for women to take part in such meetings. - -In other spheres of activity, especially social service, women steadily -enlarged their interest. Nothing human did they consider alien to them. -They inveighed against cruel criminal laws and unsanitary prisons. They -organized poor relief and led in private philanthropy. Dorothea Dix -directed the movement that induced the New York legislature to establish -in 1845 a separate asylum for the criminal insane. In the same year -Sarah G. Bagley organized the Lowell Female Reform Association for the -purpose of reducing the long hours of labor for women, safeguarding "the -constitutions of future generations." Mrs. Eliza Woodson Farnham, matron -in Sing Sing penitentiary, was known throughout the nation for her -social work, especially prison reform. Wherever there were misery and -suffering, women were preparing programs of relief. - -=Freedom of Speech for Women.=--In the advancement of their causes, of -whatever kind, women of necessity had to make public appeals and take -part in open meetings. Here they encountered difficulties. The -appearance of women on the platform was new and strange. Naturally it -was widely resented. Antoinette Brown, although she had credentials as a -delegate, was driven off the platform of a temperance convention in New -York City simply because she was a woman. James Russell Lowell, editor -of the "Atlantic Monthly," declined a poem from Julia Ward Howe on the -theory that no woman could write a poem; but he added on second thought -that he might consider an article in prose. Nathaniel Hawthorne, -another editor, even objected to something in prose because to him "all -ink-stained women were equally detestable." To the natural resentment -against their intrusion into new fields was added that aroused by their -ideas and methods. As temperance reformers, they criticized in a caustic -manner those who would not accept their opinions. As opponents of -slavery they were especially bitter. One of their conventions, held at -Philadelphia in 1833, passed a resolution calling on all women to leave -those churches that would not condemn every form of human bondage. This -stirred against them many of the clergy who, accustomed to having women -sit silent during services, were in no mood to treat such a revolt -leniently. Then came the last straw. Women decided that they would -preach--out of the pulpit first, and finally in it. - -=Women in Industry.=--The period of this ferment was also the age of the -industrial revolution in America, the rise of the factory system, and -the growth of mill towns. The labor of women was transferred from the -homes to the factories. Then arose many questions: the hours of labor, -the sanitary conditions of the mills, the pressure of foreign -immigration on native labor, the wages of women as compared with those -of men, and the right of married women to their own earnings. Labor -organizations sprang up among working women. The mill girls of Lowell, -Massachusetts, mainly the daughters of New England farmers, published a -magazine, "The Lowell Offering." So excellent were their writings that -the French statesman, Thiers, carried a copy of their paper into the -Chamber of Deputies to show what working women could achieve in a -republic. As women were now admittedly earning their own way in the -world by their own labor, they began to talk of their "economic -independence." - -=The World Shaken by Revolution.=--Such was the quickening of women's -minds in 1848 when the world was startled once more by a revolution in -France which spread to Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. -Once more the people of the earth began to explore the principles of -democracy and expound human rights. Women, now better educated and more -"advanced" in their ideas, played a role of still greater importance in -that revolution. They led in agitations and uprisings. They suffered -from reaction and persecution. From their prison in France, two of them -who had been jailed for too much insistence on women's rights exchanged -greetings with American women who were raising the same issue here. By -this time the women had more supporters among the men. Horace Greeley, -editor of the New York _Tribune_, though he afterwards recanted, used -his powerful pen in their behalf. Anti-slavery leaders welcomed their -aid and repaid them by urging the enfranchisement of women. - -=The Woman's Rights Convention of 1848.=--The forces, moral and -intellectual, which had been stirring among women, crystallized a few -months after the outbreak of the European revolution in the first -Woman's Rights Convention in the history of America. It met at Seneca -Falls, New York, in 1848, on the call of Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright, -Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock, three of them Quakers. -Accustomed to take part in church meetings with men, the Quakers -naturally suggested that men as well as women be invited to attend the -convention. Indeed, a man presided over the conference, for that -position seemed too presumptuous even for such stout advocates of -woman's rights. - -The deliberations of the Seneca Falls convention resulted in a -Declaration of Rights modeled after the Declaration of Independence. For -example, the preamble began: "When in the course of human events it -becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among -the people of the earth a position different from that which they have -hitherto occupied...." So also it closed: "Such has been the patient -suffering of women under this government and such is now the necessity -which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are -entitled." Then followed the list of grievances, the same number which -had been exhibited to George III in 1776. Especially did they assail the -disabilities imposed upon them by the English common law imported into -America--the law which denied married women their property, their wages, -and their legal existence as separate persons. All these grievances they -recited to "a candid world." The remedies for the evils which they -endured were then set forth in detail. They demanded "equal rights" in -the colleges, trades, and professions; equal suffrage; the right to -share in all political offices, honors, and emoluments; the right to -complete equality in marriage, including equal guardianship of the -children; and for married women the right to own property, to keep -wages, to make contracts, to transact business, and to testify in the -courts of justice. In short, they declared women to be persons as men -are persons and entitled to all the rights and privileges of human -beings. Such was the clarion call which went forth to the world in -1848--to an amused and contemptuous world, it must be admitted--but to a -world fated to heed and obey. - -=The First Gains in Civil Liberty.=--The convention of 1848 did not make -political enfranchisement the leading issue. Rather did it emphasize the -civil disabilities of women which were most seriously under discussion -at the time. Indeed, the New York legislature of that very year, as the -result of a twelve years' agitation, passed the Married Woman's Property -Act setting aside the general principles of the English common law as -applied to women and giving them many of the "rights of man." California -and Wisconsin followed in 1850; Massachusetts in 1854; and Kansas in -1859. Other states soon fell into line. Women's earnings and -inheritances were at last their own in some states at least. In a little -while laws were passed granting women rights as equal guardians of their -children and permitting them to divorce their husbands on the grounds of -cruelty and drunkenness. - -By degrees other steps were taken. The Woman's Medical College of -Pennsylvania was founded in 1850, and the Philadelphia School of Design -for Women three years later. In 1852 the American Women's Educational -Association was formed to initiate an agitation for enlarged -educational opportunities for women. Other colleges soon emulated the -example of Oberlin: the University of Utah in 1850; Hillsdale College in -Michigan in 1855; Baker University in Kansas in 1858; and the University -of Iowa in 1860. New trades and professions were opened to women and old -prejudices against their activities and demands slowly gave way. - - -THE NATIONAL STRUGGLE FOR WOMAN SUFFRAGE - -=The Beginnings of Organization.=--As women surmounted one obstacle -after another, the agitation for equal suffrage came to the front. If -any year is to be fixed as the date of its beginning, it may very well -be 1850, when the suffragists of Ohio urged the state constitutional -convention to confer the vote upon them. With apparent spontaneity there -were held in the same year state suffrage conferences in Indiana, -Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts; and connections were formed among the -leaders of these meetings. At the same time the first national suffrage -convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, on the call of -eighty-nine leading men and women representing six states. Accounts of -the convention were widely circulated in this country and abroad. -English women,--for instance, Harriet Martineau,--sent words of -appreciation for the work thus inaugurated. It inspired a leading -article in the "Westminster Review," which deeply interested the -distinguished economist, John Stuart Mill. Soon he was the champion of -woman suffrage in the British Parliament and the author of a powerful -tract _The Subjection of Women_, widely read throughout the -English-speaking world. Thus do world movements grow. Strange to relate -the women of England were enfranchised before the adoption of the -federal suffrage amendment in America. - -The national suffrage convention of 1850 was followed by an -extraordinary outburst of agitation. Pamphlets streamed from the press. -Petitions to legislative bodies were drafted, signed, and presented. -There were addresses by favorite orators like Garrison, Phillips, and -Curtis, and lectures and poems by men like Emerson, Longfellow, and -Whittier. In 1853 the first suffrage paper was founded by the wife of a -member of Congress from Rhode Island. By this time the last barrier to -white manhood suffrage in the North had been swept away and the woman's -movement was gaining momentum every year. - -=The Suffrage Movement Checked by the Civil War.=--Advocates of woman -suffrage believed themselves on the high road to success when the Civil -War engaged the energies and labors of the nation. Northern women became -absorbed in the struggle to preserve the union. They held no suffrage -conventions for five years. They transformed their associations into -Loyalty Leagues. They banded together to buy only domestic goods when -foreign imports threatened to ruin American markets. They rolled up -monster petitions in favor of the emancipation of slaves. In hospitals, -in military prisons, in agriculture, and in industry they bore their -full share of responsibility. Even when the New York legislature took -advantage of their unguarded moments and repealed the law giving the -mother equal rights with the father in the guardianship of children, -they refused to lay aside war work for agitation. As in all other wars, -their devotion was unstinted and their sacrifices equal to the -necessities of the hour. - -=The Federal Suffrage Amendment.=--Their plans and activities, when the -war closed, were shaped by events beyond their control. The emancipation -of the slaves and their proposed enfranchisement made prominent the -question of a national suffrage for the first time in our history. -Friends of the colored man insisted that his civil liberties would not -be safe unless he was granted the right to vote. The woman suffragists -very pertinently asked why the same principle did not apply to women. -The answer which they received was negative. The fourteenth amendment to -the federal Constitution, adopted in 1868, definitely put women aside by -limiting the scope of its application, so far as the suffrage was -concerned, to the male sex. In making manhood suffrage national, -however, it nationalized the issue. - -This was the signal for the advocates of woman suffrage. In March, 1869, -their proposed amendment was introduced in Congress by George W. Julian -of Indiana. It provided that no citizen should be deprived of the vote -on account of sex, following the language of the fifteenth amendment -which forbade disfranchisement on account of race. Support for the -amendment, coming from many directions, led the suffragists to believe -that their case was hopeful. In their platform of 1872, for example, the -Republicans praised the women for their loyal devotion to freedom, -welcomed them to spheres of wider usefulness, and declared that the -demand of any class of citizens for additional rights deserved -"respectful consideration." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -SUSAN B. ANTHONY] - -Experience soon demonstrated, however, that praise was not the ballot. -Indeed the suffragists already had realized that a tedious contest lay -before them. They had revived in 1866 their regular national convention. -They gave the name of "The Revolution" to their paper, edited by -Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. They formed a national -suffrage association and organized annual pilgrimages to Congress to -present their claims. Such activities bore some results. Many eminent -congressmen were converted to their cause and presented it ably to their -colleagues of both chambers. Still the subject was ridiculed by the -newspapers and looked upon as freakish by the masses. - -=The State Campaigns.=--Discouraged by the outcome of the national -campaign, suffragists turned to the voters of the individual states and -sought the ballot at their hands. Gains by this process were painfully -slow. Wyoming, it is true, while still a territory, granted suffrage to -women in 1869 and continued it on becoming a state twenty years later, -in spite of strong protests in Congress. In 1893 Colorado established -complete political equality. In Utah, the third suffrage state, the -cause suffered many vicissitudes. Women were enfranchised by the -territorial legislature; they were deprived of the ballot by Congress in -1887; finally in 1896 on the admission of Utah to the union they -recovered their former rights. During the same year, 1896, Idaho -conferred equal suffrage upon the women. This was the last suffrage -victory for more than a decade. - -=The Suffrage Cause in Congress.=--In the midst of the meager gains -among the states there were occasional flurries of hope for immediate -action on the federal amendment. Between 1878 and 1896 the Senate -committee reported the suffrage resolution by a favorable majority on -five different occasions. During the same period, however, there were -nine unfavorable reports and only once did the subject reach the point -of a general debate. At no time could anything like the required -two-thirds vote be obtained. - -=The Changing Status of Women.=--While the suffrage movement was -lagging, the activities of women in other directions were steadily -multiplying. College after college--Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Smith, Wellesley, -to mention a few--was founded to give them the advantages of higher -education. Other institutions, especially the state universities of the -West, opened their doors to women, and women were received into the -professions of law and medicine. By the rapid growth of public high -schools in which girls enjoyed the same rights as boys, education was -extended still more widely. The number of women teachers increased by -leaps and bounds. - -Meanwhile women were entering nearly every branch of industry and -business. How many of them worked at gainful occupations before 1870 we -do not know; but from that year forward we have the records of the -census. Between 1870 and 1900 the proportion of women in the professions -rose from less than two per cent to more than ten per cent; in trade and -transportation from 24.8 per cent to 43.2 per cent; and in manufacturing -from 13 to 19 per cent. In 1910, there were over 8,000,000 women -gainfully employed as compared with 30,000,000 men. When, during the war -on Germany, the government established the principle of equal pay for -equal work and gave official recognition to the value of their services -in industry, it was discovered how far women had traveled along the road -forecast by the leaders of 1848. - -=The Club Movement among Women.=--All over the country women's societies -and clubs were started to advance this or that reform or merely to study -literature, art, and science. In time these women's organizations of all -kinds were federated into city, state, and national associations and -drawn into the consideration of public questions. Under the leadership -of Frances Willard they made temperance reform a vital issue. They took -an interest in legislation pertaining to prisons, pure food, public -health, and municipal government, among other things. At their sessions -and conferences local, state, and national issues were discussed until -finally, it seems, everything led to the quest of the franchise. By -solemn resolution in 1914 the National Federation of Women's Clubs, -representing nearly two million club women, formally endorsed woman -suffrage. In the same year the National Education Association, speaking -for the public school teachers of the land, added its seal of approval. - -=State and National Action.=--Again the suffrage movement was in full -swing in the states. Washington in 1910, California in 1911, Oregon, -Kansas, and Arizona in 1912, Nevada and Montana in 1914 by popular vote -enfranchised their women. Illinois in 1913 conferred upon them the right -to vote for President of the United States. The time had arrived for a -new movement. A number of younger suffragists sought to use the votes of -women in the equal suffrage states to compel one or both of the national -political parties to endorse and carry through Congress the federal -suffrage amendment. Pressure then came upon Congress from every -direction: from the suffragists who made a straight appeal on the -grounds of justice; and from the suffragists who besought the women of -the West to vote against candidates for President, who would not approve -the federal amendment. In 1916, for the first time, a leading -presidential candidate, Mr. Charles E. Hughes, speaking for the -Republicans, endorsed the federal amendment and a distinguished -ex-President, Roosevelt, exerted a powerful influence to keep it an -issue in the campaign. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -CONFERENCE OF MEN AND WOMEN DELEGATES AT A NATIONAL CONVENTION IN -1920] - -=National Enfranchisement.=--After that, events moved rapidly. The great -state of New York adopted equal suffrage in 1917. Oklahoma, South -Dakota, and Michigan swung into line the following year; several other -states, by legislative action, gave women the right to vote for -President. In the meantime the suffrage battle at Washington grew -intense. Appeals and petitions poured in upon Congress and the -President. Militant suffragists held daily demonstrations in Washington. -On September 30, 1918, President Wilson, who, two years before, had -opposed federal action and endorsed suffrage by state adoption only, -went before Congress and urged the passage of the suffrage amendment to -the Constitution. In June, 1919, the requisite two-thirds vote was -secured; the resolution was carried and transmitted to the states for -ratification. On August 28, 1920, the thirty-sixth state, Tennessee, -approved the amendment, making three-fourths of the states as required -by the Constitution. Thus woman suffrage became the law of the land. A -new political democracy had been created. The age of agitation was -closed and the epoch of responsible citizenship opened. - - -=General References= - -Edith Abbott, _Women in Industry_. - -C.P. Gilman, _Woman and Economics_. - -I.H. Harper, _Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony_. - -E.R. Hecker, _Short History of Woman's Rights_. - -S.B. Anthony and I.H. Harper, _History of Woman Suffrage_ (4 vols.). - -J.W. Taylor, _Before Vassar Opened_. - -A.H. Shaw, _The Story of a Pioneer_. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Rise of the Woman Suffrage Movement.=--McMaster, _History of the -People of the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 116-121; K. Porter, -_History of Suffrage in the United States_, pp. 135-145. - -=The Development of the Suffrage Movement.=--Porter, pp. 228-254; Ogg, -_National Progress_ (American Nation Series), pp. 151-156 and p. 382. - -=Women's Labor in the Colonial Period.=--E. Abbott, _Women in Industry_, -pp. 10-34. - -=Women and the Factory System.=--Abbott, pp. 35-62. - -=Early Occupations for Women.=--Abbott, pp. 63-85. - -=Women's Wages.=--Abbott, pp. 262-316. - - -=Questions= - -1. Why were women involved in the reform movements of the new century? - -2. What is history? What determines the topics that appear in written -history? - -3. State the position of women under the old common law. - -4. What part did women play in the intellectual movement that preceded -the American Revolution? - -5. Explain the rise of the discussion of women's rights. - -6. What were some of the early writings about women? - -7. Why was there a struggle for educational opportunities? - -8. How did reform movements draw women into public affairs and what were -the chief results? - -9. Show how the rise of the factory affected the life and labor of -women. - -10. Why is the year 1848 an important year in the woman movement? -Discuss the work of the Seneca Falls convention. - -11. Enumerate some of the early gains in civil liberty for women. - -12. Trace the rise of the suffrage movement. Show the effect of the -Civil War. - -13. Review the history of the federal suffrage amendment. - -14. Summarize the history of the suffrage in the states. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY - - -=The New Economic Age.=--The spirit of criticism and the measures of -reform designed to meet it, which characterized the opening years of the -twentieth century, were merely the signs of a new age. The nation had -definitely passed into industrialism. The number of city dwellers -employed for wages as contrasted with the farmers working on their own -land was steadily mounting. The free land, once the refuge of restless -workingmen of the East and the immigrants from Europe, was a thing of -the past. As President Roosevelt later said in speaking of the great -coal strike, "a few generations ago, the American workman could have -saved money, gone West, and taken up a homestead. Now the free lands -were gone. In earlier days, a man who began with a pick and shovel might -come to own a mine. That outlet was now closed as regards the immense -majority.... The majority of men who earned wages in the coal industry, -if they wished to progress at all, were compelled to progress not by -ceasing to be wage-earners but by improving the conditions under which -all the wage-earners of the country lived and worked." - -The disappearance of the free land, President Roosevelt went on to say, -also produced "a crass inequality in the bargaining relation of the -employer and the individual employee standing alone. The great -coal-mining and coal-carrying companies which employed their tens of -thousands could easily dispense with the services of any particular -miner. The miner, on the other hand, however expert, could not dispense -with the companies. He needed a job; his wife and children would starve -if he did not get one.... Individually the miners were impotent when -they sought to enter a wage contract with the great companies; they -could make fair terms only by uniting into trade unions to bargain -collectively." It was of this state of affairs that President Taft spoke -when he favored the modification of the common law "so as to put -employees of little power and means on a level with their employers in -adjusting and agreeing upon their mutual obligations." - -John D. Rockefeller, Jr., on the side of the great captains of industry, -recognized the same facts. He said: "In the early days of the -development of industry, the employer and capital investor were -frequently one. Daily contact was had between him and his employees, who -were his friends and neighbors.... Because of the proportions which -modern industry has attained, employers and employees are too often -strangers to each other.... Personal relations can be revived only -through adequate representation of the employees. Representation is a -principle which is fundamentally just and vital to the successful -conduct of industry.... It is not consistent for us as Americans to -demand democracy in government and practice autocracy in industry.... -With the developments what they are in industry to-day, there is sure to -come a progressive evolution from aristocratic single control, whether -by capital, labor, or the state, to democratic, cooeperative control by -all three." - - -COOePERATION BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES - -=Company Unions.=--The changed economic life described by the three -eminent men just quoted was acknowledged by several great companies and -business concerns. All over the country decided efforts were made to -bridge the gulf which industry and the corporation had created. Among -the devices adopted was that of the "company union." In one of the -Western lumber mills, for example, all the employees were invited to -join a company organization; they held monthly meetings to discuss -matters of common concern; they elected a "shop committee" to confer -with the representatives of the company; and periodically the agents of -the employers attended the conferences of the men to talk over matters -of mutual interest. The function of the shop committee was to consider -wages, hours, safety rules, sanitation, recreation and other problems. -Whenever any employee had a grievance he took it up with the foreman -and, if it was not settled to his satisfaction, he brought it before the -shop committee. If the members of the shop committee decided in favor of -the man with a grievance, they attempted to settle the matter with the -company's agents. All these things failing, the dispute was transferred -to a grand meeting of all the employees with the employers' -representatives, in common council. A deadlock, if it ensued from such a -conference, was broken by calling in impartial arbitrators selected by -both sides from among citizens outside the mill. Thus the employees were -given a voice in all decisions affecting their work and welfare; rights -and grievances were treated as matters of mutual interest rather than -individual concern. Representatives of trade unions from outside, -however, were rigidly excluded from all negotiations between employers -and the employees. - -=Profit-sharing.=--Another proposal for drawing capital and labor -together was to supplement the wage system by other ties. Sometimes lump -sums were paid to employees who remained in a company's service for a -definite period of years. Again they were given a certain percentage of -the annual profits. In other instances, employees were allowed to buy -stock on easy terms and thus become part owners in the concern. This -last plan was carried so far by a large soap manufacturing company that -the employees, besides becoming stockholders, secured the right to elect -representatives to serve on the board of directors who managed the -entire business. So extensive had profit-sharing become by 1914 that the -Federal Industrial Relations Committee, appointed by the President, -deemed it worthy of a special study. Though opposed by regular trade -unions, it was undoubtedly growing in popularity. - -=Labor Managers and Welfare Work.=--Another effort of employers to meet -the problems of the new age appeared in the appointment of specialists, -known as employment managers, whose task it was to study the relations -existing between masters and workers and discover practical methods for -dealing with each grievance as it arose. By 1918, hundreds of big -companies had recognized this modern "profession" and universities were -giving courses of instruction on the subject to young men and women. In -that year a national conference of employment managers was held at -Rochester, New York. The discussion revealed a wide range of duties -assigned to managers, including questions of wages, hours, sanitation, -rest rooms, recreational facilities, and welfare work of every kind -designed to make the conditions in mills and factories safer and more -humane. Thus it was evident that hundreds of employers had abandoned the -old idea that they were dealing merely with individual employees and -that their obligations ended with the payment of any wages they saw fit -to fix. In short, they were seeking to develop a spirit of cooeperation -to take the place of competition and enmity; and to increase the -production of commodities by promoting the efficiency and happiness of -the producers. - - -THE RISE AND GROWTH OF ORGANIZED LABOR - -=The American Federation of Labor.=--Meanwhile a powerful association of -workers representing all the leading trades and crafts, organized into -unions of their own, had been built up outside the control of employers. -This was the American Federation of Labor, a nation-wide union of -unions, founded in 1886 on the basis of beginnings made five years -before. At the time of its establishment it had approximately 150,000 -members. Its growth up to the end of the century was slow, for the total -enrollment in 1900 was only 300,000. At that point the increase became -marked. The membership reached 1,650,000 in 1904 and more than 3,000,000 -in 1919. To be counted in the ranks of organized labor were several -strong unions, friendly to the Federation, though not affiliated with -it. Such, for example, were the Railway Brotherhoods with more than half -a million members. By the opening of 1920 the total strength of -organized labor was put at about 4,000,000 members, meaning, if we -include their families, that nearly one-fifth of the people of the -United States were in some positive way dependent upon the operations of -trade unions. - -=Historical Background.=--This was the culmination of a long and -significant history. Before the end of the eighteenth century, the -skilled workmen--printers, shoemakers, tailors, and carpenters--had, as -we have seen, formed local unions in the large cities. Between 1830 and -1860, several aggressive steps were taken in the American labor -movement. For one thing, the number of local unions increased by leaps -and bounds in all the industrial towns. For another, there was -established in every large manufacturing city a central labor body -composed of delegates from the unions of the separate trades. In the -local union the printers or the cordwainers, for example, considered -only their special trade problems. In the central labor union, printers, -cordwainers, iron molders, and other craftsmen considered common -problems and learned to cooeperate with one another in enforcing the -demands of each craft. A third step was the federation of the unions of -the same craftsmen in different cities. The printers of New York, -Philadelphia, Boston, and other towns, for instance, drew together and -formed a national trade union of printers built upon the local unions of -that craft. By the eve of the Civil War there were four or five powerful -national unions of this character. The expansion of the railway made -travel and correspondence easier and national conventions possible even -for workmen of small means. About 1834 an attempt was made to federate -the unions of all the different crafts into a national organization; but -the effort was premature. - -_The National Labor Union._--The plan which failed in 1834 was tried -again in the sixties. During the war, industries and railways had -flourished as never before; prices had risen rapidly; the demand for -labor had increased; wages had mounted slowly, but steadily. Hundreds of -new local unions had been founded and eight or ten national trade unions -had sprung into being. The time was ripe, it seemed, for a national -consolidation of all labor's forces; and in 1866, the year after the -surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, the "National Labor Union" was -formed at Baltimore under the leadership of an experienced organizer, -W.H. Sylvis of the iron molders. The purpose of the National Labor Union -was not merely to secure labor's standard demands touching hours, wages, -and conditions of work or to maintain the gains already won. It leaned -toward political action and radical opinions. Above all, it sought to -eliminate the conflict between capital and labor by making workingmen -the owners of shops through the formation of cooeperative industries. For -six years the National Labor Union continued to hold conferences and -carry on its propaganda; but most of the cooeperative enterprises failed, -political dissensions arose, and by 1872 the experiment had come to an -end. - -_The Knights of Labor._--While the National Labor Union was -experimenting, there grew up in the industrial world a more radical -organization known as the "Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." It was -founded in Philadelphia in 1869, first as a secret society with rituals, -signs, and pass words; "so that no spy of the boss can find his way into -the lodge room to betray his fellows," as the Knights put it. In form -the new organization was simple. It sought to bring all laborers, -skilled and unskilled, men and women, white and colored, into a mighty -body of local and national unions without distinction of trade or craft. -By 1885, ten years after the national organization was established, it -boasted a membership of over 700,000. In philosophy, the Knights of -Labor were socialistic, for they advocated public ownership of the -railways and other utilities and the formation of cooeperative societies -to own and manage stores and factories. - -As the Knights were radical in spirit and their strikes, numerous and -prolonged, were often accompanied by violence, the organization alarmed -employers and the general public, raising up against itself a vigorous -opposition. Weaknesses within, as well as foes from without, started the -Knights on the path to dissolution. They waged more strikes than they -could carry on successfully; their cooeperative experiments failed as -those of other labor groups before them had failed; and the rank and -file could not be kept in line. The majority of the members wanted -immediate gains in wages or the reduction of hours; when their hopes -were not realized they drifted away from the order. The troubles were -increased by the appearance of the American Federation of Labor, a still -mightier organization composed mainly of skilled workers who held -strategic positions in industry. When they failed to secure the -effective support of the Federation in their efforts to organize the -unskilled, the employers closed in upon them; then the Knights declined -rapidly in power. By 1890 they were a negligible factor and in a short -time they passed into the limbo of dead experiments. - -=The Policies of the American Federation.=--Unlike the Knights of Labor, -the American Federation of Labor sought, first of all, to be very -practical in its objects and methods. It avoided all kinds of -socialistic theories and attended strictly to the business of organizing -unions for the purpose of increasing wages, shortening hours, and -improving working conditions for its members. It did not try to include -everybody in one big union but brought together the employees of each -particular craft whose interests were clearly the same. To prepare for -strikes and periods of unemployment, it raised large funds by imposing -heavy dues and created a benefit system to hold men loyally to the -union. In order to permit action on a national scale, it gave the -superior officers extensive powers over local unions. - -While declaring that employers and employees had much in common, the -Federation strongly opposed company unions. Employers, it argued, were -affiliated with the National Manufacturers' Association or with similar -employers' organizations; every important industry was now national in -scope; and wages and hours, in view of competition with other shops, -could not be determined in a single factory, no matter how amicable -might be the relations of the company and its workers in that particular -plant. For these reasons, the Federation declared company unions and -local shop committees inherently weak; it insisted that hours, wages, -and other labor standards should be fixed by general trade agreements -applicable to all the plants of a given industry, even if subject to -local modifications. - -At the same time, the Federation, far from deliberately antagonizing -employers, sought to enlist their cooeperation and support. It affiliated -with the National Civic Federation, an association of business men, -financiers, and professional men, founded in 1900 to promote friendly -relations in the industrial world. In brief, the American Federation of -Labor accepted the modern industrial system and, by organization within -it, endeavored to secure certain definite terms and conditions for trade -unionists. - - -THE WIDER RELATIONS OF ORGANIZED LABOR - -=The Socialists.=--The trade unionism "pure and simple," espoused by the -American Federation of Labor, seemed to involve at first glance nothing -but businesslike negotiations with employers. In practice it did not -work out that way. The Federation was only six years old when a new -organization, appealing directly for the labor vote--namely, the -Socialist Labor Party--nominated a candidate for President, launched -into a national campaign, and called upon trade unionists to desert the -older parties and enter its fold. - -The socialistic idea, introduced into national politics in 1892, had -been long in germination. Before the Civil War, a number of reformers, -including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Horace Greeley, and Wendell Phillips, -deeply moved by the poverty of the great industrial cities, had -earnestly sought relief in the establishment of cooeperative or -communistic colonies. They believed that people should go into the -country, secure land and tools, own them in common so that no one could -profit from exclusive ownership, and produce by common labor the food -and clothing necessary for their support. For a time this movement -attracted wide interest, but it had little vitality. Nearly all the -colonies failed. Selfishness and indolence usually disrupted the best of -them. - -In the course of time this "Utopian" idea was abandoned, and another set -of socialist doctrines, claiming to be more "scientific," appeared -instead. The new school of socialists, adopting the principles of a -German writer and agitator, Karl Marx, appealed directly to workingmen. -It urged them to unite against the capitalists, to get possession of the -machinery of government, and to introduce collective or public ownership -of railways, land, mines, mills, and other means of production. The -Marxian socialists, therefore, became political. They sought to organize -labor and to win elections. Like the other parties they put forward -candidates and platforms. The Socialist Labor party in 1892, for -example, declared in favor of government ownership of utilities, free -school books, woman suffrage, heavy income taxes, and the referendum. -The Socialist party, founded in 1900, with Eugene V. Debs, the leader of -the Pullman strike, as its candidate, called for public ownership of all -trusts, monopolies, mines, railways; and the chief means of production. -In the course of time the vote of the latter organization rose to -considerable proportions, reaching almost a million in 1912. It declined -four years later and then rose in 1920 to about the same figure. - -In their appeal for votes, the socialists of every type turned first to -labor. At the annual conventions of the American Federation of Labor -they besought the delegates to endorse socialism. The president of the -Federation, Samuel Gompers, on each occasion took the floor against -them. He repudiated socialism and the socialists, on both theoretical -and practical grounds. He opposed too much public ownership, declaring -that the government was as likely as any private employer to oppress -labor. The approval of socialism, he maintained, would split the -Federation on the rock of politics, weaken it in its fight for higher -wages and shorter hours, and prejudice the public against it. At every -turn he was able to vanquish the socialists in the Federation, although -he could not prevent it from endorsing public ownership of the railways -at the convention of 1920. - -=The Extreme Radicals.=--Some of the socialists, defeated in their -efforts to capture organized labor and seeing that the gains in -elections were very meager, broke away from both trade unionism and -politics. One faction, the Industrial Workers of the World, founded in -1905, declared themselves opposed to all capitalists, the wages system, -and craft unions. They asserted that the "working class and the -employing class have nothing in common" and that trade unions only -pitted one set of workers against another set. They repudiated all -government ownership and the government itself, boldly proclaiming their -intention to unite all employees into one big union and seize the -railways, mines, and mills of the country. This doctrine, so -revolutionary in tone, called down upon the extremists the condemnation -of the American Federation of Labor as well as of the general public. At -its convention in 1919, the Federation went on record as "opposed to -Bolshevism, I.W.W.-ism, and the irresponsible leadership that encourages -such a policy." It announced its "firm adherence to American ideals." - -=The Federation and Political Issues.=--The hostility of the Federation -to the socialists did not mean, however, that it was indifferent to -political issues or political parties. On the contrary, from time to -time, at its annual conventions, it endorsed political and social -reforms, such as the initiative, referendum, and recall, the abolition -of child labor, the exclusion of Oriental labor, old-age pensions, and -government ownership. Moreover it adopted the policy of "rewarding -friends and punishing enemies" by advising members to vote for or -against candidates according to their stand on the demands of organized -labor. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -SAMUEL GOMPERS AND OTHER LABOR LEADERS] - -This policy was pursued with especial zeal in connection with disputes -over the use of injunctions in labor controversies. An injunction is a -bill or writ issued by a judge ordering some person or corporation to do -or to refrain from doing something. For example, a judge may order a -trade union to refrain from interfering with non-union men or to -continue at work handling goods made by non-union labor; and he may fine -or imprison those who disobey his injunction, the penalty being -inflicted for "contempt of court." This ancient legal device came into -prominence in connection with nation-wide railway strikes in 1877. It -was applied with increasing frequency after its effective use against -Eugene V. Debs in the Pullman strike of 1894. - -Aroused by the extensive use of the writ, organized labor demanded that -the power of judges to issue injunctions in labor disputes be limited by -law. Representatives of the unions sought support from the Democrats and -the Republicans; they received from the former very specific and cordial -endorsement. In 1896 the Democratic platform denounced "government by -injunction as a new and highly dangerous form of oppression." Mr. -Gompers, while refusing to commit the Federation to Democratic politics, -privately supported Mr. Bryan. In 1908, he came out openly and boasted -that eighty per cent of the votes of the Federation had been cast for -the Democratic candidate. Again in 1912 the same policy was pursued. The -reward was the enactment in 1914 of a federal law exempting trade unions -from prosecution as combinations in restraint of trade, limiting the use -of the injunction in labor disputes, and prescribing trial by jury in -case of contempt of court. This measure was hailed by Mr. Gompers as the -"Magna Carta of Labor" and a vindication of his policy. As a matter of -fact, however, it did not prevent the continued use of injunctions -against trade unions. Nevertheless Mr. Gompers was unshaken in his -conviction that organized labor should not attempt to form an -independent political party or endorse socialist or other radical -economic theories. - -=Organized Labor and the Public.=--Besides its relations to employers, -radicals within its own ranks, and political questions, the Federation -had to face responsibilities to the general public. With the passing of -time these became heavy and grave. While industries were small and -conflicts were local in character, a strike seldom affected anybody but -the employer and the employees immediately involved in it. When, -however, industries and trade unions became organized on a national -scale and a strike could paralyze a basic enterprise like coal mining or -railways, the vital interests of all citizens were put in jeopardy. -Moreover, as increases in wages and reductions in hours often added -directly to the cost of living, the action of the unions affected the -well-being of all--the food, clothing, and shelter of the whole people. - -For the purpose of meeting the issue raised by this state of affairs, it -was suggested that employers and employees should lay their disputes -before commissions of arbitration for decision and settlement. President -Cleveland, in a message of April 2, 1886, proposed such a method for -disposing of industrial controversies, and two years later Congress -enacted a voluntary arbitration law applicable to the railways. The -principle was extended in 1898 and again in 1913, and under the -authority of the federal government many contentions in the railway -world were settled by arbitration. - -The success of such legislation induced some students of industrial -questions to urge that unions and employers should be compelled to -submit all disputes to official tribunals of arbitration. Kansas -actually passed such a law in 1920. Congress in the Esch-Cummins railway -bill of the same year created a federal board of nine members to which -all railway controversies, not settled by negotiation, must be -submitted. Strikes, however, were not absolutely forbidden. Generally -speaking, both employers and employees opposed compulsory adjustments -without offering any substitute in case voluntary arbitration should not -be accepted by both parties to a dispute. - - -IMMIGRATION AND AMERICANIZATION - -=The Problems of Immigration.=--From its very inception, the American -Federation of Labor, like the Knights of Labor before it, was confronted -by numerous questions raised by the ever swelling tide of aliens coming -to our shores. In its effort to make each trade union all-inclusive, it -had to wrestle with a score or more languages. When it succeeded in -thoroughly organizing a craft, it often found its purposes defeated by -an influx of foreigners ready to work for lower wages and thus undermine -the foundations of the union. - -At the same time, persons outside the labor movement began to be -apprehensive as they contemplated the undoubted evil, as well as the -good, that seemed to be associated with the "alien invasion." They saw -whole sections of great cities occupied by people speaking foreign -tongues, reading only foreign newspapers, and looking to the Old World -alone for their ideas and their customs. They witnessed an expanding -army of total illiterates, men and women who could read and write no -language at all; while among those aliens who could read few there were -who knew anything of American history, traditions, and ideals. Official -reports revealed that over twenty per cent of the men of the draft army -during the World War could not read a newspaper or write a letter home. -Perhaps most alarming of all was the discovery that thousands of alien -men are in the United States only on a temporary sojourn, solely to make -money and return home with their savings. These men, willing to work for -low wages and live in places unfit for human beings, have no stake in -this country and do not care what becomes of it. - -=The Restriction of Immigration.=--In all this there was, strictly -speaking, no cause for surprise. Since the foundation of our republic -the policy of the government had been to encourage the coming of the -alien. For nearly one hundred years no restraining act was passed by -Congress, while two important laws positively encouraged it; namely, the -homestead act of 1862 and the contract immigration law of 1864. Not -until American workingmen came into open collision with cheap Chinese -labor on the Pacific Coast did the federal government spread the first -measure of limitation on the statute books. After the discovery of gold, -and particularly after the opening of the railway construction era, a -horde of laborers from China descended upon California. Accustomed to -starvation wages and indifferent to the conditions of living, they -threatened to cut the American standard to the point of subsistence. By -1876 the protest of American labor was loud and long and both the -Republicans and the Democrats gave heed to it. In 1882 Congress enacted -a law prohibiting the admission of Chinese laborers to the United States -for a term of ten years--later extended by legislation. In a little -while the demand arose for the exclusion of the Japanese as well. In -this case no exclusion law was passed; but an understanding was reached -by which Japan agreed not to issue passports to her laborers authorizing -them to come to the United States. By act of Congress in 1907 the -President was empowered to exclude any laborers who, having passports to -Canada, Hawaii, or Mexico, attempted to enter our country. - -These laws and agreements, however, did not remove all grounds for the -agitation of the subject. They were difficult to enforce and it was -claimed by residents of the Coast that in spite of federal authority -Oriental laborers were finding their way into American ports. Moreover, -several Western states, anxious to preserve the soil for American -ownership, enacted laws making it impossible for Chinese and Japanese to -buy land outright; and in other ways they discriminated against -Orientals. Such proceedings placed the federal government in an -embarrassing position. By treaty it had guaranteed specific rights to -Japanese citizens in the United States, and the government at Tokyo -contended that the state laws just cited violated the terms of the -international agreement. The Western states were fixed in their -determination to control Oriental residents; Japan was equally -persistent in asking that no badge of inferiority be attached to her -citizens. Subjected to pressure on both sides, the federal government -sought a way out of the deadlock. - -Having embarked upon the policy of restriction in 1882, Congress readily -extended it. In that same year it barred paupers, criminals, convicts, -and the insane. Three years later, mainly owing to the pressure of the -Knights of Labor, it forbade any person, company, or association to -import aliens under contract. By an act of 1887, the contract labor -restriction was made even more severe. In 1903, anarchists were excluded -and the bureau of immigration was transferred from the Treasury -Department to the Department of Commerce and Labor, in order to provide -for a more rigid execution of the law. In 1907 the classes of persons -denied admission were widened to embrace those suffering from physical -and mental defects and otherwise unfit for effective citizenship. When -the Department of Labor was established in 1913 the enforcement of the -law was placed in the hands of the Secretary of Labor, W.B. Wilson, who -was a former leader in the American Federation of Labor. - -=The Literacy Test.=--Still the advocates of restriction were not -satisfied. Still organized labor protested and demanded more protection -against the competition of immigrants. In 1917 it won a thirty-year -battle in the passage of a bill excluding "all aliens over sixteen years -of age, physically capable of reading, who cannot read the English -language or some other language or dialect, including Hebrew or -Yiddish." Even President Wilson could not block it, for a two-thirds -vote to overcome his veto was mustered in Congress. - -This act, while it served to exclude illiterates, made no drastic cut in -the volume of immigration. Indeed a material reduction was resolutely -opposed in many quarters. People of certain nationalities already in the -United States objected to every barrier that shut out their own kinsmen. -Some Americans of the old stock still held to the idea that the United -States should continue to be an asylum for "the oppressed of the earth." -Many employers looked upon an increased labor supply as the means of -escaping what they called "the domination of trade unions." In the babel -of countless voices, the discussion of these vital matters went on in -town and country. - -=Americanization.=--Intimately connected with the subject of immigration -was a call for the "Americanization" of the alien already within our -gates. The revelation of the illiteracy in the army raised the cry and -the demand was intensified when it was found that many of the leaders -among the extreme radicals were foreign in birth and citizenship. -Innumerable programs for assimilating the alien to American life were -drawn up, and in 1919 a national conference on the subject was held in -Washington under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. All -were agreed that the foreigner should be taught to speak and write the -language and understand the government of our country. Congress was -urged to lend aid in this vast undertaking. America, as ex-President -Roosevelt had said, was to find out "whether it was a nation or a -boarding-house." - - -=General References= - -J.R. Commons and Associates, _History of Labor in the United States_ (2 -vols.). - -Samuel Gompers, _Labor and the Common Welfare_. - -W.E. Walling, _Socialism as It Is_. - -W.E. Walling (and Others), _The Socialism of Today_. - -R.T. Ely, _The Labor Movement in America_. - -T.S. Adams and H. Sumner, _Labor Problems_. - -J.G. Brooks, _American Syndicalism_ and _Social Unrest_. - -P.F. Hall, _Immigration and Its Effects on the United States_. - - -=Research Topics= - -=The Rise of Trade Unionism.=--Mary Beard, _Short History of the -American Labor Movement_, pp. 10-18, 47-53, 62-79; Carlton, _Organized -Labor in American History_, pp. 11-44. - -=Labor and Politics.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 33-46, 54-61, -103-112; Carlton, pp. 169-197; Ogg, _National Progress_ (American Nation -Series), pp. 76-85. - -=The Knights of Labor.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. 116-126; Dewey, -_National Problems_ (American Nation Series), pp. 40-49. - -=The American Federation of Labor--Organization and Policies.=--Beard, -_Short History_, pp. 86-112. - -=Organized Labor and the Socialists.=--Beard, _Short History_, pp. -126-149. - -=Labor and the Great War.=--Carlton, pp. 282-306; Beard, _Short -History_, pp. 150-170. - - -=Questions= - -1. What are the striking features of the new economic age? - -2. Give Mr. Rockefeller's view of industrial democracy. - -3. Outline the efforts made by employers to establish closer relations -with their employees. - -4. Sketch the rise and growth of the American Federation of Labor. - -5. How far back in our history does the labor movement extend? - -6. Describe the purposes and outcome of the National Labor Union and the -Knights of Labor. - -7. State the chief policies of the American Federation of Labor. - -8. How does organized labor become involved with outside forces? - -9. Outline the rise of the socialist movement. How did it come into -contact with the American Federation? - -10. What was the relation of the Federation to the extreme radicals? To -national politics? To the public? - -11. Explain the injunction. - -12. Why are labor and immigration closely related? - -13. Outline the history of restrictions on immigration. - -14. What problems arise in connection with the assimilation of the alien -to American life? - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR - - -"The welfare, the happiness, the energy, and the spirit of the men and -women who do the daily work in our mines and factories, on our -railroads, in our offices and ports of trade, on our farms, and on the -sea are the underlying necessity of all prosperity." Thus spoke Woodrow -Wilson during his campaign for election. In this spirit, as President, -he gave the signal for work by summoning Congress in a special session -on April 7, 1913. He invited the cooeperation of all "forward-looking -men" and indicated that he would assume the role of leadership. As an -evidence of his resolve, he appeared before Congress in person to read -his first message, reviving the old custom of Washington and Adams. Then -he let it be known that he would not give his party any rest until it -fulfilled its pledges to the country. When Democratic Senators balked at -tariff reductions, they were sharply informed that the party had -plighted its word and that no excuses or delays would be tolerated. - - -DOMESTIC LEGISLATION - -=Financial Measures.=--Under this spirited leadership Congress went to -work, passing first the Underwood tariff act of 1913, which made a -downward revision in the rates of duty, fixing them on the average about -twenty-six per cent lower than the figures of 1907. The protective -principle was retained, but an effort was made to permit a moderate -element of foreign competition. As a part of the revenue act Congress -levied a tax on incomes as authorized by the sixteenth amendment to the -Constitution. The tax which roused such party passions twenty years -before was now accepted as a matter of course. - -Having disposed of the tariff, Congress took up the old and vexatious -currency question and offered a new solution in the form of the federal -reserve law of December, 1913. This measure, one of the most interesting -in the history of federal finance, embraced four leading features. In -the first place, it continued the prohibition on the issuance of notes -by state banks and provided for a national currency. In the second -place, it put the new banking system under the control of a federal -reserve board composed entirely of government officials. To prevent the -growth of a "central money power," it provided, in the third place, for -the creation of twelve federal reserve banks, one in each of twelve -great districts into which the country is divided. All local national -banks were required and certain other banks permitted to become members -of the new system and share in its control. Finally, with a view to -expanding the currency, a step which the Democrats had long urged upon -the country, the issuance of paper money, under definite safeguards, was -authorized. - -Mindful of the agricultural interest, ever dear to the heart of -Jefferson's followers, the Democrats supplemented the reserve law by the -Farm Loan Act of 1916, creating federal agencies to lend money on farm -mortgages at moderate rates of interest. Within a year $20,000,000 had -been lent to farmers, the heaviest borrowing being in nine Western and -Southern states, with Texas in the lead. - -=Anti-trust Legislation.=--The tariff and currency laws were followed by -three significant measures relative to trusts. Rejecting utterly the -Progressive doctrine of government regulation, President Wilson -announced that it was the purpose of the Democrats "to destroy monopoly -and maintain competition as the only effective instrument of business -liberty." The first step in this direction, the Clayton Anti-trust Act, -carried into great detail the Sherman law of 1890 forbidding and -penalizing combinations in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. In -every line it revealed a determined effort to tear apart the great -trusts and to put all business on a competitive basis. Its terms were -reinforced in the same year by a law creating a Federal Trade Commission -empowered to inquire into the methods of corporations and lodge -complaints against concerns "using any unfair method of competition." In -only one respect was the severity of the Democratic policy relaxed. An -act of 1918 provided that the Sherman law should not apply to companies -engaged in export trade, the purpose being to encourage large -corporations to enter foreign commerce. - -The effect of this whole body of anti-trust legislation, in spite of -much labor on it, remained problematical. Very few combinations were -dissolved as a result of it. Startling investigations were made into -alleged abuses on the part of trusts; but it could hardly be said that -huge business concerns had lost any of their predominance in American -industry. - -=Labor Legislation.=--By no mere coincidence, the Clayton Anti-trust law -of 1914 made many concessions to organized labor. It declared that "the -labor of a human being is not a commodity or an article of commerce," -and it exempted unions from prosecution as "combinations in restraint of -trade." It likewise defined and limited the uses which the federal -courts might make of injunctions in labor disputes and guaranteed trial -by jury to those guilty of disobedience (see p. 581). - -The Clayton law was followed the next year by the Seamen's Act giving -greater liberty of contract to American sailors and requiring an -improvement of living conditions on shipboard. This was such a drastic -law that shipowners declared themselves unable to meet foreign -competition under its terms, owing to the low labor standards of other -countries. - -Still more extraordinary than the Seamen's Act was the Adamson law of -1916 fixing a standard eight-hour work-day for trainmen on railroads--a -measure wrung from Congress under a threat of a great strike by the four -Railway Brotherhoods. This act, viewed by union leaders as a triumph, -called forth a bitter denunciation of "trade union domination," but it -was easier to criticize than to find another solution of the problem. - -Three other laws enacted during President Wilson's administration were -popular in the labor world. One of them provided compensation for -federal employees injured in the discharge of their duties. Another -prohibited the labor of children under a certain age in the industries -of the nation. A third prescribed for coal miners in Alaska an -eight-hour day and modern safeguards for life and health. There were -positive proofs that organized labor had obtained a large share of power -in the councils of the country. - -=Federal and State Relations.=--If the interference of the government -with business and labor represented a departure from the old idea of -"the less government the better," what can be said of a large body of -laws affecting the rights of states? The prohibition of child labor -everywhere was one indication of the new tendency. Mr. Wilson had once -declared such legislation unconstitutional; the Supreme Court declared -it unconstitutional; but Congress, undaunted, carried it into effect -under the guise of a tax on goods made by children below the age limit. -There were other indications of the drift. Large sums of money were -appropriated by Congress in 1916 to assist the states in building and -maintaining highways. The same year the Farm Loan Act projected the -federal government into the sphere of local money lending. In 1917 -millions of dollars were granted to states in aid of vocational -education, incidentally imposing uniform standards throughout the -country. Evidently the government was no longer limited to the duties of -the policeman. - -=The Prohibition Amendment.=--A still more significant form of -intervention in state affairs was the passage, in December, 1917, of an -amendment to the federal Constitution establishing national prohibition -of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as beverages. This -was the climax of a historical movement extending over half a century. -In 1872, a National Prohibition party, launched three years before, -nominated its first presidential candidate and inaugurated a campaign of -agitation. Though its vote was never large, the cause for which it -stood found increasing favor among the people. State after state by -popular referendum abolished the liquor traffic within its borders. By -1917 at least thirty-two of the forty-eight were "dry." When the federal -amendment was submitted for approval, the ratification was surprisingly -swift. In a little more than a year, namely, on January 16, 1919, it was -proclaimed. Twelve months later the amendment went into effect. - - -COLONIAL AND FOREIGN POLICIES - -=The Philippines and Porto Rico.=--Independence for the Philippines and -larger self-government for Porto Rico had been among the policies of the -Democratic party since the campaign of 1900. President Wilson in his -annual messages urged upon Congress more autonomy for the Filipinos and -a definite promise of final independence. The result was the Jones -Organic Act for the Philippines passed in 1916. This measure provided -that the upper as well as the lower house of the Philippine legislature -should be elected by popular vote, and declared it to be the intention -of the United States to grant independence "as soon as a stable -government can be established." This, said President Wilson on signing -the bill, is "a very satisfactory advance in our policy of extending to -them self-government and control of their own affairs." The following -year Congress, yielding to President Wilson's insistence, passed a new -organic act for Porto Rico, making both houses of the legislature -elective and conferring American citizenship upon the inhabitants of the -island. - -[Illustration: THE CARIBBEAN REGION] - -=American Power in the Caribbean.=--While extending more self-government -to its dominions, the United States enlarged its sphere of influence in -the Caribbean. The supervision of finances in Santo Domingo, inaugurated -in Roosevelt's administration, was transformed into a protectorate under -Wilson. In 1914 dissensions in the republic led to the landing of -American marines to "supervise" the elections. Two years later, an -officer in the American navy, with authority from Washington, placed -the entire republic "in a state of military occupation." He proceeded to -suspend the government and laws of the country, exile the president, -suppress the congress, and substitute American military authority. In -1919 a consulting board of four prominent Dominicans was appointed to -aid the American military governor; but it resigned the next year after -making a plea for the restoration of independence to the republic. For -all practical purposes, it seemed, the sovereignty of Santo Domingo had -been transferred to the United States. - -In the neighboring republic of Haiti, a similar state of affairs -existed. In the summer of 1915 a revolution broke out there--one of a -long series beginning in 1804--and our marines were landed to restore -order. Elections were held under the supervision of American officers, -and a treaty was drawn up placing the management of Haitian finances and -the local constabulary under American authority. In taking this action, -our Secretary of State was careful to announce: "The United States -government has no purpose of aggression and is entirely disinterested in -promoting this protectorate." Still it must be said that there were -vigorous protests on the part of natives and American citizens against -the conduct of our agents in the island. In 1921 President Wilson was -considering withdrawal. - -In line with American policy in the West Indian waters was the purchase -in 1917 of the Danish Islands just off the coast of Porto Rico. The -strategic position of the islands, especially in relation to Haiti and -Porto Rico, made them an object of American concern as early as 1867, -when a treaty of purchase was negotiated only to be rejected by the -Senate of the United States. In 1902 a second arrangement was made, but -this time it was defeated by the upper house of the Danish parliament. -The third treaty brought an end to fifty years of bargaining and the -Stars and Stripes were raised over St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John, and -numerous minor islands scattered about in the neighborhood. "It would be -suicidal," commented a New York newspaper, "for America, on the -threshold of a great commercial expansion in South America, to suffer a -Heligoland, or a Gibraltar, or an Aden to be erected by her rivals at -the mouth of her Suez." On the mainland American power was strengthened -by the establishment of a protectorate over Nicaragua in 1916. - -=Mexican Relations.=--The extension of American enterprise southward -into Latin America, of which the operations in the Caribbean regions -were merely one phase, naturally carried Americans into Mexico to -develop the natural resources of that country. Under the iron rule of -General Porfirio Diaz, established in 1876 and maintained with only a -short break until 1911, Mexico had become increasingly attractive to our -business men. On the invitation of President Diaz, they had invested -huge sums in Mexican lands, oil fields, and mines, and had laid the -foundations of a new industrial order. The severe regime instituted by -Diaz, however, stirred popular discontent. The peons, or serfs, demanded -the break-up of the great estates, some of which had come down from the -days of Cortez. Their clamor for "the restoration of the land to the -people could not be silenced." In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign and -left the country. - -Mexico now slid down the path to disorder. Revolutions and civil -commotions followed in swift succession. A liberal president, Madero, -installed as the successor to Diaz, was deposed in 1913 and brutally -murdered. Huerta, a military adventurer, hailed for a time as another -"strong man," succeeded Madero whose murder he was accused of -instigating. Although Great Britain and nearly all the powers of Europe -accepted the new government as lawful, the United States steadily -withheld recognition. In the meantime Mexico was torn by insurrections -under the leadership of Carranza, a friend of Madero, Villa, a bandit of -generous pretensions, and Zapata, a radical leader of the peons. Without -the support of the United States, Huerta was doomed. - -In the summer of 1914, the dictator resigned and fled from the capital, -leaving the field to Carranza. For six years the new president, -recognized by the United States, held a precarious position which he -vigorously strove to strengthen against various revolutionary movements. -At length in 1920, he too was deposed and murdered, and another military -chieftain, Obregon, installed in power. - -These events right at our door could not fail to involve the government -of the United States. In the disorders many American citizens lost their -lives. American property was destroyed and land owned by Americans was -confiscated. A new Mexican constitution, in effect nationalizing the -natural resources of the country, struck at the rights of foreign -investors. Moreover the Mexican border was in constant turmoil. Even in -the last days of his administration, Mr. Taft felt compelled to issue a -solemn warning to the Mexican government protesting against the -violation of American rights. - -President Wilson, soon after his inauguration, sent a commissioner to -Mexico to inquire into the situation. Although he declared a general -policy of "watchful waiting," he twice came to blows with Mexican -forces. In 1914 some American sailors at Tampico were arrested by a -Mexican officer; the Mexican government, although it immediately -released the men, refused to make the required apology for the incident. -As a result President Wilson ordered the landing of American forces at -Vera Cruz and the occupation of the city. A clash of arms followed in -which several Americans were killed. War seemed inevitable, but at this -juncture the governments of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile tendered their -good offices as mediators. After a few weeks of negotiation, during -which Huerta was forced out of power, American forces were withdrawn -from Vera Cruz and the incident closed. - -In 1916 a second break in amicable relations occurred. In the spring of -that year a band of Villa's men raided the town of Columbus, New Mexico, -killing several citizens and committing robberies. A punitive expedition -under the command of General Pershing was quickly sent out to capture -the offenders. Against the protests of President Carranza, American -forces penetrated deeply into Mexico without effecting the object of -the undertaking. This operation lasted until January, 1917, when the -imminence of war with Germany led to the withdrawal of the American -soldiers. Friendly relations were resumed with the Mexican government -and the policy of "watchful waiting" was continued. - - -THE UNITED STATES AND THE EUROPEAN WAR - -=The Outbreak of the War.=--In the opening days of August, 1914, the -age-long jealousies of European nations, sharpened by new imperial -ambitions, broke out in another general conflict such as had shaken the -world in the days of Napoleon. On June 28, the heir to the -Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated at Serajevo, the capital of -Bosnia, an Austrian province occupied mainly by Serbs. With a view to -stopping Serbian agitation for independence, Austria-Hungary laid the -blame for this incident on the government of Serbia and made humiliating -demands on that country. Germany at once proposed that the issue should -be regarded as "an affair which should be settled solely between -Austria-Hungary and Serbia"; meaning that the small nation should be -left to the tender mercies of a great power. Russia refused to take this -view. Great Britain proposed a settlement by mediation. Germany backed -up Austria to the limit. To use the language of the German authorities: -"We were perfectly aware that a possible warlike attitude of -Austria-Hungary against Serbia might bring Russia upon the field and -that it might therefore involve us in a war, in accordance with our -duties as allies. We could not, however, in these vital interests of -Austria-Hungary which were at stake, advise our ally to take a yielding -attitude not compatible with his dignity nor deny him our assistance." -That made the war inevitable. - -Every day of the fateful August, 1914, was crowded with momentous -events. On the 1st, Germany declared war on Russia. On the 2d, the -Germans invaded the little duchy of Luxemburg and notified the King of -Belgium that they were preparing to violate the neutrality of his realm -on their way to Paris. On the same day, Great Britain, anxiously -besought by the French government, promised the aid of the British navy -if German warships made hostile demonstrations in the Channel. August -3d, the German government declared war on France. The following day, -Great Britain demanded of Germany respect for Belgian neutrality and, -failing to receive the guarantee, broke off diplomatic relations. On the -5th, the British prime minister announced that war had opened between -England and Germany. The storm now broke in all its pitiless fury. - -=The State of American Opinion.=--Although President Wilson promptly -proclaimed the neutrality of the United States, the sympathies of a -large majority of the American people were without doubt on the side of -Great Britain and France. To them the invasion of the little kingdom of -Belgium and the horrors that accompanied German occupation were odious -in the extreme. Moreover, they regarded the German imperial government -as an autocratic power wielded in the interest of an ambitious military -party. The Kaiser, William II, and the Crown Prince were the symbols of -royal arrogance. On the other hand, many Americans of German descent, in -memory of their ties with the Fatherland, openly sympathized with the -Central Powers; and many Americans of Irish descent, recalling their -long and bitter struggle for home rule in Ireland, would have regarded -British defeat as a merited redress of ancient grievances. - -Extremely sensitive to American opinion, but ill informed about it, the -German government soon began systematic efforts to present its cause to -the people of the United States in the most favorable light possible. -Dr. Bernhard Dernburg, the former colonial secretary of the German -empire, was sent to America as a special agent. For months he filled the -newspapers, magazines, and periodicals with interviews, articles, and -notes on the justice of the Teutonic cause. From a press bureau in New -York flowed a stream of pamphlets, leaflets, and cartoons. A magazine, -"The Fatherland," was founded to secure "fair play for Germany and -Austria." Several professors in American universities, who had received -their training in Germany, took up the pen in defense of the Central -Empires. The German language press, without exception it seems, the -National German Alliance, minor German societies, and Lutheran churches -came to the support of the German cause. Even the English language -papers, though generally favorable to the Entente Allies, opened their -columns in the interest of equal justice to the spokesmen for all the -contending powers of Europe. - -Before two weeks had elapsed the controversy had become so intense that -President Wilson (August 18, 1914) was moved to caution his countrymen -against falling into angry disputes. "Every man," he said, "who really -loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality which -is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all -concerned.... We must be impartial in thought as well as in action, must -put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that -might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before -another." - -=The Clash over American Trade.=--As in the time of the Napoleonic wars, -the conflict in Europe raised fundamental questions respecting rights of -Americans trading with countries at peace as well as those at war. On -this point there existed on August 1, 1914, a fairly definite body of -principles by which nations were bound. Among them the following were of -vital significance. In the first place, it was recognized that an enemy -merchant ship caught on the high seas was a legitimate prize of war -which might be seized and confiscated. In the second place, it was -agreed that "contraband of war" found on an enemy or neutral ship was a -lawful prize; any ship suspected of carrying it was liable to search and -if caught with forbidden goods was subject to seizure. In the third -place, international law prescribed that a peaceful merchant ship, -whether belonging to an enemy or to a neutral country, should not be -destroyed or sunk without provision for the safety of crew and -passengers. In the fourth place, it was understood that a belligerent -had the right, if it could, to blockade the ports of an enemy and -prevent the ingress and egress of all ships; but such a blockade, to be -lawful, had to be effective. - -These general principles left undetermined two important matters: "What -is an effective blockade?" and "What is contraband of war?" The task of -answering these questions fell to Great Britain as mistress of the seas. -Although the German submarines made it impossible for her battleships to -maintain a continuous patrol of the waters in front of blockaded ports, -she declared the blockade to be none the less "effective" because her -navy was supreme. As to contraband of war Great Britain put such a broad -interpretation upon the term as to include nearly every important -article of commerce. Early in 1915 she declared even cargoes of grain -and flour to be contraband, defending the action on the ground that the -German government had recently taken possession of all domestic stocks -of corn, wheat, and flour. - -A new question arose in connection with American trade with the neutral -countries surrounding Germany. Great Britain early began to intercept -ships carrying oil, gasoline, and copper--all war materials of prime -importance--on the ground that they either were destined ultimately to -Germany or would release goods for sale to Germans. On November 2, 1914, -the English government announced that the Germans wore sowing mines in -open waters and that therefore the whole of the North Sea was a military -zone. Ships bound for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were ordered to come -by the English Channel for inspection and sailing directions. In effect, -Americans were now licensed by Great Britain to trade in certain -commodities and in certain amounts with neutral countries. - -Against these extraordinary measures, the State Department at Washington -lodged pointed objections, saying: "This government is reluctantly -forced to the conclusion that the present policy of His Majesty's -government toward neutral ships and cargoes exceeds the manifest -necessity of a belligerent and constitutes restrictions upon the rights -of American citizens on the high seas, which are not justified by the -rules of international law or required under the principle of -self-preservation." - -=Germany Begins the Submarine Campaign.=--Germany now announced that, on -and after February 18, 1915, the whole of the English Channel and the -waters around Great Britain would be deemed a war zone and that every -enemy ship found therein would be destroyed. The German decree added -that, as the British admiralty had ordered the use of neutral flags by -English ships in time of distress, neutral vessels would be in danger of -destruction if found in the forbidden area. It was clear that Germany -intended to employ submarines to destroy shipping. A new factor was thus -introduced into naval warfare, one not provided for in the accepted laws -of war. A warship overhauling a merchant vessel could easily take its -crew and passengers on board for safe keeping as prescribed by -international law; but a submarine ordinarily could do nothing of the -sort. Of necessity the lives and the ships of neutrals, as well as of -belligerents, were put in mortal peril. This amazing conduct Germany -justified on the ground that it was mere retaliation against Great -Britain for her violations of international law. - -The response of the United States to the ominous German order was swift -and direct. On February 10, 1915, it warned Germany that if her -commanders destroyed American lives and ships in obedience to that -decree, the action would "be very hard indeed to reconcile with the -friendly relations happily subsisting between the two governments." The -American note added that the German imperial government would be held to -"strict accountability" and all necessary steps would be taken to -safeguard American lives and American rights. This was firm and clear -language, but the only response which it evoked from Germany was a -suggestion that, if Great Britain would allow food supplies to pass -through the blockade, the submarine campaign would be dropped. - -=Violations of American Rights.=--Meanwhile Germany continued to ravage -shipping on the high seas. On January 28, a German raider sank the -American ship, _William P. Frye_, in the South Atlantic; on March 28, a -British ship, the _Falaba_, was sunk by a submarine and many on board, -including an American citizen, were killed; and on April 28, a German -airplane dropped bombs on the American steamer _Cushing_. On the morning -of May 1, 1915, Americans were astounded to see in the newspapers an -advertisement, signed by the German Imperial Embassy, warning travelers -of the dangers in the war zone and notifying them that any who ventured -on British ships into that area did so at their own risk. On that day, -the _Lusitania_, a British steamer, sailed from New York for Liverpool. -On May 7, without warning, the ship was struck by two torpedoes and in a -few minutes went down by the bow, carrying to death 1153 persons -including 114 American men, women, and children. A cry of horror ran -through the country. The German papers in America and a few American -people argued that American citizens had been duly warned of the danger -and had deliberately taken their lives into their own hands; but the -terrible deed was almost universally condemned by public opinion. - -=The _Lusitania_ Notes.=--On May 14, the Department of State at -Washington made public the first of three famous notes on the -_Lusitania_ case. It solemnly informed the German government that "no -warning that an unlawful and inhumane act will be committed can possibly -be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act or as an abatement -of the responsibility for its commission." It called upon the German -government to disavow the act, make reparation as far as possible, and -take steps to prevent "the recurrence of anything so obviously -subversive of the principles of warfare." The note closed with a clear -caution to Germany that the government of the United States would not -"omit any word or any act necessary to the performance of its sacred -duty of maintaining the rights of the United States and its citizens and -of safeguarding their free exercise and enjoyment." The die was cast; -but Germany in reply merely temporized. - -In a second note, made public on June 11, the position of the United -States was again affirmed. William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of -State, had resigned because the drift of President Wilson's policy was -not toward mediation but the strict maintenance of American rights, if -need be, by force of arms. The German reply was still evasive and German -naval commanders continued their course of sinking merchant ships. In a -third and final note of July 21, 1915, President Wilson made it clear to -Germany that he meant what he said when he wrote that he would maintain -the rights of American citizens. Finally after much discussion and -shifting about, the German ambassador on September 1, 1915, sent a brief -note to the Secretary of State: "Liners will not be sunk by our -submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of -non-combatants, provided the liners do not try to escape or offer -resistance." Editorially, the New York _Times_ declared: "It is a -triumph not only of diplomacy but of reason, of humanity, of justice, -and of truth." The Secretary of State saw in it "a recognition of the -fundamental principles for which we have contended." - -=The Presidential Election of 1916.=--In the midst of this crisis came -the presidential campaign. On the Republican side everything seemed to -depend upon the action of the Progressives. If the breach created in -1912 could be closed, victory was possible; if not, defeat was certain. -A promise of unity lay in the fact that the conventions of the -Republicans and Progressives were held simultaneously in Chicago. The -friends of Roosevelt hoped that both parties would select him as their -candidate; but this hope was not realized. The Republicans chose, and -the Progressives accepted, Charles E. Hughes, an associate justice of -the federal Supreme Court who, as governor of New York, had won a -national reputation by waging war on "machine politicians." - -In the face of the clamor for expressions of sympathy with one or the -other of the contending powers of Europe, the Republicans chose a middle -course, declaring that they would uphold all American rights "at home -and abroad, by land and by sea." This sentiment Mr. Hughes echoed in his -acceptance speech. By some it was interpreted to mean a firmer policy in -dealing with Great Britain; by others, a more vigorous handling of the -submarine menace. The Democrats, on their side, renominated President -Wilson by acclamation, reviewed with pride the legislative achievements -of the party, and commended "the splendid diplomatic victories of our -great President who has preserved the vital interests of our government -and its citizens and kept us out of war." - -In the election which ensued President Wilson's popular vote exceeded -that cast for Mr. Hughes by more than half a million, while his -electoral vote stood 277 to 254. The result was regarded, and not -without warrant, as a great personal triumph for the President. He had -received the largest vote yet cast for a presidential candidate. The -Progressive party practically disappeared, and the Socialists suffered a -severe set-back, falling far behind the vote of 1912. - -=President Wilson Urges Peace upon the Warring Nations.=--Apparently -convinced that his pacific policies had been profoundly approved by his -countrymen, President Wilson, soon after the election, addressed "peace -notes" to the European belligerents. On December 16, the German Emperor -proposed to the Allied Powers that they enter into peace negotiations, a -suggestion that was treated as a mere political maneuver by the opposing -governments. Two days later President Wilson sent a note to the warring -nations asking them to avow "the terms upon which war might be -concluded." To these notes the Central Powers replied that they were -ready to meet their antagonists in a peace conference; and Allied Powers -answered by presenting certain conditions precedent to a satisfactory -settlement. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson in an address before -the Senate, declared it to be a duty of the United States to take part -in the establishment of a stable peace on the basis of certain -principles. These were, in short: "peace without victory"; the right of -nationalities to freedom and self-government; the independence of -Poland; freedom of the seas; the reduction of armaments; and the -abolition of entangling alliances. The whole world was discussing the -President's remarkable message, when it was dumbfounded to hear, on -January 31, that the German ambassador at Washington had announced the -official renewal of ruthless submarine warfare. - - -THE UNITED STATES AT WAR - -=Steps toward War.=--Three days after the receipt of the news that the -German government intended to return to its former submarine policy, -President Wilson severed diplomatic relations with the German empire. At -the same time he explained to Congress that he desired no conflict with -Germany and would await an "overt act" before taking further steps to -preserve American rights. "God grant," he concluded, "that we may not be -challenged to defend them by acts of willful injustice on the part of -the government of Germany." Yet the challenge came. Between February 26 -and April 2, six American merchant vessels were torpedoed, in most cases -without any warning and without regard to the loss of American lives. -President Wilson therefore called upon Congress to answer the German -menace. The reply of Congress on April 6 was a resolution, passed with -only a few dissenting votes, declaring the existence of a state of war -with Germany. Austria-Hungary at once severed diplomatic relations with -the United States; but it was not until December 7 that Congress, acting -on the President's advice, declared war also on that "vassal of the -German government." - -=American War Aims.=--In many addresses at the beginning and during the -course of the war, President Wilson stated the purposes which actuated -our government in taking up arms. He first made it clear that it was a -war of self-defense. "The military masters of Germany," he exclaimed, -"denied us the right to be neutral." Proof of that lay on every hand. -Agents of the German imperial government had destroyed American lives -and American property on the high seas. They had filled our communities -with spies. They had planted bombs in ships and munition works. They had -fomented divisions among American citizens. - -Though assailed in many ways and compelled to resort to war, the United -States sought no material rewards. "The world must be made safe for -democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of -political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no -conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves." - -In a very remarkable message read to Congress on January 8, 1918, -President Wilson laid down his famous "fourteen points" summarizing the -ideals for which we were fighting. They included open treaties of peace, -openly arrived at; absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas; the -removal, as far as possible, of trade barriers among nations; reduction -of armaments; adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the -populations concerned; fair and friendly treatment of Russia; the -restoration of Belgium; righting the wrong done to France in 1871 in the -matter of Alsace-Lorraine; adjustment of Italian frontiers along the -lines of nationality; more liberty for the peoples of Austria-Hungary; -the restoration of Serbia and Rumania; the readjustment of the Turkish -Empire; an independent Poland; and an association of nations to afford -mutual guarantees to all states great and small. On a later occasion -President Wilson elaborated the last point, namely, the formation of a -league of nations to guarantee peace and establish justice among the -powers of the world. Democracy, the right of nations to determine their -own fate, a covenant of enduring peace--these were the ideals for which -the American people were to pour out their blood and treasure. - -=The Selective Draft.=--The World War became a war of nations. The -powers against which we were arrayed had every able-bodied man in -service and all their resources, human and material, thrown into the -scale. For this reason, President Wilson summoned the whole people of -the United States to make every sacrifice necessary for victory. -Congress by law decreed that the national army should be chosen from all -male citizens and males not enemy aliens who had declared their -intention of becoming citizens. By the first act of May 18, 1917, it -fixed the age limits at twenty-one to thirty-one inclusive. Later, in -August, 1918, it extended them to eighteen and forty-five. From the men -of the first group so enrolled were chosen by lot the soldiers for the -World War who, with the regular army and the national guard, formed the -American Expeditionary Force upholding the American cause on the -battlefields of Europe. "The whole nation," said the President, "must be -a team in which each man shall play the part for which he is best -fitted." - -=Liberty Loans and Taxes.=--In order that the military and naval forces -should be stinted in no respect, the nation was called upon to place its -financial resources at the service of the government. Some urged the -"conscription of wealth as well as men," meaning the support of the war -out of taxes upon great fortunes; but more conservative counsels -prevailed. Four great Liberty Loans were floated, all the agencies of -modern publicity being employed to enlist popular interest. The first -loan had four and a half million subscribers; the fourth more than -twenty million. Combined with loans were heavy taxes. A progressive tax -was laid upon incomes beginning with four per cent on incomes in the -lower ranges and rising to sixty-three per cent of that part of any -income above $2,000,000. A progressive tax was levied upon inheritances. -An excess profits tax was laid upon all corporations and partnerships, -rising in amount to sixty per cent of the net income in excess of -thirty-three per cent on the invested capital. "This," said a -distinguished economist, "is the high-water mark in the history of -taxation. Never before in the annals of civilization has an attempt been -made to take as much as two-thirds of a man's income by taxation." - -=Mobilizing Material Resources.=--No stone was left unturned to provide -the arms, munitions, supplies, and transportation required in the -gigantic undertaking. Between the declaration of war and the armistice, -Congress enacted law after law relative to food supplies, raw materials, -railways, mines, ships, forests, and industrial enterprises. No power -over the lives and property of citizens, deemed necessary to the -prosecution of the armed conflict, was withheld from the government. The -farmer's wheat, the housewife's sugar, coal at the mines, labor in the -factories, ships at the wharves, trade with friendly countries, the -railways, banks, stores, private fortunes--all were mobilized and laid -under whatever obligations the government deemed imperative. Never was a -nation more completely devoted to a single cause. - -A law of August 10, 1917, gave the President power to fix the prices of -wheat and coal and to take almost any steps necessary to prevent -monopoly and excessive prices. By a series of measures, enlarging the -principles of the shipping act of 1916, ships and shipyards were brought -under public control and the government was empowered to embark upon a -great ship-building program. In December, 1917, the government assumed -for the period of the war the operation of the railways under a -presidential proclamation which was elaborated in March, 1918, by act of -Congress. In the summer of 1918 the express, telephone, and telegraph -business of the entire country passed under government control. By war -risk insurance acts allowances were made for the families of enlisted -men, compensation for injuries was provided, death benefits were -instituted, and a system of national insurance was established in the -interest of the men in service. Never before in the history of the -country had the government taken such a wise and humane view of its -obligations to those who served on the field of battle or on the seas. - -=The Espionage and Sedition Acts.=--By the Espionage law of June 15, -1917, and the amending law, known as the Sedition act, passed in May of -the following year, the government was given a drastic power over the -expression of opinion. The first measure penalized those who conveyed -information to a foreign country to be used to the injury of the United -States; those who made false statements designed to interfere with the -military or naval forces of the United States; those who attempted to -stir up insubordination or disloyalty in the army and navy; and those -who willfully obstructed enlistment. The Sedition act was still more -severe and sweeping in its terms. It imposed heavy penalties upon any -person who used "abusive language about the government or institutions -of the country." It authorized the dismissal of any officer of the -government who committed "disloyal acts" or uttered "disloyal language," -and empowered the Postmaster General to close the mails to persons -violating the law. This measure, prepared by the Department of Justice, -encountered vigorous opposition in the Senate, where twenty-four -Republicans and two Democrats voted against it. Senator Johnson of -California denounced it as a law "to suppress the freedom of the press -in the United States and to prevent any man, no matter who he is, from -expressing legitimate criticism concerning the present government." The -constitutionality of the acts was attacked; but they were sustained by -the Supreme Court and stringently enforced. - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -THE LAUNCHING OF A SHIP AT THE GREAT NAVAL YARDS, NEWARK, N.J.] - -=Labor and the War.=--In view of the restlessness of European labor -during the war and especially the proletarian revolution in Russia in -November, 1917, some anxiety was early expressed as to the stand which -organized labor might take in the United States. It was, however, soon -dispelled. Samuel Gompers, speaking for the American Federation of -Labor, declared that "this is labor's war," and pledged the united -support of all the unions. There was some dissent. The Socialist party -denounced the war as a capitalist quarrel; but all the protests combined -were too slight to have much effect. American labor leaders were sent to -Europe to strengthen the wavering ranks of trade unionists in war-worn -England, France, and Italy. Labor was given representation on the -important boards and commissions dealing with industrial questions. -Trade union standards were accepted by the government and generally -applied in industry. The Department of Labor became one of the powerful -war centers of the nation. In a memorable address to the American -Federation of Labor, President Wilson assured the trade unionists that -labor conditions should not be made unduly onerous by the war and -received in return a pledge of loyalty from the Federation. Recognition -of labor's contribution to winning the war was embodied in the treaty of -peace, which provided for a permanent international organization to -promote the world-wide effort of labor to improve social conditions. -"The league of nations has for its object the establishment of universal -peace," runs the preamble to the labor section of the treaty, "and such -a peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice.... -The failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labor is an -obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the -conditions in their own countries." - -=The American Navy in the War.=--As soon as Congress declared war the -fleet was mobilized, American ports were thrown open to the warships of -the Allies, immediate provision was made for increasing the number of -men and ships, and a contingent of war vessels was sent to cooeperate -with the British and French in their life-and-death contest with -submarines. Special effort was made to stimulate the production of -"submarine chasers" and "scout cruisers" to be sent to the danger zone. -Convoys were provided to accompany the transports conveying soldiers to -France. Before the end of the war more than three hundred American -vessels and 75,000 officers and men were operating in European waters. -Though the German fleet failed to come out and challenge the sea power -of the Allies, the battleships of the United States were always ready to -do their full duty in such an event. As things turned out, the service -of the American navy was limited mainly to helping in the campaign that -wore down the submarine menace to Allied shipping. - -=The War in France.=--Owing to the peculiar character of the warfare in -France, it required a longer time for American military forces to get -into action; but there was no unnecessary delay. Soon after the -declaration of war, steps were taken to give military assistance to the -Allies. The regular army was enlarged and the troops of the national -guard were brought into national service. On June 13, General John J. -Pershing, chosen head of the American Expeditionary Forces, reached -Paris and began preparations for the arrival of our troops. In June, the -vanguard of the army reached France. A slow and steady stream followed. -As soon as the men enrolled under the draft were ready, it became a -flood. During the period of the war the army was enlarged from about -190,000 men to 3,665,000, of whom more than 2,000,000 were in France -when the armistice was signed. - -Although American troops did not take part on a large scale until the -last phase of the war in 1918, several battalions of infantry were in -the trenches by October, 1917, and had their first severe encounter with -the Germans early in November. In January, 1918, they took over a part -of the front line as an American sector. In March, General Pershing -placed our forces at the disposal of General Foch, commander-in-chief of -the Allied armies. The first division, which entered the Montdidier -salient in April, soon was engaged with the enemy, "taking with splendid -dash the town of Cantigny and all other objectives, which were organized -and held steadfastly against vicious counter attacks and galling -artillery fire." - -[Illustration: _Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -TROOPS RETURNING FROM FRANCE] - -When the Germans launched their grand drives toward the Marne and Paris, -in June and July, 1918, every available man was placed at General Foch's -command. At Belleau Wood, at Chateau-Thierry, and other points along the -deep salient made by the Germans into the French lines, American -soldiers distinguished themselves by heroic action. They also played an -important role in the counter attack that "smashed" the salient and -drove the Germans back. - -In September, American troops, with French aid, "wiped out" the German -salient at St. Mihiel. By this time General Pershing was ready for the -great American drive to the northeast in the Argonne forest, while he -also cooeperated with the British in the assault on the Hindenburg line. -In the Meuse-Argonne battle, our soldiers encountered some of the most -severe fighting of the war and pressed forward steadily against the most -stubborn resistance from the enemy. On the 6th of November, reported -General Pershing, "a division of the first corps reached a point on the -Meuse opposite Sedan, twenty-five miles from our line of departure. The -strategical goal which was our highest hope was gained. We had cut the -enemy's main line of communications and nothing but a surrender or an -armistice could save his army from complete disaster." Five days later -the end came. On the morning of November 11, the order to cease firing -went into effect. The German army was in rapid retreat and -demoralization had begun. The Kaiser had abdicated and fled into -Holland. The Hohenzollern dreams of empire were shattered. In the -fifty-second month, the World War, involving nearly every civilized -nation on the globe, was brought to a close. More than 75,000 American -soldiers and sailors had given their lives. More than 250,000 had been -wounded or were missing or in German prison camps. - -[Illustration: WESTERN BATTLE LINES OF THE VARIOUS YEARS OF THE -WORLD WAR] - - -THE SETTLEMENT AT PARIS - -=The Peace Conference.=--On January 18, 1919, a conference of the Allied -and Associated Powers assembled to pronounce judgment upon the German -empire and its defeated satellites: Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and -Turkey. It was a moving spectacle. Seventy-two delegates spoke for -thirty-two states. The United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and -Japan had five delegates each. Belgium, Brazil, and Serbia were each -assigned three. Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, China, Greece, -Hedjaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, and Czechoslovakia were -allotted two apiece. The remaining states of New Zealand, Bolivia, Cuba, -Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, -and Uruguay each had one delegate. President Wilson spoke in person for -the United States. England, France, and Italy were represented by their -premiers: David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, and Vittorio Orlando. - -[Illustration: PREMIERS LLOYD GEORGE, ORLANDO AND CLEMENCEAU AND -PRESIDENT WILSON AT PARIS] - -=The Supreme Council.=--The real work of the settlement was first -committed to a Supreme Council of ten representing the United States, -Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. This was later reduced to five -members. Then Japan dropped out and finally Italy, leaving only -President Wilson and the Premiers, Lloyd George and Clemenceau, the -"Big Three," who assumed the burden of mighty decisions. On May 6, their -work was completed and in a secret session of the full conference the -whole treaty of peace was approved, though a few of the powers made -reservations or objections. The next day the treaty was presented to the -Germans who, after prolonged protests, signed on the last day of grace, -June 28. This German treaty was followed by agreements with Austria, -Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Collectively these great documents formed -the legal basis of the general European settlement. - -=The Terms of the Settlement.=--The combined treaties make a huge -volume. The German treaty alone embraces about 80,000 words. -Collectively they cover an immense range of subjects which may be -summarized under five heads: (1) The territorial settlement in Europe; -(2) the destruction of German military power; (3) reparations for -damages done by Germany and her allies; (4) the disposition of German -colonies and protectorates; and (5) the League of Nations. - -Germany was reduced by the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the -loss of several other provinces. Austria-Hungary was dissolved and -dismembered. Russia was reduced by the creation of new states on the -west. Bulgaria was stripped of her gains in the recent Balkan wars. -Turkey was dismembered. Nine new independent states were created: -Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Esthonia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, -Armenia, and Hedjaz. Italy, Greece, Rumania, and Serbia were enlarged by -cessions of territory and Serbia was transformed into the great state of -Jugoslavia. - -The destruction of German military power was thorough. The entire navy, -with minor exceptions, was turned over to the Allied and Associated -Powers; Germany's total equipment for the future was limited to six -battleships and six light cruisers, with certain small vessels but no -submarines. The number of enlisted men and officers for the army was -fixed at not more than 100,000; the General Staff was dissolved; and the -manufacture of munitions restricted. - -Germany was compelled to accept full responsibility for all damages; to -pay five billion dollars in cash and goods, and to make certain other -payments which might be ordered from time to time by an inter-allied -reparations commission. She was also required to deliver to Belgium, -France, and Italy, millions of tons of coal every year for ten years; -while by way of additional compensation to France the rich coal basin of -the Saar was placed under inter-allied control to be exploited under -French administration for a period of at least fifteen years. Austria -and the other associates of Germany were also laid under heavy -obligations to the victors. Damages done to shipping by submarines and -other vessels were to be paid for on the basis of ton for ton. - -The disposition of the German colonies and the old Ottoman empire -presented knotty problems. It was finally agreed that the German -colonies and Turkish provinces which were in a backward stage of -development should be placed under the tutelage of certain powers acting -as "mandatories" holding them in "a sacred trust of civilization." An -exception to the mandatory principle arose in the case of German rights -in Shantung, all of which were transferred directly to Japan. It was -this arrangement that led the Chinese delegation to withhold their -signatures from the treaty. - -=The League of Nations.=--High among the purposes which he had in mind -in summoning the nation to arms, President Wilson placed the desire to -put an end to war. All through the United States the people spoke of the -"war to end war." No slogan called forth a deeper response from the -public. The President himself repeatedly declared that a general -association of nations must be formed to guard the peace and protect all -against the ambitions of the few. "As I see it," he said in his address -on opening the Fourth Liberty Loan campaign, "the constitution of the -League of Nations and the clear definition of its objects must be a -part, in a sense the most essential part, of the peace settlement -itself." - -Nothing was more natural, therefore, than Wilson's insistence at Paris -upon the formation of an international association. Indeed he had gone -to Europe in person largely to accomplish that end. Part One of the -treaty with Germany, the Covenant of the League of Nations, was due to -his labors more than to any other influence. Within the League thus -created were to be embraced all the Allied and Associated Powers and -nearly all the neutrals. By a two-thirds vote of the League Assembly the -excluded nations might be admitted. - -The agencies of the League of Nations were to be three in number: (1) a -permanent secretariat located at Geneva; (2) an Assembly consisting of -one delegate from each country, dominion, or self-governing colony -(including Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and India); (3) -and a Council consisting of representatives of the United States, Great -Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, and four other representatives -selected by the Assembly from time to time. - -The duties imposed on the League and the obligations accepted by its -members were numerous and important. The Council was to take steps to -formulate a scheme for the reduction of armaments and to submit a plan -for the establishment of a permanent Court of International Justice. The -members of the League (Article X) were to respect and preserve as -against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing -political independence of all the associated nations. They were to -submit to arbitration or inquiry by the Council all disputes which could -not be adjusted by diplomacy and in no case to resort to war until three -months after the award. Should any member disregard its covenants, its -action would be considered an act of war against the League, which would -accordingly cut off the trade and business of the hostile member and -recommend through the Council to the several associated governments the -military measures to be taken. In case the decision in any arbitration -of a dispute was unanimous, the members of the League affected by it -were to abide by it. - -Such was the settlement at Paris and such was the association of nations -formed to promote the peace of the world. They were quickly approved by -most of the powers, and the first Assembly of the League of Nations met -at Geneva late in 1920. - -=The Treaty in the United States.=--When the treaty was presented to the -United States Senate for approval, a violent opposition appeared. In -that chamber the Republicans had a slight majority and a two-thirds vote -was necessary for ratification. The sentiment for and against the treaty -ran mainly along party lines; but the Republicans were themselves -divided. The major portion, known as "reservationists," favored -ratification with certain conditions respecting American rights; while a -small though active minority rejected the League of Nations in its -entirety, announcing themselves to be "irreconcilables." The grounds of -this Republican opposition lay partly in the terms of peace imposed on -Germany and partly in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Exception -was taken to the clauses which affected the rights of American citizens -in property involved in the adjustment with Germany, but the burden of -criticism was directed against the League. Article X guaranteeing -against external aggression the political independence and territorial -integrity of the members of the League was subjected to a specially -heavy fire; while the treatment accorded to China and the sections -affecting American internal affairs were likewise attacked as "unjust -and dangerous." As an outcome of their deliberations, the Republicans -proposed a long list of reservations which touched upon many of the -vital parts of the treaty. These were rejected by President Wilson as -amounting in effect to a "nullification of the treaty." As a deadlock -ensued the treaty was definitely rejected, owing to the failure of its -sponsors to secure the requisite two-thirds vote. - -[Illustration: EUROPE] - -=The League of Nations in the Campaign of 1920.=--At this juncture the -presidential campaign of 1920 opened. The Republicans, while condemning -the terms of the proposed League, endorsed the general idea of an -international agreement to prevent war. Their candidate, Senator -Warren G. Harding of Ohio, maintained a similar position without saying -definitely whether the League devised at Paris could be recast in such a -manner as to meet his requirements. The Democrats, on the other hand, -while not opposing limitations clarifying the obligations of the United -States, demanded "the immediate ratification of the treaty without -reservations which would impair its essential integrity." The Democratic -candidate, Governor James M. Cox, of Ohio, announced his firm conviction -that the United States should "go into the League," without closing the -door to mild reservations; he appealed to the country largely on that -issue. The election of Senator Harding, in an extraordinary "landslide," -coupled with the return of a majority of Republicans to the Senate, made -uncertain American participation in the League of Nations. - -=The United States and International Entanglements.=--Whether America -entered the League or not, it could not close its doors to the world and -escape perplexing international complications. It had ever-increasing -financial and commercial connections with all other countries. Our -associates in the recent war were heavily indebted to our government. -The prosperity of American industries depended to a considerable extent -upon the recovery of the impoverished and battle-torn countries of -Europe. - -There were other complications no less specific. The United States was -compelled by force of circumstances to adopt a Russian policy. The -government of the Czar had been overthrown by a liberal revolution, -which in turn had been succeeded by an extreme, communist -"dictatorship." The Bolsheviki, or majority faction of the socialists, -had obtained control of the national council of peasants, workingmen, -and soldiers, called the soviet, and inaugurated a radical regime. They -had made peace with Germany in March, 1918. Thereupon the United States -joined England, France, and Japan in an unofficial war upon them. After -the general settlement at Paris in 1919, our government, while -withdrawing troops from Siberia and Archangel, continued in its refusal -to recognize the Bolshevists or to permit unhampered trade with them. -President Wilson repeatedly denounced them as the enemies of -civilization and undertook to lay down for all countries the principles -which should govern intercourse with Russia. - -Further international complications were created in connection with the -World War, wholly apart from the terms of peace or the League of -Nations. The United States had participated in a general European -conflict which changed the boundaries of countries, called into being -new nations, and reduced the power and territories of the vanquished. -Accordingly, it was bound to face the problem of how far it was prepared -to cooeperate with the victors in any settlement of Europe's -difficulties. By no conceivable process, therefore, could America be -disentangled from the web of world affairs. Isolation, if desirable, had -become impossible. Within three hundred years from the founding of the -tiny settlements at Jamestown and Plymouth, America, by virtue of its -institutions, its population, its wealth, and its commerce, had become -first among the nations of the earth. By moral obligations and by -practical interests its fate was thus linked with the destiny of all -mankind. - - -SUMMARY OF DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR - -The astounding industrial progress that characterized the period -following the Civil War bequeathed to the new generation many perplexing -problems connected with the growth of trusts and railways, the -accumulation of great fortunes, the increase of poverty in the -industrial cities, the exhaustion of the free land, and the acquisition -of dominions in distant seas. As long as there was an abundance of land -in the West any able-bodied man with initiative and industry could -become an independent farmer. People from the cities and immigrants from -Europe had always before them that gateway to property and prosperity. -When the land was all gone, American economic conditions inevitably -became more like those of Europe. - -Though the new economic questions had been vigorously debated in many -circles before his day, it was President Roosevelt who first discussed -them continuously from the White House. The natural resources of the -country were being exhausted; he advocated their conservation. Huge -fortunes were being made in business creating inequalities in -opportunity; he favored reducing them by income and inheritance taxes. -Industries were disturbed by strikes; he pressed arbitration upon -capital and labor. The free land was gone; he declared that labor was in -a less favorable position to bargain with capital and therefore should -organize in unions for collective bargaining. There had been wrong-doing -on the part of certain great trusts; those responsible should be -punished. - -The spirit of reform was abroad in the land. The spoils system was -attacked. It was alleged that the political parties were dominated by -"rings and bosses." The United States Senate was called "a millionaires' -club." Poverty and misery were observed in the cities. State -legislatures and city governments were accused of corruption. - -In answer to the charges, remedies were proposed and adopted. Civil -service reform was approved. The Australian ballot, popular election of -Senators, the initiative, referendum, and recall, commission and city -manager plans for cities, public regulation of railways, compensation -for those injured in industries, minimum wages for women and children, -pensions for widows, the control of housing in the cities--these and a -hundred other reforms were adopted and tried out. The national watchword -became: "America, Improve Thyself." - -The spirit of reform broke into both political parties. It appeared in -many statutes enacted by Congress under President Taft's leadership. It -disrupted the Republicans temporarily in 1912 when the Progressive party -entered the field. It led the Democratic candidate in that year, -Governor Wilson, to make a "progressive appeal" to the voters. It -inspired a considerable program of national legislation under President -Wilson's two administrations. - -In the age of change, four important amendments to the federal -constitution, the first in more than forty years, were adopted. The -sixteenth empowered Congress to lay an income tax. The seventeenth -assured popular election of Senators. The eighteenth made prohibition -national. The nineteenth, following upon the adoption of woman suffrage -in many states, enfranchised the women of the nation. - -In the sphere of industry, equally great changes took place. The major -portion of the nation's business passed into the hands of corporations. -In all the leading industries of the country labor was organized into -trade unions and federated in a national organization. The power of -organized capital and organized labor loomed upon the horizon. Their -struggles, their rights, and their place in the economy of the nation -raised problems of the first magnitude. - -While the country was engaged in a heated debate upon its domestic -issues, the World War broke out in Europe in 1914. As a hundred years -before, American rights upon the high seas became involved at once. They -were invaded on both sides; but Germany, in addition to assailing -American ships and property, ruthlessly destroyed American lives. She -set at naught the rules of civilized warfare upon the sea. Warnings from -President Wilson were without avail. Nothing could stay the hand of the -German war party. - -After long and patient negotiations, President Wilson in 1917 called -upon the nation to take up arms against an assailant that had in effect -declared war upon America. The answer was swift and firm. The national -resources, human and material, were mobilized. The navy was enlarged, a -draft army created, huge loans floated, heavy taxes laid, and the spirit -of sacrifice called forth in a titanic struggle against an autocratic -power that threatened to dominate Europe and the World. - -In the end, American financial, naval, and military assistance counted -heavily in the scale. American sailors scoured the seas searching for -the terrible submarines. American soldiers took part in the last great -drives that broke the might of Germany's army. Such was the nation's -response to the President's summons to arms in a war "for democracy" and -"to end war." - -When victory crowned the arms of the powers united against Germany, -President Wilson in person took part in the peace council. He sought to -redeem his pledge to end wars by forming a League of Nations to keep the -peace. In the treaty drawn at the close of the war the first part was a -covenant binding the nations in a permanent association for the -settlement of international disputes. This treaty, the President offered -to the United States Senate for ratification and to his country for -approval. - -Once again, as in the days of the Napoleonic wars, the people seriously -discussed the place of America among the powers of the earth. The Senate -refused to ratify the treaty. World politics then became an issue in the -campaign of 1920. Though some Americans talked as if the United States -could close its doors and windows against all mankind, the victor in the -election, Senator Harding, of Ohio, knew better. The election returns -were hardly announced before he began to ask the advice of his -countrymen on the pressing theme that would not be downed: "What part -shall America--first among the nations of the earth in wealth and -power--assume at the council table of the world?" - - -=General References= - -Woodrow Wilson, _The New Freedom_. - -C.L. Jones, _The Caribbean Interests of the United States_. - -H.P. Willis, _The Federal Reserve_. - -C.W. Barron, _The Mexican Problem_ (critical toward Mexico). - -L.J. de Bekker, _The Plot against Mexico_ (against American -intervention). - -Theodore Roosevelt, _America and the World War_. - -E.E. Robinson and V.J. West, _The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson_. - -J.S. Bassett, _Our War with Germany_. - -Carlton J.H. Hayes, _A Brief History of the Great War_. - -J.B. McMaster, _The United States in the World War_. - - -=Research Topics= - -=President Wilson's First Term.=--Elson, _History of the United States_, -pp. 925-941. - -=The Underwood Tariff Act.=--Ogg, _National Progress_ (The American -Nation Series), pp. 209-226. - -=The Federal Reserve System.=--Ogg, pp. 228-232. - -=Trust and Labor Legislation.=--Ogg, pp. 232-236. - -=Legislation Respecting the Territories.=--Ogg, pp. 236-245. - -=American Interests in the Caribbean.=--Ogg, pp. 246-265. - -=American Interests in the Pacific.=--Ogg, pp. 304-324. - -=Mexican Affairs.=--Haworth, pp. 388-395; Ogg, pp. 284-304. - -=The First Phases of the European War.=--Haworth, pp. 395-412; Ogg, pp. -325-343. - -=The Campaign of 1916.=--Haworth, pp. 412-418; Ogg, pp. 364-383. - -=America Enters the War.=--Haworth, pp. 422-440; pp. 454-475. Ogg, pp. -384-399; Elson, pp. 951-970. - -=Mobilizing the Nation.=--Haworth, pp. 441-453. - -=The Peace Settlement.=--Haworth, pp. 475-497; Elson, pp. 971-982. - - -=Questions= - -1. Enumerate the chief financial measures of the Wilson administration. -Review the history of banks and currency and give the details of the -Federal reserve law. - -2. What was the Wilson policy toward trusts? Toward labor? - -3. Review again the theory of states' rights. How has it fared in recent -years? - -4. What steps were taken in colonial policies? In the Caribbean? - -5. Outline American-Mexican relations under Wilson. - -6. How did the World War break out in Europe? - -7. Account for the divided state of opinion in America. - -8. Review the events leading up to the War of 1812. Compare them with -the events from 1914 to 1917. - -9. State the leading principles of international law involved and show -how they were violated. - -10. What American rights were assailed in the submarine campaign? - -11. Give Wilson's position on the _Lusitania_ affair. - -12. How did the World War affect the presidential campaign of 1916? - -13. How did Germany finally drive the United States into war? - -14. State the American war aims given by the President. - -15. Enumerate the measures taken by the government to win the war. - -16. Review the part of the navy in the war. The army. - -17. How were the terms of peace formulated? - -18. Enumerate the principal results of the war. - -19. Describe the League of Nations. - -20. Trace the fate of the treaty in American politics. - -21. Can there be a policy of isolation for America? - - - - -APPENDIX - -CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES - - -We the people of the United States, in order to form a more -perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide -for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the -blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and -establish this Constitution for the United States of America. - - -ARTICLE I - -SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a -Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House -of Representatives. - - -SECTION 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members -chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the -electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for -electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. - -2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to -the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the -United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that -State in which he shall be chosen. - -3. Representatives and direct taxes[3] shall be apportioned among the -several States which may be included within this Union, according to -their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the -whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a -term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all -other persons.[3] The actual enumeration shall be made within three -years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and -within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall -by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for -every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one -representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of -New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, -Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York -six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, -Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia -three. - -4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the -executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such -vacancies. - -5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other -officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. - - -SECTION 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two -senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six -years; and each senator shall have one vote.[4] - -2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first -election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. -The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the -expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of -the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth -year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if -vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the -legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary -appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then -fill such vacancies.[5] - -3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age -of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and -who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he -shall be chosen. - -4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the -Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. - -5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President -_pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall -exercise the office of President of the United States. - -6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When -sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the -President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall -preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of -two-thirds of the members present. - -7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to -removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office -of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party -convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, -judgment, and punishment, according to law. - - -SECTION 4. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for -senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the -legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or -alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. - -2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such -meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by -law appoint a different day. - - -SECTION 5. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns -and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall -constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn -from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of -absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House -may provide. - -2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its -members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of -two-thirds, expel a member. - -3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to -time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment -require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on -any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be -entered on the journal. - -4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the -consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other -place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. - - -SECTION 6. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a -compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out -of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except -treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest -during their attendance at the sessions of their respective Houses, and -in going to and returning from the same; and, for any speech or debate -in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. - -2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was -elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the -United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof -shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any -office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during -his continuance in office. - - -SECTION 7. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House -of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments -as on other bills. - -2. Every bill, which shall have passed the House of Representatives; and -the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President -of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he -shall return it with his objections to that House, in which it shall -have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their -journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration -two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, -together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall -likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, -it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses -shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons -voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each -House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President -within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to -him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, -unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which -case it shall not be a law. - -3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the -Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a -question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the -United States and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved -by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of -the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and -limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. - - -SECTION 8. The Congress shall have power: 1. To lay and collect taxes, -duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the -common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, -imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; - -2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; - -3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several -States, and with the Indian tribes; - -4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on -the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; - -5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and -fix the standard of weights and measures; - -6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and -current coin of the United States; - -7. To establish post offices and post roads; - -8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for -limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their -respective writings and discoveries; - -9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; - -10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high -seas, and offences against the law of nations; - -11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules -concerning captures on land and water; - -12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that -use shall be for a longer term than two years; - -13. To provide and maintain a navy; - -14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and -naval forces; - -15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the -Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; - -16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, -and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service -of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the -appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia -according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. - -17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such -district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of -particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the -government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all -places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which -the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, -dock-yards, and other needful buildings;--and - -18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying -into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this -Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any -department or officer thereof. - - -SECTION 9. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the -States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited -by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, -but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten -dollars for each person. - -2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended, -unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may -require it. - -3. No bill of attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed. - -4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in -proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be -taken.[6] - -5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. - -6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue -to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound -to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in -another. - -7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of -appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the -receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from -time to time. - -8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no -person, holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without -the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, -or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. - - -SECTION 10. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or -confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit -bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in -payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or -law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of -nobility. - -2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts -or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary -for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and -imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use -of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject -to the revision and control of the Congress. - -3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of -tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any -agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or -engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as -will not admit of delay. - - -ARTICLE II - -SECTION 1. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the -United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of -four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same -term, be elected, as follows: - -2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof -may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators -and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; -but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust -or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.[7] The -electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for -two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same -State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons -voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall -sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of -the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The -President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House -of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then -be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the -President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors -appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and -have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall -immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person -have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House -shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the -President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from -each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a -member or members from two-thirds of the States and a majority of all -the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the -choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes -of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain -two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by -ballot the Vice-President.[8] - -3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the -day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same -throughout the United States. - -4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United -States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be -eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be -eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of -thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United -States. - -5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, -resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said -office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress -may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or -inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what -officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act -accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be -elected. - -6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a -compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the -period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive -within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of -them. - -7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the -following oath or affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I -will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, -and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the -Constitution of the United States." - - -SECTION 2. 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and -navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, -when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require -the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the -executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their -respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and -pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of -impeachment. - -2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the -Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present -concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of -the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and -consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the -United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, -and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest -the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the -President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. - -3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen -during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall -expire at the end of their next session. - - -SECTION 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information -on the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such -measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on -extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in -case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of -adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; -he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take -care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the -officers of the United States. - - -SECTION 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the -United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and -conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. - - -ARTICLE III - -SECTION 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in -one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from -time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and -inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and -shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which -shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. - - -SECTION 2. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and -equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, -and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to -all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to -all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to -which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two -or more States;--between a State and citizens of another -State;[9]--between citizens of different States;--between citizens of -the same State claiming lands under grants of different States;--and -between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, -or subjects. - -2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and -consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court -shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before -mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as -to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the -Congress shall make. - -3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by -jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes -shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the -trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have -directed. - - -SECTION 3. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in -levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them -aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the -testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in -open court. - -2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, -but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture -except during the life of the person attainted. - - -ARTICLE IV - -SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the -public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And -the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such -acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. - - -SECTION 2. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all -privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. - -2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, -who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on -demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be -delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the -crime. - -3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws -thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or -regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall -be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may -be due. - - -SECTION 3. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this -Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the -jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction -of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the -legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. - -2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful -rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property -belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall -be so construed as to prejudice any claims, of the United States, or of -any particular State. - - -SECTION 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this -Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them -against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the -executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic -violence. - - -ARTICLE V - -The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it -necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the -application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, -shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, -shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, -when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several -States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the -other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided -that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight -hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth -clauses in the ninth Section of the first article; and that no State, -without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the -Senate. - - -ARTICLE VI - -1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the -adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United -States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. - -2. This Constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be -made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which shall be made, -under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of -the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything -in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary -notwithstanding. - -3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of -the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, -both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by -oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test -shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust -under the United States. - - -ARTICLE VII - -The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient -for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so -ratifying the same. - -Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the -seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven -hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States of -America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our -names, - - G^O. WASHINGTON-- - Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia - -[and thirty-eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.] - - * * * * * - - -Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the -United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the -legislatures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the -original Constitution. - - -ARTICLE I[10] - -Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or -prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of -speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to -assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. - - -ARTICLE II - -A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free -State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be -infringed. - - -ARTICLE III - -No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without -the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be -prescribed by law. - - -ARTICLE IV - -The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, -and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be -violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, -supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place -to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. - - -ARTICLE V - -No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous -crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in -cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in -actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be -subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or -limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness -against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without -due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, -without just compensation. - - -ARTICLE VI - -In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a -speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district -wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have -been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and -cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against -him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, -and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. - - -ARTICLE VII - -In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed -twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no -fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the -United States, than according to the rules of the common law. - - -ARTICLE VIII - -Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor -cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. - - -ARTICLE IX - -The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be -construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. - - -ARTICLE X - -The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor -prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, -or to the people. - - -ARTICLE XI[11] - -The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend -to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the -United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects -of any foreign State. - - -ARTICLE XII[12] - -The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot -for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least shall not be an -inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their -ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the -person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists -of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as -Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they -shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the -government of the United States, directed to the President of the -Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate -and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes -shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes -for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of -the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such -majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding -three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of -Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But -in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the -representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this -purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the -States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. -And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President -whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth -day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as -President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional -disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of -votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be -a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person -have a majority, then from the two highest members on the list, the -Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall -consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of -the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person -constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible -to that of Vice-President of the United States. - - -ARTICLE XIII[13] - -SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a -punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, -shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their -jurisdiction. - -SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by -appropriate legislation. - - -ARTICLE XIV[14] - -SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and -subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States -and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any -law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the -United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, -or property without due process of law; nor deny to any person within -its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. - -SECTION 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States -according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of -persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right -to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and -Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the -executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the -legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such -State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, -or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other -crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the -proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the -whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. - -SECTION 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, -or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or -military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having -previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of -the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an -executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution -of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion -against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But -Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, remove such disability. - -SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, -authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and -bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall -not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall -assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or -rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or -emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims -shall be held illegal and void. - -SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate -legislation, the provisions of this article. - - -ARTICLE XV[15] - -SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not -be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of -race, color, or previous condition of servitude. - -SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by -appropriate legislation. - - -ARTICLE XVI[16] - -The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from -whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, -and without regard to any census or enumeration. - - -ARTICLE XVII[17] - -The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from -each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each -senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the -qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the -State legislature. - -When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, -the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to -fill such vacancies: _Provided_ that the legislature of any State may -empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the -people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. - -This amendment shall not be so construed as to effect the election or -term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the -Constitution. - - -ARTICLE XVIII[18] - -SECTION 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the -manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the -importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United -States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for -beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. - -SECTION 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent -power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. - -SECTION 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been -ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the -several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from -the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. - - -ARTICLE XIX[19] - -The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied -or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex. - -The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate -legislation. - - - -POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES: 1920, 1910, 1900 - -+---------------------+--------------------------------------------+ -| STATES | POPULATION | -+ +--------------+--------------+--------------+ -| | 1920 | 1910 | 1900 | -+---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ -|United States | 105,708,771 | 91,972,266 | 75,994,575 | -+---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ -|Alabama | 2,348,174 | 2,138,093 | 1,828,697 | -|Arizona | 333,903 | 204,354 | 122,931 | -|Arkansas | 1,752,204 | 1,574,449 | 1,311,564 | -|California | 3,426,861 | 2,377,549 | 1,485,053 | -|Colorado | 939,629 | 799,024 | 539,700 | -|Connecticut | 1,380,631 | 1,114,756 | 908,420 | -|Delaware | 223,003 | 202,322 | 184,735 | -|District of Columbia | 437,571 | 331,069 | 278,718 | -|Florida | 968,470 | 752,619 | 528,542 | -|Georgia | 2,895,832 | 2,609,121 | 2,216,331 | -|Idaho | 431,866 | 325,594 | 161,772 | -|Illinois | 6,485,280 | 5,638,591 | 4,821,550 | -|Indiana | 2,930,390 | 2,700,876 | 2,516,462 | -|Iowa | 2,404,021 | 2,224,771 | 2,231,853 | -|Kansas | 1,769,257 | 1,690,949 | 1,470,495 | -|Kentucky | 2,416,630 | 2,289,905 | 2,147,174 | -|Louisiana | 1,798,509 | 1,656,388 | 1,381,625 | -|Maine | 768,014 | 742,371 | 694,466 | -|Maryland | 1,449,661 | 1,295,346 | 1,188,044 | -|Massachusetts | 3,852,356 | 3,366,416 | 2,805,346 | -|Michigan | 3,668,412 | 2,810,173 | 2,420,982 | -|Minnesota | 2,387,125 | 2,075,708 | 1,751,394 | -|Mississippi | 1,790,618 | 1,797,114 | 1,551,270 | -|Missouri | 3,404,055 | 3,293,335 | 3,106,665 | -|Montana | 548,889 | 376,053 | 243,329 | -|Nebraska | 1,296,372 | 1,192,214 | 1,066,300 | -|Nevada | 77,407 | 81,875 | 42,335 | -|New Hampshire | 443,407 | 430,572 | 411,588 | -|New Jersey | 3,155,900 | 2,537,167 | 1,883,669 | -|New Mexico | 360,350 | 327,301 | 195,310 | -|New York | 10,384,829 | 9,113,614 | 7,268,894 | -|North Carolina | 2,559,123 | 2,206,287 | 1,893,810 | -|North Dakota | 645,680 | 577,056 | 319,146 | -|Ohio | 5,759,394 | 4,767,121 | 4,157,545 | -|Oklahoma | 2,028,283 | 1,657,155 | 790,391 | -|Oregon | 783,389 | 672,765 | 413,536 | -|Pennsylvania | 8,720,017 | 7,665,111 | 6,302,115 | -|Rhode Island | 604,397 | 542,610 | 428,556 | -|South Carolina | 1,683,724 | 1,515,400 | 1,340,316 | -|South Dakota | 636,547 | 583,888 | 401,570 | -|Tennessee | 2,337,885 | 2,184,789 | 2,020,616 | -|Texas | 4,663,228 | 3,896,542 | 3,048,710 | -|Utah | 449,396 | 373,351 | 276,749 | -|Vermont | 352,428 | 355,956 | 343,641 | -|Virginia | 2,309,187 | 2,061,612 | 1,854,184 | -|Washington | 1,356,621 | 1,141,990 | 518,103 | -|West Virginia | 1,463,701 | 1,221,119 | 958,800 | -|Wisconsin | 2,632,067 | 2,333,860 | 2,069,042 | -|Wyoming | 194,402 | 145,965 | 92,531 | -+---------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Partly superseded by the 14th Amendment, p. 639. - -[4] See the 17th Amendment, p. 641. - -[5] _Ibid._, p. 641. - -[6] See the 16th Amendment, p. 640. - -[7] The following paragraph was in force only from 1788 to 1803. - -[8] Superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. 638. - -[9] See the 11th Amendment, p. 638. - -[10] First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789. -Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791. - -[11] Proposed Sept. 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8, 1798. - -[12] Adopted in 1804. - -[13] Adopted in 1865. - -[14] Adopted in 1868. - -[15] Proposed February 27, 1869. Declared in force March 30, 1870. - -[16] Passed July, 1909; proclaimed February 25, 1913. - -[17] Passed May, 1912, in lieu of paragraph one, Section 3, Article I, -of the Constitution and so much of paragraph two of the same Section as -relates to the filling of vacancies; proclaimed May 31, 1913. - -[18] Ratified January 16, 1919. - -[19] Ratified August 26, 1920. - - - - -APPENDIX - -TABLE OF PRESIDENTS - -NAME STATE PARTY YEAR IN VICE-PRESIDENT - OFFICE -1 George Washington Va. Fed. 1789-1797 John Adams -2 John Adams Mass. Fed. 1797-1801 Thomas Jefferson -3 Thomas Jefferson Va. Rep. 1801-1809 Aaron Burr - George Clinton -4 James Madison Va. Rep. 1809-1817 George Clinton - Elbridge Gerry -5 James Monroe Va. Rep. 1817-1825 Daniel D. Tompkins -6 John Q. Adams Mass. Rep. 1825-1829 John C. Calhoun -7 Andrew Jackson Tenn. Dem. 1829-1837 John C. Calhoun - Martin Van Buren -8 Martin Van Buren N.Y. Dem. 1837-1841 Richard M. Johnson -9 Wm. H. Harrison Ohio Whig 1841-1841 John Tyler -10 John Tyler[20] Va. Whig 1841-1845 -11 James K. Polk Tenn. Dem. 1845-1849 George M. Dallas -12 Zachary Taylor La. Whig 1849-1850 Millard Fillmore -13 Millard Fillmore[20] N.Y. Whig 1850-1853 -14 Franklin Pierce N.H. Dem. 1853-1857 William R. King -15 James Buchanan Pa. Dem. 1857-1861 J.C. Breckinridge -16 Abraham Lincoln Ill. Rep. 1861-1865 Hannibal Hamlin - Andrew Johnson -17 Andrew Johnson[20] Tenn. Rep. 1865-1869 -18 Ulysses S. Grant Ill. Rep. 1869-1877 Schuyler Colfax - Henry Wilson -19 Rutherford B. Hayes Ohio Rep. 1877-1881 Wm. A. Wheeler -20 James A. Garfield Ohio Rep. 1881-1881 Chester A. Arthur -21 Chester A. Arthur[20] N.Y. Rep. 1881-1885 -22 Grover Cleveland N.Y. Dem. 1885-1889 Thomas A. Hendricks -23 Benjamin Harrison Ind. Rep. 1889-1893 Levi P. Morton -24 Grover Cleveland N.Y. Dem. 1893-1897 Adlai E. Stevenson -25 William McKinley Ohio Rep. 1897-1901 Garrett A. Hobart - Theodore Roosevelt -26 Theodore Roosevelt[20]N.Y. Rep. 1901-1909 Chas. W. Fairbanks -27 William H. Taft Ohio Rep. 1909-1913 James S. Sherman -28 Woodrow Wilson N.J. Dem. 1913-1921 Thomas R. Marshall -29 Warren G. Harding Ohio Rep. 1921- Calvin Coolidge - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[20] Promoted from the vice-presidency on the death of the president. - -POPULATION OF THE OUTLYING POSSESSIONS: 1920 AND 1910 - -----------------------------------------+--------------+--------------- - AREA | 1920 | 1910 -----------------------------------------+--------------+--------------- -United States with outlying possessions |117,857,509 | 101,146,530 - +--------------+--------------- -Continental United States |105,708,771 | 91,972,266 -Outlying Possessions | 12,148,738 | 9,174,264 - +--------------|--------------- - Alaska | 54,899 | 64,356 - American Samoa | 8,056 | 7,251[21] - Guam | 13,275 | 11,806 - Hawaii | 255,912 | 191,909 - Panama Canal Zone | 22,858 | 62,810[21] - Porto Rico | 1,299,809 | 1,118,012 - Military and naval, etc., service | | - abroad | 117,238 | 55,608 - Philippine Islands |10,350,640[22]| 7,635,426[23] - Virgin Islands of the United States | 26,051[24]| 27,086[25] -----------------------------------------+--------------+--------------- - -FOOTNOTES: - -[21] Population in 1912. - -[22] Population in 1918. - -[23] Population in 1903. - -[24] Population in 1917. - -[25] Population in 1911. - - - - -A TOPICAL SYLLABUS - -As a result of a wholesome reaction against the purely chronological -treatment of history, there is now a marked tendency in the direction of -a purely topical handling of the subject. The topical method, however, -may also be pushed too far. Each successive stage of any topic can be -understood only in relation to the forces of the time. For that reason, -the best results are reached when there is a combination of the -chronological and the topical methods. It is therefore suggested that -the teacher first follow the text closely and then review the subject -with the aid of this topical syllabus. The references are to pages. - - -=Immigration= - - I. Causes: religious (1-2, 4-11, 302), economic (12-17, 302-303), - and political (302-303). - II. Colonial immigration. - 1. Diversified character: English, Scotch-Irish, Irish, Jews, - Germans and other peoples (6-12). - 2. Assimilation to an American type; influence of the land - system (23-25, 411). - 3. Enforced immigration: indentured servitude, slavery, etc. - (13-17). - III. Immigration between 1789-1890. - 1. Nationalities: English, Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians - (278, 302-303). - 2. Relations to American life (432-433, 445). - IV. Immigration and immigration questions after 1890. - 1. Change in nationalities (410-411). - 2. Changes in economic opportunities (411). - 3. Problems of congestion and assimilation (410). - 4. Relations to labor and illiteracy (582-586). - 5. Oriental immigration (583). - 6. The restriction of immigration (583-585). - -=Expansion of the United States= - - I. Territorial growth. - 1. Territory of the United States in 1783 (134 and color map). - 2. Louisiana purchase, 1803 (188-193 and color map). - 3. Florida purchase, 1819 (204). - 4. Annexation of Texas, 1845 (278-281). - 5. Acquisition of Arizona, New Mexico, California, and other - territory at close of Mexican War, 1848 (282-283). - 6. The Gadsden purchase, 1853 (283). - 7. Settlement of the Oregon boundary question, 1846 (284-286). - 8. Purchase of Alaska from Russia, 1867 (479). - 9. Acquisition of Tutuila in Samoan group, 1899 (481-482). - 10. Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 (484). - 11. Acquisition of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam at - close of Spanish War, 1898 (493-494). - 12. Acquisition of Panama Canal strip, 1904 (508-510). - 13. Purchase of Danish West Indies, 1917 (593). - 14. Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, and - Nicaragua (593-594). - II. Development of colonial self-government. - 1. Hawaii (485). - 2. Philippines (516-518). - 3. Porto Rico (515-516). - III. Sea power. - 1. In American Revolution (118). - 2. In the War of 1812 (193-201). - 3. In the Civil War (353-354). - 4. In the Spanish-American War (492). - 5. In the Caribbean region (512-519). - 6. In the Pacific (447-448, 481). - 7. The role of the American navy (515). - -=The Westward Advance of the People= - - I. Beyond the Appalachians. - 1. Government and land system (217-231). - 2. The routes (222-224). - 3. The settlers (221-223, 228-230). - 4. Relations with the East (230-236). - II. Beyond the Mississippi. - 1. The lower valley (271-273). - 2. The upper valley (275-276). - III. Prairies, plains, and desert. - 1. Cattle ranges and cowboys (276-278, 431-432). - 2. The free homesteads (432-433). - 3. Irrigation (434-436, 523-525). - IV. The Far West. - 1. Peculiarities of the West (433-440). - 2. The railways (425-431). - 3. Relations to the East and Europe (443-447). - 4. American power in the Pacific (447-449). - -=The Wars of American History= - - I. Indian wars (57-59). - II. Early colonial wars: King William's, Queen Anne's, and King - George's (59). - III. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1754-1763 (59-61). - IV. Revolutionary War, 1775-1783 (99-135). - V. The War of 1812, 1812-1815 (193-201). - VI. The Mexican War, 1845-1848 (276-284). - VII. The Civil War, 1861-1865 (344-375). - VIII. The Spanish War, 1898 (485-497). - IX. The World War, 1914-1918 [American participation, 1917-1918] - (596-625). - -=Government= - - I. Development of the American system of government. - 1. Origin and growth of state government. - _a._ The trading corporation (2-4), religious congregation - (4-5), and proprietary system (5-6). - _b._ Government of the colonies (48-53). - _c._ Formation of the first state constitutions (108-110). - _d._ The admission of new states (_see_ Index under each - state). - _e._ Influence of Jacksonian Democracy (238-247). - _f._ Growth of manhood suffrage (238-244). - _g._ Nullification and state sovereignty (180-182, 251-257). - _h._ The doctrine of secession (345-346). - _i._ Effects of the Civil War on position of states (366, - 369-375). - _j._ Political reform--direct government--initiative, - referendum, and recall (540-544). - 2. Origin and growth of national government. - _a._ British imperial control over the colonies (64-72). - _b._ Attempts at intercolonial union--New England - Confederation, Albany plan (61-62). - _c._ The Stamp Act Congress (85-86). - _d._ The Continental Congresses (99-101). - _e._ The Articles of Confederation (110-111, 139-143). - _f._ The formation of the federal Constitution (143-160). - _g._ Development of the federal Constitution. - (1) Amendments 1-11--rights of persons and states (163). - (2) Twelfth amendment--election of President (184, note). - (3) Amendments 13-15--Civil War settlement (358, 366, 369, - 370, 374, 375). - (4) Sixteenth amendment--income tax (528-529). - (5) Seventeenth amendment--election of Senators (541-542). - (6) Eighteenth amendment--prohibition (591-592). - (7) Nineteenth amendment--woman suffrage (563-568). - 3. Development of the suffrage. - _a._ Colonial restrictions (51-52). - _b._ Provisions of the first state constitutions - (110, 238-240). - _c._ Position under federal Constitution of 1787 (149). - _d._ Extension of manhood suffrage (241-244). - _e._ Extension and limitation of negro suffrage (373-375, - 382-387). - _f._ Woman suffrage (560-568). - II. Relation of government to economic and social welfare. - 1. Debt and currency. - _a._ Colonial paper money (80). - _b._ Revolutionary currency and debt (125-127). - _c._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140-141). - _d._ Powers of Congress under the Constitution to coin money - (_see_ Constitution in the Appendix). - _e._ First United States bank notes (167). - _f._ Second United States bank notes (257). - _g._ State bank notes (258). - _h._ Civil War greenbacks and specie payment (352-353, 454). - _i._ The Civil War debt (252). - _j._ Notes of National Banks under act of 1864 (369). - _k._ Demonetization of silver and silver legislation - (452-458). - _l._ The gold standard (472). - _m._ The federal reserve notes (589). - _n._ Liberty bonds (606). - 2. Banking systems. - _a._ The first United States bank (167). - _b._ The second United States bank--origin and destruction - (203, 257-259). - _c._ United States treasury system (263). - _d._ State banks (258). - _e._ The national banking system of 1864 (369). - _f._ Services of banks (407-409). - _g._ Federal reserve system (589). - 3. The tariff. - _a._ British colonial system (69-72). - _b._ Disorders under Articles of Confederation (140). - _c._ The first tariff under the Constitution (150, 167-168). - _d._ Development of the tariff, 1816-1832 (252-254). - _f._ Tariff and nullification (254-256). - _g._ Development to the Civil War--attitude of South and West - (264, 309-314, 357). - _h._ Republicans and Civil War tariffs (352, 367). - _i._ Revival of the tariff controversy under Cleveland (422). - _j._ Tariff legislation after 1890--McKinley bill (422), - Wilson bill (459), Dingley bill (472), Payne-Aldrich bill - (528), Underwood bill (588). - 4. Foreign and domestic commerce and transportation - (_see_ Tariff, Immigration, and Foreign Relations). - _a._ British imperial regulations (69-72). - _b._ Confusion under Articles of Confederation (140). - _c._ Provisions of federal Constitution (150). - _d._ Internal improvements--aid to roads, canals, etc. - (230-236). - _e._ Aid to railways (403). - _f._ Service of railways (402). - _g._ Regulation of railways (460-461, 547-548). - _h._ Control of trusts and corporations (461-462, 589-590). - 5. Land and natural resources. - _a._ British control over lands (80). - _b._ Early federal land measures (219-221). - _c._ The Homestead act (368, 432-445). - _d._ Irrigation and reclamation (434-436, 523-525). - _e._ Conservation of natural resources (523-526). - 6. Legislation advancing human rights and general welfare - (_see_ Suffrage). - _a._ Abolition of slavery: civil and political rights of - negroes (357-358, 373-375). - _b._ Extension of civil and political rights to women - (554-568). - _c._ Legislation relative to labor conditions (549-551, - 579-581, 590-591). - _d._ Control of public utilities (547-549). - _e._ Social reform and the war on poverty (549-551). - _f._ Taxation and equality of opportunity (551-552). - -=Political Parties and Political Issues= - - I. The Federalists _versus_ the Anti-Federalists [Jeffersonian - Republicans] from about 1790 to about 1816 (168-208, 201-203). - 1. Federalist leaders: Hamilton, John Adams, John Marshall, - Robert Morris. - 2. Anti-Federalist leaders: Jefferson, Madison, Monroe. - 3. Issues: funding the debt, assumption of state debts, first - United States bank, taxation, tariff, strong central - government _versus_ states' rights, and the Alien and - Sedition acts. - II. Era of "Good Feeling" from about 1816 to about 1824, a period - of no organized party opposition (248). - III. The Democrats [former Jeffersonian Republicans] _versus_ the - Whigs [or National Republicans] from about 1832 to 1856 - (238-265, 276-290, 324-334). - 1. Democratic leaders: Jackson, Van Buren, Calhoun, Benton. - 2. Whig leaders: Webster and Clay. - 3. Issues: second United States bank, tariff, nullification, - Texas, internal improvements, and disposition of Western - lands. - IV. The Democrats _versus_ the Republicans from about 1856 to the - present time (334-377, 388-389, 412-422, 451-475, 489-534, - 588-620). - 1. Democratic leaders: Jefferson Davis, Tilden, Cleveland, - Bryan, and Wilson. - 2. Republican leaders: Lincoln, Blaine, McKinley, Roosevelt. - 3. Issues: Civil War and reconstruction, currency, tariff, - taxation, trusts, railways, foreign policies, imperialism, - labor questions, and policies with regard to land and - conservation. - V. Minor political parties. - 1. Before the Civil War: Free Soil (319) and Labor Parties - (306-307). - 2. Since the Civil War: Greenback (463-464), Populist (464), - Liberal Republican (420), Socialistic (577-579), Progressive - (531-534, 602-603). - -=The Economic Development of the United States= - - I. The land and natural resources. - 1. The colonial land system: freehold, plantation, and manor - (20-25). - 2. Development of the freehold in the West (220-221, 228-230). - 3. The Homestead act and its results (368, 432-433). - 4. The cattle range and cowboy (431-432). - 5. Disappearance of free land (443-445). - 6. Irrigation and reclamation (434-436). - 7. Movement for the conservation of resources (523-526). - II. Industry. - 1. The rise of local and domestic industries (28-32). - 2. British restrictions on American enterprise (67-69, 70-72). - 3. Protective tariffs (see above, 648-649). - 4. Development of industry previous to the Civil War (295-307). - 5. Great progress of industry after the war (401-406). - 6. Rise and growth of trusts and combinations (406-412, - 472-474). - III. Commerce and transportation. - 1. Extent of colonial trade and commerce (32-35). - 2. British regulation (69-70). - 3. Effects of the Revolution and the Constitution - (139-140, 154). - 4. Growth of American shipping (195-196). - 5. Waterways and canals (230-236). - 6. Rise and extension of the railway system (298-300). - 7. Growth of American foreign trade (445-449). - IV. Rise of organized labor. - 1. Early phases before the Civil War: local unions, city - federations, and national unions in specific trades - (304-307). - 2. The National Trade Union, 1866-1872 (574-575). - 3. The Knights of Labor (575-576). - 4. The American Federation of Labor (573-574). - _a._ Policies of the Federation (576-577). - _b._ Relations to politics (579-581). - _c._ Contests with socialists and radicals (577-579). - _d._ Problems of immigration (582-585). - 5. The relations of capital and labor. - _a._ The corporation and labor (410, 570-571). - _b._ Company unions and profit-sharing (571-572). - _c._ Welfare work (573). - _d._ Strikes (465, 526, 580-581). - _e._ Arbitration (581-582). - -=American Foreign Relations= - - I. Colonial period. - 1. Indian relations (57-59). - 2. French relations (59-61). - II. Period of conflict and independence. - 1. Relations with Great Britain (77-108, 116-125, 132-135). - 2. Establishment of connections with European powers (128). - 3. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130). - 4. Assistance of Holland and Spain (130). - III. Relations with Great Britain since 1783. - 1. Commercial settlement in Jay treaty of 1794 (177-178). - 2. Questions arising out of European wars [1793-1801] - (176-177, 180). - 3. Blockade and embargo problems (193-199). - 4. War of 1812 (199-201). - 5. Monroe Doctrine and Holy Alliance (205-207). - 6. Maine boundary--Webster-Ashburton treaty (265). - 7. Oregon boundary (284-286). - 8. Attitude of Great Britain during Civil War (354-355). - 9. Arbitration of _Alabama_ claims (480-481). - 10. The Samoan question (481-482) - 11. The Venezuelan question (482-484). - 12. British policy during Spanish-American War (496-497). - 13. Controversy over blockade, 1914-1917 (598-600). - 14. The World War (603-620). - IV. Relations with France. - 1. The colonial wars (59-61). - 2. The French alliance of 1778 (128-130). - 3. Controversies over the French Revolution (128-130). - 4. Commercial questions arising out of the European wars - (176-177, 180, 193-199). - 5. Attitude of Napoleon III toward the Civil War (354-355). - 6. The Mexican entanglement (478-479). - 7. The World War (596-620). - V. Relations with Germany. - 1. Negotiations with Frederick, king of Prussia (128). - 2. The Samoan controversy (481-482). - 3. Spanish-American War (491). - 4. The Venezuelan controversy (512). - 5. The World War (596-620). - VI. Relations with the Orient. - 1. Early trading connections (486-487). - 2. The opening of China (447). - 3. The opening of Japan (448). - 4. The Boxer rebellion and the "open door" policy (499-502). - 5. Roosevelt and the close of the Russo-Japanese War (511). - 6. The Oriental immigration question (583-584). - VII. The United States and Latin America. - 1. Mexican relations. - _a._ Mexican independence and the Monroe Doctrine (205-207). - _b._ Mexico and French intervention--policy of the United - States (478-479). - _c._ The overthrow of Diaz (1911) and recent questions - (594-596). - 2. Cuban relations. - _a._ Slavery and the "Ostend Manifesto" (485-486). - _b._ The revolutionary period, 1867-1877 (487). - _c._ The revival of revolution (487-491). - _d._ American intervention and the Spanish War (491-496). - _e._ The Platt amendment and American protection (518-519). - 3. Caribbean and other relations. - _a._ Acquisition of Porto Rico (493). - _b._ The acquisition of the Panama Canal strip (508-510). - _c._ Purchase of Danish West Indies (593). - _d._ Venezuelan controversies (482-484, 512). - _e._ Extension of protectorate over Haiti, Santo Domingo, - and Nicaragua (513-514, 592-594). - - - - -INDEX - - -Abolition, 318, 331 - -Adams, Abigail, 556 - -Adams, John, 97, 128, 179ff. - -Adams, J.Q., 247, 319 - -Adams, Samuel, 90, 99, 108 - -Adamson law, 590 - -Aguinaldo, 497 - -Alabama, admission, 227 - -_Alabama_ claims, 480 - -Alamance, battle, 92 - -Alamo, 280 - -Alaska, purchase, 479 - -Albany, plan of union, 62 - -Algonquins, 57 - -Alien law, 180 - -Amendment, method of, 156 - -Amendments to federal Constitution: first eleven, 163 - twelfth, 184, note - thirteenth, 358 - fourteenth, 366, 369, 387 - fifteenth, 358 - sixteenth, 528 - seventeenth, 542 - eighteenth, 591 - nineteenth, 563ff. - -American expeditionary force, 610 - -American Federation of Labor, 573, 608 - -Americanization, 585 - -Amnesty, for Confederates, 383 - -Andros, 65 - -Annapolis, convention, 144 - -Antietam, 357 - -Anti-Federalists, 169 - -Anti-slavery. _See_ Abolition - -Anthony, Susan, 564 - -Appomattox, 363 - -Arbitration: international, 480, 514, 617 - labor disputes, 582 - -Arizona, admission, 443 - -Arkansas, admission, 272 - -Arnold, Benedict, 114, 120 - -Articles of Confederation, 110, 139ff., 146 - -Ashburton, treaty, 265 - -Assembly, colonial, 49ff., 89ff. - -Assumption, 164ff. - -Atlanta, 361 - -Australian ballot, 540 - - -Bacon, Nathaniel, 58 - -Ballot: Australian, 540 - short, 544 - -Baltimore, Lord, 6 - -Bank: first U.S., 167 - second, 203, 257ff. - -Banking system: state, 300 - U.S. national, 369 - services of, 407 - _See also_ Federal reserve - -Barry, John, 118 - -Bastille, 172 - -Bell, John, 341 - -Belleau Wood, 611 - -Berlin decree, 194 - -Blockade: by England and France, 193ff. - Southern ports, 353 - law and practice in 1914, 598ff. - -Bond servants, 13ff. - -Boone, Daniel, 28, 218 - -Boston: massacre, 91 - evacuation, 116 - port bill, 94 - -Bowdoin, Governor, 142 - -Boxer rebellion, 499 - -Brandywine, 129 - -Breckinridge, J.C., 340 - -Bright, John, 355 - -Brown, John, 338 - -Brown University, 45 - -Bryan, W.J., 468ff., 495, 502, 503, 527 - -Buchanan, James, 335, 368 - -Budget system, 529 - -Bull Run, 350 - -Bunker Hill, 102 - -Burgoyne, General, 116, 118, 130 - -Burke, Edmund, 87, 96ff., 132, 175 - -Burr, Aaron, 183, 231 - -Business. _See_ Industry - - -Calhoun, J.C., 198ff., 203, 208, 281, 321, 328 - -California, 286ff. - -Canada, 61, 114, 530 - -Canals, 233, 298, 508 - -Canning, British premier, 206 - -Cannon, J.G., 530 - -Cantigny, 611 - -Caribbean, 479 - -Carpet baggers, 373 - -Cattle ranger, 431ff. - -Caucus, 245 - -Censorship. _See_ Newspapers - -Charles I, 3 - -Charles II, 65 - -Charleston, 36, 116 - -Charters, colonial, 2ff., 41 - -Chase, Justice, 187 - -Chateau-Thierry, 611 - -Checks and balances, 153 - -_Chesapeake_, the, 195 - -Chickamauga, 361 - -Child labor law, 591 - -China, 447, 499ff. - -Chinese labor, 583 - -Churches, colonial, 39ff., 42, 43 - -Cities, 35, 36, 300ff., 395, 410, 544 - -City manager plan, 545 - -Civil liberty, 358ff., 561 - -Civil service, 419, 536, 538ff. - -Clarendon, Lord, 6 - -Clark, G.R., 116, 218 - -Clay, Henry, 198, 203, 248, 261, 328 - -Clayton anti-trust act, 489 - -Clergy. _See_ Churches - -Cleveland, Grover, 421, 465, 482, 484, 489, 582 - -Clinton, Sir Henry, 119 - -Colorado, admission, 441 - -Combination. _See_ Trusts - -Commerce, colonial, 33ff. - disorders after 1781, 140 - Constitutional provisions on, 154 - Napoleonic wars, 176, 193ff. - domestic growth of, 307 - congressional regulation of, 460ff., 547 - _See also_ Trusts and Railways - -Commission government, 544 - -Committees of correspondence, 108 - -_Commonsense_, pamphlet, 103 - -Communism, colonial, 20f. - -Company, trading, 2f. - -Compromises: of Constitution, 148, 150, 151 - Missouri, 325, 332 - of 1850, 328ff. - Crittenden, 350 - -Conciliation, with England, 131 - -Concord, battle, 100 - -Confederacy, Southern, 346ff. - -Confederation: New England, 61f. - _See also_ Articles of - -Congregation, religious, 4 - -Congress: stamp act, 85 - continental, 99ff. - under Articles, 139f. - under Constitution, 152 - powers of, 153 - -Connecticut: founded, 4ff. - self-government, 49 - _See also_ Suffrage - constitutions, state - -Conservation, 523ff. - -Constitution: formation of, 143ff. - _See also_ Amendment - -_Constitution_, the, 200 - -Constitutions, state, 109ff., 238ff., 385ff. - -Constitutional union party, 340 - -Contract labor law, 584 - -Convention: 1787, 144ff. - nominating, 405 - -Convicts, colonial, 15 - -Conway Cabal, 120 - -Cornwallis, General, 116, 119, 131 - -Corporation and labor, 571. _See also_ Trusts - -Cotton. _See_ Planting system - -Cowboy, 431ff. - -Cowpens, battle, 116 - -Cox, J.M., 619 - -_Crisis, The_, pamphlet, 115 - -Crittenden Compromise, 350 - -Cuba, 485ff., 518 - -Cumberland Gap, 223 - -Currency. _See_ Banking - - -Danish West Indies, purchased, 593 - -Dartmouth College, 45 - -Daughters of liberty, 84 - -Davis, Jefferson, 346ff. - -Deane, Silas, 128 - -Debs, E.V., 465, 534 - -Debt, national, 164ff. - -Decatur, Commodore, 477 - -Declaration of Independence, 101ff. - -Defense, national, 154 - -De Kalb, 121 - -Delaware, 3, 49 - -De Lome affair, 490 - -Democratic party, name assumed, 260 - _See also_ Anti-Federalists - -Dewey, Admiral, 492 - -Diplomacy: of the Revolution, 127ff. - Civil War, 354 - -Domestic industry, 28 - -Donelson, Fort, 361 - -Dorr Rebellion, 243 - -Douglas, Stephen A., 333, 337, 368 - -Draft: Civil War, 351 - World War, 605 - -Draft riots, 351 - -Dred Scott case, 335, 338 - -Drug act, 523 - -Duquesne, Fort, 60 - -Dutch, 3, 12 - - -East India Company, 93 - -Education, 43ff., 557, 591 - -Electors, popular election of, 245 - -Elkins law, 547 - -Emancipation, 357ff. - -Embargo acts, 186ff. - -England: Colonial policy of, 64ff. - Revolutionary War, 99ff. - Jay treaty, 177 - War of 1812, 198ff. - Monroe Doctrine, 206 - Ashburton treaty, 265 - Civil War, 354 - _Alabama_ claims, 480 - Samoa, 481 - Venezuela question, 482 - Spanish War, 496 - World War, 596ff. - -Erie Canal, 233 - -Esch-Cummins bill, 582 - -Espionage act, 607 - -Excess profits tax, 606 - -Executive, federal, plans for, 151 - -Expunging resolution, 260 - - -Farm loan act, 589 - -Federal reserve act, 589 - -Federal trade commission, 590 - -_Federalist_, the, 158 - -Federalists, 168ff., 201ff. - -Feudal elements in colonies, 21f. - -Filipino revolt. _See_ Philippines - -Fillmore, President, 485 - -Finances: colonial, 64 - revolutionary, 125ff. - disorders, 140 - Civil War, 347, 352ff. - World War, 606 - _See also_ Banking - -Fishing industry, 31 - -Fleet, world tour, 515 - -Florida, 134, 204 - -Foch, General, 611 - -Food and fuel law, 607 - -Force bills, 384 ff., 375 - -Forests, national, 525ff. - -Fourteen points, 605 - -Fox, C.J., 132 - -France: colonization, 59ff. - French and Indian War, 60ff. - American Revolution, 116, 123, 128ff. - French Revolution, 165ff. - Quarrel with, 180 - Napoleonic wars, 193ff. - Louisiana purchase, 190 - French Revolution of 1830, 266 - Civil War, 354 - Mexican affair, 478 - World War, 596ff. - -Franchises, utility, 548 - -Franklin, Benjamin, 45, 62, 82, 86, 128, 134 - -Freedmen. _See_ Negro - -Freehold. _See_ Land - -Free-soil party, 319 - -Fremont, J.C., 288, 334 - -French. _See_ France - -Friends, the, 5 - -Frontier. _See_ Land - -Fugitive slave act, 329 - -Fulton, Robert, 231, 234 - -Fundamental articles, 5 - -Fundamental orders, 5 - - -Gage, General, 95, 100 - -Garfield, President, 416 - -Garrison, William Lloyd, 318 - -_Gaspee_, the, 92 - -Gates, General, 116, 120, 131 - -Genet, 177 - -George I, 66 - -George II, 4, 66, 82 - -George III, 77ff. - -Georgia: founded, 4 - royal province, 49 - state constitution, 109 - _See also_ Secession - -Germans: colonial immigration, 9ff. - in Revolutionary War, 102ff. - later immigration, 303 - -Germany: Samoa, 481 - Venezuela affair, 512 - World War, 596f. - -Gerry, Elbridge, 148 - -Gettysburg, 362 - -Gibbon, Edward, 133 - -Gold: discovery, 288 - standard, 466, 472 - -Gompers, Samuel, 573, 608 - -Governor, royal, 49ff. - -Grandfather clause, 386f. - -Grangers, 460ff. - -Grant, General, 361, 416, 480, 487 - -Great Britain. _See_ England - -Greeley, Horace, 420 - -Greenbacks, 454ff. - -Greenbackers, 462ff. - -Greene, General, 117, 120 - -Grenville, 79ff. - -Guilford, battle, 117 - - -Habeas corpus, 358 - -Hague conferences, 514 - -Haiti, 593 - -Hamilton, Alexander, 95, 143, 158, 162, 168ff., 231 - -Harding, W.G., 389, 619 - -Harlem Heights, battle, 114 - -Harper's Ferry, 339 - -Harrison, Benjamin, 422, 484 - -Harrison, W.H., 198, 263f. - -Hartford convention, 201ff., 238 - -Harvard, 44 - -Hawaii, 484f. - -Hay, John, 477, 500ff. - -Hayne, Robert, 256 - -Hays, President, 416f. - -Henry, Patrick, 85 - -Hepburn act, 523 - -Hill, James J., 429 - -Holland, 130 - -Holy Alliance, 205 - -Homestead act, 368, 432 - -Hooker, Thomas, 5 - -Houston, Sam, 279ff. - -Howe, General, 118 - -Hughes, Charles E., 602 - -Huguenots, 10 - -Hume, David, 132 - -Hutchinson, Anne, 5 - - -Idaho, admission, 442 - -Income tax, 459, 466, 528, 588, 606 - -Inheritance tax, 606 - -Illinois, admission, 226 - -Illiteracy, 585 - -Immigration: colonial, 1-17 - before Civil War, 302, 367 - after Civil War, 410ff. - problems of, 582ff. - -Imperialism, 494ff., 498f., 502ff. - -Implied powers, 212 - -Impressment of seamen, 194 - -Indentured servants, 13f. - -Independence, Declaration of, 107 - -Indiana, admission, 226 - -Indians, 57ff., 81, 431 - -Industry: colonial, 28ff. - growth of, 296ff. - during Civil War, 366 - after 1865, 390ff., 401ff., 436ff., 559 - _See also_ Trusts - -Initiative, the, 543 - -Injunction, 465, 580 - -Internal improvements, 260, 368 - -Interstate commerce act, 461, 529 - -Intolerable acts, 93 - -Invisible government, 537 - -Iowa, admission, 275 - -Irish, 11, 302 - -Iron. _See_ Industry - -Irrigation, 434ff., 523ff. - - -Jackson, Andrew, 201, 204, 246, 280 - -Jacobins, 174 - -James I, 3 - -James II, 65 - -Jamestown, 3, 21 - -Japan, relations with, 447, 511, 583 - -Jay, John, 128, 158, 177 - -Jefferson, Thomas: Declaration of Independence, 107 - Secretary of State, 162ff. - political leader, 169 - as President, 183ff. - Monroe Doctrine, 206, 231 - -Jews, migration of, 11 - -Johnson, Andrew, 365, 368, 371f. - -Johnson, Samuel, 132 - -Joliet, 59 - -Jones, John Paul, 118 - -Judiciary: British system, 67 - federal, 152 - - -Kansas, admission, 441 - -Kansas-Nebraska bill, 333 - -Kentucky: admission, 224 - Resolutions, 182 - -King George's War, 59 - -King Philip's War, 57 - -King William's War, 59 - -King's College (Columbia), 45 - -Knights of Labor, 575ff. - -Kosciusko, 121 - -Ku Klux Klan, 382 - - -Labor: rise of organized, 304 - parties, 462ff. - question, 521 - American Federation, 573ff. - legislation, 590 - World War, 608ff. - -Lafayette, 121 - -La Follette, Senator, 531 - -Land: tenure 20ff. - sales restricted, 80 - Western survey, 219 - federal sales policy, 220 - Western tenure, 228 - disappearance of free, 445 - new problems, 449 - _See also_ Homestead act - -La Salle, 59 - -Lawrence, Captain, 200 - -League of Nations, 616ff. - -Le Boeuf, Fort, 59 - -Lee, General Charles, 131 - -Lee, R.E., 357 - -Lewis and Clark expedition, 193 - -Lexington, battle, 100 - -Liberal Republicans, 420 - -Liberty loan, 606 - -Lincoln: Mexican War, 282 - Douglas debates, 336f. - election, 341 - Civil War, 344ff. - reconstruction, 371 - -Literacy test, 585 - -Livingston, R.R., 191 - -Locke, John, 95 - -London Company, 3 - -Long Island, battle, 114 - -Lords of trade, 67ff. - -Louis XVI, 171ff. - -Louisiana: ceded to Spain, 61 - purchase, 190ff. - admission, 227 - -Loyalists. _See_ Tories - -_Lusitania_, the, 601ff. - - -McClellan, General, 362, 365 - -McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, 211 - -McKinley, William, 422, 467ff., 489ff. - -Macaulay, Catherine, 132 - -Madison, James, 158, 197ff. - -Maine, 325 - -_Maine_, the, 490 - -Manila Bay, battle, 492 - -Manors, colonial, 22 - -Manufactures. _See_ Industry - -Marbury _vs._ Madison, 209 - -Marietta, 220 - -Marion, Francis, 117, 120 - -Marquette, 59 - -Marshall, John, 208ff. - -Martineau, Harriet, 267 - -Maryland, founded, 6, 49, 109, 239, 242 - -Massachusetts: founded, 3ff. - _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Industry, Revolutionary War, - Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Commerce, and Industry - -Massachusetts Bay Company, 3 - founded, 3ff. - _See also_ Immigration, Royal province - -_Mayflower_ compact, 4 - -Mercantile theory, 69 - -Merchants. _See_ Commerce - -_Merrimac_, the, 353 - -Meuse-Argonne, battle, 612 - -Mexico: and Texas, 278ff. - later relations, 594f. - -Michigan, admission, 273 - -Midnight appointees, 187 - -Milan Decree, 194 - -Militia, Revolutionary War, 122 - -Minimum wages, 551 - -Minnesota, admission, 275 - -Mississippi River, and West, 189f. - -Missouri Compromise, 207, 227, 271, 325, 332 - -Molasses act, 71 - -Money, paper, 80, 126, 155, 369 - -_Monitor_, the, 353 - -Monroe, James, 204ff., 191 - -Monroe Doctrine, 205, 512 - -Montana, admission, 442 - -Montgomery, General, 114 - -Morris, Robert, 127 - -Mothers' pensions, 551 - -Mohawks, 57 - -Muckraking, 536f. - -Mugwumps, 420 - -Municipal ownership, 549 - - -Napoleon I, 190 - -Napoleon III: Civil War, 354f. - Mexico, 477 - -National Labor Union, 574 - -National road, 232 - -Nationalism, colonial, 56ff. - -Natural rights, 95 - -Navigation acts, 69 - -Navy: in Revolution, 188 - War of 1812, 195 - Civil War, 353 - World War, 610. - _See also_ Sea Power - -Nebraska, admission, 441 - -Negro: Civil rights, 370ff. - in agriculture, 393ff. - status of, 396ff. - _See also_ Slavery - -New England: colonial times, 6ff., 35, 40ff. - _See also_ Industry, Suffrage, Commerce, and Wars - -New Hampshire: founded, 4ff. - _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and Constitutions, - state - -New Jersey, founded, 6. - _See also_ Immigration, Royal province, Suffrage, and - Constitutions, state - -Newlands, Senator, 524 - -New Mexico, admission, 443 - -New Orleans, 59, 190 - battle, 201 - -Newspapers, colonial, 46ff. - -New York: founded by Dutch, 3 - transferred to English, 49 - _See also_ Dutch, Immigration, Royal province, Commerce, Suffrage, - and Constitutions, state - -New York City, colonial, 36 - -Niagara, Fort, 59 - -Nicaragua protectorate, 594 - -Non-intercourse act, 196ff. - -Non-importation, 84ff., 99 - -North, Lord, 100, 131, 133 - -North Carolina: founded, 6. - _See also_ Royal province, Immigration, Suffrage, and Constitutions, - state - -North Dakota, admission, 442 - -Northwest Ordinance, 219 - -Nullification, 182, 251ff. - - -Oglethorpe, James, 3 - -Ohio, admission, 225 - -Oklahoma, admission, 443 - -Open door policy, 500 - -Oregon, 284ff. - -Ostend Manifesto, 486 - -Otis, James, 88, 95f. - - -Pacific, American influence, 447 - -Paine, Thomas, 103, 115, 175 - -Panama Canal, 508ff. - -Panics: 1837, 262 - 1857, 336 - 1873, 464 - 1893, 465 - -Parcel post, 529 - -Parker, A.B., 527 - -Parties: rise of, 168ff. - Federalists, 169ff. - Anti-Federalists (Jeffersonian Republicans), 169ff. - Democrats, 260 - Whigs, 260ff. - Republicans, 334ff. - Liberal Republicans, 420 - Constitutional union, 340 - minor parties, 462ff. - -Paterson, William, 196ff. - -Penn, William, 6 - -Pennsylvania: founded, 6 - _See also_ Penn, Germans, Immigration, Industry, Revolutionary War, - Constitutions, state, Suffrage - -Pennsylvania University, 45 - -Pensions, soldiers and sailors, 413, 607 - mothers', 551 - -Pequots, 57 - -Perry, O.H., 200 - -Pershing, General, 610 - -Philadelphia, 36, 116 - -Philippines, 492ff., 516ff., 592 - -Phillips, Wendell, 320 - -Pierce, Franklin, 295, 330 - -Pike, Z., 193, 287 - -Pilgrims, 4 - -Pinckney, Charles, 148 - -Pitt, William, 61, 79, 87, 132 - -Planting system, 22f., 25, 149, 389, 393ff. - -Plymouth, 4, 21 - -Polk, J.K., 265, 285f. - -Polygamy, 290f. - -Populist party, 464 - -Porto Rico, 515, 592 - -Postal savings bank, 529 - -Preble, Commodore, 196 - -Press. _See_ Newspapers - -Primary, direct, 541 - -Princeton, battle, 129 - University, 45 - -Profit sharing, 572 - -Progressive party, 531f. - -Prohibition, 591f. - -Proprietary colonies, 3, 6 - -Provinces, royal, 49ff. - -Public service, 538ff. - -Pulaski, 121 - -Pullman strike, 465 - -Pure food act, 523 - -Puritans, 3, 7, 40ff. - - -Quakers, 6ff. - -Quartering act, 83 - -Quebec act, 94 - -Queen Anne's War, 59 - -Quit rents, 21f. - - -Radicals, 579 - -Railways, 298, 402, 425, 460ff., 547, 621 - -Randolph, Edmund, 146, 147, 162 - -Ratification, of Constitution, 156ff. - -Recall, 543 - -Reclamation, 523ff. - -Reconstruction, 370ff. - -Referendum, the, 543 - -Reign of terror, 174 - -Republicans: Jeffersonian, 179 - rise of present party, 334ff. - supremacy of, 412ff. - _See also_ McKinley, Roosevelt, and Taft - -Resumption, 454 - -Revolution: American, 99ff. - French, 171ff. - Russian, 619 - -Rhode Island: founded, 4ff. - self-government, 49 - _See also_ Suffrage - -Roosevelt, Theodore, 492, 500ff., 531, 570 - -Royal province, 49ff. - -Russia, 205, 207, 355, 479, 619 - -Russo-Japanese War, 511f. - - -Saint Mihiel, 612 - -Samoa, 481 - -San Jacinto, 280 - -Santa Fe trail, 287 - -Santo Domingo, 480, 513, 592 - -Saratoga, battle, 116, 130 - -Savannah, 116, 131 - -Scandinavians, 278 - -Schools. _See_ Education - -Scott, General, 283, 330 - -Scotch-Irish, 7ff. - -Seamen's act, 590 - -Sea power: American Revolution, 118 - Napoleonic wars, 193ff. - Civil War, 353 - Caribbean, 593 - Pacific, 447 - World War, 610ff. - -Secession, 344ff. - -Sedition: act of 1798, 180ff., 187 - of 1918, 608 - -Senators, popular election, 527, 541ff. - -Seven Years' War, 60ff. - -Sevier, John, 218 - -Seward, W.H., 322, 342 - -Shafter, General, 492 - -Shays's rebellion, 142 - -Sherman, General, 361 - -Sherman: anti-trust law, 461 - silver act, 458 - -Shiloh, 361 - -Shipping. _See_ Commerce - -Shipping act, 607 - -Silver, free, 455ff. - -Slavery: colonial, 16f. - trade, 150 - in Northwest, 219 - decline in North, 316f. - growth in South, 320ff. - and the Constitution, 324 - and territories, 325ff. - compromises, 350 - abolished, 357ff. - -Smith, Joseph, 290 - -Socialism, 577ff. - -Solid South, 388 - -Solomon, Hayn, 126 - -Sons of liberty, 82 - -South: economic and political views, 309ff. - _See also_ Slavery and Planting system, and Reconstruction - -South Carolina: founded, 6 - nullification, 253ff. - _See also_ Constitutions, state, Suffrage, Slavery, and Secession - -South Dakota, 442 - -Spain: and Revolution, 130 - Louisiana, 190 - Monroe Doctrine, 205 - Spanish War, 490ff. - -Spoils system, 244, 250, 418, 536ff. - -Stamp act, 82ff. - -Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 564 - -States: disorders under Articles of Confederation, 141 - constitutions, federal limits on, 155 - position after Civil War, 366ff. - _See also_ Suffrage, Nullification, and Secession - -Steamboat, 234 - -Stowe, H.B., 332 - -Strikes: of 1877, 581 - Pullman, 581 - coal, 526 - _See also_ Labor - -Submarine campaign, 600ff. - -Suffrage: colonial, 42, 51 - first state constitutions, 239 - White manhood, 242 - Negro, 374ff., 385f. - Woman, 110, 562ff. - -Sugar act, 81 - -Sumner, Charles, 319 - -Sumter, Fort, 350 - -Swedes, 3, 13 - - -Taft, W.H., 527ff. - -Tammany Hall, 306, 418 - -Taney, Chief Justice, 357 - -Tariff: first, 167 - of 1816, 203 - development of, 251ff. - abominations, 249, 253 - nullification, 251 - of 1842, 264 - Southern views of, 309ff. - of 1857, 337 - Civil War, 367 - Wilson bill, 459 - McKinley bill, 422 - Dingley bill, 472 - Payne-Aldrich, 528 - Underwood, 588 - -Taxation: and representation, 149 - and Constitution, 154 - Civil War, 353 - and wealth, 522, 551 - and World War, 606 - -Tea act, 88 - -Tea party, 92 - -Tenement house reform, 549 - -Tennessee, 28, 224 - -Territories, Northwest, 219 - South of the Ohio, 219 - _See also_ Slavery and Compromise - -Texas, 278ff. - -Tippecanoe, battle, 198 - -Tocqueville, 267 - -Toleration, religious, 42 - -Tories, colonial, 84 - in Revolution, 112 - -Townshend acts, 80, 87 - -Trade, colonial, 70 - legislation, 70. _See_ Commerce - -Transylvania company, 28 - -Treasury, independent, 263 - -Treaties, of 1763, 61 - alliance with France, 177 - of 1783 with England, 134 - Jay, 177, 218 - Louisiana purchase, 191f. - of 1815, 201 - Ashburton, 265 - of 1848 with Mexico, 283 - Washington with England, 481 - with Spain, 492 - Versailles (1919), 612ff. - -Trenton, battle, 116 - -Trollope, Mrs., 268 - -Trusts, 405ff., 461, 472ff., 521, 526, 530 - -Tweed, W.M., 418 - -Tyler, President, 264ff., 281, 349 - - -"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 332 - -Union party, 365 - -Unions. _See_ Labor - -Utah, 290ff., 329, 442 - -Utilities, municipal, 548 - - -Vallandigham, 360 - -Valley Forge, 116, 129 - -Van Buren, Martin, 262 - -Venango, Fort, 59 - -Venezuela, 482ff., 512 - -Vermont, 223 - -Vicksburg, 361 - -Virginia: founded, 3. - _See also_ Royal province, Constitutions, state, Planting system, - Slavery, Secession, and Immigration - - -Walpole, Sir Robert, 66 - -Wars: colonial, 57ff. - Revolutionary, 99ff. - of 1812, 199ff. - Mexican, 282ff. - Civil, 344ff. - Spanish, 490ff. - World, 596ff. - -Washington: warns French, 60 - in French war, 63 - commander-in-chief, 101ff. - and movement for Constitution, 142ff. - as President, 166ff. - Farewell Address, 178 - -Washington City, 166 - -Washington State, 442 - -Webster, 256, 265, 328 - -Welfare work, 573 - -Whigs: English, 78 - colonial, 83 - rise of party, 260ff., 334, 340 - -Whisky Rebellion, 171 - -White Camelia, 382 - -White Plains, battle, 114 - -Whitman, Marcus, 284 - -William and Mary College, 45 - -Williams, Roger, 5, 42 - -Wilmot Proviso, 326 - -Wilson, James, 147 - -Wilson, Woodrow, election, 533f. - administrations, 588ff. - -Winthrop, John, 3 - -Wisconsin, admission, 274 - -Witchcraft, 41 - -Wollstonecraft, Mary, 556 - -Women: colonial, 28 - Revolutionary War, 124 - labor, 305 - education and civil rights, 554ff. - suffrage, 562ff. - -Workmen's compensation, 549 - -Writs of assistance, 88 - -Wyoming, admission, 442 - - -X, Y, Z affair, 180 - - -Yale, 44 - -Young, Brigham, 290 - - -Zenger, Peter, 48 - - * * * * * - -Printed in the United States of America. - - * * * * * - -[Transcriber's notes: - -Punctuation normalized in all _Underwood and Underwood, N.Y._ - -Superscripted letters are denoted with a caret. For example, G^O -WASHINGTON. - -Period added after Mass on verso page. Original read "Mass, U.S.A." - -Chapter I, page 19, period added to pp. 55-159 and pp. 242-244. - -Chapter IV, page 61 cooperation changed to cooeperation twice to match -rest of text usage. Also on page 620. - -Chapter VI, page 121 changed maneuvered to manoevered. - -Chapter VIII, page 185, period added to "Vol." Original read "Vol III," - -Chapter X, page 219, changed coordinate to cooerdinate to reflect rest of -text usage. - -Chapter X, page 234, Italicized habeus corpus to match rest of text. - -Chapter XI, page 257 changed reestablished to reestablished to conform -to rest of text usage. - -Chapter XI, page 259 changed reelection to reelection - -Chapter XII, page 269 added period after "Vol" Vol. II - -Chapter XII, page 270. Title of work reads "_Selected Documents of -United States History, 1776-1761_". Research shows the document does -have this title. - -Chapter XV, page 351. changed "bout" to "about". "for only about" - -Chapter XVI, page 385. changed "provisons" to "provisions". - -Chapter XX, page 478. changed "aniversary" to "anniversary". - -Chapter XXIV, page 579 word "on" changed to "one" "five commissioners, -one of whom," - -Topical Syllabus. Missing periods added to normalize punctuation in -entries such as on page 648 (4) Sixteenth Amendment--income tax -(528-529). - -Appendix, page 631, comma changed to semi-colon on "bills of credit;" to -match rest of list. Also on "obligation of contracts;" - -Index, page 657, changed "Freesoil" to Free-soil to match rest of text -usage. - -Index, page 660, space removed from "396 ff." changed to "status of, -396ff." - -Index, Page 662, added comma to States: disorders under Articles of -Constitution, 141] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States -by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. 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Be sure to check the -copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing -this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. - -This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project -Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the -header without written permission. - -Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the -eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is -important information about your specific rights and restrictions in -how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a -donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. - - -**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** - -**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** - -*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** - - -Title: The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Complete - -Author: Leonardo Da Vinci - -Release Date: Jan, 2004 [EBook #5000] -[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] -[Most recently updated June 26, 2002] - -Edition: 10 - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA - VINCI, COMPLETE *** - - - - -This eBook was produced by Charles Aldarondo and the Distributed -Proofreaders team. - - - -The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci - -Volume 1 - -Translated by Jean Paul Richter - -1888 - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - - - - -A singular fatality has ruled the destiny of nearly all the most -famous of Leonardo da Vinci's works. Two of the three most important -were never completed, obstacles having arisen during his life-time, -which obliged him to leave them unfinished; namely the Sforza -Monument and the Wall-painting of the Battle of Anghiari, while the -third--the picture of the Last Supper at Milan--has suffered -irremediable injury from decay and the repeated restorations to -which it was recklessly subjected during the XVIIth and XVIIIth -centuries. Nevertheless, no other picture of the Renaissance has -become so wellknown and popular through copies of every description. - -Vasari says, and rightly, in his Life of Leonardo, "that he laboured -much more by his word than in fact or by deed", and the biographer -evidently had in his mind the numerous works in Manuscript which -have been preserved to this day. To us, now, it seems almost -inexplicable that these valuable and interesting original texts -should have remained so long unpublished, and indeed forgotten. It -is certain that during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries their -exceptional value was highly appreciated. This is proved not merely -by the prices which they commanded, but also by the exceptional -interest which has been attached to the change of ownership of -merely a few pages of Manuscript. - -That, notwithstanding this eagerness to possess the Manuscripts, -their contents remained a mystery, can only be accounted for by the -many and great difficulties attending the task of deciphering them. -The handwriting is so peculiar that it requires considerable -practice to read even a few detached phrases, much more to solve -with any certainty the numerous difficulties of alternative -readings, and to master the sense as a connected whole. Vasari -observes with reference to Leonardos writing: "he wrote backwards, -in rude characters, and with the left hand, so that any one who is -not practised in reading them, cannot understand them". The aid of a -mirror in reading reversed handwriting appears to me available only -for a first experimental reading. Speaking from my own experience, -the persistent use of it is too fatiguing and inconvenient to be -practically advisable, considering the enormous mass of Manuscripts -to be deciphered. And as, after all, Leonardo's handwriting runs -backwards just as all Oriental character runs backwards--that is -to say from right to left--the difficulty of reading direct from the -writing is not insuperable. This obvious peculiarity in the writing -is not, however, by any means the only obstacle in the way of -mastering the text. Leonardo made use of an orthography peculiar to -himself; he had a fashion of amalgamating several short words into -one long one, or, again, he would quite arbitrarily divide a long -word into two separate halves; added to this there is no punctuation -whatever to regulate the division and construction of the sentences, -nor are there any accents--and the reader may imagine that such -difficulties were almost sufficient to make the task seem a -desperate one to a beginner. It is therefore not surprising that the -good intentions of some of Leonardo s most reverent admirers should -have failed. - -Leonardos literary labours in various departments both of Art and of -Science were those essentially of an enquirer, hence the analytical -method is that which he employs in arguing out his investigations -and dissertations. The vast structure of his scientific theories is -consequently built up of numerous separate researches, and it is -much to be lamented that he should never have collated and arranged -them. His love for detailed research--as it seems to me--was the -reason that in almost all the Manuscripts, the different paragraphs -appear to us to be in utter confusion; on one and the same page, -observations on the most dissimilar subjects follow each other -without any connection. A page, for instance, will begin with some -principles of astronomy, or the motion of the earth; then come the -laws of sound, and finally some precepts as to colour. Another page -will begin with his investigations on the structure of the -intestines, and end with philosophical remarks as to the relations -of poetry to painting; and so forth. - -Leonardo himself lamented this confusion, and for that reason I do -not think that the publication of the texts in the order in which -they occur in the originals would at all fulfil his intentions. No -reader could find his way through such a labyrinth; Leonardo himself -could not have done it. - -Added to this, more than half of the five thousand manuscript pages -which now remain to us, are written on loose leaves, and at present -arranged in a manner which has no justification beyond the fancy of -the collector who first brought them together to make volumes of -more or less extent. Nay, even in the volumes, the pages of which -were numbered by Leonardo himself, their order, so far as the -connection of the texts was concerned, was obviously a matter of -indifference to him. The only point he seems to have kept in view, -when first writing down his notes, was that each observation should -be complete to the end on the page on which it was begun. The -exceptions to this rule are extremely few, and it is certainly -noteworthy that we find in such cases, in bound volumes with his -numbered pages, the written observations: "turn over", "This is the -continuation of the previous page", and the like. Is not this -sufficient to prove that it was only in quite exceptional cases that -the writer intended the consecutive pages to remain connected, when -he should, at last, carry out the often planned arrangement of his -writings? - -What this final arrangement was to be, Leonardo has in most cases -indicated with considerable completeness. In other cases this -authoritative clue is wanting, but the difficulties arising from -this are not insuperable; for, as the subject of the separate -paragraphs is always distinct and well defined in itself, it is -quite possible to construct a well-planned whole, out of the -scattered materials of his scientific system, and I may venture to -state that I have devoted especial care and thought to the due -execution of this responsible task. - -The beginning of Leonardo's literary labours dates from about his -thirty-seventh year, and he seems to have carried them on without -any serious interruption till his death. Thus the Manuscripts that -remain represent a period of about thirty years. Within this space -of time his handwriting altered so little that it is impossible to -judge from it of the date of any particular text. The exact dates, -indeed, can only be assigned to certain note-books in which the year -is incidentally indicated, and in which the order of the leaves has -not been altered since Leonardo used them. The assistance these -afford for a chronological arrangement of the Manuscripts is -generally self evident. By this clue I have assigned to the original -Manuscripts now scattered through England, Italy and France, the -order of their production, as in many matters of detail it is highly -important to be able to verify the time and place at which certain -observations were made and registered. For this purpose the -Bibliography of the Manuscripts given at the end of Vol. II, may be -regarded as an Index, not far short of complete, of all Leonardo s -literary works now extant. The consecutive numbers (from 1 to 1566) -at the head of each passage in this work, indicate their logical -sequence with reference to the subjects; while the letters and -figures to the left of each paragraph refer to the original -Manuscript and number of the page, on which that particular passage -is to be found. Thus the reader, by referring to the List of -Manuscripts at the beginning of Volume I, and to the Bibliography at -the end of Volume II, can, in every instance, easily ascertain, not -merely the period to which the passage belongs, but also exactly -where it stood in the original document. Thus, too, by following the -sequence of the numbers in the Bibliographical index, the reader may -reconstruct the original order of the Manuscripts and recompose the -various texts to be found on the original sheets--so much of it, -that is to say, as by its subject-matter came within the scope of -this work. It may, however, be here observed that Leonardo s -Manuscripts contain, besides the passages here printed, a great -number of notes and dissertations on Mechanics, Physics, and some -other subjects, many of which could only be satisfactorily dealt -with by specialists. I have given as complete a review of these -writings as seemed necessary in the Bibliographical notes. - -In 1651, Raphael Trichet Dufresne, of Paris, published a selection -from Leonardo's writings on painting, and this treatise became so -popular that it has since been reprinted about two-and-twenty times, -and in six different languages. But none of these editions were -derived from the original texts, which were supposed to have been -lost, but from early copies, in which Leonardo's text had been more -or less mutilated, and which were all fragmentary. The oldest and on -the whole the best copy of Leonardo's essays and precepts on -Painting is in the Vatican Library; this has been twice printed, -first by Manzi, in 1817, and secondly by Ludwig, in 1882. Still, -this ancient copy, and the published editions of it, contain much -for which it would be rash to hold Leonardo responsible, and some -portions--such as the very important rules for the proportions of -the human figure--are wholly wanting; on the other hand they contain -passages which, if they are genuine, cannot now be verified from any -original Manuscript extant. These copies, at any rate neither give -us the original order of the texts, as written by Leonardo, nor do -they afford any substitute, by connecting them on a rational scheme; -indeed, in their chaotic confusion they are anything rather than -satisfactory reading. The fault, no doubt, rests with the compiler -of the Vatican copy, which would seem to be the source whence all -the published and extensively known texts were derived; for, instead -of arranging the passages himself, he was satisfied with recording a -suggestion for a final arrangement of them into eight distinct -parts, without attempting to carry out his scheme. Under the -mistaken idea that this plan of distribution might be that, not of -the compiler, but of Leonardo himself, the various editors, down to -the present day, have very injudiciously continued to adopt this -order--or rather disorder. - -I, like other enquirers, had given up the original Manuscript of the -Trattato della Pittura for lost, till, in the beginning of 1880, I -was enabled, by the liberality of Lord Ashburnham, to inspect his -Manuscripts, and was so happy as to discover among them the original -text of the best-known portion of the Trattato in his magnificent -library at Ashburnham Place. Though this discovery was of a fragment -only--but a considerable fragment--inciting me to further search, -it gave the key to the mystery which had so long enveloped the first -origin of all the known copies of the Trattato. The extensive -researches I was subsequently enabled to prosecute, and the results -of which are combined in this work, were only rendered possible by -the unrestricted permission granted me to investigate all the -Manuscripts by Leonardo dispersed throughout Europe, and to -reproduce the highly important original sketches they contain, by -the process of "photogravure". Her Majesty the Queen graciously -accorded me special permission to copy for publication the -Manuscripts at the Royal Library at Windsor. The Commission Centrale -Administrative de l'Institut de France, Paris, gave me, in the most -liberal manner, in answer to an application from Sir Frederic -Leighton, P. R. A., Corresponding member of the Institut, free -permission to work for several months in their private collection at -deciphering the Manuscripts preserved there. The same favour which -Lord Ashburnham had already granted me was extended to me by the -Earl of Leicester, the Marchese Trivulsi, and the Curators of the -Ambrosian Library at Milan, by the Conte Manzoni at Rome and by -other private owners of Manuscripts of Leonardo's; as also by the -Directors of the Louvre at Paris; the Accademia at Venice; the -Uffizi at Florence; the Royal Library at Turin; and the British -Museum, and the South Kensington Museum. I am also greatly indebted -to the Librarians of these various collections for much assistance -in my labours; and more particularly to Monsieur Louis Lalanne, of -the Institut de France, the Abbate Ceriani, of the Ambrosian -Library, Mr. Maude Thompson, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British -Museum, Mr. Holmes, the Queens Librarian at Windsor, the Revd Vere -Bayne, Librarian of Christ Church College at Oxford, and the Revd A. -Napier, Librarian to the Earl of Leicester at Holkham Hall. - -In correcting the Italian text for the press, I have had the -advantage of valuable advice from the Commendatore Giov. Morelli, -Senatore del Regno, and from Signor Gustavo Frizzoni, of Milan. The -translation, under many difficulties, of the Italian text into -English, is mainly due to Mrs. R. C. Bell; while the rendering of -several of the most puzzling and important passages, particularly in -the second half of Vol. I, I owe to the indefatigable interest taken -in this work by Mr. E. J. Poynter R. A. Finally I must express my -thanks to Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, who has most kindly -assisted me throughout in the revision of the proof sheets. - -The notes and dissertations on the texts on Architecture in Vol. II -I owe to my friend Baron Henri de Geymuller, of Paris. - -I may further mention with regard to the illustrations, that the -negatives for the production of the "photo-gravures" by Monsieur -Dujardin of Paris were all taken direct from the originals. - -It is scarcely necessary to add that most of the drawings here -reproduced in facsimile have never been published before. As I am -now, on the termination of a work of several years' duration, in a -position to review the general tenour of Leonardos writings, I may -perhaps be permitted to add a word as to my own estimate of the -value of their contents. I have already shown that it is due to -nothing but a fortuitous succession of unfortunate circumstances, -that we should not, long since, have known Leonardo, not merely as a -Painter, but as an Author, a Philosopher, and a Naturalist. There -can be no doubt that in more than one department his principles and -discoveries were infinitely more in accord with the teachings of -modern science, than with the views of his contemporaries. For this -reason his extraordinary gifts and merits are far more likely to be -appreciated in our own time than they could have been during the -preceding centuries. He has been unjustly accused of having -squandered his powers, by beginning a variety of studies and then, -having hardly begun, throwing them aside. The truth is that the -labours of three centuries have hardly sufficed for the elucidation -of some of the problems which occupied his mighty mind. - -Alexander von Humboldt has borne witness that "he was the first to -start on the road towards the point where all the impressions of our -senses converge in the idea of the Unity of Nature" Nay, yet more -may be said. The very words which are inscribed on the monument of -Alexander von Humboldt himself, at Berlin, are perhaps the most -appropriate in which we can sum up our estimate of Leonardo's -genius: - -"Majestati naturae par ingenium." - -LONDON, April 1883. - -F. P. R. - - - - - - - -CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. - - - - - -PROLEGOMENA AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK ON PAINTING - -Clavis Sigillorum and Index of Manuscripts.--The author's intention -to publish his MSS. (1).--The preparation of the MSS. for -publication (2).--Admonition to readers (3).--The disorder in the -MSS. (4).--Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS. treating of -particular subjects (5--8).--General introductions to the book on -painting (9--13).--The plan of the book on painting (14--17).--The -use of the book on painting (18).--Necessity of theoretical -knowledge (19, 20).--The function of the eye (21--23).--Variability -of the eye (24).--Focus of sight (25).--Differences of perception by -one eye and by both eyes (26--29).--The comparative size of the -image depends on the amount of light (30--39). - -II. - -LINEAR PERSPECTIVE - -General remarks on perspective (40--41).--The elements of -perspective:--of the point (42--46).--Of the line (47--48).--The -nature of the outline (49).--Definition of perspective (50).--The -perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye -(51).--Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight -(52--55).--The relations of the distance point to the vanishing -point (55--56).--How to measure the pyramid of vision (57).--The -production of the pyramid of vision (58--64).--Proof by experiment -(65--66).--General conclusions (67).--That the contrary is -impossible (68).--A parallel case (69).--The function of the eye, as -explained by the camera obscura (70--71).--The practice of -perspective (72--73).--Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye -(74--75).--The inversion of the images (76).--The intersection of -the rays (77--82).--Demonstration of perspective by means of a -vertical glass plane (83--85.)--The angle of sight varies with the -distance (86--88).--Opposite pyramids in juxtaposition (89).--On -simple and complex perspective (90).--The proper distance of objects -from the eye (91--92).--The relative size of objects with regard to -their distance from the eye (93--98).--The apparent size of objects -denned by calculation (99--106).--On natural perspective (107--109). - -III. - -SIX BOOKS ON LIGHT AND SHADE - -GENERAL INTRODUCTION.--Prolegomena (110).--Scheme of the books on -light and shade (111).--Different principles and plans of treatment -(112--116).--Different sorts of light (117--118).--Definition of -the nature of shadows (119--122).--Of the various kinds of shadows -(123--125).--Of the various kinds of light (126--127).--General -remarks (128--129).--FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the nature -of light (130--131).--The difference between light and lustre -(132--135).--The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies (136). ---Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room -(137--140).--Light and shadow with regard to the position of the -eye (141--145).--The law of the incidence of light -(146--147).--SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--Gradations of strength -in the shadows (148--149).--On the intensity of shadows as dependent -on the distance from the light (150--152).--On the proportion of -light and shadow (153--157).--THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND -SHADE.--Definition of derived shadow (158--159).--Different sorts of -derived shadows (160--162).--On the relation of derived and primary -shadow (163--165).--On the shape of derived shadows (166--174).--On -the relative intensity of derived shadows (175--179).--Shadow as -produced by two lights of different size (180--181).--The effect of -light at different distances (182).--Further complications in the -derived shadows (183--187).--FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--On the -shape of cast shadows (188--191).--On the outlines of cast shadows -(192--195).--On the relative size of cast shadows (196. -197).--Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground -(198).--A disputed proposition (199).--On the relative depth of -cast shadows (200--202).--FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND -SHADE.--Principles of reflection (203. 204).--On reverberation -(205).--Reflection on water (206. 207).--Experiments with the mirror -(208--210).--Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211--212).--SIXTH -BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE.--The effect of rays passing through holes -(213. 214).--On gradation of shadows (215. 216).--On relative -proportion of light and shadows (216--221). - -IV. - -PERSPECTIVE OF DISAPPEARANCE - -Definition (222. 223).--An illustration by experiment (224).--A -guiding rule (225).---An experiment (226).--On indistinctness at -short distances (227--231).--On indistinctness at great distances -(232--234).--The importance of light and shade in the Prospettiva -de' perdimenti (235--239).--The effect of light or dark backgrounds -on the apparent size of objects (240--250).--Propositions on -Prospettiva de' perdimenti from MS. C. (250--262). - -V. - -THEORY OF COLOURS - -The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each -other (263--271).--Combination of different colours in cast shadows -(272).--The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273. 274).--On -the colours of derived shadows (275. 276).--On the nature of colours -(277. 278).--On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280).--On -the reflection of colours (281--283).--On the use of dark and light -colours in painting (284--286).--On the colours of the rainbow -(287--288). - -VI. - -PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE - -General rules (289--291).--An exceptional case (292).--An experiment -(293).--The practice of the Prospettiva de' colori (294).--The rules -of aerial perspective (295--297).--On the relative density of the -atmosphere (298--299).--On the colour of the atmosphere (300--307). - -VII. - -ON THE PROPORTIONS AND ON THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE - -Preliminary observations (308. 309).--Proportions of the head and -face (310--318).--Proportions of the head seen in front -(319--321).--Proportions of the foot (322--323).--Relative -proportions of the hand and foot (324).--Relative proportions of -the foot and of the face (325--327).--Proportions of the leg -(328--331).--On the central point of the whole body (332).--The -relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure -(333).--The relative proportions of the head and of the torso -(334).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. -336).--The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot -(337).--The proportions of the whole figure (338--341).--The torso -from the front and back (342).--Vitruvius' scheme of proportions -(343).--The arm and head (344).--Proportions of the arm -(345--349).--The movement of the arm (350--354).--The movement of -the torso (355--361).--The proportions vary at different ages -(362--367).--The movement of the human figure (368--375).--Of -walking up and down (375--379).--On the human body in action -(380--388).--On hair falling down in curls (389).--On draperies - -(390--392). - -VIII. - -BOTANY FOR PAINTERS, AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING - -Classification of trees (393).--The relative thickness of the -branches to the trunk (394--396).--The law of proportion in the -growth of the branches (397--402).--The direction of growth -(403--407).--The forms of trees (408--411).--The insertion of the -leaves (412--419).--Light on branches and leaves (420--422).--The -proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423--426).--Of the -transparency of leaves (427--429).--The gradations of shade and -colour in leaves (430--434).--A classification of trees according to -their colours (435).--The proportions of light and shade in trees -(436--440).--The distribution of light and shade with reference to -the position of the spectator (441--443).--The effects of morning -light (444--448).--The effects of midday light (449).--The -appearance of trees in the distance (450--451).--The cast shadow of -trees (452. 453).--Light and shade on groups of trees -(454--457).--On the treatment of light for landscapes -(458--464).--On the treatment of light for views of towns -(465--469).--The effect of wind on trees (470--473).--Light and -shade on clouds (474--477).--On images reflected in water (478).--Of -rainbows and rain (479. 480).--Of flower seeds (481). - -IX. - -THE PRACTICE OF PAINTING - -I. MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.--How to ascertain the -dispositions for an artistic career (482).--The course of -instruction for an artist (483--485).--The study of the antique -(486. 487).--The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).--How -to acquire practice (490).--Industry and thoroughness the first -conditions (491--493.)--The artist's private life and choice of -company (493. 494).--The distribution of time for studying (495-- -497).--On the productive power of minor artists (498--501).--A -caution against one-sided study (502).--How to acquire universality -(503--506).--Useful games and exercises (507. 508).--II. THE -ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF -PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE.--On the size of the studio -(509).--On the construction of windows (510--512).--On the best -light for painting (513--520).--On various helps in preparing a -picture (521--530).--On the management of works (531. 532).--On the -limitations of painting (533--535).--On the choice of a position -(536. 537).--The apparent size of figures in a picture (538. -539).--The right position of the artist, when painting and of the -spectator (540--547).--III. THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE -AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.--Gradations of light and shade (548).--On -the choice of light for a picture (549--554).--The distribution of -light and shade (555--559).--The juxtaposition of light and shade -(560. 561).--On the lighting of the background (562--565).--On the -lighting of white objects (566).--The methods of aerial perspective -(567--570).--IV. OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING.--Of sketching -figures and portraits (571. 572).--The position of the head -(573).--Of the light on the face (574--576).--General suggestions -for historical pictures (577--581).--How to represent the -differences of age and sex (582. 583).--Of representing the emotions -(584).--Of representing imaginary animals (585).--The selection of -forms (586--591).--How to pose figures (592).--Of appropriate -gestures (593--600).--V. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS.--Of painting -battle-pieces (601--603).--Of depicting night-scenes (604).--Of -depicting a tempest (605. 606).--Of representing the deluge -(607--609).--Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611).--VI. THE -ARTIST'S MATERIALS.--Of chalk and paper (612--617).--On the -preparation and use of colours (618--627).--Of preparing the panel -(628).--The preparation of oils (629--634).--On varnishes (635-- -637).--On chemical _materials (638--650).--VII. PHILOSOPHY AND -HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING.--The relation of art and nature -(651. 652).--Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654).--Painting is -superior to sculpture (655. 656).--Aphorisms (657--659).--On the -history of painting (660. 661).--The painter's scope (662). - -X. - -STUDIES AND SKETCHES FOR PICTURES AND DECORATIONS - -On pictures of the Madonna (663).--Bernardo di Bandino's portrait -(664).--Notes on the Last Supper (665--668).--On the battle of -Anghiari (669).--Allegorical representations referring to the duke -of Milan (670--673).--Allegorical representations -(674--678).--Arrangement of a picture (679).--List of drawings -(680).--Mottoes and Emblems (681--702). - - - - - - -The author's intention to publish his MSS. - -1. - -How by a certain machine many may stay some time under water. And -how and wherefore I do not describe my method of remaining under -water and how long I can remain without eating. And I do not publish -nor divulge these, by reason of the evil nature of men, who would -use them for assassinations at the bottom of the sea by destroying -ships, and sinking them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless -I will impart others, which are not dangerous because the mouth of -the tube through which you breathe is above the water, supported on -air sacks or cork. - -[Footnote: The leaf on which this passage is written, is headed with -the words _Casi_ 39, and most of these cases begin with the word -'_Come_', like the two here given, which are the 26th and 27th. 7. -_Sughero_. In the Codex Antlanticus 377a; 1170a there is a sketch, -drawn with the pen, representing a man with a tube in his mouth, and -at the farther end of the tube a disk. By the tube the word -'_Channa_' is written, and by the disk the word '_sughero_'.] - -The preparation of the MSS. for publication. - -2. - -When you put together the science of the motions of water, remember -to include under each proposition its application and use, in order -that this science may not be useless.-- - -[Footnote: A comparatively small portion of Leonardo's notes on -water-power was published at Bologna in 1828, under the title: "_Del -moto e misura dell'Acqua, di L. da Vinci_".] - -Admonition to readers. - -3. - -Let no man who is not a Mathematician read the elements of my work. - -The disorder in the MSS. - -4. - -Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the -22nd day of March 1508. And this is to be a collection without -order, taken from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to -arrange them later each in its place, according to the subjects of -which they may treat. But I believe that before I am at the end of -this [task] I shall have to repeat the same things several times; -for which, O reader! do not blame me, for the subjects are many and -memory cannot retain them [all] and say: 'I will not write this -because I wrote it before.' And if I wished to avoid falling into -this fault, it would be necessary in every case when I wanted to -copy [a passage] that, not to repeat myself, I should read over all -that had gone before; and all the more since the intervals are long -between one time of writing and the next. - -[Footnote: 1. In the history of Florence in the early part of the -XVIth century _Piero di Braccio Martelli_ is frequently mentioned as -_Commissario della Signoria_. He was famous for his learning and at -his death left four books on Mathematics ready for the press; comp. -LITTA, _Famiglie celebri Italiane_, _Famiglia Martelli di -Firenze_.--In the Official Catalogue of MSS. in the Brit. Mus., New -Series Vol. I., where this passage is printed, _Barto_ has been -wrongly given for Braccio. - -2. _addi 22 di marzo 1508_. The Christian era was computed in -Florence at that time from the Incarnation (Lady day, March 25th). -Hence this should be 1509 by our reckoning. - -3. _racolto tratto di molte carte le quali io ho qui copiate_. We -must suppose that Leonardo means that he has copied out his own MSS. -and not those of others. The first thirteen leaves of the MS. in the -Brit. Mus. are a fair copy of some notes on physics.] - -Suggestions for the arrangement of MSS treating of particular -subjects.(5-8). - -5. - -Of digging a canal. Put this in the Book of useful inventions and in -proving them bring forward the propositions already proved. And this -is the proper order; since if you wished to show the usefulness of -any plan you would be obliged again to devise new machines to prove -its utility and thus would confuse the order of the forty Books and -also the order of the diagrams; that is to say you would have to mix -up practice with theory, which would produce a confused and -incoherent work. - -6. - -I am not to blame for putting forward, in the course of my work on -science, any general rule derived from a previous conclusion. - -7. - -The Book of the science of Mechanics must precede the Book of useful -inventions.--Have your books on anatomy bound! [Footnote: 4. The -numerous notes on anatomy written on loose leaves and now in the -Royal collection at Windsor can best be classified in four Books, -corresponding to the different character and size of the paper. When -Leonardo speaks of '_li tua libri di notomia_', he probably means -the MSS. which still exist; if this hypothesis is correct the -present condition of these leaves might seem to prove that he only -carried out his purpose with one of the Books on anatomy. A borrowed -book on Anatomy is mentioned in F.O.] - -8. - -The order of your book must proceed on this plan: first simple -beams, then (those) supported from below, then suspended in part, -then wholly [suspended]. Then beams as supporting other weights -[Footnote: 4. Leonardo's notes on Mechanics are extraordinarily -numerous; but, for the reasons assigned in my introduction, they -have not been included in the present work.]. - -General introductions to the book on Painting (9-13). - -9. - -INTRODUCTION. - -Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or -pleasing--since the men who have come before me have taken for their -own every useful or necessary theme--I must do like one who, being -poor, comes last to the fair, and can find no other way of providing -himself than by taking all the things already seen by other buyers, -and not taken but refused by reason of their lesser value. I, then, -will load my humble pack with this despised and rejected -merchandise, the refuse of so many buyers; and will go about to -distribute it, not indeed in great cities, but in the poorer towns, -taking such a price as the wares I offer may be worth. [Footnote: It -need hardly be pointed out that there is in this 'Proemio' a covert -irony. In the second and third prefaces, Leonardo characterises his -rivals and opponents more closely. His protest is directed against -Neo-latinism as professed by most of the humanists of his time; its -futility is now no longer questioned.] - -10. - -INTRODUCTION. - -I know that many will call this useless work [Footnote: 3. questa -essere opera inutile. By opera we must here understand libro di -pittura and particularly the treatise on Perspective.]; and they -will be those of whom Demetrius [Footnote: 4. Demetrio. "With regard -to the passage attributed to Demetrius", Dr. H. M�LLER STR�BING -writes, "I know not what to make of it. It is certainly not -Demetrius Phalereus that is meant and it can hardly be Demetrius -Poliorcetes. Who then can it be--for the name is a very common one? -It may be a clerical error for Demades and the maxim is quite in the -spirit of his writings I have not however been able to find any -corresponding passage either in the 'Fragments' (C. MULLER, _Orat. -Att._, II. 441) nor in the Supplements collected by DIETZ (_Rhein. -Mus._, vol. 29, p. 108)." - -The same passage occurs as a simple Memorandum in the MS. Tr. 57, -apparently as a note for this '_Proemio_' thus affording some data -as to the time where these introductions were written.] declared -that he took no more account of the wind that came out their mouth -in words, than of that they expelled from their lower parts: men who -desire nothing but material riches and are absolutely devoid of that -of wisdom, which is the food and the only true riches of the mind. -For so much more worthy as the soul is than the body, so much more -noble are the possessions of the soul than those of the body. And -often, when I see one of these men take this work in his hand, I -wonder that he does not put it to his nose, like a monkey, or ask me -if it is something good to eat. - -[Footnote: In the original, the Proemio d� prospettiva cio� -dell'uffitio dell'occhio (see No. 21) stands between this and the -preceding one, No. 9.] - -INTRODUCTION. - -I am fully concious that, not being a literary man, certain -presumptuous persons will think that they may reasonably blame me; -alleging that I am not a man of letters. Foolish folks! do they not -know that I might retort as Marius did to the Roman Patricians -[Footnote 21: _Come Mario disse ai patriti Romani_. "I am unable to -find the words here attributed by Leonardo to Marius, either in -Plutarch's Life of Marius or in the Apophthegmata (_Moralia_, -p.202). Nor do they occur in the writings of Valerius Maximus (who -frequently mentions Marius) nor in Velleius Paterculus (II, 11 to -43), Dio Cassius, Aulus Gellius, or Macrobius. Professor E. -MENDELSON of Dorpat, the editor of Herodian, assures me that no such -passage is the found in that author" (communication from Dr. MULLER -STRUBING). Leonardo evidently meant to allude to some well known -incident in Roman history and the mention of Marius is the result -probably of some confusion. We may perhaps read, for Marius, -Menenius Agrippa, though in that case it is true we must alter -Patriti to Plebei. The change is a serious one. but it would render -the passage perfectly clear.] by saying: That they, who deck -themselves out in the labours of others will not allow me my own. -They will say that I, having no literary skill, cannot properly -express that which I desire to treat of [Footnote 26: _le mie cose -.... che d'altra parola_. This can hardly be reconciled with Mons. -RAVAISSON'S estimate of L. da Vinci's learning. "_Leonard de Vinci -etait un admirateur et un disciple des anciens, aussi bien dans -l'art que dans la science et il tenait a passer pour tel meme aux -yeux de la posterite._" _Gaz. des Beaux arts. Oct. 1877.]; but they -do not know that my subjects are to be dealt with by experience -rather than by words [Footnote 28: See Footnote 26]; and -[experience] has been the mistress of those who wrote well. And so, -as mistress, I will cite her in all cases. - -11. - -Though I may not, like them, be able to quote other authors, I shall -rely on that which is much greater and more worthy:--on experience, -the mistress of their Masters. They go about puffed up and pompous, -dressed and decorated with [the fruits], not of their own labours, -but of those of others. And they will not allow me my own. They will -scorn me as an inventor; but how much more might they--who are not -inventors but vaunters and declaimers of the works of others--be -blamed. - -INTRODUCTION. - -And those men who are inventors and interpreters between Nature and -Man, as compared with boasters and declaimers of the works of -others, must be regarded and not otherwise esteemed than as the -object in front of a mirror, when compared with its image seen in -the mirror. For the first is something in itself, and the other -nothingness.--Folks little indebted to Nature, since it is only by -chance that they wear the human form and without it I might class -them with the herds of beasts. - -12. - -Many will think they may reasonably blame me by alleging that my -proofs are opposed to the authority of certain men held in the -highest reverence by their inexperienced judgments; not considering -that my works are the issue of pure and simple experience, who is -the one true mistress. These rules are sufficient to enable you to -know the true from the false--and this aids men to look only for -things that are possible and with due moderation--and not to wrap -yourself in ignorance, a thing which can have no good result, so -that in despair you would give yourself up to melancholy. - -13. - -Among all the studies of natural causes and reasons Light chiefly -delights the beholder; and among the great features of Mathematics -the certainty of its demonstrations is what preeminently (tends to) -elevate the mind of the investigator. Perspective, therefore, must -be preferred to all the discourses and systems of human learning. In -this branch [of science] the beam of light is explained on those -methods of demonstration which form the glory not so much of -Mathematics as of Physics and are graced with the flowers of both -[Footnote: 5. Such of Leonardo's notes on Optics or on Perspective -as bear exclusively on Mathematics or Physics could not be included -in the arrangement of the _libro di pittura_ which is here presented -to the reader. They are however but few.]. But its axioms being laid -down at great length, I shall abridge them to a conclusive brevity, -arranging them on the method both of their natural order and of -mathematical demonstration; sometimes by deduction of the effects -from the causes, and sometimes arguing the causes from the effects; -adding also to my own conclusions some which, though not included in -them, may nevertheless be inferred from them. Thus, if the Lord--who -is the light of all things--vouchsafe to enlighten me, I will treat -of Light; wherefore I will divide the present work into 3 Parts -[Footnote: 10. In the middle ages--for instance, by ROGER BACON, by -VITELLONE, with whose works Leonardo was certainly familiar, and by -all the writers of the Renaissance Perspective and Optics were not -regarded as distinct sciences. Perspective, indeed, is in its widest -application the science of seeing. Although to Leonardo the two -sciences were clearly separate, it is not so as to their names; thus -we find axioms in Optics under the heading Perspective. According to -this arrangement of the materials for the theoretical portion of the -_libro di pittura_ propositions in Perspective and in Optics stand -side by side or occur alternately. Although this particular chapter -deals only with Optics, it is not improbable that the words _partir� -la presente opera in 3 parti_ may refer to the same division into -three sections which is spoken of in chapters 14 to 17.]. - -The plan of the book on Painting (14--17). - -14. - -ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE. - -There are three branches of perspective; the first deals with the -reasons of the (apparent) diminution of objects as they recede from -the eye, and is known as Diminishing Perspective.--The second -contains the way in which colours vary as they recede from the eye. -The third and last is concerned with the explanation of how the -objects [in a picture] ought to be less finished in proportion as -they are remote (and the names are as follows): - -Linear Perspective. The Perspective of Colour. The Perspective of -Disappearance. - -[Footnote: 13. From the character of the handwriting I infer that -this passage was written before the year 1490.]. - -15. - -ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE. - -The divisions of Perspective are 3, as used in drawing; of these, -the first includes the diminution in size of opaque objects; the -second treats of the diminution and loss of outline in such opaque -objects; the third, of the diminution and loss of colour at long -distances. - -[Footnote: The division is here the same as in the previous chapter -No. 14, and this is worthy of note when we connect it with the fact -that a space of about 20 years must have intervened between the -writing of the two passages.] - -16. - -THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING. - -Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three principal -sections; of which the first treats of the diminution in the size of -bodies at different distances. The second part is that which treats -of the diminution in colour in these objects. The third [deals with] -the diminished distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by -the objects at various distances. - -17. - -ON THE SECTIONS OF [THE BOOK ON] PAINTING. - -The first thing in painting is that the objects it represents should -appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding them at different -distances shall appear within the vertical plane of the foreground -of the picture by means of the 3 branches of Perspective, which are: -the diminution in the distinctness of the forms of the objects, the -diminution in their magnitude; and the diminution in their colour. -And of these 3 classes of Perspective the first results from [the -structure of] the eye, while the other two are caused by the -atmosphere which intervenes between the eye and the objects seen by -it. The second essential in painting is appropriate action and a due -variety in the figures, so that the men may not all look like -brothers, &c. - -[Footnote: This and the two foregoing chapters must have been -written in 1513 to 1516. They undoubtedly indicate the scheme which -Leonardo wished to carry out in arranging his researches on -Perspective as applied to Painting. This is important because it is -an evidence against the supposition of H. LUDWIG and others, that -Leonardo had collected his principles of Perspective in one book so -early as before 1500; a Book which, according to the hypothesis, -must have been lost at a very early period, or destroyed possibly, -by the French (!) in 1500 (see H. LUDWIG. L. da Vinci: _Das Buch van -der Malerei_. Vienna 1882 III, 7 and 8).] - -The use of the book on Painting. - -18. - -These rules are of use only in correcting the figures; since every -man makes some mistakes in his first compositions and he who knows -them not, cannot amend them. But you, knowing your errors, will -correct your works and where you find mistakes amend them, and -remember never to fall into them again. But if you try to apply -these rules in composition you will never make an end, and will -produce confusion in your works. - -These rules will enable you to have a free and sound judgment; since -good judgment is born of clear understanding, and a clear -understanding comes of reasons derived from sound rules, and sound -rules are the issue of sound experience--the common mother of all -the sciences and arts. Hence, bearing in mind the precepts of my -rules, you will be able, merely by your amended judgment, to -criticise and recognise every thing that is out of proportion in a -work, whether in the perspective or in the figures or any thing -else. - -Necessity of theoretical knowledge (19. 20). - -19. - -OF THE MISTAKES MADE BY THOSE WHO PRACTISE WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE. - -Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the -sailor who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never -can be certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded -on sound theory, and to this Perspective is the guide and the -gateway; and without this nothing can be done well in the matter of -drawing. - -20. - -The painter who draws merely by practice and by eye, without any -reason, is like a mirror which copies every thing placed in front of -it without being conscious of their existence. - -The function of the eye (21-23). - -21. - -INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:--THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE. - -Behold here O reader! a thing concerning which we cannot trust our -forefathers, the ancients, who tried to define what the Soul and -Life are--which are beyond proof, whereas those things, which can at -any time be clearly known and proved by experience, remained for -many ages unknown or falsely understood. The eye, whose function we -so certainly know by experience, has, down to my own time, been -defined by an infinite number of authors as one thing; but I find, -by experience, that it is quite another. [Footnote 13: Compare the -note to No. 70.] - -[Footnote: In section 13 we already find it indicated that the study -of Perspective and of Optics is to be based on that of the functions -of the eye. Leonardo also refers to the science of the eye, in his -astronomical researches, for instance in MS. F 25b '_Ordine del -provare la terra essere una stella: Imprima difinisce l'occhio'_, -&c. Compare also MS. E 15b and F 60b. The principles of astronomical -perspective.] - -22. - -Here [in the eye] forms, here colours, here the character of every -part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is -so marvellous a thing ... Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity--by -thy laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of -its cause, by the shortest path. These [indeed] are miracles;... - -In so small a space it can be reproduced and rearranged in its whole -expanse. Describe in your anatomy what proportion there is between -the diameters of all the images in the eye and the distance from -them of the crystalline lens. - -23. - -OF THE 10 ATTRIBUTES OF THE EYE, ALL CONCERNED IN PAINTING. - -Painting is concerned with all the 10 attributes of sight; which -are:--Darkness, Light, Solidity and Colour, Form and Position, -Distance and Propinquity, Motion and Rest. This little work of mine -will be a tissue [of the studies] of these attributes, reminding the -painter of the rules and methods by which he should use his art to -imitate all the works of Nature which adorn the world. - -24. - -ON PAINTING. - -Variability of the eye. - -1st. The pupil of the eye contracts, in proportion to the increase -of light which is reflected in it. 2nd. The pupil of the eye expands -in proportion to the diminution in the day light, or any other -light, that is reflected in it. 3rd. [Footnote: 8. The subject of -this third proposition we find fully discussed in MS. G. 44a.]. The -eye perceives and recognises the objects of its vision with greater -intensity in proportion as the pupil is more widely dilated; and -this can be proved by the case of nocturnal animals, such as cats, -and certain birds--as the owl and others--in which the pupil varies -in a high degree from large to small, &c., when in the dark or in -the light. 4th. The eye [out of doors] in an illuminated atmosphere -sees darkness behind the windows of houses which [nevertheless] are -light. 5th. All colours when placed in the shade appear of an equal -degree of darkness, among themselves. 6th. But all colours when -placed in a full light, never vary from their true and essential -hue. - -25. - -OF THE EYE. - -Focus of sight. - -If the eye is required to look at an object placed too near to it, -it cannot judge of it well--as happens to a man who tries to see the -tip of his nose. Hence, as a general rule, Nature teaches us that an -object can never be seen perfectly unless the space between it and -the eye is equal, at least, to the length of the face. - -Differences of perception by one eye and by both eyes (26-29). - -26. - -OF THE EYE. - -When both eyes direct the pyramid of sight to an object, that object -becomes clearly seen and comprehended by the eyes. - -27. - -Objects seen by one and the same eye appear sometimes large, and -sometimes small. - -28. - -The motion of a spectator who sees an object at rest often makes it -seem as though the object at rest had acquired the motion of the -moving body, while the moving person appears to be at rest. - -ON PAINTING. - -Objects in relief, when seen from a short distance with one eye, -look like a perfect picture. If you look with the eye _a_, _b_ at -the spot _c_, this point _c_ will appear to be at _d_, _f_, and if -you look at it with the eye _g_, _h_ will appear to be at _m_. A -picture can never contain in itself both aspects. - -29. - -Let the object in relief _t_ be seen by both eyes; if you will look -at the object with the right eye _m_, keeping the left eye _n_ shut, -the object will appear, or fill up the space, at _a_; and if you -shut the right eye and open the left, the object (will occupy the) -space _b_; and if you open both eyes, the object will no longer -appear at _a_ or _b_, but at _e_, _r_, _f_. Why will not a picture -seen by both eyes produce the effect of relief, as [real] relief -does when seen by both eyes; and why should a picture seen with one -eye give the same effect of relief as real relief would under the -same conditions of light and shade? - -[Footnote: In the sketch, _m_ is the left eye and _n_ the right, -while the text reverses this lettering. We must therefore suppose -that the face in which the eyes _m_ and _n_ are placed is opposite -to the spectator.] - -30. - -The comparative size of the image depends on the amount of light -(30-39). - -The eye will hold and retain in itself the image of a luminous body -better than that of a shaded object. The reason is that the eye is -in itself perfectly dark and since two things that are alike cannot -be distinguished, therefore the night, and other dark objects cannot -be seen or recognised by the eye. Light is totally contrary and -gives more distinctness, and counteracts and differs from the usual -darkness of the eye, hence it leaves the impression of its image. - -31. - -Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday, -and larger in the morning than at midday. - -This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday -than at any other time. - -32. - -The pupil which is largest will see objects the largest. This is -evident when we look at luminous bodies, and particularly at those -in the sky. When the eye comes out of darkness and suddenly looks up -at these bodies, they at first appear larger and then diminish; and -if you were to look at those bodies through a small opening, you -would see them smaller still, because a smaller part of the pupil -would exercise its function. - -[Footnote: 9. _buso_ in the Lomb. dialect is the same as _buco_.] - -33. - -When the eye, coming out of darkness suddenly sees a luminous body, -it will appear much larger at first sight than after long looking at -it. The illuminated object will look larger and more brilliant, when -seen with two eyes than with only one. A luminous object will appear -smaller in size, when the eye sees it through a smaller opening. A -luminous body of an oval form will appear rounder in proportion as -it is farther from the eye. - -34. - -Why when the eye has just seen the light, does the half light look -dark to it, and in the same way if it turns from the darkness the -half light look very bright? - -35. - -ON PAINTING. - -If the eye, when [out of doors] in the luminous atmosphere, sees a -place in shadow, this will look very much darker than it really is. -This happens only because the eye when out in the air contracts the -pupil in proportion as the atmosphere reflected in it is more -luminous. And the more the pupil contracts, the less luminous do the -objects appear that it sees. But as soon as the eye enters into a -shady place the darkness of the shadow suddenly seems to diminish. -This occurs because the greater the darkness into which the pupil -goes the more its size increases, and this increase makes the -darkness seem less. - -[Footnote 14: _La luce entrer�_. _Luce_ occurs here in the sense of -pupil of the eye as in no 51: C. A. 84b; 245a; I--5; and in many -other places.] - -36. - -ON PERSPECTIVE. - -The eye which turns from a white object in the light of the sun and -goes into a less fully lighted place will see everything as dark. -And this happens either because the pupils of the eyes which have -rested on this brilliantly lighted white object have contracted so -much that, given at first a certain extent of surface, they will -have lost more than 3/4 of their size; and, lacking in size, they -are also deficient in [seeing] power. Though you might say to me: A -little bird (then) coming down would see comparatively little, and -from the smallness of his pupils the white might seem black! To this -I should reply that here we must have regard to the proportion of -the mass of that portion of the brain which is given up to the sense -of sight and to nothing else. Or--to return--this pupil in Man -dilates and contracts according to the brightness or darkness of -(surrounding) objects; and since it takes some time to dilate and -contract, it cannot see immediately on going out of the light and -into the shade, nor, in the same way, out of the shade into the -light, and this very thing has already deceived me in painting an -eye, and from that I learnt it. - -37. - -Experiment [showing] the dilatation and contraction of the pupil, -from the motion of the sun and other luminaries. In proportion as -the sky is darker the stars appear of larger size, and if you were -to light up the medium these stars would look smaller; and this -difference arises solely from the pupil which dilates and contracts -with the amount of light in the medium which is interposed between -the eye and the luminous body. Let the experiment be made, by -placing a candle above your head at the same time that you look at a -star; then gradually lower the candle till it is on a level with the -ray that comes from the star to the eye, and then you will see the -star diminish so much that you will almost lose sight of it. - -[Footnote: No reference is made in the text to the letters on the -accompanying diagram.] - -38. - -The pupil of the eye, in the open air, changes in size with every -degree of motion from the sun; and at every degree of its changes -one and the same object seen by it will appear of a different size; -although most frequently the relative scale of surrounding objects -does not allow us to detect these variations in any single object we -may look at. - -39. - -The eye--which sees all objects reversed--retains the images for -some time. This conclusion is proved by the results; because, the -eye having gazed at light retains some impression of it. After -looking (at it) there remain in the eye images of intense -brightness, that make any less brilliant spot seem dark until the -eye has lost the last trace of the impression of the stronger light. - -_II. - -Linear Perspective. - -We see clearly from the concluding sentence of section 49, where the -author directly addresses the painter, that he must certainly have -intended to include the elements of mathematics in his Book on the -art of Painting. They are therefore here placed at the beginning. In -section 50 the theory of the "Pyramid of Sight" is distinctly and -expressly put forward as the fundamental principle of linear -perspective, and sections 52 to 57 treat of it fully. This theory of -sight can scarcely be traced to any author of antiquity. Such -passages as occur in Euclid for instance, may, it is true, have -proved suggestive to the painters of the Renaissance, but it would -be rash to say any thing decisive on this point. - -Leon Battista Alberti treats of the "Pyramid of Sight" at some -length in his first Book of Painting; but his explanation differs -widely from Leonardo's in the details. Leonardo, like Alberti, may -have borrowed the broad lines of his theory from some views commonly -accepted among painters at the time; but he certainly worked out its -application in a perfectly original manner. - -The axioms as to the perception of the pyramid of rays are followed -by explanations of its origin, and proofs of its universal -application (58--69). The author recurs to the subject with endless -variations; it is evidently of fundamental importance in his -artistic theory and practice. It is unnecessary to discuss how far -this theory has any scientific value at the present day; so much as -this, at any rate, seems certain: that from the artist's point of -view it may still claim to be of immense practical utility. - -According to Leonardo, on one hand, the laws of perspective are an -inalienable condition of the existence of objects in space; on the -other hand, by a natural law, the eye, whatever it sees and wherever -it turns, is subjected to the perception of the pyramid of rays in -the form of a minute target. Thus it sees objects in perspective -independently of the will of the spectator, since the eye receives -the images by means of the pyramid of rays "just as a magnet -attracts iron". - -In connection with this we have the function of the eye explained by -the Camera obscura, and this is all the more interesting and -important because no writer previous to Leonardo had treated of this -subject_ (70--73). _Subsequent passages, of no less special interest, -betray his knowledge of refraction and of the inversion of the image -in the camera and in the eye_ (74--82). - -_From the principle of the transmission of the image to the eye and -to the camera obscura he deduces the means of producing an -artificial construction of the pyramid of rays or--which is the same -thing--of the image. The fundamental axioms as to the angle of sight -and the vanishing point are thus presented in a manner which is as -complete as it is simple and intelligible_ (86--89). - -_Leonardo distinguishes between simple and complex perspective_ (90, -91). _The last sections treat of the apparent size of objects at -various distances and of the way to estimate it_ (92--109). - -General remarks on perspective (40-41). - -40. - -ON PAINTING. - -Perspective is the best guide to the art of Painting. - -[Footnote: 40. Compare 53, 2.] - -41. - -The art of perspective is of such a nature as to make what is flat -appear in relief and what is in relief flat. - -The elements of perspective--Of the Point (42-46). - -42. - -All the problems of perspective are made clear by the five terms of -mathematicians, which are:--the point, the line, the angle, the -superficies and the solid. The point is unique of its kind. And the -point has neither height, breadth, length, nor depth, whence it is -to be regarded as indivisible and as having no dimensions in space. -The line is of three kinds, straight, curved and sinuous and it has -neither breadth, height, nor depth. Hence it is indivisible, -excepting in its length, and its ends are two points. The angle is -the junction of two lines in a point. - -43. - -A point is not part of a line. - -44. - -OF THE NATURAL POINT. - -The smallest natural point is larger than all mathematical points, -and this is proved because the natural point has continuity, and any -thing that is continuous is infinitely divisible; but the -mathematical point is indivisible because it has no size. - -[Footnote: This definition was inserted by Leonardo on a MS. copy on -parchment of the well-known _"Trattato d'Architettura civile e -militare"_ &c. by FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO; opposite a passage where the -author says: _'In prima he da sapere che punto � quella parie della -quale he nulla--Linia he luncheza senza �pieza; &c.] - -45. - -1, The superficies is a limitation of the body. 2, and the -limitation of a body is no part of that body. 4, and the limitation -of one body is that which begins another. 3, that which is not part -of any body is nothing. Nothing is that which fills no space. - -If one single point placed in a circle may be the starting point of -an infinite number of lines, and the termination of an infinite -number of lines, there must be an infinite number of points -separable from this point, and these when reunited become one again; -whence it follows that the part may be equal to the whole. - -46. - -The point, being indivisible, occupies no space. That which occupies -no space is nothing. The limiting surface of one thing is the -beginning of another. 2. That which is no part of any body is called -nothing. 1. That which has no limitations, has no form. The -limitations of two conterminous bodies are interchangeably the -surface of each. All the surfaces of a body are not parts of that -body. - -Of the line (47-48). - -47. - -DEFINITION OF THE NATURE OF THE LINE. - -The line has in itself neither matter nor substance and may rather -be called an imaginary idea than a real object; and this being its -nature it occupies no space. Therefore an infinite number of lines -may be conceived of as intersecting each other at a point, which has -no dimensions and is only of the thickness (if thickness it may be -called) of one single line. - -HOW WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT A SUPERFICIES TERMINATES IN A POINT? - -An angular surface is reduced to a point where it terminates in an -angle. Or, if the sides of that angle are produced in a straight -line, then--beyond that angle--another surface is generated, -smaller, or equal to, or larger than the first. - -48. - -OF DRAWING OUTLINE. - -Consider with the greatest care the form of the outlines of every -object, and the character of their undulations. And these -undulations must be separately studied, as to whether the curves are -composed of arched convexities or angular concavities. - -49. - -The nature of the outline. - -The boundaries of bodies are the least of all things. The -proposition is proved to be true, because the boundary of a thing is -a surface, which is not part of the body contained within that -surface; nor is it part of the air surrounding that body, but is the -medium interposted between the air and the body, as is proved in its -place. But the lateral boundaries of these bodies is the line -forming the boundary of the surface, which line is of invisible -thickness. Wherefore O painter! do not surround your bodies with -lines, and above all when representing objects smaller than nature; -for not only will their external outlines become indistinct, but -their parts will be invisible from distance. - -50. - -Definition of Perspective. - -[Drawing is based upon perspective, which is nothing else than a -thorough knowledge of the function of the eye. And this function -simply consists in receiving in a pyramid the forms and colours of -all the objects placed before it. I say in a pyramid, because there -is no object so small that it will not be larger than the spot where -these pyramids are received into the eye. Therefore, if you extend -the lines from the edges of each body as they converge you will -bring them to a single point, and necessarily the said lines must -form a pyramid.] - -[Perspective is nothing more than a rational demonstration applied -to the consideration of how objects in front of the eye transmit -their image to it, by means of a pyramid of lines. The _Pyramid_ is -the name I apply to the lines which, starting from the surface and -edges of each object, converge from a distance and meet in a single -point.] - -[Perspective is a rational demonstration, by which we may -practically and clearly understand how objects transmit their own -image, by lines forming a Pyramid (centred) in the eye.] - -Perspective is a rational demonstration by which experience confirms -that every object sends its image to the eye by a pyramid of lines; -and bodies of equal size will result in a pyramid of larger or -smaller size, according to the difference in their distance, one -from the other. By a pyramid of lines I mean those which start from -the surface and edges of bodies, and, converging from a distance -meet in a single point. A point is said to be that which [having no -dimensions] cannot be divided, and this point placed in the eye -receives all the points of the cone. - -[Footnote: 50. 1-5. Compare with this the Proem. No. 21. The -paragraphs placed in brackets: lines 1-9, 10-14, and 17--20, are -evidently mere sketches and, as such, were cancelled by the writer; -but they serve as a commentary on the final paragraph, lines 22-29.] - -51. - -IN WHAT WAY THE EYE SEES OBJECTS PLACED IN FRONT OF IT. - -The perception of the object depends on the direction of the eye. - -Supposing that the ball figured above is the ball of the eye and let -the small portion of the ball which is cut off by the line _s t_ be -the pupil and all the objects mirrored on the centre of the face of -the eye, by means of the pupil, pass on at once and enter the pupil, -passing through the crystalline humour, which does not interfere in -the pupil with the things seen by means of the light. And the pupil -having received the objects, by means of the light, immediately -refers them and transmits them to the intellect by the line _a b_. -And you must know that the pupil transmits nothing perfectly to the -intellect or common sense excepting when the objects presented to it -by means of light, reach it by the line _a b;_ as, for instance, by -the line _b c_. For although the lines _m n_ and _f g_ may be seen -by the pupil they are not perfectly taken in, because they do not -coincide with the line _a b_. And the proof is this: If the eye, -shown above, wants to count the letters placed in front, the eye -will be obliged to turn from letter to letter, because it cannot -discern them unless they lie in the line _a b;_ as, for instance, in -the line _a c_. All visible objects reach the eye by the lines of a -pyramid, and the point of the pyramid is the apex and centre of it, -in the centre of the pupil, as figured above. - -[Footnote: 51. In this problem the eye is conceived of as fixed and -immovable; this is plain from line 11.] - -Experimental proof of the existence of the pyramid of sight (52-55). - -52. - -Perspective is a rational demonstration, confirmed by experience, -that all objects transmit their image to the eye by a pyramid of -lines. - -By a pyramid of lines I understand those lines which start from the -edges of the surface of bodies, and converging from a distance, meet -in a single point; and this point, in the present instance, I will -show to be situated in the eye which is the universal judge of all -objects. By a point I mean that which cannot be divided into parts; -therefore this point, which is situated in the eye, being -indivisible, no body is seen by the eye, that is not larger than -this point. This being the case it is inevitable that the lines -which come from the object to the point must form a pyramid. And if -any man seeks to prove that the sense of sight does not reside in -this point, but rather in the black spot which is visible in the -middle of the pupil, I might reply to him that a small object could -never diminish at any distance, as it might be a grain of millet or -of oats or of some similar thing, and that object, if it were larger -than the said [black] spot would never be seen as a whole; as may be -seen in the diagram below. Let _a_. be the seat of sight, _b e_ the -lines which reach the eye. Let _e d_ be the grains of millet within -these lines. You plainly see that these will never diminish by -distance, and that the body _m n_ could not be entirely covered by -it. Therefore you must confess that the eye contains within itself -one single indivisible point _a_, to which all the points converge -of the pyramid of lines starting from an object, as is shown below. -Let _a_. _b_. be the eye; in the centre of it is the point above -mentioned. If the line _e f_ is to enter as an image into so small -an opening in the eye, you must confess that the smaller object -cannot enter into what is smaller than itself unless it is -diminished, and by diminishing it must take the form of a pyramid. - -53. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Perspective comes in where judgment fails [as to the distance] in -objects which diminish. The eye can never be a true judge for -determining with exactitude how near one object is to another which -is equal to it [in size], if the top of that other is on the level -of the eye which sees them on that side, excepting by means of the -vertical plane which is the standard and guide of perspective. Let -_n_ be the eye, _e f_ the vertical plane above mentioned. Let _a b c -d_ be the three divisions, one below the other; if the lines _a n_ -and _c n_ are of a given length and the eye _n_ is in the centre, -then _a b_ will look as large as _b c. c d_ is lower and farther off -from _n_, therefore it will look smaller. And the same effect will -appear in the three divisions of a face when the eye of the painter -who is drawing it is on a level with the eye of the person he is -painting. - -54. - -TO PROVE HOW OBJECTS REACH THE EYE. - -If you look at the sun or some other luminous body and then shut -your eyes you will see it again inside your eye for a long time. -This is evidence that images enter into the eye. - -The relations of the distance points to the vanishing point (55-56). - -55. - -ELEMENTS OF PERSPECTIVE. - -All objects transmit their image to the eye in pyramids, and the -nearer to the eye these pyramids are intersected the smaller will -the image appear of the objects which cause them. Therefore, you may -intersect the pyramid with a vertical plane [Footnote 4: _Pariete_. -Compare the definitions in 85, 2-5, 6-27. These lines refer -exclusively to the third diagram. For the better understanding of -this it should be observed that _c s_ must be regarded as -representing the section or profile of a square plane, placed -horizontally (comp. lines 11, 14, 17) for which the word _pianura_ -is subsequently employed (20, 22). Lines 6-13 contain certain -preliminary observations to guide the reader in understanding the -diagram; the last three seem to have been added as a supplement. -Leonardo's mistake in writing _t denota_ (line 6) for _f denota_ has -been rectified.] which reaches the base of the pyramid as is shown -in the plane _a n_. - -The eye _f_ and the eye _t_ are one and the same thing; but the eye -_f_ marks the distance, that is to say how far you are standing from -the object; and the eye _t_ shows you the direction of it; that is -whether you are opposite, or on one side, or at an angle to the -object you are looking at. And remember that the eye _f_ and the eye -_t_ must always be kept on the same level. For example if you raise -or lower the eye from the distance point _f_ you must do the same -with the direction point _t_. And if the point _f_ shows how far the -eye is distant from the square plane but does not show on which side -it is placed--and, if in the same way, the point _t_ show _s_ the -direction and not the distance, in order to ascertain both you must -use both points and they will be one and the same thing. If the eye -_f_ could see a perfect square of which all the sides were equal to -the distance between _s_ and _c_, and if at the nearest end of the -side towards the eye a pole were placed, or some other straight -object, set up by a perpendicular line as shown at _r s_--then, I -say, that if you were to look at the side of the square that is -nearest to you it will appear at the bottom of the vertical plane _r -s_, and then look at the farther side and it would appear to you at -the height of the point _n_ on the vertical plane. Thus, by this -example, you can understand that if the eye is above a number of -objects all placed on the same level, one beyond another, the more -remote they are the higher they will seem, up to the level of the -eye, but no higher; because objects placed upon the level on which -your feet stand, so long as it is flat--even if it be extended into -infinity--would never be seen above the eye; since the eye has in -itself the point towards which all the cones tend and converge which -convey the images of the objects to the eye. And this point always -coincides with the point of diminution which is the extreme of all -we can see. And from the base line of the first pyramid as far as -the diminishing point - -[Footnote: The two diagrams above the chapter are explained by the -first five lines. They have, however, more letters than are referred -to in the text, a circumstance we frequently find occasion to -remark.] - -56. - -there are only bases without pyramids which constantly diminish up -to this point. And from the first base where the vertical plane is -placed towards the point in the eye there will be only pyramids -without bases; as shown in the example given above. Now, let _a b_ -be the said vertical plane and _r_ the point of the pyramid -terminating in the eye, and _n_ the point of diminution which is -always in a straight line opposite the eye and always moves as the -eye moves--just as when a rod is moved its shadow moves, and moves -with it, precisely as the shadow moves with a body. And each point -is the apex of a pyramid, all having a common base with the -intervening vertical plane. But although their bases are equal their -angles are not equal, because the diminishing point is the -termination of a smaller angle than that of the eye. If you ask me: -"By what practical experience can you show me these points?" I -reply--so far as concerns the diminishing point which moves with you ---when you walk by a ploughed field look at the straight furrows -which come down with their ends to the path where you are walking, -and you will see that each pair of furrows will look as though they -tried to get nearer and meet at the [farther] end. - -[Footnote: For the easier understanding of the diagram and of its -connection with the preceding I may here remark that the square -plane shown above in profile by the line _c s_ is here indicated by -_e d o p_. According to lines 1, 3 _a b_ must be imagined as a plane -of glass placed perpendicularly at _o p_.] - -57. - -How to measure the pyramid of vision. - -As regards the point in the eye; it is made more intelligible by -this: If you look into the eye of another person you will see your -own image. Now imagine 2 lines starting from your ears and going to -the ears of that image which you see in the other man's eye; you -will understand that these lines converge in such a way that they -would meet in a point a little way beyond your own image mirrored in -the eye. And if you want to measure the diminution of the pyramid in -the air which occupies the space between the object seen and the -eye, you must do it according to the diagram figured below. Let _m -n_ be a tower, and _e f_ a, rod, which you must move backwards and -forwards till its ends correspond with those of the tower [Footnote -9: _I sua stremi .. della storre_ (its ends ... of the tower) this -is the case at _e f_.]; then bring it nearer to the eye, at _c d_ -and you will see that the image of the tower seems smaller, as at _r -o_. Then [again] bring it closer to the eye and you will see the rod -project far beyond the image of the tower from _a_ to _b_ and from -_t_ to _b_, and so you will discern that, a little farther within, -the lines must converge in a point. - -The Production of pyramid of Vision (58-60). - -58. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The instant the atmosphere is illuminated it will be filled with an -infinite number of images which are produced by the various bodies -and colours assembled in it. And the eye is the target, a loadstone, -of these images. - -59. - -The whole surface of opaque bodies displays its whole image in all -the illuminated atmosphere which surrounds them on all sides. - -60. - -That the atmosphere attracts to itself, like a loadstone, all the -images of the objects that exist in it, and not their forms merely -but their nature may be clearly seen by the sun, which is a hot and -luminous body. All the atmosphere, which is the all-pervading -matter, absorbs light and heat, and reflects in itself the image of -the source of that heat and splendour and, in each minutest portion, -does the same. The Northpole does the same as the loadstone shows; -and the moon and the other planets, without suffering any -diminution, do the same. Among terrestrial things musk does the same -and other perfumes. - -61. - -All bodies together, and each by itself, give off to the surrounding -air an infinite number of images which are all-pervading and each -complete, each conveying the nature, colour and form of the body -which produces it. - -It can clearly be shown that all bodies are, by their images, -all-pervading in the surrounding atmosphere, and each complete in -itself as to substance form and colour; this is seen by the images -of the various bodies which are reproduced in one single perforation -through which they transmit the objects by lines which intersect and -cause reversed pyramids, from the objects, so that they are upside -down on the dark plane where they are first reflected. The reason of -this is-- - -[Footnote: The diagram intended to illustrate the statement (Pl. II -No. i) occurs in the original between lines 3 and 4. The three -circles must be understood to represent three luminous bodies which -transmit their images through perforations in a wall into a dark -chamber, according to a law which is more fully explained in 75?81. -So far as concerns the present passage the diagram is only intended -to explain that the images of the three bodies may be made to -coalesce at any given spot. In the circles are written, -giallo--yellow, bi�cho--white, rosso--red. - -The text breaks off at line 8. The paragraph No.40 follows here in -the original MS.] - -62. - -Every point is the termination of an infinite number of lines, which -diverge to form a base, and immediately, from the base the same -lines converge to a pyramid [imaging] both the colour and form. No -sooner is a form created or compounded than suddenly infinite lines -and angles are produced from it; and these lines, distributing -themselves and intersecting each other in the air, give rise to an -infinite number of angles opposite to each other. Given a base, each -opposite angle, will form a triangle having a form and proportion -equal to the larger angle; and if the base goes twice into each of -the 2 lines of the pyramid the smaller triangle will do the same. - -63. - -Every body in light and shade fills the surrounding air with -infinite images of itself; and these, by infinite pyramids diffused -in the air, represent this body throughout space and on every side. -Each pyramid that is composed of a long assemblage of rays includes -within itself an infinite number of pyramids and each has the same -power as all, and all as each. A circle of equidistant pyramids of -vision will give to their object angles of equal size; and an eye at -each point will see the object of the same size. The body of the -atmosphere is full of infinite pyramids composed of radiating -straight lines, which are produced from the surface of the bodies in -light and shade, existing in the air; and the farther they are from -the object which produces them the more acute they become and -although in their distribution they intersect and cross they never -mingle together, but pass through all the surrounding air, -independently converging, spreading, and diffused. And they are all -of equal power [and value]; all equal to each, and each equal to -all. By these the images of objects are transmitted through all -space and in every direction, and each pyramid, in itself, includes, -in each minutest part, the whole form of the body causing it. - -64. - -The body of the atmosphere is full of infinite radiating pyramids -produced by the objects existing in it. These intersect and cross -each other with independent convergence without interfering with -each other and pass through all the surrounding atmosphere; and are -of equal force and value--all being equal to each, each to all. And -by means of these, images of the body are transmitted everywhere and -on all sides, and each receives in itself every minutest portion of -the object that produces it. - -Proof by experiment (65-66). - -65. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The air is filled with endless images of the objects distributed in -it; and all are represented in all, and all in one, and all in each, -whence it happens that if two mirrors are placed in such a manner as -to face each other exactly, the first will be reflected in the -second and the second in the first. The first being reflected in the -second takes to it the image of itself with all the images -represented in it, among which is the image of the second mirror, -and so, image within image, they go on to infinity in such a manner -as that each mirror has within it a mirror, each smaller than the -last and one inside the other. Thus, by this example, it is clearly -proved that every object sends its image to every spot whence the -object itself can be seen; and the converse: That the same object -may receive in itself all the images of the objects that are in -front of it. Hence the eye transmits through the atmosphere its own -image to all the objects that are in front of it and receives them -into itself, that is to say on its surface, whence they are taken in -by the common sense, which considers them and if they are pleasing -commits them to the memory. Whence I am of opinion: That the -invisible images in the eyes are produced towards the object, as the -image of the object to the eye. That the images of the objects must -be disseminated through the air. An instance may be seen in several -mirrors placed in a circle, which will reflect each other endlessly. -When one has reached the other it is returned to the object that -produced it, and thence--being diminished--it is returned again to -the object and then comes back once more, and this happens -endlessly. If you put a light between two flat mirrors with a -distance of 1 braccio between them you will see in each of them an -infinite number of lights, one smaller than another, to the last. If -at night you put a light between the walls of a room, all the parts -of that wall will be tinted with the image of that light. And they -will receive the light and the light will fall on them, mutually, -that is to say, when there is no obstacle to interrupt the -transmission of the images. This same example is seen in a greater -degree in the distribution of the solar rays which all together, and -each by itself, convey to the object the image of the body which -causes it. That each body by itself alone fills with its images the -atmosphere around it, and that the same air is able, at the same -time, to receive the images of the endless other objects which are -in it, this is clearly proved by these examples. And every object is -everywhere visible in the whole of the atmosphere, and the whole in -every smallest part of it; and all the objects in the whole, and all -in each smallest part; each in all and all in every part. - -66. - -The images of objects are all diffused through the atmosphere which -receives them; and all on every side in it. To prove this, let _a c -e_ be objects of which the images are admitted to a dark chamber by -the small holes _n p_ and thrown upon the plane _f i_ opposite to -these holes. As many images will be produced in the chamber on the -plane as the number of the said holes. - -67. - -General conclusions. - -All objects project their whole image and likeness, diffused and -mingled in the whole of the atmosphere, opposite to themselves. The -image of every point of the bodily surface, exists in every part of -the atmosphere. All the images of the objects are in every part of -the atmosphere. The whole, and each part of the image of the -atmosphere is [reflected] in each point of the surface of the bodies -presented to it. Therefore both the part and the whole of the images -of the objects exist, both in the whole and in the parts of the -surface of these visible bodies. Whence we may evidently say that -the image of each object exists, as a whole and in every part, in -each part and in the whole interchangeably in every existing body. -As is seen in two mirrors placed opposite to each other. - -68. - -That the contrary is impossible. - -It is impossible that the eye should project from itself, by visual -rays, the visual virtue, since, as soon as it opens, that front -portion [of the eye] which would give rise to this emanation would -have to go forth to the object and this it could not do without -time. And this being so, it could not travel so high as the sun in a -month's time when the eye wanted to see it. And if it could reach -the sun it would necessarily follow that it should perpetually -remain in a continuous line from the eye to the sun and should -always diverge in such a way as to form between the sun and the eye -the base and the apex of a pyramid. This being the case, if the eye -consisted of a million worlds, it would not prevent its being -consumed in the projection of its virtue; and if this virtue would -have to travel through the air as perfumes do, the winds would bent -it and carry it into another place. But we do [in fact] see the mass -of the sun with the same rapidity as [an object] at the distance of -a braccio, and the power of sight is not disturbed by the blowing of -the winds nor by any other accident. - -[Footnote: The view here refuted by Leonardo was maintained among -others by Bramantino, Leonardo's Milanese contemporary. LOMAZZO -writes as follows in his Trattato dell' Arte della pittura &c. -(Milano 1584. Libr. V cp. XXI): Sovviemmi di aver gi� letto in certi -scritti alcune cose di Bramantino milanese, celebratissimo pittore, -attenente alla prospettiva, le quali ho voluto riferire, e quasi -intessere in questo luogo, affinch� sappiamo qual fosse l'opinione -di cosi chiaro e famoso pittore intorno alla prospettiva . . Scrive -Bramantino che la prospettiva � una cosa che contraf� il naturale, e -che ci� si fa in tre modi - -Circa il primo modo che si fa con ragione, per essere la cosa in -poche parole conclusa da Bramantino in maniera che giudico non -potersi dir meglio, contenendovi si tutta Parte del principio al -fine, io riferir� per appunto le proprie parole sue (cp. XXII, Prima -prospettiva di Bramantino). La prima prospettiva fa le cose di -punto, e l'altra non mai, e la terza pi� appresso. Adunque la prima -si dimanda prospettiva, cio� ragione, la quale fa l'effetto dell' -occhio, facendo crescere e calare secondo gli effetti degli occhi. -Questo crescere e calare non procede della cosa propria, che in se -per esser lontana, ovvero vicina, per quello effetto non pu� -crescere e sminuire, ma procede dagli effetti degli occhi, i quali -sono piccioli, e perci� volendo vedere tanto gran cosa_, bisogna che -mandino fuora la virt� visiva, _la quale si dilata in tanta -larghezza, che piglia tutto quello che vuoi vedere, ed_ arrivando a -quella cosa la vede dove �: _e da lei agli occhi per quello circuito -fino all' occhio, e tutto quello termine � pieno di quella cosa_. - -It is worthy of note that Leonardo had made his memorandum refuting -this view, at Milan in 1492] - -69. - -A parallel case. - -Just as a stone flung into the water becomes the centre and cause of -many circles, and as sound diffuses itself in circles in the air: so -any object, placed in the luminous atmosphere, diffuses itself in -circles, and fills the surrounding air with infinite images of -itself. And is repeated, the whole every-where, and the whole in -every smallest part. This can be proved by experiment, since if you -shut a window that faces west and make a hole [Footnote: 6. Here the -text breaks off.] . . - -[Footnote: Compare LIBRI, _Histoire des sciences math�matiques en -Italie_. Tome III, p. 43.] - -The function of the eye as explained by the camera obscura (70. 71). - -70. - -If the object in front of the eye sends its image to the eye, the -eye, on the other hand, sends its image to the object, and no -portion whatever of the object is lost in the images it throws off, -for any reason either in the eye or the object. Therefore we may -rather believe it to be the nature and potency of our luminous -atmosphere which absorbs the images of the objects existing in it, -than the nature of the objects, to send their images through the -air. If the object opposite to the eye were to send its image to the -eye, the eye would have to do the same to the object, whence it -might seem that these images were an emanation. But, if so, it would -be necessary [to admit] that every object became rapidly smaller; -because each object appears by its images in the surrounding -atmosphere. That is: the whole object in the whole atmosphere, and -in each part; and all the objects in the whole atmosphere and all of -them in each part; speaking of that atmosphere which is able to -contain in itself the straight and radiating lines of the images -projected by the objects. From this it seems necessary to admit that -it is in the nature of the atmosphere, which subsists between the -objects, and which attracts the images of things to itself like a -loadstone, being placed between them. - -PROVE HOW ALL OBJECTS, PLACED IN ONE POSITION, ARE ALL EVERYWHERE -AND ALL IN EACH PART. - -I say that if the front of a building--or any open piazza or -field--which is illuminated by the sun has a dwelling opposite to -it, and if, in the front which does not face the sun, you make a -small round hole, all the illuminated objects will project their -images through that hole and be visible inside the dwelling on the -opposite wall which may be made white; and there, in fact, they will -be upside down, and if you make similar openings in several places -in the same wall you will have the same result from each. Hence the -images of the illuminated objects are all everywhere on this wall -and all in each minutest part of it. The reason, as we clearly know, -is that this hole must admit some light to the said dwelling, and -the light admitted by it is derived from one or many luminous -bodies. If these bodies are of various colours and shapes the rays -forming the images are of various colours and shapes, and so will -the representations be on the wall. - -[Footnote: 70. 15--23. This section has already been published in the -"_Saggio delle Opere di Leonardo da Vinci_" Milan 1872, pp. 13, 14. -G. Govi observes upon it, that Leonardo is not to be regarded as the -inventor of the Camera obscura, but that he was the first to explain -by it the structure of the eye. An account of the Camera obscura -first occurs in CESARE CESARINI's Italian version of Vitruvius, pub. -1523, four years after Leonardo's death. Cesarini expressly names -Benedettino Don Papnutio as the inventor of the Camera obscura. In -his explanation of the function of the eye by a comparison with the -Camera obscura Leonardo was the precursor of G. CARDANO, Professor -of Medicine at Bologna (died 1576) and it appears highly probable -that this is, in fact, the very discovery which Leonardo ascribes to -himself in section 21 without giving any further details.] - -71. - -HOW THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS RECEIVED BY THE EYE INTERSECT WITHIN THE -CRYSTALLINE HUMOUR OF THE EYE. - -An experiment, showing how objects transmit their images or -pictures, intersecting within the eye in the crystalline humour, is -seen when by some small round hole penetrate the images of -illuminated objects into a very dark chamber. Then, receive these -images on a white paper placed within this dark room and rather near -to the hole and you will see all the objects on the paper in their -proper forms and colours, but much smaller; and they will be upside -down by reason of that very intersection. These images being -transmitted from a place illuminated by the sun will seem actually -painted on this paper which must be extremely thin and looked at -from behind. And let the little perforation be made in a very thin -plate of iron. Let _a b e d e_ be the object illuminated by the sun -and _o r_ the front of the dark chamber in which is the said hole at -_n m_. Let _s t_ be the sheet of paper intercepting the rays of the -images of these objects upside down, because the rays being -straight, _a_ on the right hand becomes _k_ on the left, and _e_ on -the left becomes _f_ on the right; and the same takes place inside -the pupil. - -[Footnote: This chapter is already known through a translation into -French by VENTURI. Compare his '_Essai sur les ouvrages -physico-math�matiques de L. da Vinci avec des fragments tir�s de ses -Manuscrits, apport�s de l'Italie. Lu a la premiere classe de -l'Institut national des Sciences et Arts.' Paris, An V_ (1797).] - -The practice of perspective (72. 73). - -72. - -In the practice of perspective the same rules apply to light and to -the eye. - -73. - -The object which is opposite to the pupil of the eye is seen by that -pupil and that which is opposite to the eye is seen by the pupil. - -Refraction of the rays falling upon the eye (74. 75) - -74. - -The lines sent forth by the image of an object to the eye do not -reach the point within the eye in straight lines. - -75. - -If the judgment of the eye is situated within it, the straight lines -of the images are refracted on its surface because they pass through -the rarer to the denser medium. If, when you are under water, you -look at objects in the air you will see them out of their true -place; and the same with objects under water seen from the air. - -The intersection of the rays (76-82). - -76. - -The inversion of the images. - -All the images of objects which pass through a window [glass pane] -from the free outer air to the air confined within walls, are seen -on the opposite side; and an object which moves in the outer air -from east to west will seem in its shadow, on the wall which is -lighted by this confined air, to have an opposite motion. - -77. - -THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH THE IMAGES OF BODIES PASS IN BETWEEN THE -MARGINS OF THE OPENINGS BY WHICH THEY ENTER. - -What difference is there in the way in which images pass through -narrow openings and through large openings, or in those which pass -by the sides of shaded bodies? By moving the edges of the opening -through which the images are admitted, the images of immovable -objects are made to move. And this happens, as is shown in the 9th -which demonstrates: [Footnote 11: _per la 9a che dicie_. When -Leonardo refers thus to a number it serves to indicate marginal -diagrams; this can in some instances be distinctly proved. The ninth -sketch on the page W. L. 145 b corresponds to the middle sketch of -the three reproduced.] the images of any object are all everywhere, -and all in each part of the surrounding air. It follows that if one -of the edges of the hole by which the images are admitted to a dark -chamber is moved it cuts off those rays of the image that were in -contact with it and gets nearer to other rays which previously were -remote from it &c. - -OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE EDGE AT THE RIGHT OR LEFT, OR THE UPPER, OR -LOWER EDGE. - -If you move the right side of the opening the image on the left will -move [being that] of the object which entered on the right side of -the opening; and the same result will happen with all the other -sides of the opening. This can be proved by the 2nd of this which -shows: all the rays which convey the images of objects through the -air are straight lines. Hence, if the images of very large bodies -have to pass through very small holes, and beyond these holes -recover their large size, the lines must necessarily intersect. - -[Footnote: 77. 2. In the first of the three diagrams Leonardo had -drawn only one of the two margins, et _m_.] - -78. - -Necessity has provided that all the images of objects in front of -the eye shall intersect in two places. One of these intersections is -in the pupil, the other in the crystalline lens; and if this were -not the case the eye could not see so great a number of objects as -it does. This can be proved, since all the lines which intersect do -so in a point. Because nothing is seen of objects excepting their -surface; and their edges are lines, in contradistinction to the -definition of a surface. And each minute part of a line is equal to -a point; for _smallest_ is said of that than which nothing can be -smaller, and this definition is equivalent to the definition of the -point. Hence it is possible for the whole circumference of a circle -to transmit its image to the point of intersection, as is shown in -the 4th of this which shows: all the smallest parts of the images -cross each other without interfering with each other. These -demonstrations are to illustrate the eye. No image, even of the -smallest object, enters the eye without being turned upside down; -but as it penetrates into the crystalline lens it is once more -reversed and thus the image is restored to the same position within -the eye as that of the object outside the eye. - -79. - -OF THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE EYE. - -Only one line of the image, of all those that reach the visual -virtue, has no intersection; and this has no sensible dimensions -because it is a mathematical line which originates from a -mathematical point, which has no dimensions. - -According to my adversary, necessity requires that the central line -of every image that enters by small and narrow openings into a dark -chamber shall be turned upside down, together with the images of the -bodies that surround it. - -80. - -AS TO WHETHER THE CENTRAL LINE OF THE IMAGE CAN BE INTERSECTED, OR -NOT, WITHIN THE OPENING. - -It is impossible that the line should intersect itself; that is, -that its right should cross over to its left side, and so, its left -side become its right side. Because such an intersection demands two -lines, one from each side; for there can be no motion from right to -left or from left to right in itself without such extension and -thickness as admit of such motion. And if there is extension it is -no longer a line but a surface, and we are investigating the -properties of a line, and not of a surface. And as the line, having -no centre of thickness cannot be divided, we must conclude that the -line can have no sides to intersect each other. This is proved by -the movement of the line _a f_ to _a b_ and of the line _e b_ to _e -f_, which are the sides of the surface _a f e b_. But if you move -the line _a b_ and the line _e f_, with the frontends _a e_, to the -spot _c_, you will have moved the opposite ends _f b_ towards each -other at the point _d_. And from the two lines you will have drawn -the straight line _c d_ which cuts the middle of the intersection of -these two lines at the point _n_ without any intersection. For, you -imagine these two lines as having breadth, it is evident that by -this motion the first will entirely cover the other--being equal -with it--without any intersection, in the position _c d_. And this -is sufficient to prove our proposition. - -81. - -HOW THE INNUMERABLE RAYS FROM INNUMERABLE IMAGES CAN CONVERGE TO A -POINT. - -Just as all lines can meet at a point without interfering with each -other--being without breadth or thickness--in the same way all the -images of surfaces can meet there; and as each given point faces the -object opposite to it and each object faces an opposite point, the -converging rays of the image can pass through the point and diverge -again beyond it to reproduce and re-magnify the real size of that -image. But their impressions will appear reversed--as is shown in -the first, above; where it is said that every image intersects as it -enters the narrow openings made in a very thin substance. - -Read the marginal text on the other side. - -In proportion as the opening is smaller than the shaded body, so -much less will the images transmitted through this opening intersect -each other. The sides of images which pass through openings into a -dark room intersect at a point which is nearer to the opening in -proportion as the opening is narrower. To prove this let _a b_ be an -object in light and shade which sends not its shadow but the image -of its darkened form through the opening _d e_ which is as wide as -this shaded body; and its sides _a b_, being straight lines (as has -been proved) must intersect between the shaded object and the -opening; but nearer to the opening in proportion as it is smaller -than the object in shade. As is shown, on your right hand and your -left hand, in the two diagrams _a_ _b_ _c_ _n_ _m_ _o_ where, the -right opening _d_ _e_, being equal in width to the shaded object _a_ -_b_, the intersection of the sides of the said shaded object occurs -half way between the opening and the shaded object at the point _c_. -But this cannot happen in the left hand figure, the opening _o_ -being much smaller than the shaded object _n_ _m_. - -It is impossible that the images of objects should be seen between -the objects and the openings through which the images of these -bodies are admitted; and this is plain, because where the atmosphere -is illuminated these images are not formed visibly. - -When the images are made double by mutually crossing each other they -are invariably doubly as dark in tone. To prove this let _d_ _e_ _h_ -be such a doubling which although it is only seen within the space -between the bodies in _b_ and _i_ this will not hinder its being -seen from _f_ _g_ or from _f_ _m_; being composed of the images _a_ -_b_ _i_ _k_ which run together in _d_ _e_ _h_. - -[Footnote: 81. On the original diagram at the beginning of this -chapter Leonardo has written "_azurro_" (blue) where in the -facsimile I have marked _A_, and "_giallo_" (yellow) where _B_ -stands.] - -[Footnote: 15--23. These lines stand between the diagrams I and III.] - -[Footnote: 24--53. These lines stand between the diagrams I and II.] - -[Footnote: 54--97 are written along the left side of diagram I.] - -82. - -An experiment showing that though the pupil may not be moved from -its position the objects seen by it may appear to move from their -places. - -If you look at an object at some distance from you and which is -below the eye, and fix both your eyes upon it and with one hand -firmly hold the upper lid open while with the other you push up the -under lid--still keeping your eyes fixed on the object gazed at--you -will see that object double; one [image] remaining steady, and the -other moving in a contrary direction to the pressure of your finger -on the lower eyelid. How false the opinion is of those who say that -this happens because the pupil of the eye is displaced from its -position. - -How the above mentioned facts prove that the pupil acts upside down -in seeing. - -[Footnote: 82. 14--17. The subject indicated by these two headings is -fully discussed in the two chapters that follow them in the -original; but it did not seem to me appropriate to include them -here.] - -Demostration of perspective by means of a vertical glass plane -(83-85). - -83. - -OF THE PLANE OF GLASS. - -Perspective is nothing else than seeing place [or objects] behind a -plane of glass, quite transparent, on the surface of which the -objects behind that glass are to be drawn. These can be traced in -pyramids to the point in the eye, and these pyramids are intersected -on the glass plane. - -84. - -Pictorial perspective can never make an object at the same distance, -look of the same size as it appears to the eye. You see that the -apex of the pyramid _f c d_ is as far from the object _c_ _d_ as the -same point _f_ is from the object _a_ _b_; and yet _c_ _d_, which is -the base made by the painter's point, is smaller than _a_ _b_ which -is the base of the lines from the objects converging in the eye and -refracted at _s_ _t_, the surface of the eye. This may be proved by -experiment, by the lines of vision and then by the lines of the -painter's plumbline by cutting the real lines of vision on one and -the same plane and measuring on it one and the same object. - -85. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The vertical plane is a perpendicular line, imagined as in front of -the central point where the apex of the pyramids converge. And this -plane bears the same relation to this point as a plane of glass -would, through which you might see the various objects and draw them -on it. And the objects thus drawn would be smaller than the -originals, in proportion as the distance between the glass and the -eye was smaller than that between the glass and the objects. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The different converging pyramids produced by the objects, will -show, on the plane, the various sizes and remoteness of the objects -causing them. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -All those horizontal planes of which the extremes are met by -perpendicular lines forming right angles, if they are of equal width -the more they rise to the level of eye the less this is seen, and -the more the eye is above them the more will their real width be -seen. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The farther a spherical body is from the eye the more you will see -of it. - -The angle of sight varies with the distance (86-88) - -86. - -A simple and natural method; showing how objects appear to the eye -without any other medium. - -The object that is nearest to the eye always seems larger than -another of the same size at greater distance. The eye _m_, seeing -the spaces _o v x_, hardly detects the difference between them, and -the. reason of this is that it is close to them [Footnote 6: It is -quite inconceivable to me why M. RAVAISSON, in a note to his French -translation of this simple passage should have remarked: _Il est -clair que c'est par erreur que Leonard a �crit_ per esser visino _au -lieu de_ per non esser visino. (See his printed ed. of MS. A. p. -38.)]; but if these spaces are marked on the vertical plane _n o_ -the space _o v_ will be seen at _o r_, and in the same way the space -_v x_ will appear at _r q_. And if you carry this out in any place -where you can walk round, it will look out of proportion by reason -of the great difference in the spaces _o r_ and _r q_. And this -proceeds from the eye being so much below [near] the plane that the -plane is foreshortened. Hence, if you wanted to carry it out, you -would have [to arrange] to see the perspective through a single hole -which must be at the point _m_, or else you must go to a distance of -at least 3 times the height of the object you see. The plane _o p_ -being always equally remote from the eye will reproduce the objects -in a satisfactory way, so that they may be seen from place to place. - -87. - -How every large mass sends forth its images, which may diminish -through infinity. - -The images of any large mass being infinitely divisible may be -infinitely diminished. - -88. - -Objects of equal size, situated in various places, will be seen by -different pyramids which will each be smaller in proportion as the -object is farther off. - -89. - -Perspective, in dealing with distances, makes use of two opposite -pyramids, one of which has its apex in the eye and the base as -distant as the horizon. The other has the base towards the eye and -the apex on the horizon. Now, the first includes the [visible] -universe, embracing all the mass of the objects that lie in front of -the eye; as it might be a vast landscape seen through a very small -opening; for the more remote the objects are from the eye, the -greater number can be seen through the opening, and thus the pyramid -is constructed with the base on the horizon and the apex in the eye, -as has been said. The second pyramid is extended to a spot which is -smaller in proportion as it is farther from the eye; and this second -perspective [= pyramid] results from the first. - -90. - -SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE. - -Simple perspective is that which is constructed by art on a vertical -plane which is equally distant from the eye in every part. Complex -perspective is that which is constructed on a ground-plan in which -none of the parts are equally distant from the eye. - -91. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -No surface can be seen exactly as it is, if the eye that sees it is -not equally remote from all its edges. - -92. - -WHY WHEN AN OBJECT IS PLACED CLOSE TO THE EYE ITS EDGES ARE -INDISTINCT. - -When an object opposite the eye is brought too close to it, its -edges must become too confused to be distinguished; as it happens -with objects close to a light, which cast a large and indistinct -shadow, so is it with an eye which estimates objects opposite to it; -in all cases of linear perspective, the eye acts in the same way as -the light. And the reason is that the eye has one leading line (of -vision) which dilates with distance and embraces with true -discernment large objects at a distance as well as small ones that -are close. But since the eye sends out a multitude of lines which -surround this chief central one and since these which are farthest -from the centre in this cone of lines are less able to discern with -accuracy, it follows that an object brought close to the eye is not -at a due distance, but is too near for the central line to be able -to discern the outlines of the object. So the edges fall within the -lines of weaker discerning power, and these are to the function of -the eye like dogs in the chase which can put up the game but cannot -take it. Thus these cannot take in the objects, but induce the -central line of sight to turn upon them, when they have put them up. -Hence the objects which are seen with these lines of sight have -confused outlines. - -The relative size of objects with regard to their distance from the -eye (93-98). - -93. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Small objects close at hand and large ones at a distance, being seen -within equal angles, will appear of the same size. - -94. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -There is no object so large but that at a great distance from the -eye it does not appear smaller than a smaller object near. - -95. - -Among objects of equal size that which is most remote from the eye -will look the smallest. [Footnote: This axiom, sufficiently clear in -itself, is in the original illustrated by a very large diagram, -constructed like that here reproduced under No. 108. - -The same idea is repeated in C. A. I a; I a, stated as follows: -_Infra le cose d'equal grandeza quella si dimostra di minor figura -che sara pi� distante dall' ochio_.--] - -96. - -Why an object is less distinct when brought near to the eye, and why -with spectacles, or without the naked eye sees badly either close or -far off [as the case may be]. - -97. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Among objects of equal size, that which is most remote from the eye -will look the smallest. - -98. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -No second object can be so much lower than the first as that the eye -will not see it higher than the first, if the eye is above the -second. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -And this second object will never be so much higher than the first -as that the eye, being below them, will not see the second as lower -than the first. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -If the eye sees a second square through the centre of a smaller one, -that is nearer, the second, larger square will appear to be -surrounded by the smaller one. - -PERSPECTIVE--PROPOSITION. - -Objects that are farther off can never be so large but that those in -front, though smaller, will conceal or surround them. - -DEFINITION. - -This proposition can be proved by experiment. For if you look -through a small hole there is nothing so large that it cannot be -seen through it and the object so seen appears surrounded and -enclosed by the outline of the sides of the hole. And if you stop it -up, this small stopping will conceal the view of the largest object. - -The apparent size of objects defined by calculation (99-105) - -99. - -OF LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. - -Linear Perspective deals with the action of the lines of sight, in -proving by measurement how much smaller is a second object than the -first, and how much the third is smaller than the second; and so on -by degrees to the end of things visible. I find by experience that -if a second object is as far beyond the first as the first is from -the eye, although they are of the same size, the second will seem -half the size of the first and if the third object is of the same -size as the 2nd, and the 3rd is as far beyond the second as the 2nd -from the first, it will appear of half the size of the second; and -so on by degrees, at equal distances, the next farthest will be half -the size of the former object. So long as the space does not exceed -the length of 20 braccia. But, beyond 20 braccia figures of equal -size will lose 2/4 and at 40 braccia they will lose 9/10, and 19/20 -at 60 braccia, and so on diminishing by degrees. This is if the -picture plane is distant from you twice your own height. If it is -only as far off as your own height, there will be a great difference -between the first braccia and the second. - -[Footnote: This chapter is included in DUFRESNE'S and MANZI'S -editions of the Treatise on Painting. H. LUDWIG, in his commentary, -calls this chapter "_eines der wichtigsten im ganzen Tractat_", but -at the same time he asserts that its substance has been so -completely disfigured in the best MS. copies that we ought not to -regard Leonardo as responsible for it. However, in the case of this -chapter, the old MS. copies agree with the original as it is -reproduced above. From the chapters given later in this edition, -which were written at a subsequent date, it would appear that -Leonardo corrected himself on these points.] - -100. - -OF THE DIMINUTION OF OBJECTS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES. - -A second object as far distant from the first as the first is from -the eye will appear half the size of the first, though they be of -the same size really. - -OF THE DEGREES OF DIMINUTION. - -If you place the vertical plane at one braccio from the eye, the -first object, being at a distance of 4 braccia from your eye will -diminish to 3/4 of its height at that plane; and if it is 8 braccia -from the eye, to 7/8; and if it is 16 braccia off, it will diminish -to 15/16 of its height and so on by degrees, as the space doubles -the diminution will double. - -101. - -Begin from the line _m f_ with the eye below; then go up and do the -same with the line _n f_, then with the eye above and close to the 2 -gauges on the ground look at _m n_; then as _c m_ is to _m n_ so -will _n m_ be to _n s_. - -If _a n_ goes 3 times into _f b, m p_ will do the same into _p g_. -Then go backwards so far as that _c d_ goes twice into _a n_ and _p -g_ will be equal to _g h_. And _m p_ will go into _h p_ as often as -_d c_ into _o p_. - -[Footnote: The first three lines are unfortunately very obscure.] - -102. - -I GIVE THE DEGREES OF THE OBJECTS SEEN BY THE EYE AS THE MUSICIAN -DOES THE NOTES HEARD BY THE EAR. - -Although the objects seen by the eye do, in fact, touch each other -as they recede, I will nevertheless found my rule on spaces of 20 -braccia each; as a musician does with notes, which, though they can -be carried on one into the next, he divides into degrees from note -to note calling them 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th; and has affixed a name -to each degree in raising or lowering the voice. - -103. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Let _f_ be the level and distance of the eye; and _a_ the vertical -plane, as high as a man; let _e_ be a man, then I say that on the -plane this will be the distance from the plane to the 2nd man. - -104. - -The differences in the diminution of objects of equal size in -consequence of their various remoteness from the eye will bear among -themselves the same proportions as those of the spaces between the -eye and the different objects. - -Find out how much a man diminishes at a certain distance and what -its length is; and then at twice that distance and at 3 times, and -so make your general rule. - -105. - -The eye cannot judge where an object high up ought to descend. - -106. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -If two similar and equal objects are placed one beyond the other at -a given distance the difference in their size will appear greater in -proportion as they are nearer to the eye that sees them. And -conversely there will seem to be less difference in their size in -proportion as they are remote from the eve. - -This is proved by the proportions of their distances among -themselves; for, if the first of these two objects were as far from -the eye, as the 2nd from the first this would be called the second -proportion: since, if the first is at 1 braccia from the eye and the -2nd at two braccia, two being twice as much as one, the first object -will look twice as large as the second. But if you place the first -at a hundred braccia from you and the second at a hundred and one, -you will find that the first is only so much larger than the second -as 100 is less than 101; and the converse is equally true. And -again, the same thing is proved by the 4th of this book which shows -that among objects that are equal, there is the same proportion in -the diminution of the size as in the increase in the distance from -the eye of the spectator. - -On natural perspective (107--109). - -107. - -OF EQUAL OBJECTS THE MOST REMOTE LOOK THE SMALLEST. - -The practice of perspective may be divided into ... parts [Footnote -4: _in_ ... _parte_. The space for the number is left blank in the -original.], of which the first treats of objects seen by the eye at -any distance; and it shows all these objects just as the eye sees -them diminished, without obliging a man to stand in one place rather -than another so long as the plane does not produce a second -foreshortening. - -But the second practice is a combination of perspective derived -partly from art and partly from nature and the work done by its -rules is in every portion of it, influenced by natural perspective -and artificial perspective. By natural perspective I mean that the -plane on which this perspective is represented is a flat surface, -and this plane, although it is parallel both in length and height, -is forced to diminish in its remoter parts more than in its nearer -ones. And this is proved by the first of what has been said above, -and its diminution is natural. But artificial perspective, that is -that which is devised by art, does the contrary; for objects equal -in size increase on the plane where it is foreshortened in -proportion as the eye is more natural and nearer to the plane, and -as the part of the plane on which it is figured is farther from the -eye. - -And let this plane be _d e_ on which are seen 3 equal circles which -are beyond this plane _d e_, that is the circles _a b c_. Now you -see that the eye _h_ sees on the vertical plane the sections of the -images, largest of those that are farthest and smallest of the -nearest. - -108. - -Here follows what is wanting in the margin at the foot on the other -side of this page. - -Natural perspective acts in a contrary way; for, at greater -distances the object seen appears smaller, and at a smaller distance -the object appears larger. But this said invention requires the -spectator to stand with his eye at a small hole and then, at that -small hole, it will be very plain. But since many (men's) eyes -endeavour at the same time to see one and the same picture produced -by this artifice only one can see clearly the effect of this -perspective and all the others will see confusion. It is well -therefore to avoid such complex perspective and hold to simple -perspective which does not regard planes as foreshortened, but as -much as possible in their proper form. This simple perspective, in -which the plane intersects the pyramids by which the images are -conveyed to the eye at an equal distance from the eye is our -constant experience, from the curved form of the pupil of the eye on -which the pyramids are intersected at an equal distance from the -visual virtue. - -[Footnote 24: _la prima di sopra_ i. e. the first of the three -diagrams which, in the original MS., are placed in the margin at the -beginning of this chapter.] - -109. - -OF A MIXTURE OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL PERSPECTIVE. - -This diagram distinguishes natural from artificial perspective. But -before proceeding any farther I will define what is natural and what -is artificial perspective. Natural perspective says that the more -remote of a series of objects of equal size will look the smaller, -and conversely, the nearer will look the larger and the apparent -size will diminish in proportion to the distance. But in artificial -perspective when objects of unequal size are placed at various -distances, the smallest is nearer to the eye than the largest and -the greatest distance looks as though it were the least of all; and -the cause of this is the plane on which the objects are represented; -and which is at unequal distances from the eye throughout its -length. And this diminution of the plane is natural, but the -perspective shown upon it is artificial since it nowhere agrees with -the true diminution of the said plane. Whence it follows, that when -the eye is somewhat removed from the [station point of the] -perspective that it has been gazing at, all the objects represented -look monstrous, and this does not occur in natural perspective, -which has been defined above. Let us say then, that the square _a b -c d_ figured above is foreshortened being seen by the eye situated -in the centre of the side which is in front. But a mixture of -artificial and natural perspective will be seen in this tetragon -called _el main_ [Footnote 20: _el main_ is quite legibly written in -the original; the meaning and derivation of the word are equally -doubtful.], that is to say _e f g h_ which must appear to the eye of -the spectator to be equal to _a b c d_ so long as the eye remains in -its first position between _c_ and _d_. And this will be seen to -have a good effect, because the natural perspective of the plane -will conceal the defects which would [otherwise] seem monstrous. - -_III._ - -_Six books on Light and Shade._ - -_Linear Perspective cannot be immediately followed by either the_ -"prospettiva de' perdimenti" _or the_ "prospettiva de' colori" _or -the aerial perspective; since these branches of the subject -presuppose a knowledge of the principles of Light and Shade. No -apology, therefore, is here needed for placing these immediately -after Linear Perspective._ - -_We have various plans suggested by Leonardo for the arrangement of -the mass of materials treating of this subject. Among these I have -given the preference to a scheme propounded in No._ III, _because, -in all probability, we have here a final and definite purpose -expressed. Several authors have expressed it as their opinion that -the Paris Manuscript_ C _is a complete and finished treatise on -Light and Shade. Certainly, the Principles of Light and Shade form -by far the larger portion of this MS. which consists of two separate -parts; still, the materials are far from being finally arranged. It -is also evident that he here investigates the subject from the point -of view of the Physicist rather than from that of the Painter._ - -_The plan of a scheme of arrangement suggested in No._ III _and -adopted by me has been strictly adhered to for the first four Books. -For the three last, however, few materials have come down to us; and -it must be admitted that these three Books would find a far more -appropriate place in a work on Physics than in a treatise on -Painting. For this reason I have collected in Book V all the -chapters on Reflections, and in Book VI I have put together and -arranged all the sections of MS._ C _that belong to the book on -Painting, so far as they relate to Light and Shade, while the -sections of the same MS. which treat of the_ "Prospettiva de' -perdimenti" _have, of course, been excluded from the series on Light -and Shade._ - -[Footnote III: This text has already been published with some slight -variations in Dozio's pamphlet _Degli scritti e disegni di Leonardo -da Vinci_, Milan 1871, pp. 30--31. Dozio did not transcribe it from -the original MS. which seems to have remained unknown to him, but -from an old copy (MS. H. 227 in the Ambrosian Library).] - -GENERAL INTRODUCTION. - -Prolegomena. - -110. - -You must first explain the theory and then the practice. First you -must describe the shadows and lights on opaque objects, and then on -transparent bodies. - -Scheme of the books on Light and shade. - -111. - -INTRODUCTION. - -[Having already treated of the nature of shadows and the way in -which they are cast [Footnote 2: _Avendo io tractato._--We may -suppose that he here refers to some particular MS., possibly Paris -C.], I will now consider the places on which they fall; and their -curvature, obliquity, flatness or, in short, any character I may be -able to detect in them.] - -Shadow is the obstruction of light. Shadows appear to me to be of -supreme importance in perspective, because, without them opaque and -solid bodies will be ill defined; that which is contained within -their outlines and their boundaries themselves will be -ill-understood unless they are shown against a background of a -different tone from themselves. And therefore in my first -proposition concerning shadow I state that every opaque body is -surrounded and its whole surface enveloped in shadow and light. And -on this proposition I build up the first Book. Besides this, shadows -have in themselves various degrees of darkness, because they are -caused by the absence of a variable amount of the luminous rays; and -these I call Primary shadows because they are the first, and -inseparable from the object to which they belong. And on this I will -found my second Book. From these primary shadows there result -certain shaded rays which are diffused through the atmosphere and -these vary in character according to that of the primary shadows -whence they are derived. I shall therefore call these shadows -Derived shadows because they are produced by other shadows; and the -third Book will treat of these. Again these derived shadows, where -they are intercepted by various objects, produce effects as various -as the places where they are cast and of this I will treat in the -fourth Book. And since all round the derived shadows, where the -derived shadows are intercepted, there is always a space where the -light falls and by reflected dispersion is thrown back towards its -cause, it meets the original shadow and mingles with it and modifies -it somewhat in its nature; and on this I will compose my fifth Book. -Besides this, in the sixth Book I will investigate the many and -various diversities of reflections resulting from these rays which -will modify the original [shadow] by [imparting] some of the various -colours from the different objects whence these reflected rays are -derived. Again, the seventh Book will treat of the various distances -that may exist between the spot where the reflected rays fall and -that where they originate, and the various shades of colour which -they will acquire in falling on opaque bodies. - -Different principles and plans of treatment (112--116). - -112. - -First I will treat of light falling through windows which I will -call Restricted [Light] and then I will treat of light in the open -country, to which I will give the name of diffused Light. Then I -will treat of the light of luminous bodies. - -113. - -OF PAINTING. - -The conditions of shadow and light [as seen] by the eye are 3. Of -these the first is when the eye and the light are on the same side -of the object seen; the 2nd is when the eye is in front of the -object and the light is behind it. The 3rd is when the eye is in -front of the object and the light is on one side, in such a way as -that a line drawn from the object to the eye and one from the object -to the light should form a right angle where they meet. - -114. - -OF PAINTING. - -This is another section: that is, of the nature of a reflection -(from) an object placed between the eye and the light under various -aspects. - -115. - -OF PAINTING. - -As regards all visible objects 3 things must be considered. These -are the position of the eye which sees: that of the object seen -[with regard] to the light, and the position of the light which -illuminates the object, _b_ is the eye, _a_ the object seen, _c_ the -light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the illuminating body, _c_ is the -illuminated object. - -116. - -Let _a_ be the light, _b_ the eye, _c_ the object seen by the eye -and in the light. These show, first, the eye between the light and -the body; the 2nd, the light between the eye and the body; the 3rd -the body between the eye and the light, _a_ is the eye, _b_ the -illuminated object, _c_ the light. - -117. - -OF PAINTING. - -OF THE THREE KINDS OF LIGHT THAT ILLUMINATE OPAQUE BODIES. - -The first kind of Light which may illuminate opaque bodies is called -Direct light--as that of the sun or any other light from a window or -flame. The second is Diffused [universal] light, such as we see in -cloudy weather or in mist and the like. The 3rd is Subdued light, -that is when the sun is entirely below the horizon, either in the -evening or morning. - -118. - -OF LIGHT. - -The lights which may illuminate opaque bodies are of 4 kinds. These -are: diffused light as that of the atmosphere, within our horizon. -And Direct, as that of the sun, or of a window or door or other -opening. The third is Reflected light; and there is a 4th which is -that which passes through [semi] transparent bodies, as linen or -paper or the like, but not transparent like glass, or crystal, or -other diaphanous bodies, which produce the same effect as though -nothing intervened between the shaded object and the light that -falls upon it; and this we will discuss fully in our discourse. - -Definition of the nature of shadows (119--122). - -119. - -WHAT LIGHT AND SHADOW ARE. - -Shadow is the absence of light, merely the obstruction of the -luminous rays by an opaque body. Shadow is of the nature of -darkness. Light [on an object] is of the nature of a luminous body; -one conceals and the other reveals. They are always associated and -inseparable from all objects. But shadow is a more powerful agent -than light, for it can impede and entirely deprive bodies of their -light, while light can never entirely expel shadow from a body, that -is from an opaque body. - -120. - -Shadow is the diminution of light by the intervention of an opaque -body. Shadow is the counterpart of the luminous rays which are cut -off by an opaque body. - -This is proved because the shadow cast is the same in shape and size -as the luminous rays were which are transformed into a shadow. - -121. - -Shadow is the diminution alike of light and of darkness, and stands -between darkness and light. - -A shadow may be infinitely dark, and also of infinite degrees of -absence of darkness. - -The beginnings and ends of shadow lie between the light and darkness -and may be infinitely diminished and infinitely increased. Shadow is -the means by which bodies display their form. - -The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail but for -shadow. - -122. - -OF THE NATURE OF SHADOW. - -Shadow partakes of the nature of universal matter. All such matters -are more powerful in their beginning and grow weaker towards the -end, I say at the beginning, whatever their form or condition may be -and whether visible or invisible. And it is not from small -beginnings that they grow to a great size in time; as it might be a -great oak which has a feeble beginning from a small acorn. Yet I may -say that the oak is most powerful at its beginning, that is where it -springs from the earth, which is where it is largest (To return:) -Darkness, then, is the strongest degree of shadow and light is its -least. Therefore, O Painter, make your shadow darkest close to the -object that casts it, and make the end of it fading into light, -seeming to have no end. - -Of the various kinds of shadows. (123-125). - -123. - -Darkness is absence of light. Shadow is diminution of light. -Primitive shadow is that which is inseparable from a body not in the -light. Derived shadow is that which is disengaged from a body in -shadow and pervades the air. A cast transparent shadow is that which -is surrounded by an illuminated surface. A simple shadow is one -which receives no light from the luminous body which causes it. A -simple shadow begins within the line which starts from the edge of -the luminous body _a b_. - -124. - -A simple shadow is one where no light at all interferes with it. - -A compound shadow is one which is somewhat illuminated by one or -more lights. - -125. - -WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SHADOW THAT IS INSEPARABLE FROM A -BODY AND A CAST SHADOW? - -An inseparable shadow is that which is never absent from the -illuminated body. As, for instance a ball, which so long as it is in -the light always has one side in shadow which never leaves it for -any movement or change of position in the ball. A separate shadow -may be and may not be produced by the body itself. Suppose the ball -to be one braccia distant from a wall with a light on the opposite -side of it; this light will throw upon the wall exactly as broad a -shadow as is to be seen on the side of the ball that is turned -towards the wall. That portion of the cast shadow will not be -visible when the light is below the ball and the shadow is thrown up -towards the sky and finding no obstruction on its way is lost. - -126. - -HOW THERE ARE 2 KINDS OF LIGHT, ONE SEPARABLE FROM, AND THE OTHER -INSEPARABLE FROM BODIES. - -Of the various kinds of light (126, 127). - -Separate light is that which falls upon the body. Inseparable light -is the side of the body that is illuminated by that light. One is -called primary, the other derived. And, in the same way there are -two kinds of shadow:--One primary and the other derived. The primary -is that which is inseparable from the body, the derived is that -which proceeds from the body conveying to the surface of the wall -the form of the body causing it. - -127. - -How there are 2 different kinds of light; one being called diffused, -the other restricted. The diffused is that which freely illuminates -objects. The restricted is that which being admitted through an -opening or window illuminates them on that side only. - -[Footnote: At the spot marked _A_ in the first diagram Leonardo -wrote _lume costretto_ (restricted light). At the spot _B_ on the -second diagram he wrote _lume libero_ (diffused light).] - -General remarks (128. 129). - -128. - -Light is the chaser away of darkness. Shade is the obstruction of -light. Primary light is that which falls on objects and causes light -and shade. And derived lights are those portions of a body which are -illuminated by the primary light. A primary shadow is that side of a -body on which the light cannot fall. - -The general distribution of shadow and light is that sum total of -the rays thrown off by a shaded or illuminated body passing through -the air without any interference and the spot which intercepts and -cuts off the distribution of the dark and light rays. - -And the eye can best distinguish the forms of objects when it is -placed between the shaded and the illuminated parts. - -129. - -MEMORANDUM OF THINGS I REQUIRE TO HAVE GRANTED [AS AXIOMS] IN MY -EXPLANATION OF PERSPECTIVE. - -I ask to have this much granted me--to assert that every ray -passing through air of equal density throughout, travels in a -straight line from its cause to the object or place it falls upon. - -FIRST BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -On the nature of light (130. 131). - -130. - -The reason by which we know that a light radiates from a single -centre is this: We plainly see that a large light is often much -broader than some small object which nevertheless--and although the -rays [of the large light] are much more than twice the extent [of -the small body]--always has its shadow cast on the nearest surface -very visibly. Let _c f_ be a broad light and _n_ be the object in -front of it, casting a shadow on the plane, and let _a b_ be the -plane. It is clear that it is not the broad light that will cast the -shadow _n_ on the plane, but that the light has within it a centre -is shown by this experiment. The shadow falls on the plane as is -shown at _m o t r_. - -[Footnote 13: In the original MS. no explanatory text is placed -after this title-line; but a space is left for it and the text -beginning at line 15 comes next.] Why, to two [eyes] or in front of -two eyes do 3 objects appear as two? - -Why, when you estimate the direction of an object with two sights -the nearer appears confused. I say that the eye projects an infinite -number of lines which mingle or join those reaching it which come to -it from the object looked at. And it is only the central and -sensible line that can discern and discriminate colours and objects; -all the others are false and illusory. And if you place 2 objects at -half an arm's length apart if the nearer of the two is close to the -eye its form will remain far more confused than that of the second; -the reason is that the first is overcome by a greater number of -false lines than the second and so is rendered vague. - -Light acts in the same manner, for in the effects of its lines -(=rays), and particularly in perspective, it much resembles the eye; -and its central rays are what cast the true shadow. When the object -in front of it is too quickly overcome with dim rays it will cast a -broad and disproportionate shadow, ill defined; but when the object -which is to cast the shadow and cuts off the rays near to the place -where the shadow falls, then the shadow is distinct; and the more so -in proportion as the light is far off, because at a long distance -the central ray is less overcome by false rays; because the lines -from the eye and the solar and other luminous rays passing through -the atmosphere are obliged to travel in straight lines. Unless they -are deflected by a denser or rarer air, when they will be bent at -some point, but so long as the air is free from grossness or -moisture they will preserve their direct course, always carrying the -image of the object that intercepts them back to their point of -origin. And if this is the eye, the intercepting object will be seen -by its colour, as well as by form and size. But if the intercepting -plane has in it some small perforation opening into a darker -chamber--not darker in colour, but by absence of light--you will see -the rays enter through this hole and transmitting to the plane -beyond all the details of the object they proceed from both as to -colour and form; only every thing will be upside down. But the size -[of the image] where the lines are reconstructed will be in -proportion to the relative distance of the aperture from the plane -on which the lines fall [on one hand] and from their origin [on the -other]. There they intersect and form 2 pyramids with their point -meeting [a common apex] and their bases opposite. Let _a b_ be the -point of origin of the lines, _d e_ the first plane, and _c_ the -aperture with the intersection of the lines; _f g_ is the inner -plane. You will find that _a_ falls upon the inner plane below at -_g_, and _b_ which is below will go up to the spot _f_; it will be -quite evident to experimenters that every luminous body has in -itself a core or centre, from which and to which all the lines -radiate which are sent forth by the surface of the luminous body and -reflected back to it; or which, having been thrown out and not -intercepted, are dispersed in the air. - -131. - -THE RAYS WHETHER SHADED OR LUMINOUS HAVE GREATER STRENGTH AND EFFECT -AT THEIR POINTS THAN AT THEIR SIDES. - -Although the points of luminous pyramids may extend into shaded -places and those of pyramids of shadow into illuminated places, and -though among the luminous pyramids one may start from a broader base -than another; nevertheless, if by reason of their various length -these luminous pyramids acquire angles of equal size their light -will be equal; and the case will be the same with the pyramids of -shadow; as may be seen in the intersected pyramids _a b c_ and _d e -f_, which though their bases differ in size are equal as to breadth -and light. - -[Footnote: 51--55: This supplementary paragraph is indicated as being -a continuation of line 45, by two small crosses.] - -The difference between light and lustre (132--135). - -132. - -Of the difference between light and lustre; and that lustre is not -included among colours, but is saturation of whiteness, and derived -from the surface of wet bodies; light partakes of the colour of the -object which reflects it (to the eye) as gold or silver or the like. - -133. - -OF THE HIGHEST LIGHTS WHICH TURN AND MOVE AS THE EYE MOVES WHICH -SEES THE OBJECT. - -Suppose the body to be the round object figured here and let the -light be at the point _a_, and let the illuminated side of the -object be _b c_ and the eye at the point _d_: I say that, as lustre -is every where and complete in each part, if you stand at the point -_d_ the lustre will appear at _c_, and in proportion as the eye -moves from _d_ to _a_, the lustre will move from _c_ to _n_. - -134. - -OF PAINTING. - -Heigh light or lustre on any object is not situated [necessarily] in -the middle of an illuminated object, but moves as and where the eye -moves in looking at it. - -135. - -OF LIGHT AND LUSTRE. - -What is the difference between light and the lustre which is seen on -the polished surface of opaque bodies? - -The lights which are produced from the polished surface of opaque -bodies will be stationary on stationary objects even if the eye on -which they strike moves. But reflected lights will, on those same -objects, appear in as many different places on the surface as -different positions are taken by the eye. - -WHAT BODIES HAVE LIGHT UPON THEM WITHOUT LUSTRE? - -Opaque bodies which have a hard and rough surface never display any -lustre in any portion of the side on which the light falls. - -WHAT BODIES WILL DISPLAY LUSTRE BUT NOT LOOK ILLUMINATED? - -Those bodies which are opaque and hard with a hard surface reflect -light [lustre] from every spot on the illuminated side which is in a -position to receive light at the same angle of incidence as they -occupy with regard to the eye; but, as the surface mirrors all the -surrounding objects, the illuminated [body] is not recognisable in -these portions of the illuminated body. - -136. - -The relations of luminous to illuminated bodies. - -The middle of the light and shade on an object in light and shade is -opposite to the middle of the primary light. All light and shadow -expresses itself in pyramidal lines. The middle of the shadow on any -object must necessarily be opposite the middle of its light, with a -direct line passing through the centre of the body. The middle of -the light will be at _a_, that of the shadow at _b_. [Again, in -bodies shown in light and shade the middle of each must coincide -with the centre of the body, and a straight line will pass through -both and through that centre.] - -[Footnote: In the original MS., at the spot marked _a_ of the first -diagram Leonardo wrote _primitiuo_, and at the spot marked -_c_--_primitiva_ (primary); at the spot marked _b_ he wrote -_dirivatiuo_ and at _d deriuatiua_ (derived).] - -Experiments on the relation of light and shadow within a room -(137--140). - -137. - -SHOWS HOW LIGHT FROM ANY SIDE CONVERGES TO ONE POINT. - -Although the balls _a b c_ are lighted from one window, -nevertheless, if you follow the lines of their shadows you will see -they intersect at a point forming the angle _n_. - -[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is slightly -sketched on Pl. XXXII; a square with three balls below it. The first -three lines of the text belonging to it are written above the sketch -and the six others below it.] - -138. - -Every shadow cast by a body has a central line directed to a single -point produced by the intersection of luminous lines in the middle -of the opening and thickness of the window. The proposition stated -above, is plainly seen by experiment. Thus if you draw a place with -a window looking northwards, and let this be _s f_, you will see a -line starting from the horizon to the east, which, touching the 2 -angles of the window _o f_, reaches _d_; and from the horizon on the -west another line, touching the other 2 angles _r s_, and ending at -_c_; and their intersection falls exactly in the middle of the -opening and thickness of the window. Again, you can still better -confirm this proof by placing two sticks, as shown at _g h_; and you -will see the line drawn from the centre of the shadow directed to -the centre _m_ and prolonged to the horizon _n f_. - -[Footnote: _B_ here stands for _cerchio del' orizonte tramontano_ on -the original diagram (the circle of the horizon towards the North); -_A_ for _levante_ (East) and _C_ for _ponete_ (West).] - -139. - -Every shadow with all its variations, which becomes larger as its -distance from the object is greater, has its external lines -intersecting in the middle, between the light and the object. This -proposition is very evident and is confirmed by experience. For, if -_a b_ is a window without any object interposed, the luminous -atmosphere to the right hand at _a_ is seen to the left at _d_. And -the atmosphere at the left illuminates on the right at _c_, and the -lines intersect at the point _m_. - -[Footnote: _A_ here stands for _levante_ (East), _B_ for _ponente_ -(West).] - -140. - -Every body in light and shade is situated between 2 pyramids one -dark and the other luminous, one is visible the other is not. But -this only happens when the light enters by a window. Supposing _a b_ -to be the window and _r_ the body in light and shade, the light to -the right hand _z_ will pass the object to the left and go on to -_p_; the light to the left at _k_ will pass to the right of the -object at _i_ and go on to _m_ and the two lines will intersect at -_c_ and form a pyramid. Then again _a_ _b_ falls on the shaded body -at _i_ _g_ and forms a pyramid _f_ _i_ _g_. _f_ will be dark because -the light _a_ _b_ can never fall there; _i_ _g_ _c_ will be -illuminated because the light falls upon it. - -Light and shadow with regard to the position of the eye (141--145). - -141. - -Every shaded body that is larger than the pupil and that interposes -between the luminous body and the eye will be seen dark. - -When the eye is placed between the luminous body and the objects -illuminated by it, these objects will be seen without any shadow. - -[Footnote: The diagram which in the original stands above line 1 is -given on Plate II, No 2. Then, after a blank space of about eight -lines, the diagram Plate II No 3 is placed in the original. There is -no explanation of it beyond the one line written under it.] - -142. - -Why the 2 lights one on each side of a body having two pyramidal -sides of an obtuse apex leave it devoid of shadow. - -[Footnote: The sketch illustrating this is on Plate XLI No 1.] - -143. - -A body in shadow situated between the light and the eye can never -display its illuminated portion unless the eye can see the whole of -the primary light. - -[Footnote: _A_ stands for _corpo_ (body), _B_ for _lume_ (light).] - -144. - -The eye which looks (at a spot) half way between the shadow and the -light which surrounds the body in shadow will see that the deepest -shadows on that body will meet the eye at equal angles, that is at -the same angle as that of sight. - -[Footnote: In both these diagrams _A_ stands for _lume_ (light) _B_ -for _ombra_ (shadow).] - -145. - -OF THE DIFFERENT LIGHT AND SHADE IN VARIOUS ASPECTS AND OF OBJECTS -PLACED IN THEM. - -If the sun is in the East and you look towards the West you will see -every thing in full light and totally without shadow because you see -them from the same side as the sun: and if you look towards the -South or North you will see all objects in light and shade, because -you see both the side towards the sun and the side away from it; and -if you look towards the coming of the sun all objects will show you -their shaded side, because on that side the sun cannot fall upon -them. - -The law of the incidence of light. - -146. - -The edges of a window which are illuminated by 2 lights of equal -degrees of brightness will not reflect light of equal brightness -into the chamber within. - -If _b_ is a candle and _a c_ our hemisphere both will illuminate the -edges of the window _m_ _n_, but light _b_ will only illuminate _f -g_ and the hemisphere _a_ will light all of _d e_. - -147. - -OF PAINTING. - -That part of a body which receives the luminous rays at equal angles -will be in a higher light than any other part of it. - -And the part which the luminous rays strike between less equal -angles will be less strongly illuminated. - -SECOND BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -Gradations of strength in the shadows (148. 149). - -148. - -THAT PORTION OF A BODY IN LIGHT AND SHADE WILL BE LEAST LUMINOUS -WHICH IS SEEN UNDER THE LEAST AMOUNT OF LIGHT. - -That part of the object which is marked _m_ is in the highest light -because it faces the window _a d_ by the line _a f_; _n_ is in the -second grade because the light _b d_ strikes it by the line _b e_; -_o_ is in the third grade, as the light falls on it from _c d_ by -the line _c h_; _p_ is the lowest light but one as _c d_ falls on it -by the line _d v_; _q_ is the deepest shadow for no light falls on -it from any part of the window. - -In proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_ so will _n r s_ be darker -than _m_, and all the rest is space without shadow. - -[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 1 on Plate -III. The letters _a b e d_ and _r_ are not reproduced in facsimile -of the original, but have been replaced by ordinary type in the -margin. 5-12. The original text of these lines is reproduced within -the diagram.--Compare No 275.] - -149. - -The light which falls on a shaded body at the acutest angle receives -the highest light, and the darkest portion is that which receives it -at an obtuse angle and both the light and the shadow form pyramids. -The angle _c_ receives the highest grade of light because it is -directly in front of the window _a b_ and the whole horizon of the -sky _m x_. The angle _a_ differs but little from _c_ because the -angles which divide it are not so unequal as those below, and only -that portion of the horizon is intercepted which lies between _y_ -and _x_. Although it gains as much on the other side its line is -nevertheless not very strong because one angle is smaller than its -fellow. The angles _e i_ will have less light because they do not -see much of the light _m s_ and the light _v x_ and their angles are -very unequal. Yhe angle _k_ and the angle _f_ are each placed -between very unequal angles and therefore have but little light, -because at _k_ it has only the light _p t_, and at _f_ only _t q_; -_o g_ is the lowest grade of light because this part has no light at -all from the sky; and thence come the lines which will reconstruct a -pyramid that is the counterpart of the pyramid _c_; and this pyramid -_l_ is in the first grade of shadow; for this too is placed between -equal angles directly opposite to each other on either side of a -straight line which passes through the centre of the body and goes -to the centre of the light. The several luminous images cast within -the frame of the window at the points _a_ and _b_ make a light which -surrounds the derived shadow cast by the solid body at the points 4 -and 6. The shaded images increase from _o g_ and end at 7 and 8. - -[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this chapter is No. 2 on Plate -III. In the original it is placed between lines 3 and 4, and in the -reproduction these are shown in part. The semi circle above is -marked _orizonte_ (horizon). The number 6 at the left hand side, -outside the facsimile, is in the place of a figure which has become -indistinct in the original.] - -On the intensity of shadows as dependent on the distance from the -light (150-152). - -150. - -The smaller the light that falls upon an object the more shadow it -will display. And the light will illuminate a smaller portion of the -object in proportion as it is nearer to it; and conversely, a larger -extent of it in proportion as it is farther off. - -A light which is smaller than the object on which it falls will -light up a smaller extent of it in proportion as it is nearer to it, -and the converse, as it is farther from it. But when the light is -larger than the object illuminated it will light a larger extent of -the object in proportion as it is nearer and the converse when they -are farther apart. - -151. - -That portion of an illuminated object which is nearest to the source -of light will be the most strongly illuminated. - -152. - -That portion of the primary shadow will be least dark which is -farthest from the edges. - -The derived shadow will be darker than the primary shadow where it -is contiguous with it. - -On the proportion of light and shade (153-157). - -153. - -That portion of an opaque body will be more in shade or more in -light, which is nearer to the dark body, by which it is shaded, or -to the light that illuminates it. - -Objects seen in light and shade show in greater relief than those -which are wholly in light or in shadow. - -154. - -OF PERSPECTIVE. - -The shaded and illuminated sides of opaque objects will display the -same proportion of light and darkness as their objects [Footnote 6: -The meaning of _obbietti_ (objects) is explained in no 153, lines -1-4.--Between the title-line and the next there is, in the -original, a small diagram representing a circle described round a -square.]. - -155. - -OF PAINTING. - -The outlines and form of any part of a body in light and shade are -indistinct in the shadows and in the high lights; but in the -portions between the light and the shadows they are highly -conspicuous. - -156. - -OF PAINTING. - -Among objects in various degrees of shade, when the light proceeds -from a single source, there will be the same proportion in their -shadows as in the natural diminution of the light and the same must -be understood of the degrees of light. - -157. - -A single and distinct luminous body causes stronger relief in the -object than a diffused light; as may be seen by comparing one side -of a landscape illuminated by the sun, and one overshadowed by -clouds, and so illuminated only by the diffused light of the -atmosphere. - -THIRD BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -Definition of derived shadow (158. 159). - -158. - -Derived shadow cannot exist without primary shadow. This is proved -by the first of this which says: Darkness is the total absence of -light, and shadow is an alleviation of darkness and of light, and it -is more or less dark or light in proportion as the darkness is -modified by the light. - -159. - -Shadow is diminution of light. - -Darkness is absence of light. - -Shadow is divided into two kinds, of which the first is called -primary shadow, the second is derived shadow. The primary shadow is -always the basis of the derived shadow. - -The edges of the derived shadow are straight lines. - -[Footnote: The theory of the _ombra_ dirivativa_--a technical -expression for which there is no precise English equivalent is -elaborately treated by Leonardo. But both text and diagrams (as Pl. -IV, 1-3 and Pl. V) must at once convince the student that the -distinction he makes between _ombra primitiva_ and _ombra -dirivativa_ is not merely justifiable but scientific. _Ombra -dirivativa_ is by no means a mere abstract idea. This is easily -proved by repeating the experiment made by Leonardo, and by filling -with smoke the room in which the existence of the _ombra dirivativa_ -is investigated, when the shadow becomes visible. Nor is it -difficult to perceive how much of Leonardo's teaching depended on -this theory. The recognised, but extremely complicated science of -cast shadows--_percussione dell' ombre dirivative_ as Leonardo -calls them--is thus rendered more intelligible if not actually -simpler, and we must assume this theory as our chief guide through -the investigations which follow.] - -The darkness of the derived shadow diminishes in proportion as it is -remote from the primary shadow. - -Different sorts of derived shadows (160-162). - -160. - -SHADOW AND LIGHT. - -The forms of shadows are three: inasmuch as if the solid body which -casts the shadow is equal (in size) to the light, the shadow -resembles a column without any termination (in length). If the body -is larger than the light the shadow resembles a truncated and -inverted pyramid, and its length has also no defined termination. -But if the body is smaller than the light, the shadow will resemble -a pyramid and come to an end, as is seen in eclipses of the moon. - -161. - -OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS. - -The simple derived shadow is of two kinds: one kind which has its -length defined, and two kinds which are undefined; and the defined -shadow is pyramidal. Of the two undefined, one is a column and the -other spreads out; and all three have rectilinear outlines. But the -converging, that is the pyramidal, shadow proceeds from a body that -is smaller than the light, and the columnar from a body equal in -size to the light, and the spreading shadow from a body larger than -the light; &c. - -OF COMPOUND DERIVED SHADOWS. - -Compound derived shadows are of two kinds; that is columnar and -spreading. - -162. - -OF SHADOW. - -Derived shadows are of three kinds of which one is spreading, the -second columnar, the third converging to the point where the two -sides meet and intersect, and beyond this intersection the sides are -infinitely prolonged or straight lines. And if you say, this shadow -must terminate at the angle where the sides meet and extend no -farther, I deny this, because above in the first on shadow I have -proved: that a thing is completely terminated when no portion of it -goes beyond its terminating lines. Now here, in this shadow, we see -the converse of this, in as much as where this derived shadow -originates we obviously have the figures of two pyramids of shadow -which meet at their angles. Hence, if, as [my] opponent says, the -first pyramid of shadow terminates the derivative shadow at the -angle whence it starts, then the second pyramid of shadow--so says -the adversary--must be caused by the angle and not from the body in -shadow; and this is disproved with the help of the 2nd of this which -says: Shadow is a condition produced by a body casting a shadow, and -interposed between this shadow and the luminous body. By this it is -made clear that the shadow is not produced by the angle of the -derived shadow but only by the body casting the shadow; &c. If a -spherical solid body is illuminated by a light of elongated form the -shadow produced by the longest portion of this light will have less -defined outlines than that which is produced by the breadth of the -same light. And this is proved by what was said before, which is: -That a shadow will have less defined outlines in proportion as the -light which causes it is larger, and conversely, the outlines are -clearer in proportion as it is smaller. - -[Footnote: The two diagrams to this chapter are on Plate IV, No. 1.] - -On the relation of derived and primary shadow (163-165). - -163. - -The derived shadow can never resemble the body from which it -proceeds unless the light is of the same form and size as the body -causing the shadow. - -The derived shadow cannot be of the same form as the primary shadow -unless it is intercepted by a plane parallel to it. - -164. - -HOW A CAST SHADOW CAN NEVER BE OF THE SAME SIZE AS THE BODY THAT -CASTS IT. - -If the rays of light proceed, as experience shows, from a single -point and are diffused in a sphere round this point, radiating and -dispersed through the air, the farther they spread the wider they -must spread; and an object placed between the light and a wall is -always imaged larger in its shadow, because the rays that strike it -[Footnote: 7. The following lines are wanting to complete the -logical connection.] would, by the time they have reached the wall, -have become larger. - -165. - -Any shadow cast by a body in light and shade is of the same nature -and character as that which is inseparable from the body. The centre -of the length of a shadow always corresponds to that of the luminous -body [Footnote 6: This second statement of the same idea as in the -former sentence, but in different words, does not, in the original, -come next to the foregoing; sections 172 and 127 are placed between -them.]. It is inevitable that every shadow must have its centre in a -line with the centre of the light. - -On the shape of derived shadows (166-174). - -166. - -OF THE PYRAMIDAL SHADOW. - -The pyramidal shadow produced by a columnar body will be narrower -than the body itself in proportion as the simple derived shadow is -intersected farther from the body which casts it. - -[Footnote 166: Compare the first diagram to No. 161. If we here -conceive of the outlines of the pyramid of shadow on the ground as -prolonged beyond its apex this gives rise to a second pyramid; this -is what is spoken of at the beginning of No. 166.] - -167. - -The cast shadow will be longest when the light is lowest. - -The cast shadow will be shortest when the light is highest. - -168. - -Both the primary and derived shadow will be larger when caused by -the light of a candle than by diffused light. The difference between -the larger and smaller shadows will be in inverse proportion to the -larger and smaller lights causing them. - -[Footnote: In the diagrams _A_ stands for _celo_ (sky), _B_ for -_cadela_ (candle).] - -169. - -ALL BODIES, IN PROPORTION AS THEY ARE NEARER TO, OR FARTHER FROM THE -SOURCE OF LIGHT, WILL PRODUCE LONGER OR SHORTER DERIVED SHADOWS. - -Among bodies of equal size, that one which is illuminated by the -largest light will have the shortest shadow. Experiment confirms -this proposition. Thus the body _m_ _n_ is surrounded by a larger -amount of light than the body _p q_, as is shown above. Let us say -that _v c a b d x_ is the sky, the source of light, and that _s t_ -is a window by which the luminous rays enter, and so _m n_ and _p q_ -are bodies in light and shade as exposed to this light; _m n_ will -have a small derived shadow, because its original shadow will be -small; and the derivative light will be large, again, because the -original light _c d_ will be large and _p q_ will have more derived -shadow because its original shadow will be larger, and its derived -light will be smaller than that of the body _m n_ because that -portion of the hemisphere _a b_ which illuminates it is smaller than -the hemisphere _c d_ which illuminates the body _m n_. - -[Footnote: The diagram, given on Pl. IV, No. 2, stands in the -original between lines 2 and 7, while the text of lines 3 to 6 is -written on its left side. In the reproduction of this diagram the -letter _v_ at the outer right-hand end has been omitted.] - -170. - -The shadow _m_ bears the same proportion to the shadow _n_ as the -line _b c_ to the line _f c_. - -171. - -OF PAINTING. - -Of different shadows of equal strength that which is nearest the eye -will seem the least strong. - -Why is the shadow _e a b_ in the first grade of strength, _b c_ in -the second; _c d_ in the third? The reason is that as from _e a b_ -the sky is nowhere visible, it gets no light whatever from the sky, -and so has no direct [primary] light. _b c_ faces the portion of the -sky _f g_ and is illuminated by it. _c d_ faces the sky at _h k_. _c -d_, being exposed to a larger extent of sky than _b c_, it is -reasonable that it should be more lighted. And thus, up to a certain -distance, the wall _a d_ will grow lighter for the reasons here -given, until the darkness of the room overpowers the light from the -window. - -172. - -When the light of the atmosphere is restricted [by an opening] and -illuminates bodies which cast shadows, these bodies being equally -distant from the centre of the window, that which is most obliquely -placed will cast the largest shadow beyond it. - -173. - -These bodies standing apart in a room lighted by a single window -will have derivative shadows more or less short according as they -are more or less opposite to the window. Among the shadows cast by -bodies of equal mass but at unequal distances from the opening by -which they are illuminated, that shadow will be the longest of the -body which is least in the light. And in proportion as one body is -better illuminated than another its shadow will be shorter than -another. The proportion _n m_ and _e v k_ bear to _r t_ and _v x_ -corresponds with that of the shadow _x_ to 4 and _y_. - -The reason why those bodies which are placed most in front of the -middle of the window throw shorter shadows than those obliquely -situated is:--That the window appears in its proper form and to the -obliquely placed ones it appears foreshortened; to those in the -middle, the window shows its full size, to the oblique ones it -appears smaller; the one in the middle faces the whole hemisphere -that is _e f_ and those on the side have only a strip; that is _q r_ -faces _a b_; and _m n_ faces _c d_; the body in the middle having a -larger quantity of light than those at the sides is lighted from a -point much below its centre, and thus the shadow is shorter. And the -pyramid _g_ 4 goes into _l y_ exactly as often as _a b_ goes into _e -f_. The axis of every derivative shadow passes through 6 1/2 -[Footnote 31: _passa per_ 6 1/2 (passes through 6 1/2). The meaning -of these words is probably this: Each of the three axes of the -derived shadow intersects the centre (_mezzo_) of the primary shadow -(_ombra originale_) and, by prolongation upwards crosses six lines. - -This is self evident only in the middle diagram; but it is equally -true of the side figures if we conceive of the lines 4 _f_, _x n v -m_, _y l k v_, and 4 _e_, as prolonged beyond the semicircle of the -horizon.] and is in a straight line with the centre of the primary -shadow, with the centre of the body casting it and of the derivative -light and with the centre of the window and, finally, with the -centre of that portion of the source of light which is the celestial -hemisphere, _y h_ is the centre of the derived shade, _l h_ of the -primary shadow, _l_ of the body throwing it, _l k_ of the derived -light, _v_ is the centre of the window, _e_ is the final centre of -the original light afforded by that portion of the hemisphere of the -sky which illuminates the solid body. - -[Footnote: Compare the diagram on Pl. IV, No. 3. In the original -this drawing is placed between lines 3 and 22; the rest, from line 4 -to line 21, is written on the left hand margin.] - -174. - -THE FARTHER THE DERIVED SHADOW IS PROLONGED THE LIGHTER IT BECOMES. - -You will find that the proportion of the diameter of the derived -shadow to that of the primary shadow will be the same as that -between the darkness of the primary shadow and that of the derived -shadow. - -[Footnote 6: Compare No. 177.] Let _a b_ be the diameter of the -primary shadow and _c d_ that of the derived shadow, I say that _a -b_ going, as you see, three times into _d c_, the shadow _d c_ will -be three times as light as the shadow _a b_. [Footnote 8: Compare -No. 177.] - -If the size of the illuminating body is larger than that of the -illuminated body an intersection of shadow will occur, beyond which -the shadows will run off in two opposite directions as if they were -caused by two separate lights. - -On the relative intensity of derived shadows (175-179). - -175. - -ON PAINTING. - -The derived shadow is stronger in proportion as it is nearer to its -place of origin. - -176. - -HOW SHADOWS FADE AWAY AT LONG DISTANCES. - -Shadows fade and are lost at long distances because the larger -quantity of illuminated air which lies between the eye and the -object seen tints the shadow with its own colour. - -177. - -_a b_ will be darker than _c d_ in proportion as _c d_ is broader -than _a b_. - -[Footnote: In the original MS. the word _lume_ (light) is written at -the apex of the pyramid.] - -178. - -It can be proved why the shadow _o p c h_ is darker in proportion as -it is nearer to the line _p h_ and is lighter in proportion as it is -nearer to the line _o c_. Let the light _a b_, be a window, and let -the dark wall in which this window is, be _b s_, that is, one of the -sides of the wall. - -Then we may say that the line _p h_ is darker than any other part of -the space _o p c h_, because this line faces the whole surface in -shadow of [Footnote: In the original the diagram is placed between -lines 27 and 28.] the wall _b s_. The line _o c_ is lighter than the -other part of this space _o p c h_, because this line faces the -luminous space _a b_. - -Where the shadow is larger, or smaller, or equal the body which -casts it. - -[First of the character of divided lights. [Footnote 14: _lumi -divisi_. The text here breaks off abruptly.] - -OF THE COMPOUND SHADOW _F, R, C, H_ CAUSED BY A SINGLE LIGHT. - -The shadow _f r c h_ is under such conditions as that where it is -farthest from its inner side it loses depth in proportion. To prove -this: - -Let _d a_, be the light and _f n_ the solid body, and let _a e_ be -one of the side walls of the window that is _d a_. Then I -say--according to the 2nd [proposition]: that the surface of any -body is affected by the tone of the objects surrounding it,--that -the side _r c_, which faces the dark wall _a e_ must participate of -its darkness and, in the same way that the outer surface which faces -the light _d a_ participates of the light; thus we get the outlines -of the extremes on each side of the centre included between them.] - -This is divided into four parts. The first the extremes, which -include the compound shadow, secondly the compound shadow between -these extremes. - -179. - -THE ACTION OF THE LIGHT AS FROM ITS CENTRE. - -If it were the whole of the light that caused the shadows beyond the -bodies placed in front of it, it would follow that any body much -smaller than the light would cast a pyramidal shadow; but experience -not showing this, it must be the centre of the light that produces -this effect. - -[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is between lines 4 -and 5 in the original. Comp. the reproduction Pl. IV, No. 4. The -text and drawing of this chapter have already been published with -tolerable accuracy. See M. JORDAN: "_Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da -Vinci_". Leipzig 1873, P. 90.] - -PROOF. - -Let _a b_ be the width of the light from a window, which falls on a -stick set up at one foot from _a c_ [Footnote 6: _bastone_ (stick). -The diagram has a sphere in place of a stick.]. And let _a d_ be the -space where all the light from the window is visible. At _c e_ that -part of the window which is between _l b_ cannot be seen. In the -same way _a m_ cannot be seen from _d f_ and therefore in these two -portions the light begins to fail. - -Shadow as produced by two lights of different size (180. 181). - -180. - -A body in light and shade placed between two equal lights side by -side will cast shadows in proportion to the [amount of] light. And -the shadows will be one darker than the other in proportion as one -light is nearer to the said body than the other on the opposite -side. - -A body placed at an equal distance between two lights will cast two -shadows, one deeper than the other in proportion, as the light which -causes it is brighter than the other. - -[Footnote: In the MS. the larger diagram is placed above the first -line; the smaller one between l. 4 & 5.] - -181. - -A light which is smaller than the body it illuminates produces -shadows of which the outlines end within [the surface of] the body, -and not much compound shadow; and falls on less than half of it. A -light which is larger than the body it illuminates, falls on more -than half of it, and produces much compound shadow. - -The effect of light at different distances. - -182. - -OF THE SHADOW CAST BY A BODY PLACED BETWEEN 2 EQUAL LIGHTS. - -A body placed between 2 equal lights will cast 2 shadows of itself -in the direction of the lines of the 2 lights; and if you move this -body placing it nearer to one of the lights the shadow cast towards -the nearer light will be less deep than that which falls towards the -more distant one. - -Further complications in the derived shadows (183-187). - -183. - -The greatest depth of shadow is in the simple derived shadow because -it is not lighted by either of the two lights _a b, c d_. - -The next less deep shadow is the derived shadow _e f n_; and in this -the shadow is less by half, because it is illuminated by a single -light, that is _c d_. - -This is uniform in natural tone because it is lighted throughout by -one only of the two luminous bodies [10]. But it varies with the -conditions of shadow, inasmuch as the farther it is away from the -light the less it is illuminated by it [13]. - -The third degree of depth is the middle shadow [Footnote 15: We -gather from what follows that _q g r_ here means _ombra media_ (the -middle shadow).]. But this is not uniform in natural tone; because -the nearer it gets to the simple derived shadow the deeper it is -[Footnote 18: Compare lines 10-13], and it is the uniformly gradual -diminution by increase of distance which is what modifies it -[Footnote 20: See Footnote 18]: that is to say the depth of a shadow -increases in proportion to the distance from the two lights. - -The fourth is the shadow _k r s_ and this is all the darker in -natural tone in proportion as it is nearer to _k s_, because it gets -less of the light _a o_, but by the accident [of distance] it is -rendered less deep, because it is nearer to the light _c d_, and -thus is always exposed to both lights. - -The fifth is less deep in shadow than either of the others because -it is always entirely exposed to one of the lights and to the whole -or part of the other; and it is less deep in proportion as it is -nearer to the two lights, and in proportion as it is turned towards -the outer side _x t_; because it is more exposed to the second light -_a b_. - -[Footnote: The diagram to this section is given on Pl. V. To the -left is the facsimile of the beginning of the text belonging to it.] - -184. - -OF SIMPLE SHADOWS. - -Why, at the intersections _a_, _b_ of the two compound shadows _e f_ -and _m e_, is a simple shadow pfoduced as at _e h_ and _m g_, while -no such simple shadow is produced at the other two intersections _c -d_ made by the very same compound shadows? - -ANSWER. - -Compound shadow are a mixture of light and shade and simple shadows -are simply darkness. Hence, of the two lights _n_ and _o_, one falls -on the compound shadow from one side, and the other on the compound -shadow from the other side, but where they intersect no light falls, -as at _a b_; therefore it is a simple shadow. Where there is a -compound shadow one light or the other falls; and here a difficulty -arises for my adversary since he says that, where the compound -shadows intersect, both the lights which produce the shadows must of -necessity fall and therefore these shadows ought to be neutralised; -inasmuch as the two lights do not fall there, we say that the shadow -is a simple one and where only one of the two lights falls, we say -the shadow is compound, and where both the lights fall the shadow is -neutralised; for where both lights fall, no shadow of any kind is -produced, but only a light background limiting the shadow. Here I -shall say that what my adversary said was true: but he only mentions -such truths as are in his favour; and if we go on to the rest he -must conclude that my proposition is true. And that is: That if both -lights fell on the point of intersection, the shadows would be -neutralised. This I confess to be true if [neither of] the two -shadows fell in the same spot; because, where a shadow and a light -fall, a compound shadow is produced, and wherever two shadows or two -equal lights fall, the shadow cannot vary in any part of it, the -shadows and the lights both being equal. And this is proved in the -eighth [proposition] on proportion where it is said that if a given -quantity has a single unit of force and resistance, a double -quantity will have double force and double resistance. - -DEFINITION. - -The intersection _n_ is produced by the shadows caused by the light -_b_, because this light _b_ produces the shadow _x b_, and the -shadow _s b_, but the intersection _m_ is produced by the light _a_ -which causes the shadow _s a_, and the shadow _x a_. - -But if you uncover both the lights _a b_, then you get the two -shadows _n m_ both at once, and besides these, two other, simple -shadows are produced at _r o_ where neither of the two lights falls -at all. The grades of depth in compound shadows are fewer in -proportion as the lights falling on, and crossing them are less -numerous. - -186. - -Why the intersections at _n_ being composed of two compound derived -shadows, forms a compound shadow and not a simple one, as happens -with other intersections of compound shadows. This occurs, according -to the 2nd [diagram] of this [prop.] which says:--The intersection -of derived shadows when produced by the intersection of columnar -shadows caused by a single light does not produce a simple shadow. -And this is the corollary of the 1st [prop.] which says:--The -intersection of simple derived shadows never results in a deeper -shadow, because the deepest shadows all added together cannot be -darker than one by itself. Since, if many deepest shadows increased -in depth by their duplication, they could not be called the -_deepest_ shadows, but only part-shadows. But if such intersections -are illuminated by a second light placed between the eye and the -intersecting bodies, then those shadows would become compound -shadows and be uniformly dark just as much at the intersection as -throughout the rest. In the 1st and 2nd above, the intersections _i -k_ will not be doubled in depth as it is doubled in quantity. But in -this 3rd, at the intersections _g n_ they will be double in depth -and in quantity. - -187. - -HOW AND WHEN THE SURROUNDINGS IN SHADOW MINGLE THEIR DERIVED SHADOW -WITH THE LIGHT DERIVED FROM THE LUMINOUS BODY. - -The derived shadow of the dark walls on each side of the bright -light of the window are what mingle their various degrees of shade -with the light derived from the window; and these various depths of -shade modify every portion of the light, except where it is -strongest, at _c_. To prove this let _d a_ be the primary shadow -which is turned towards the point _e_, and darkens it by its derived -shadow; as may be seen by the triangle _a e d_, in which the -angle _e_ faces the darkened base _d a e_; the point _v_ faces the -dark shadow _a s_ which is part of _a d_, and as the whole is -greater than a part, _e_ which faces the whole base [of the -triangle], will be in deeper shadow than _v_ which only faces part -of it. In consequence of the conclusion [shown] in the above -diagram, _t_ will be less darkened than _v_, because the base of the -_t_ is part of the base of the _v_; and in the same way it follows -that _p_ is less in shadow than _t_, because the base of the _p_ is -part of the base of the _t_. And _c_ is the terminal point of the -derived shadow and the chief beginning of the highest light. - -[Footnote: The diagram on Pl. IV, No. 5 belongs to this passage; but -it must be noted that the text explains only the figure on the -right-hand side.] - -FOURTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -On the shape of the cast shadows (188-191). - -188. - -The form of the shadow cast by any body of uniform density can never -be the same as that of the body producing it. [Footnote: Comp. the -drawing on PI. XXVIII, No. 5.] - -189. - -No cast shadow can produce the true image of the body which casts it -on a vertical plane unless the centre of the light is equally -distant from all the edges of that body. - -190. - -If a window _a b_ admits the sunlight into a room, the sunlight will -magnify the size of the window and diminish the shadow of a man in -such a way as that when the man makes that dim shadow of himself, -approach to that which defines the real size of the window, he will -see the shadows where they come into contact, dim and confused from -the strength of the light, shutting off and not allowing the solar -rays to pass; the effect of the shadow of the man cast by this -contact will be exactly that figured above. - -[Footnote: It is scarcely possible to render the meaning of this -sentence with strict accuracy; mainly because the grammatical -construction is defective in the most important part--line 4. In the -very slight original sketch the shadow touches the upper arch of the -window and the correction, here given is perhaps not justified.] - -191. - -A shadow is never seen as of uniform depth on the surface which -intercepts it unless every portion of that surface is equidistant -from the luminous body. This is proved by the 7th which says:--The -shadow will appear lighter or stronger as it is surrounded by a -darker or a lighter background. And by the 8th of this:--The -background will be in parts darker or lighter, in proportion as it -is farther from or nearer to the luminous body. And:--Of various -spots equally distant from the luminous body those will always be in -the highest light on which the rays fall at the smallest angles: The -outline of the shadow as it falls on inequalities in the surface -will be seen with all the contours similar to those of the body that -casts it, if the eye is placed just where the centre of the light -was. - -The shadow will look darkest where it is farthest from the body that -casts it. The shadow _c d_, cast by the body in shadow _a b_ which -is equally distant in all parts, is not of equal depth because it is -seen on a back ground of varying brightness. [Footnote: Compare the -three diagrams on Pl. VI, no 1 which, in the original accompany this -section.] - -On the outlines of cast shadows (192-195). - -192. - -The edges of a derived shadow will be most distinct where it is cast -nearest to the primary shadow. - -193. - -As the derived shadow gets more distant from the primary shadow, the -more the cast shadow differs from the primary shadow. - -194. - -OF SHADOWS WHICH NEVER COME TO AN END. - -The greater the difference between a light and the body lighted by -it, the light being the larger, the more vague will be the outlines -of the shadow of that object. - -The derived shadow will be most confused towards the edges of its -interception by a plane, where it is remotest from the body casting -it. - -195. - -What is the cause which makes the outlines of the shadow vague and -confused? - -Whether it is possible to give clear and definite outlines to the -edges of shadows. - -On the relative size of shadows (196. 197). - -196. - -THE BODY WHICH IS NEAREST TO THE LIGHT CASTS THE LARGEST SHADOW, AND -WHY? - -If an object placed in front of a single light is very close to it -you will see that it casts a very large shadow on the opposite wall, -and the farther you remove the object from the light the smaller -will the image of the shadow become. - -WHY A SHADOW LARGER THAN THE BODY THAT PRODUCES IT BECOMES OUT OF -PROPORTION. - -The disproportion of a shadow which is larger than the body -producing it, results from the light being smaller than the body, so -that it cannot be at an equal distance from the edges of the body -[Footnote 11: H. LUDWIG in his edition of the old copies, in the -Vatican library--in which this chapter is included under Nos. 612, -613 and 614 alters this passage as follows: _quella parte ch'e piu -propinqua piu cresce che le distanti_, although the Vatican copy -agrees with the original MS. in having _distante_ in the former and -_propinque_ in the latter place. This supposed amendment seems to me -to invert the facts. Supposing for instance, that on Pl. XXXI No. 3. -_f_ is the spot where the light is that illuminates the figure there -represented, and that the line behind the figure represents a wall -on which the shadow of the figure is thrown. It is evident, that in -that case the nearest portion, in this case the under part of the -thigh, is very little magnified in the shadow, and the remoter -parts, for instance the head, are more magnified.]; and the portions -which are most remote are made larger than the nearer portions for -this reason [Footnote 12: See Footnote 11]. - -WHY A SHADOW WHICH IS LARGER THAN THE BODY CAUSING IT HAS -ILL-DEFINED OUTLINES. - -The atmosphere which surrounds a light is almost like light itself -for brightness and colour; but the farther off it is the more it -loses this resemblance. An object which casts a large shadow and is -near to the light, is illuminated both by that light by the luminous -atmosphere; hence this diffused light gives the shadow ill-defined -edges. - -197. - -A luminous body which is long and narrow in shape gives more -confused outlines to the derived shadow than a spherical light, and -this contradicts the proposition next following: A shadow will have -its outlines more clearly defined in proportion as it is nearer to -the primary shadow or, I should say, the body casting the shadow; -[Footnote 14: The lettering refers to the lower diagram, Pl. XLI, -No. 5.] the cause of this is the elongated form of the luminous body -_a c_, &c. [Footnote 16: See Footnote 14]. - -Effects on cast shadows by the tone of the back ground. - -198. - -OF MODIFIED SHADOWS. - -Modified shadows are those which are cast on light walls or other -illuminated objects. - -A shadow looks darkest against a light background. The outlines of a -derived shadow will be clearer as they are nearer to the primary -shadow. A derived shadow will be most defined in shape where it is -intercepted, where the plane intercepts it at the most equal angle. - -Those parts of a shadow will appear darkest which have darker -objects opposite to them. And they will appear less dark when they -face lighter objects. And the larger the light object opposite, the -more the shadow will be lightened. - -And the larger the surface of the dark object the more it will -darken the derived shadow where it is intercepted. - -A disputed proposition. - -199. - -OF THE OPINION OF SOME THAT A TRIANGLE CASTS NO SHADOW ON A PLANE -SURFACE. - -Certain mathematicians have maintained that a triangle, of which the -base is turned to the light, casts no shadow on a plane; and this -they prove by saying [5] that no spherical body smaller than the -light can reach the middle with the shadow. The lines of radiant -light are straight lines [6]; therefore, suppose the light to be _g -h_ and the triangle _l m n_, and let the plane be _i k_; they say -the light _g_ falls on the side of the triangle _l n_, and the -portion of the plane _i q_. Thus again _h_ like _g_ falls on the -side _l m_, and then on _m n_ and the plane _p k_; and if the whole -plane thus faces the lights _g h_, it is evident that the triangle -has no shadow; and that which has no shadow can cast none. This, in -this case appears credible. But if the triangle _n p g_ were not -illuminated by the two lights _g_ and _h_, but by _i p_ and _g_ and -_k_ neither side is lighted by more than one single light: that is -_i p_ is invisible to _h g_ and _k_ will never be lighted by _g_; -hence _p q_ will be twice as light as the two visible portions that -are in shadow. - -[Footnote: 5--6. This passage is so obscure that it would be rash to -offer an explanation. Several words seem to have been omitted.] - -On the relative depth of cast shadows (200-202). - -200. - -A spot is most in the shade when a large number of darkened rays -fall upon it. The spot which receives the rays at the widest angle -and by darkened rays will be most in the dark; a will be twice as -dark as b, because it originates from twice as large a base at an -equal distance. A spot is most illuminated when a large number of -luminous rays fall upon it. d is the beginning of the shadow _d f_, -and tinges _c_ but _a_ little; _d e_ is half of the shadow _d f_ and -gives a deeper tone where it is cast at _b_ than at _f_. And the -whole shaded space _e_ gives its tone to the spot _a_. [Footnote: -The diagram here referred to is on Pl. XLI, No. 2.] - -201. - -_A n_ will be darker than _c r_ in proportion to the number of times -that _a b_ goes into _c d_. - -202. - -The shadow cast by an object on a plane will be smaller in -proportion as that object is lighted by feebler rays. Let _d e_ be -the object and _d c_ the plane surface; the number of times that _d -e_ will go into _f g_ gives the proportion of light at _f h_ to _d -c_. The ray of light will be weaker in proportion to its distance -from the hole through which it falls. - -FIFTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -Principles of reflection (203. 204). - -203. - -OF THE WAY IN WHICH THE SHADOWS CAST BY OBJECTS OUGHT TO BE DEFINED. - -If the object is the mountain here figured, and the light is at the -point _a_, I say that from _b d_ and also from _c f_ there will be -no light but from reflected rays. And this results from the fact -that rays of light can only act in straight lines; and the same is -the case with the secondary or reflected rays. - -204. - -The edges of the derived shadow are defined by the hues of the -illuminated objects surrounding the luminous body which produces the -shadow. - -On reverberation. - -205. - -OF REVERBERATION. - -Reverberation is caused by bodies of a bright nature with a flat and -semi opaque surface which, when the light strikes upon them, throw -it back again, like the rebound of a ball, to the former object. - -WHERE THERE CAN BE NO REFLECTED LIGHTS. - -All dense bodies have their surfaces occupied by various degrees of -light and shade. The lights are of two kinds, one called original, -the other borrowed. Original light is that which is inherent in the -flame of fire or the light of the sun or of the atmosphere. Borrowed -light will be reflected light; but to return to the promised -definition: I say that this luminous reverberation is not produced -by those portions of a body which are turned towards darkened -objects, such as shaded spots, fields with grass of various height, -woods whether green or bare; in which, though that side of each -branch which is turned towards the original light has a share of -that light, nevertheless the shadows cast by each branch separately -are so numerous, as well as those cast by one branch on the others, -that finally so much shadow is the result that the light counts for -nothing. Hence objects of this kind cannot throw any reflected light -on opposite objects. - -Reflection on water (206. 207). - -206. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The shadow or object mirrored in water in motion, that is to say in -small wavelets, will always be larger than the external object -producing it. - -207. - -It is impossible that an object mirrored on water should correspond -in form to the object mirrored, since the centre of the eye is above -the surface of the water. - -This is made plain in the figure here given, which demonstrates that -the eye sees the surface _a b_, and cannot see it at _l f_, and at -_r t_; it sees the surface of the image at _r t_, and does not see -it in the real object _c d_. Hence it is impossible to see it, as -has been said above unless the eye itself is situated on the surface -of the water as is shown below [13]. - -[Footnote: _A_ stands for _ochio_ [eye], _B_ for _aria_ [air], _C_ -for _acqua_ [water], _D_ for _cateto_ [cathetus].--In the original -MS. the second diagram is placed below line 13.] - -Experiments with the mirror (208-210). - -208. - -THE MIRROR. - -If the illuminated object is of the same size as the luminous body -and as that in which the light is reflected, the amount of the -reflected light will bear the same proportion to the intermediate -light as this second light will bear to the first, if both bodies -are smooth and white. - -209. - -Describe how it is that no object has its limitation in the mirror -but in the eye which sees it in the mirror. For if you look at your -face in the mirror, the part resembles the whole in as much as the -part is everywhere in the mirror, and the whole is in every part of -the same mirror; and the same is true of the whole image of any -object placed opposite to this mirror, &c. - -210. - -No man can see the image of another man in a mirror in its proper -place with regard to the objects; because every object falls on [the -surface of] the mirror at equal angles. And if the one man, who sees -the other in the mirror, is not in a direct line with the image he -will not see it in the place where it really falls; and if he gets -into the line, he covers the other man and puts himself in the place -occupied by his image. Let _n o_ be the mirror, _b_ the eye of your -friend and _d_ your own eye. Your friend's eye will appear to you at -_a_, and to him it will seem that yours is at _c_, and the -intersection of the visual rays will occur at _m_, so that either of -you touching _m_ will touch the eye of the other man which shall be -open. And if you touch the eye of the other man in the mirror it -will seem to him that you are touching your own. - -Appendix:--On shadows in movement (211. 212). - -211. - -OF THE SHADOW AND ITS MOTION. - -When two bodies casting shadows, and one in front of the other, are -between a window and the wall with some space between them, the -shadow of the body which is nearest to the plane of the wall will -move if the body nearest to the window is put in transverse motion -across the window. To prove this let _a_ and _b_ be two bodies -placed between the window _n m_ and the plane surface _o p_ with -sufficient space between them as shown by the space _a b_. I say -that if the body _a_ is moved towards _s_ the shadow of the body _b_ -which is at _c_ will move towards _d_. - -212. - -OF THE MOTION OF SHADOWS. - -The motion of a shadow is always more rapid than that of the body -which produces it if the light is stationary. To prove this let _a_ -be the luminous body, and _b_ the body casting the shadow, and _d_ -the shadow. Then I say that in the time while the solid body moves -from _b_ to _c_, the shadow _d_ will move to _e_; and this -proportion in the rapidity of the movements made in the same space -of time, is equal to that in the length of the space moved over. -Thus, given the proportion of the space moved over by the body _b_ -to _c_, to that moved over by the shadow _d_ to _e_, the proportion -in the rapidity of their movements will be the same. - -But if the luminous body is also in movement with a velocity equal -to that of the solid body, then the shadow and the body that casts -it will move with equal speed. And if the luminous body moves more -rapidly than the solid body, the motion of the shadow will be slower -than that of the body casting it. - -But if the luminous body moves more slowly than the solid body, then -the shadow will move more rapidly than that body. - -SIXTH BOOK ON LIGHT AND SHADE. - -The effect of rays passing through holes (213. 214). - -213. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -If you transmit the rays of the sun through a hole in the shape of a -star you will see a beautiful effect of perspective in the spot -where the sun's rays fall. - -[Footnote: In this and the following chapters of MS. C the order of -the original paging has been adhered to, and is shown in -parenthesis. Leonardo himself has but rarely worked out the subject -of these propositions. The space left for the purpose has -occasionally been made use of for quite different matter. Even the -numerous diagrams, most of them very delicately sketched, lettered -and numbered, which occur on these pages, are hardly ever explained, -with the exception of those few which are here given.] - -214. - -No small hole can so modify the convergence of rays of light as to -prevent, at a long distance, the transmission of the true form of -the luminous body causing them. It is impossible that rays of light -passing through a parallel [slit], should not display the form of -the body causing them, since all the effects produced by a luminous -body are [in fact] the reflection of that body: The moon, shaped -like a boat, if transmitted through a hole is figured in the surface -[it falls on] as a boatshaped object. [Footnote 8: In the MS. a -blank space is left after this question.] Why the eye sees bodies at -a distance, larger than they measure on the vertical plane?. - -[Footnote: This chapter, taken from another MS. may, as an -exception, be placed here, as it refers to the same subject as the -preceding section.] - -On gradation of shadows (215. 216). - -215. - -Although the breadth and length of lights and shadow will be -narrower and shorter in foreshortening, the quality and quantity of -the light and shade is not increased nor diminished. - -[3]The function of shade and light when diminished by -foreshortening, will be to give shadow and to illuminate an object -opposite, according to the quality and quantity in which they fall -on the body. - -[5]In proportion as a derived shadow is nearer to its penultimate -extremities the deeper it will appear, _g z_ beyond the intersection -faces only the part of the shadow [marked] _y z_; this by -intersection takes the shadow from _m n_ but by direct line it takes -the shadow _a m_ hence it is twice as deep as _g z_. _Y x_, by -intersection takes the shadow _n o_, but by direct line the shadow -_n m a_, therefore _x y_ is three times as dark as _z g_; _x f_, by -intersection faces _o b_ and by direct line _o n m a_, therefore we -must say that the shadow between _f x_ will be four times as dark as -the shadow _z g_, because it faces four times as much shadow. - -Let _a b_ be the side where the primary shadow is, and _b c_ the -primary light, _d_ will be the spot where it is intercepted,_f g_ -the derived shadow and _f e_ the derived light. - -And this must be at the beginning of the explanation. - -[Footnote: In the original MS. the text of No. 252 precedes the one -given here. In the text of No. 215 there is a blank space of about -four lines between the lines 2 and 3. The diagram given on Pl. VI, -No. 2 is placed between lines 4 and 5. Between lines 5 and 6 there -is another space of about three lines and one line left blank -between lines 8 and 9. The reader will find the meaning of the whole -passage much clearer if he first reads the final lines 11--13. -Compare also line 4 of No. 270.] - -On relative proportion of light and shadows (216--221). - -216. - -That part of the surface of a body on which the images [reflection] -from other bodies placed opposite fall at the largest angle will -assume their hue most strongly. In the diagram below, 8 is a larger -angle than 4, since its base _a n_ is larger than _e n_ the base of -4. This diagram below should end at _a n_ 4 8. [4]That portion of -the illuminated surface on which a shadow is cast will be brightest -which lies contiguous to the cast shadow. Just as an object which is -lighted up by a greater quantity of luminous rays becomes brighter, -so one on which a greater quantity of shadow falls, will be darker. - -Let 4 be the side of an illuminated surface 4 8, surrounding the -cast shadow _g e_ 4. And this spot 4 will be lighter than 8, because -less shadow falls on it than on 8. Since 4 faces only the shadow _i -n_; and 8 faces and receives the shadow _a e_ as well as _i n_ which -makes it twice as dark. And the same thing happens when you put the -atmosphere and the sun in the place of shade and light. - -[12] The distribution of shadow, originating in, and limited by, -plane surfaces placed near to each other, equal in tone and directly -opposite, will be darker at the ends than at the beginning, which -will be determined by the incidence of the luminous rays. You will -find the same proportion in the depth of the derived shadows _a n_ -as in the nearness of the luminous bodies _m b_, which cause them; -and if the luminous bodies were of equal size you would still -farther find the same proportion in the light cast by the luminous -circles and their shadows as in the distance of the said luminous -bodies. - -[Footnote: The diagram originally placed between lines 3 and 4 is on -Pl. VI, No. 3. In the diagram given above line 14 of the original, -and here printed in the text, the words _corpo luminoso_ [luminous -body] are written in the circle _m_, _luminoso_ in the circle _b_ -and _ombroso_ [body in shadow] in the circle _o_.] - -217. - -THAT PART OF THE REFLECTION WILL BE BRIGHTEST WHERE THE REFLECTED -RAYS ARE SHORTEST. - -[2] The darkness occasioned by the casting of combined shadows will -be in conformity with its cause, which will originate and terminate -between two plane surfaces near together, alike in tone and directly -opposite each other. - -[4] In proportion as the source of light is larger, the luminous and -shadow rays will be more mixed together. This result is produced -because wherever there is a larger quantity of luminous rays, there -is most light, but where there are fewer there is least light, -consequently the shadow rays come in and mingle with them. - -[Footnote: Diagrams are inserted before lines 2 and 4.] - -218. - -In all the proportions I lay down it must be understood that the -medium between the bodies is always the same. [2] The smaller the -luminous body the more distinct will the transmission of the shadows -be. - -[3] When of two opposite shadows, produced by the same body, one is -twice as dark as the other though similar in form, one of the two -lights causing them must have twice the diameter that the other has -and be at twice the distance from the opaque body. If the object is -lowly moved across the luminous body, and the shadow is intercepted -at some distance from the object, there will be the same relative -proportion between the motion of the derived shadow and the motion -of the primary shadow, as between the distance from the object to -the light, and that from the object to the spot where the shadow is -intercepted; so that though the object is moved slowly the shadow -moves fast. - -[Footnote: There are diagrams inserted before lines 2 and 3 but they -are not reproduced here. The diagram above line 6 is written upon as -follows: at _A lume_ (light), at _B obbietto_ (body), at _C ombra -d'obbietto_ (shadow of the object).] - -219. - -A luminous body will appear less brilliant when surrounded by a -bright background. - -[2] I have found that the stars which are nearest to the horizon -look larger than the others because light falls upon them from a -larger proportion of the solar body than when they are above us; and -having more light from the sun they give more light, and the bodies -which are most luminous appear the largest. As may be seen by the -sun through a mist, and overhead; it appears larger where there is -no mist and diminished through mist. No portion of the luminous body -is ever visible from any spot within the pyramid of pure derived -shadow. - -[Footnote: Between lines 1 and 2 there is in the original a large -diagram which does not refer to this text. ] - -220. - -A body on which the solar rays fall between the thin branches of -trees far apart will cast but a single shadow. - -[2] If an opaque body and a luminous one are (both) spherical the -base of the pyramid of rays will bear the same proportion to the -luminous body as the base of the pyramid of shade to the opaque -body. - -[4] When the transmitted shadow is intercepted by a plane surface -placed opposite to it and farther away from the luminous body than -from the object [which casts it] it will appear proportionately -darker and the edges more distinct. - -[Footnote: The diagram which, in the original, is placed above line -2, is similar to the one, here given on page 73 (section 120).--The -diagram here given in the margin stands, in the original, between -lines 3 and 4.] - -221. - -A body illuminated by the solar rays passing between the thick -branches of trees will produce as many shadows as there are branches -between the sun and itself. - -Where the shadow-rays from an opaque pyramidal body are intercepted -they will cast a shadow of bifurcate outline and various depth at -the points. A light which is broader than the apex but narrower than -the base of an opaque pyramidal body placed in front of it, will -cause that pyramid to cast a shadow of bifurcate form and various -degrees of depth. - -If an opaque body, smaller than the light, casts two shadows and if -it is the same size or larger, casts but one, it follows that a -pyramidal body, of which part is smaller, part equal to, and part -larger than, the luminous body, will cast a bifurcate shadow. - -[Footnote: Between lines 2 and 3 there are in the original two large -diagrams.] - -_IV._ - -_Perspective of Disappearance._ - -_The theory of the_ "Prospettiva de' perdimenti" _would, in many -important details, be quite unintelligible if it had not been led up -by the principles of light and shade on which it is based. The word_ -"Prospettiva" _in the language of the time included the principles -of optics; what Leonardo understood by_ "Perdimenti" _will be -clearly seen in the early chapters, Nos._ 222--224. _It is in the -very nature of the case that the farther explanations given in the -subsequent chapters must be limited to general rules. The sections -given as_ 227--231 _"On indistinctness at short distances" have, it -is true, only an indirect bearing on the subject; but on the other -hand, the following chapters,_ 232--234, _"On indistinctness at -great distances," go fully into the matter, and in chapters_ -235--239, _which treat "Of the importance of light and shade in the -Perspective of Disappearance", the practical issues are distinctly -insisted on in their relation to the theory. This is naturally -followed by the statements as to "the effect of light or dark -backgrounds on the apparent size of bodies"_ (_Nos._ 240--250). _At -the end I have placed, in the order of the original, those sections -from the MS._ C _which treat of the "Perspective of Disappearance" -and serve to some extent to complete the treatment of the subject_ -(251--262). - -Definition (222. 223). - -222. - -OF THE DIMINISHED DISTINCTNESS OF THE OUTLINES OF OPAQUE BODIES. - -If the real outlines of opaque bodies are indistinguishable at even -a very short distance, they will be more so at long distances; and, -since it is by its outlines that we are able to know the real form -of any opaque body, when by its remoteness we fail to discern it as -a whole, much more must we fail to discern its parts and outlines. - -223. - -OF THE DIMINUTION IN PERSPECTIVE OF OPAQUE OBJECTS. - -Among opaque objects of equal size the apparent diminution of size -will be in proportion to their distance from the eye of the -spectator; but it is an inverse proportion, since, where the -distance is greater, the opaque body will appear smaller, and the -less the distance the larger will the object appear. And this is the -fundamental principle of linear perspective and it -follows:--[11]every object as it becomes more remote loses first -those parts which are smallest. Thus of a horse, we should lose the -legs before the head, because the legs are thinner than the head; -and the neck before the body for the same reason. Hence it follows -that the last part of the horse which would be discernible by the -eye would be the mass of the body in an oval form, or rather in a -cylindrical form and this would lose its apparent thickness before -its length--according to the 2nd rule given above, &c. [Footnote 23: -Compare line 11.]. - -If the eye remains stationary the perspective terminates in the -distance in a point. But if the eye moves in a straight [horizontal] -line the perspective terminates in a line and the reason is that -this line is generated by the motion of the point and our sight; -therefore it follows that as we move our sight [eye], the point -moves, and as we move the point, the line is generated, &c. - -An illustration by experiment. - -224. - -Every visible body, in so far as it affects the eye, includes three -attributes; that is to say: mass, form and colour; and the mass is -recognisable at a greater distance from the place of its actual -existence than either colour or form. Again, colour is discernible -at a greater distance than form, but this law does not apply to -luminous bodies. - -The above proposition is plainly shown and proved by experiment; -because: if you see a man close to you, you discern the exact -appearance of the mass and of the form and also of the colouring; if -he goes to some distance you will not recognise who he is, because -the character of the details will disappear, if he goes still -farther you will not be able to distinguish his colouring, but he -will appear as a dark object, and still farther he will appear as a -very small dark rounded object. It appears rounded because distance -so greatly diminishes the various details that nothing remains -visible but the larger mass. And the reason is this: We know very -well that all the images of objects reach the senses by a small -aperture in the eye; hence, if the whole horizon _a d_ is admitted -through such an aperture, the object _b c_ being but a very small -fraction of this horizon what space can it fill in that minute image -of so vast a hemisphere? And because luminous bodies have more power -in darkness than any others, it is evident that, as the chamber of -the eye is very dark, as is the nature of all colored cavities, the -images of distant objects are confused and lost in the great light -of the sky; and if they are visible at all, appear dark and black, -as every small body must when seen in the diffused light of the -atmosphere. - -[Footnote: The diagram belonging to this passage is placed between -lines 5 and 6; it is No. 4 on Pl. VI. ] - -A guiding rule. - -225. - -OF THE ATMOSPHERE THAT INTERPOSES BETWEEN THE EYE AND VISIBLE -OBJECTS. - -An object will appear more or less distinct at the same distance, in -proportion as the atmosphere existing between the eye and that -object is more or less clear. Hence, as I know that the greater or -less quantity of the air that lies between the eye and the object -makes the outlines of that object more or less indistinct, you must -diminish the definiteness of outline of those objects in proportion -to their increasing distance from the eye of the spectator. - -An experiment. - -226. - -When I was once in a place on the sea, at an equal distance from the -shore and the mountains, the distance from the shore looked much -greater than that from the mountains. - -On indistinctness at short distances (227-231). - -227. - -If you place an opaque object in front of your eye at a distance of -four fingers' breadth, if it is smaller than the space between the -two eyes it will not interfere with your seeing any thing that may -be beyond it. No object situated beyond another object seen by the -eye can be concealed by this [nearer] object if it is smaller than -the space from eye to eye. - -228. - -The eye cannot take in a luminous angle which is too close to it. - -229. - -That part of a surface will be better lighted on which the light -falls at the greater angle. And that part, on which the shadow falls -at the greatest angle, will receive from those rays least of the -benefit of the light. - -230. - -OF THE EYE. - -The edges of an object placed in front of the pupil of the eye will -be less distinct in proportion as they are closer to the eye. This -is shown by the edge of the object _n_ placed in front of the pupil -_d_; in looking at this edge the pupil also sees all the space _a c_ -which is beyond the edge; and the images the eye receives from that -space are mingled with the images of the edge, so that one image -confuses the other, and this confusion hinders the pupil from -distinguishing the edge. - -231. - -The outlines of objects will be least clear when they are nearest to -the eye, and therefore remoter outlines will be clearer. Among -objects which are smaller than the pupil of the eye those will be -less distinct which are nearer to the eye. - -On indistinctness at great distances (232-234). - -232. - -Objects near to the eye will appear larger than those at a distance. - -Objects seen with two eyes will appear rounder than if they are seen -with only one. - -Objects seen between light and shadow will show the most relief. - -233. - -OF PAINTING. - -Our true perception of an object diminishes in proportion as its -size is diminished by distance. - -234. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Why objects seen at a distance appear large to the eye and in the -image on the vertical plane they appear small. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -I ask how far away the eye can discern a non-luminous body, as, for -instance, a mountain. It will be very plainly visible if the sun is -behind it; and could be seen at a greater or less distance according -to the sun's place in the sky. - -[Footnote: The clue to the solution of this problem (lines 1-3) is -given in lines 4-6, No. 232. Objects seen with both eyes appear -solid since they are seen from two distinct points of sight -separated by the distance between the eyes, but this solidity cannot -be represented in a flat drawing. Compare No. 535.] - -The importance of light and shade in the perspective of -disappearance (235-239). - -235. - -An opaque body seen in a line in which the light falls will reveal -no prominences to the eye. For instance, let _a_ be the solid body -and _c_ the light; _c m_ and _c n_ will be the lines of incidence of -the light, that is to say the lines which transmit the light to the -object _a_. The eye being at the point _b_, I say that since the -light _c_ falls on the whole part _m n_ the portions in relief on -that side will all be illuminated. Hence the eye placed at _c_ -cannot see any light and shade and, not seeing it, every portion -will appear of the same tone, therefore the relief in the prominent -or rounded parts will not be visible. - -236. - -OF PAINTING. - -When you represent in your work shadows which you can only discern -with difficulty, and of which you cannot distinguish the edges so -that you apprehend them confusedly, you must not make them sharp or -definite lest your work should have a wooden effect. - -237. - -OF PAINTING. - -You will observe in drawing that among the shadows some are of -undistinguishable gradation and form, as is shown in the 3rd -[proposition] which says: Rounded surfaces display as many degrees -of light and shade as there are varieties of brightness and darkness -reflected from the surrounding objects. - -238. - -OF LIGHT AND SHADE. - -You who draw from nature, look (carefully) at the extent, the -degree, and the form of the lights and shadows on each muscle; and -in their position lengthwise observe towards which muscle the axis -of the central line is directed. - -239. - -An object which is [so brilliantly illuminated as to be] almost as -bright as light will be visible at a greater distance, and of larger -apparent size than is natural to objects so remote. - -The effect of light or dark backgrounds on the apparent size of -objects (240-250). - -240. - -A shadow will appear dark in proportion to the brilliancy of the -light surrounding it and conversely it will be less conspicuous -where it is seen against a darker background. - -241. - -OF ORDINARY PERSPECTIVE. - -An object of equal breadth and colour throughout, seen against a -background of various colours will appear unequal in breadth. - -And if an object of equal breadth throughout, but of various -colours, is seen against a background of uniform colour, that object -will appear of various breadth. And the more the colours of the -background or of the object seen against the ground vary, the -greater will the apparent variations in the breadth be though the -objects seen against the ground be of equal breadth [throughout]. - -242. - -A dark object seen against a bright background will appear smaller -than it is. - -A light object will look larger when it is seen against a background -darker than itself. - -243. - -OF LIGHT. - -A luminous body when obscured by a dense atmosphere will appear -smaller; as may be seen by the moon or sun veiled by mists. - -OF LIGHT. - -Of several luminous bodies of equal size and brilliancy and at an -equal distance, that will look the largest which is surrounded by -the darkest background. - -OF LIGHT. - -I find that any luminous body when seen through a dense and thick -mist diminishes in proportion to its distance from the eye. Thus it -is with the sun by day, as well as the moon and the other eternal -lights by night. And when the air is clear, these luminaries appear -larger in proportion as they are farther from the eye. - -244. - -That portion of a body of uniform breadth which is against a lighter -background will look narrower [than the rest]. - -[4] _e_ is a given object, itself dark and of uniform breadth; _a b_ -and _c d_ are two backgrounds one darker than the other; _b c_ is a -bright background, as it might be a spot lighted by the sun through -an aperture in a dark room. Then I say that the object _e g_ will -appear larger at _e f_ than at _g h_; because _e f_ has a darker -background than _g h_; and again at _f g_ it will look narrower from -being seen by the eye _o_, on the light background _b c_. [Footnote -12: The diagram to which the text, lines 1-11, refers, is placed in -the original between lines 3 and 4, and is given on Pl. XLI, No. 3. -Lines 12 to 14 are explained by the lower of the two diagrams on Pl. -XLI, No. 4. In the original these are placed after line 14.] That -part of a luminous body, of equal breadth and brilliancy throughout, -will look largest which is seen against the darkest background; and -the luminous body will seem on fire. - -245. - -WHY BODIES IN LIGHT AND SHADE HAVE THEIR OUTLINES ALTERED BY THE -COLOUR AND BRIGHTNESS OF THE OBJECTS SERVING AS A BACKGROUND TO -THEM. - -If you look at a body of which the illuminated portion lies and ends -against a dark background, that part of the light which will look -brightest will be that which lies against the dark [background] at -_d_. But if this brighter part lies against a light background, the -edge of the object, which is itself light, will be less distinct -than before, and the highest light will appear to be between the -limit of the background _m f_ and the shadow. The same thing is seen -with regard to the dark [side], inasmuch as that edge of the shaded -portion of the object which lies against a light background, as at -_l_, it looks much darker than the rest. But if this shadow lies -against a dark background, the edge of the shaded part will appear -lighter than before, and the deepest shade will appear between the -edge and the light at the point _o_. - -[Footnote: In the original diagram _o_ is inside the shaded surface -at the level of _d_.] - -246. - -An opaque body will appear smaller when it is surrounded by a highly -luminous background, and a light body will appear larger when it is -seen against a darker background. This may be seen in the height of -buildings at night, when lightning flashes behind them; it suddenly -seems, when it lightens, as though the height of the building were -diminished. For the same reason such buildings look larger in a -mist, or by night than when the atmosphere is clear and light. - -247. - -ON LIGHT BETWEEN SHADOWS - -When you are drawing any object, remember, in comparing the grades -of light in the illuminated portions, that the eye is often deceived -by seeing things lighter than they are. And the reason lies in our -comparing those parts with the contiguous parts. Since if two -[separate] parts are in different grades of light and if the less -bright is conterminous with a dark portion and the brighter is -conterminous with a light background--as the sky or something -equally bright--, then that which is less light, or I should say -less radiant, will look the brighter and the brighter will seem the -darker. - -248. - -Of objects equally dark in themselves and situated at a considerable -and equal distance, that will look the darkest which is farthest -above the earth. - -249. - -TO PROVE HOW IT IS THAT LUMINOUS BODIES APPEAR LARGER, AT A -DISTANCE, THAN THEY ARE. - -If you place two lighted candles side by side half a braccio apart, -and go from them to a distance 200 braccia you will see that by the -increased size of each they will appear as a single luminous body -with the light of the two flames, one braccio wide. - -TO PROVE HOW YOU MAY SEE THE REAL SIZE OF LUMINOUS BODIES. - -If you wish to see the real size of these luminous bodies, take a -very thin board and make in it a hole no bigger than the tag of a -lace and place it as close to your eye as possible, so that when you -look through this hole, at the said light, you can see a large space -of air round it. Then by rapidly moving this board backwards and -forwards before your eye you will see the light increase [and -diminish]. - -Propositions on perspective of disappearance from MS. C. (250-262). - -250. - -Of several bodies of equal size and equally distant from the eye, -those will look the smallest which are against the lightest -background. - -Every visible object must be surrounded by light and shade. A -perfectly spherical body surrounded by light and shade will appear -to have one side larger than the other in proportion as one is more -highly lighted than the other. - -251. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -No visible object can be well understood and comprehended by the -human eye excepting from the difference of the background against -which the edges of the object terminate and by which they are -bounded, and no object will appear [to stand out] separate from that -background so far as the outlines of its borders are concerned. The -moon, though it is at a great distance from the sun, when, in an -eclipse, it comes between our eyes and the sun, appears to the eyes -of men to be close to the sun and affixed to it, because the sun is -then the background to the moon. - -252. - -A luminous body will appear more brilliant in proportion as it is -surrounded by deeper shadow. [Footnote: The diagram which, in the -original, is placed after this text, has no connection with it.] - -253. - -The straight edges of a body will appear broken when they are -conterminous with a dark space streaked with rays of light. -[Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no -connection with the text.] - -254. - -Of several bodies, all equally large and equally distant, that which -is most brightly illuminated will appear to the eye nearest and -largest. [Footnote: Here again the diagrams in the original have no -connection with the text.] - -255. - -If several luminous bodies are seen from a great distance although -they are really separate they will appear united as one body. - -256. - -If several objects in shadow, standing very close together, are seen -against a bright background they will appear separated by wide -intervals. - -257. - -Of several bodies of equal size and tone, that which is farthest -will appear the lightest and smallest. - -258. - -Of several objects equal in size, brightness of background and -length that which has the flattest surface will look the largest. A -bar of iron equally thick throughout and of which half is red hot, -affords an example, for the red hot part looks thicker than the -rest. - -259. - -Of several bodies of equal size and length, and alike in form and in -depth of shade, that will appear smallest which is surrounded by the -most luminous background. - -260. - -DIFFERENT PORTIONS OF A WALL SURFACE WILL BE DARKER OR BRIGHTER IN -PROPORTION AS THE LIGHT OR SHADOW FALLS ON THEM AT A LARGER ANGLE. - -The foregoing proposition can be clearly proved in this way. Let us -say that _m q_ is the luminous body, then _f g_ will be the opaque -body; and let _a e_ be the above-mentioned plane on which the said -angles fall, showing [plainly] the nature and character of their -bases. Then: _a_ will be more luminous than _b_; the base of the -angle _a_ is larger than that of _b_ and it therefore makes a -greater angle which will be _a m q_; and the pyramid _b p m_ will be -narrower and _m o c_ will be still finer, and so on by degrees, in -proportion as they are nearer to _e_, the pyramids will become -narrower and darker. That portion of the wall will be the darkest -where the breadth of the pyramid of shadow is greater than the -breadth of the pyramid of light. - -At the point _a_ the pyramid of light is equal in strength to the -pyramid of shadow, because the base _f g_ is equal to the base _r -f_. At the point _d_ the pyramid of light is narrower than the -pyramid of shadow by so much as the base _s f_ is less than the base -_f g_. - -Divide the foregoing proposition into two diagrams, one with the -pyramids of light and shadow, the other with the pyramids of light -[only]. - -261. - -Among shadows of equal depth those which are nearest to the eye will -look least deep. - -262. - -The more brilliant the light given by a luminous body, the deeper -will the shadows be cast by the objects it illuminates. - -_V._ - -_Theory of colours._ - -_Leonardo's theory of colours is even more intimately connected with -his principles of light and shade than his Perspective of -Disappearance and is in fact merely an appendix or supplement to -those principles, as we gather from the titles to sections_ 264, -267_, and _276_, while others again_ (_Nos._ 281, 282_) are headed_ -Prospettiva. - -_A very few of these chapters are to be found in the oldest copies -and editions of the Treatise on Painting, and although the material -they afford is but meager and the connection between them but -slight, we must still attribute to them a special theoretical value -as well as practical utility--all the more so because our knowledge -of the theory and use of colours at the time of the Renaissance is -still extremely limited._ - -The reciprocal effects of colours on objects placed opposite each -other (263-272). - -263. - -OF PAINTING. - -The hue of an illuminated object is affected by that of the luminous -body. - -264. - -OF SHADOW. - -The surface of any opaque body is affected by the colour of -surrounding objects. - -265. - -A shadow is always affected by the colour of the surface on which it -is cast. - -266. - -An image produced in a mirror is affected by the colour of the -mirror. - -267. - -OF LIGHT AND SHADE. - -Every portion of the surface of a body is varied [in hue] by the -[reflected] colour of the object that may be opposite to it. - -EXAMPLE. - -If you place a spherical body between various objects that is to say -with [direct] sunlight on one side of it, and on the other a wall -illuminated by the sun, which wall may be green or of any other -colour, while the surface on which it is placed may be red, and the -two lateral sides are in shadow, you will see that the natural -colour of that body will assume something of the hue reflected from -those objects. The strongest will be [given by] the luminous body; -the second by the illuminated wall, the third by the shadows. There -will still be a portion which will take a tint from the colour of -the edges. - -268. - -The surface of every opaque body is affected by the colour of the -objects surrounding it. But this effect will be strong or weak in -proportion as those objects are more or less remote and more or less -strongly [coloured]. - -269. - -OF PAINTING. - -The surface of every opaque body assumes the hues reflected from -surrounding objects. - -The surface of an opaque body assumes the hues of surrounding -objects more strongly in proportion as the rays that form the images -of those objects strike the surface at more equal angles. - -And the surface of an opaque body assumes a stronger hue from the -surrounding objects in proportion as that surface is whiter and the -colour of the object brighter or more highly illuminated. - -270. - -OF THE RAYS WHICH CONVEY THROUGH THE AIR THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS. - -All the minutest parts of the image intersect each other without -interfering with each other. To prove this let _r_ be one of the -sides of the hole, opposite to which let _s_ be the eye which sees -the lower end _o_ of the line _n o_. The other extremity cannot -transmit its image to the eye _s_ as it has to strike the end _r_ -and it is the same with regard to _m_ at the middle of the line. The -case is the same with the upper extremity _n_ and the eye _u_. And -if the end _n_ is red the eye _u_ on that side of the holes will not -see the green colour of _o_, but only the red of _n_ according to -the 7th of this where it is said: Every form projects images from -itself by the shortest line, which necessarily is a straight line, -&c. - -[Footnote: 13. This probably refers to the diagram given under No. -66.] - -271. - -OF PAINTING. - -The surface of a body assumes in some degree the hue of those around -it. The colours of illuminated objects are reflected from the -surfaces of one to the other in various spots, according to the -various positions of those objects. Let _o_ be a blue object in full -light, facing all by itself the space _b c_ on the white sphere _a b -e d e f_, and it will give it a blue tinge, _m_ is a yellow body -reflected onto the space _a b_ at the same time as _o_ the blue -body, and they give it a green colour (by the 2nd [proposition] of -this which shows that blue and yellow make a beautiful green &c.) -And the rest will be set forth in the Book on Painting. In that Book -it will be shown, that, by transmitting the images of objects and -the colours of bodies illuminated by sunlight through a small round -perforation and into a dark chamber onto a plane surface, which -itself is quite white, &c. - -But every thing will be upside down. - -Combination of different colours in cast shadows. - -272. - -That which casts the shadow does not face it, because the shadows -are produced by the light which causes and surrounds the shadows. -The shadow caused by the light _e_, which is yellow, has a blue -tinge, because the shadow of the body _a_ is cast upon the pavement -at _b_, where the blue light falls; and the shadow produced by the -light _d_, which is blue, will be yellow at _c_, because the yellow -light falls there and the surrounding background to these shadows _b -c_ will, besides its natural colour, assume a hue compounded of -yellow and blue, because it is lighted by the yellow light and by -the blue light both at once. - -Shadows of various colours, as affected by the lights falling on -them. That light which causes the shadow does not face it. - -[Footnote: In the original diagram we find in the circle _e_ -"_giallo_" (yellow) and the cirle _d_ "_azurro"_ (blue) and also -under the circle of shadow to the left "_giallo_" is written and -under that to the right "_azurro_". - -In the second diagram where four circles are placed in a row we find -written, beginning at the left hand, "_giallo_" (yellow), "_azurro_" -(blue), "_verde_" (green), "_rosso_" (red).] - -The effect of colours in the camera obscura (273-274). - -273. - -The edges of a colour(ed object) transmitted through a small hole -are more conspicuous than the central portions. - -The edges of the images, of whatever colour, which are transmitted -through a small aperture into a dark chamber will always be stronger -than the middle portions. - -274. - -OF THE INTERSECTIONS OF THE IMAGES IN THE PUPIL OF THE EYE. - -The intersections of the images as they enter the pupil do not -mingle in confusion in the space where that intersection unites -them; as is evident, since, if the rays of the sun pass through two -panes of glass in close contact, of which one is blue and the other -yellow, the rays, in penetrating them, do not become blue or yellow -but a beautiful green. And the same thing would happen in the eye, -if the images which were yellow or green should mingle where they -[meet and] intersect as they enter the pupil. As this does not -happen such a mingling does not exist. - -OF THE NATURE OF THE RAYS COMPOSED OF THE IMAGES OF OBJECTS, AND OF -THEIR INTERSECTIONS. - -The directness of the rays which transmit the forms and colours of -the bodies whence they proceed does not tinge the air nor can they -affect each other by contact where they intersect. They affect only -the spot where they vanish and cease to exist, because that spot -faces and is faced by the original source of these rays, and no -other object, which surrounds that original source can be seen by -the eye where these rays are cut off and destroyed, leaving there -the spoil they have conveyed to it. And this is proved by the 4th -[proposition], on the colour of bodies, which says: The surface of -every opaque body is affected by the colour of surrounding objects; -hence we may conclude that the spot which, by means of the rays -which convey the image, faces--and is faced by the cause of the -image, assumes the colour of that object. - -On the colours of derived shadows (275. 276). - -275. - -ANY SHADOW CAST BY AN OPAQUE BODY SMALLER THAN THE LIGHT CAUSING THE -SHADOW WILL THROW A DERIVED SHADOW WHICH IS TINGED BY THE COLOUR OF -THE LIGHT. - -Let _n_ be the source of the shadow _e f_; it will assume its hue. -Let _o_ be the source of _h e_ which will in the same way be tinged -by its hue and so also the colour of _v h_ will be affected by _p_ -which causes it; and the shadow of the triangle _z k y_ will be -affected by the colour of _q_, because it is produced by it. [7] In -proportion as _c d_ goes into _a d_, will _n r s_ be darker than -_m_; and the rest of the space will be shadowless [11]. _f g_ is -the highest light, because here the whole light of the window _a d_ -falls; and thus on the opaque body _m e_ is in equally high light; -_z k y_ is a triangle which includes the deepest shadow, because the -light _a d_ cannot reach any part of it. _x h_ is the 2nd grade of -shadow, because it receives only 1/3 of the light from the window, -that is _c d_. The third grade of shadow is _h e_, where two thirds -of the light from the window is visible. The last grade of shadow is -_b d e f_, because the highest grade of light from the window falls -at _f_. - -[Footnote: The diagram Pl. III, No. 1 belongs to this chapter as -well as the text given in No. 148. Lines 7-11 (compare lines 8-12 of -No. 148) which are written within the diagram, evidently apply to -both sections and have therefore been inserted in both.] - -276. - -OF THE COLOURS OF SIMPLE DERIVED SHADOWS. - -The colour of derived shadows is always affected by that of the body -towards which they are cast. To prove this: let an opaque body be -placed between the plane _s c t d_ and the blue light _d e_ and the -red light _a b_, then I say that _d e_, the blue light, will fall on -the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at _o p_ which is covered by -the shadow of the body _q r_, as is shown by the straight lines _d q -o e r p_. And the same occurs with the light _a b_ which falls on -the whole surface _s c t d_ excepting at the spot obscured by the -shadow _q r_; as is shown by the lines _d q o_, and _e r p_. Hence -we may conclude that the shadow _n m_ is exposed to the blue light -_d e_; but, as the red light _a b_ cannot fall there, _n m_ will -appear as a blue shadow on a red background tinted with blue, -because on the surface _s c t d_ both lights can fall. But in the -shadows only one single light falls; for this reason these shadows -are of medium depth, since, if no light whatever mingled with the -shadow, it would be of the first degree of darkness &c. But in the -shadow at _o p_ the blue light does not fall, because the body _q r_ -interposes and intercepts it there. Only the red light _a b_ falls -there and tinges the shadow of a red hue and so a ruddy shadow -appears on the background of mingled red and blue. - -The shadow of _q r_ at _o p_ is red, being caused by the blue light -_d e_; and the shadow of _q r_ at _o' p'_ is blue being caused by -the red light _a b_. Hence we say that the blue light in this -instance causes a red derived shadow from the opaque body _q' r'_, -while the red light causes the same body to cast a blue derived -shadow; but the primary shadow [on the dark side of the body itself] -is not of either of those hues, but a mixture of red and blue. - -The derived shadows will be equal in depth if they are produced by -lights of equal strength and at an equal distance; this is proved. -[Footnote 53: The text is unfinished in the original.] - -[Footnote: In the original diagram Leonardo has written within the -circle _q r corpo obroso_ (body in shadow); at the spot marked _A, -luminoso azzurro_ (blue luminous body); at _B, luminoso rosso_ (red -luminous body). At _E_ we read _ombra azzurra_ (blue tinted shadow) -and at _D ombra rossa_ (red tinted shadow).] - -On the nature of colours (277. 278). - -277. - -No white or black is transparent. - -278. - -OF PAINTING. - -[Footnote 2: See Footnote 3] Since white is not a colour but the -neutral recipient of every colour [Footnote 3: _il bianco non e -colore ma e inpotentia ricettiva d'ogni colore_ (white is not a -colour, but the neutral recipient of every colour). LEON BATT. -ALBERTI "_Della pittura_" libro I, asserts on the contrary: "_Il -bianco e'l nero non sono veri colori, ma sono alteratione delli -altri colori_" (ed. JANITSCHEK, p. 67; Vienna 1877).], when it is -seen in the open air and high up, all its shadows are bluish; and -this is caused, according to the 4th [prop.], which says: the -surface of every opaque body assumes the hue of the surrounding -objects. Now this white [body] being deprived of the light of the -sun by the interposition of some body between the sun and itself, -all that portion of it which is exposed to the sun and atmosphere -assumes the colour of the sun and atmosphere; the side on which the -sun does not fall remains in shadow and assumes the hue of the -atmosphere. And if this white object did not reflect the green of -the fields all the way to the horizon nor get the brightness of the -horizon itself, it would certainly appear simply of the same hue as -the atmosphere. - -On gradations in the depth of colours (279. 280). - -279. - -Since black, when painted next to white, looks no blacker than when -next to black; and white when next to black looks no whiter than -white, as is seen by the images transmitted through a small hole or -by the edges of any opaque screen ... - -280. - -OF COLOURS. - -Of several colours, all equally white, that will look whitest which -is against the darkest background. And black will look intensest -against the whitest background. - -And red will look most vivid against the yellowest background; and -the same is the case with all colours when surrounded by their -strongest contrasts. - -On the reflection of colours (281-283). - -281. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Every object devoid of colour in itself is more or less tinged by -the colour [of the object] placed opposite. This may be seen by -experience, inasmuch as any object which mirrors another assumes the -colour of the object mirrored in it. And if the surface thus -partially coloured is white the portion which has a red reflection -will appear red, or any other colour, whether bright or dark. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Every opaque and colourless body assumes the hue of the colour -reflected on it; as happens with a white wall. - -282. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -That side of an object in light and shade which is towards the light -transmits the images of its details more distinctly and immediately -to the eye than the side which is in shadow. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -The solar rays reflected on a square mirror will be thrown back to -distant objects in a circular form. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Any white and opaque surface will be partially coloured by -reflections from surrounding objects. - -[Footnote 281. 282: The title line of these chapters is in the -original simply _"pro"_, which may be an abbreviation for either -_Propositione_ or _Prospettiva_--taking Prospettiva of course in its -widest sense, as we often find it used in Leonardo's writings. The -title _"pro"_ has here been understood to mean _Prospettiva_, in -accordance with the suggestion afforded by page 10b of this same -MS., where the first section is headed _Prospettiva_ in full (see -No. 94), while the four following sections are headed merely _"pro"_ -(see No. 85).] - -283. - -WHAT PORTION OF A COLOURED SURFACE OUGHT IN REASON TO BE THE MOST -INTENSE. - -If _a_ is the light, and _b_ illuminated by it in a direct line, -_c_, on which the light cannot fall, is lighted only by reflection -from _b_ which, let us say, is red. Hence the light reflected from -it, will be affected by the hue of the surface causing it and will -tinge the surface _c_ with red. And if _c_ is also red you will see -it much more intense than _b_; and if it were yellow you would see -there a colour between yellow and red. - -On the use of dark and light colours in painting (284--286). - -284. - -WHY BEAUTIFUL COLOURS MUST BE IN THE [HIGHEST] LIGHT. - -Since we see that the quality of colour is known [only] by means of -light, it is to be supposed that where there is most light the true -character of a colour in light will be best seen; and where there is -most shadow the colour will be affected by the tone of that. Hence, -O Painter! remember to show the true quality of colours in bright -lights. - -285. - -An object represented in white and black will display stronger -relief than in any other way; hence I would remind you O Painter! to -dress your figures in the lightest colours you can, since, if you -put them in dark colours, they will be in too slight relief and -inconspicuous from a distance. And the reason is that the shadows of -all objects are dark. And if you make a dress dark there is little -variety in the lights and shadows, while in light colours there are -many grades. - -286. - -OF PAINTING. - -Colours seen in shadow will display more or less of their natural -brilliancy in proportion as they are in fainter or deeper shadow. - -But if these same colours are situated in a well-lighted place, they -will appear brighter in proportion as the light is more brilliant. - -THE ADVERSARY. - -The variety of colours in shadow must be as great as that of the -colours in the objects in that shadow. - -THE ANSWER. - -Colours seen in shadow will display less variety in proportion as -the shadows in which they lie are deeper. And evidence of this is to -be had by looking from an open space into the doorways of dark and -shadowy churches, where the pictures which are painted in various -colours all look of uniform darkness. - -Hence at a considerable distance all the shadows of different -colours will appear of the same darkness. - -It is the light side of an object in light and shade which shows the -true colour. - -On the colours of the rainbow (287. 288). - -287. - -Treat of the rainbow in the last book on Painting, but first write -the book on colours produced by the mixture of other colours, so as -to be able to prove by those painters' colours how the colours of -the rainbow are produced. - -288. - -WHETHER THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW ARE PRODUCED BY THE SUN. - -The colours of the rainbow are not produced by the sun, for they -occur in many ways without the sunshine; as may be seen by holding a -glass of water up to the eye; when, in the glass--where there are -those minute bubbles always seen in coarse glass--each bubble, even -though the sun does not fall on it, will produce on one side all the -colours of the rainbow; as you may see by placing the glass between -the day light and your eye in such a way as that it is close to the -eye, while on one side the glass admits the [diffused] light of the -atmosphere, and on the other side the shadow of the wall on one side -of the window; either left or right, it matters not which. Then, by -turning the glass round you will see these colours all round the -bubbles in the glass &c. And the rest shall be said in its place. - -THAT THE EYE HAS NO PART IN PRODUCING THE COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW. - -In the experiment just described, the eye would seem to have some -share in the colours of the rainbow, since these bubbles in the -glass do not display the colours except through the medium of the -eye. But, if you place the glass full of water on the window sill, -in such a position as that the outer side is exposed to the sun's -rays, you will see the same colours produced in the spot of light -thrown through the glass and upon the floor, in a dark place, below -the window; and as the eye is not here concerned in it, we may -evidently, and with certainty pronounce that the eye has no share in -producing them. - -OF THE COLOURS IN THE FEATHERS OF CERTAIN BIRDS. - -There are many birds in various regions of the world on whose -feathers we see the most splendid colours produced as they move, as -we see in our own country in the feathers of peacocks or on the -necks of ducks or pigeons, &c. - -Again, on the surface of antique glass found underground and on the -roots of turnips kept for some time at the bottom of wells or other -stagnant waters [we see] that each root displays colours similar to -those of the real rainbow. They may also be seen when oil has been -placed on the top of water and in the solar rays reflected from the -surface of a diamond or beryl; again, through the angular facet of a -beryl every dark object against a background of the atmosphere or -any thing else equally pale-coloured is surrounded by these rainbow -colours between the atmosphere and the dark body; and in many other -circumstances which I will not mention, as these suffice for my -purpose. - -_VI._ - -_'Prospettiva de' colri' (Perspective of Colour)_ - -_and_ - -_'Prospettiva aerea' (Aerial Perspective)._ - -_Leonardo distinctly separates these branches of his subject, as may -be seen in the beginning of No._ 295. _Attempts have been made to -cast doubts on the results which Leonardo arrived at by experiment -on the perspective of colour, but not with justice, as may be seen -from the original text of section_ 294. - -_The question as to the composition of the atmosphere, which is -inseparable from a discussion on Aerial Perspective, forms a -separate theory which is treated at considerable length. Indeed the -author enters into it so fully that we cannot escape the conviction -that he must have dwelt with particular pleasure on this part of his -subject, and that he attached great importance to giving it a -character of general applicability._ - -General rules (289--291). - -289. - -The variety of colour in objects cannot be discerned at a great -distance, excepting in those parts which are directly lighted up by -the solar rays. - -290. - -As to the colours of objects: at long distances no difference is -perceptible in the parts in shadow. - -291. - -OF THE VISIBILITY OF COLOURS. - -Which colour strikes most? An object at a distance is most -conspicuous, when it is lightest, and the darkest is least visible. - -An exceptional case. - -292. - -Of the edges [outlines] of shadows. Some have misty and ill defined -edges, others distinct ones. - -No opaque body can be devoid of light and shade, except it is in a -mist, on ground covered with snow, or when snow is falling on the -open country which has no light on it and is surrounded with -darkness. - -And this occurs [only] in spherical bodies, because in other bodies -which have limbs and parts, those sides of limbs which face each -other reflect on each other the accidental [hue and tone] of their -surface. - -An experiment. - -293. - -ALL COLOURS ARE AT A DISTANCE UNDISTINGUISHABLE AND UNDISCERNIBLE. - -All colours at a distance are undistinguishable in shadow, because -an object which is not in the highest light is incapable of -transmitting its image to the eye through an atmosphere more -luminous than itself; since the lesser brightness must be absorbed -by the greater. For instance: We, in a house, can see that all the -colours on the surface of the walls are clearly and instantly -visible when the windows of the house are open; but if we were to go -out of the house and look in at the windows from a little distance -to see the paintings on those walls, instead of the paintings we -should see an uniform deep and colourless shadow. - -The practice of the prospettiva de colori. - -294. - -HOW A PAINTER SHOULD CARRY OUT THE PERSPECTIVE OF COLOUR IN -PRACTICE. - -In order to put into practice this perspective of the variation and -loss or diminution of the essential character of colours, observe at -every hundred braccia some objects standing in the landscape, such -as trees, houses, men and particular places. Then in front of the -first tree have a very steady plate of glass and keep your eye very -steady, and then, on this plate of glass, draw a tree, tracing it -over the form of that tree. Then move it on one side so far as that -the real tree is close by the side of the tree you have drawn; then -colour your drawing in such a way as that in colour and form the two -may be alike, and that both, if you close one eye, seem to be -painted on the glass and at the same distance. Then, by the same -method, represent a second tree, and a third, with a distance of a -hundred braccia between each. And these will serve as a standard and -guide whenever you work on your own pictures, wherever they may -apply, and will enable you to give due distance in those works. [14] -But I have found that as a rule the second is 4/5 of the first when -it is 20 braccia beyond it. - -[Footnote: This chapter is one of those copied in the Manuscript of -the Vatican library Urbinas 1270, and the original text is rendered -here with no other alterations, but in the orthography. H. LUDWIG, -in his edition of this copy translates lines 14 and 15 thus: "_Ich -finde aber als Regel, dass der zweite um vier Funftel des ersten -abnimmt, wenn er namlich zwanzig Ellen vom ersten entfernt ist -(?)"_. He adds in his commentary: "_Das Ende der Nummer ist wohl -jedenfalls verstummelt_". However the translation given above shows -that it admits of a different rendering.] - -The rules of aerial perspective (295--297). - -295. - -OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. - -There is another kind of perspective which I call Aerial -Perspective, because by the atmosphere we are able to distinguish -the variations in distance of different buildings, which appear -placed on a single line; as, for instance, when we see several -buildings beyond a wall, all of which, as they appear above the top -of the wall, look of the same size, while you wish to represent them -in a picture as more remote one than another and to give the effect -of a somewhat dense atmosphere. You know that in an atmosphere of -equal density the remotest objects seen through it, as mountains, in -consequence of the great quantity of atmosphere between your eye and -them--appear blue and almost of the same hue as the atmosphere -itself [Footnote 10: _quado il sole e per leuante_ (when the sun is -in the East). Apparently the author refers here to morning light in -general. H. LUDWIG however translates this passage from the Vatican -copy "_wenn namlich die Sonne (dahinter) im Osten steht_".] when the -sun is in the East [Footnote 11: See Footnote 10]. Hence you must -make the nearest building above the wall of its real colour, but the -more distant ones make less defined and bluer. Those you wish should -look farthest away you must make proportionately bluer; thus, if one -is to be five times as distant, make it five times bluer. And by -this rule the buildings which above a [given] line appear of the -same size, will plainly be distinguished as to which are the more -remote and which larger than the others. - -296. - -The medium lying between the eye and the object seen, tinges that -object with its colour, as the blueness of the atmosphere makes the -distant mountains appear blue and red glass makes objects seen -beyond it, look red. The light shed round them by the stars is -obscured by the darkness of the night which lies between the eye and -the radiant light of the stars. - -297. - -Take care that the perspective of colour does not disagree with the -size of your objects, hat is to say: that the colours diminish from -their natural [vividness] in proportion as the objects at various -distances dimmish from their natural size. - -On the relative density of the atmosphere (298--290). - -298. - -WHY THE ATMOSPHERE MUST BE REPRESENTED AS PALER TOWARDS THE LOWER -PORTION. - -Because the atmosphere is dense near the earth, and the higher it is -the rarer it becomes. When the sun is in the East if you look -towards the West and a little way to the South and North, you will -see that this dense atmosphere receives more light from the sun than -the rarer; because the rays meet with greater resistance. And if the -sky, as you see it, ends on a low plain, that lowest portion of the -sky will be seen through a denser and whiter atmosphere, which will -weaken its true colour as seen through that medium, and there the -sky will look whiter than it is above you, where the line of sight -travels through a smaller space of air charged with heavy vapour. -And if you turn to the East, the atmosphere will appear darker as -you look lower down because the luminous rays pass less freely -through the lower atmosphere. - -299. - -OF THE MODE OF TREATING REMOTE OBJECTS IN PAINTING. - -It is easy to perceive that the atmosphere which lies closest to the -level ground is denser than the rest, and that where it is higher -up, it is rarer and more transparent. The lower portions of large -and lofty objects which are at a distance are not much seen, because -you see them along a line which passes through a denser and thicker -section of the atmosphere. The summits of such heights are seen -along a line which, though it starts from your eye in a dense -atmosphere, still, as it ends at the top of those lofty objects, -ceases in a much rarer atmosphere than exists at their base; for -this reason the farther this line extends from your eye, from point -to point the atmosphere becomes more and more rare. Hence, O -Painter! when you represent mountains, see that from hill to hill -the bases are paler than the summits, and in proportion as they -recede beyond each other make the bases paler than the summits; -while, the higher they are the more you must show of their true form -and colour. - -On the colour of the atmosphere (300-307). - -300. - -OF THE COLOUR OF THE ATMOSPHERE. - -I say that the blueness we see in the atmosphere is not intrinsic -colour, but is caused by warm vapour evaporated in minute and -insensible atoms on which the solar rays fall, rendering them -luminous against the infinite darkness of the fiery sphere which -lies beyond and includes it. And this may be seen, as I saw it by -any one going up [Footnote 5: With regard to the place spoken of as -_M'oboso_ (compare No. 301 line 20) its identity will be discussed -under Leonardo's Topographical notes in Vol. II.] Monboso, a peak of -the Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain -gives birth to the four rivers which flow in four different -directions through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base -at so great a height as this, which lifts itself almost above the -clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer, -when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so -that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling -clouds, which does not happen twice in an age, an enormous mass of -ice would be piled up there by the hail, and in the middle of July I -found it very considerable. There I saw above me the dark sky, and -the sun as it fell on the mountain was far brighter here than in the -plains below, because a smaller extent of atmosphere lay between the -summit of the mountain and the sun. Again as an illustration of the -colour of the atmosphere I will mention the smoke of old and dry -wood, which, as it comes out of a chimney, appears to turn very -blue, when seen between the eye and the dark distance. But as it -rises, and comes between the eye and the bright atmosphere, it at -once shows of an ashy grey colour; and this happens because it no -longer has darkness beyond it, but this bright and luminous space. -If the smoke is from young, green wood, it will not appear blue, -because, not being transparent and being full of superabundant -moisture, it has the effect of condensed clouds which take distinct -lights and shadows like a solid body. The same occurs with the -atmosphere, which, when overcharged with moisture appears white, and -the small amount of heated moisture makes it dark, of a dark blue -colour; and this will suffice us so far as concerns the colour of -the atmosphere; though it might be added that, if this transparent -blue were the natural colour of the atmosphere, it would follow that -wherever a larger mass air intervened between the eye and the -element of fire, the azure colour would be more intense; as we see -in blue glass and in sapphires, which are darker in proportion as -they are larger. But the atmosphere in such circumstances behaves in -an opposite manner, inasmuch as where a greater quantity of it lies -between the eye and the sphere of fire, it is seen much whiter. This -occurs towards the horizon. And the less the extent of atmosphere -between the eye and the sphere of fire, the deeper is the blue -colour, as may be seen even on low plains. Hence it follows, as I -say, that the atmosphere assumes this azure hue by reason of the -particles of moisture which catch the rays of the sun. Again, we may -note the difference in particles of dust, or particles of smoke, in -the sun beams admitted through holes into a dark chamber, when the -former will look ash grey and the thin smoke will appear of a most -beautiful blue; and it may be seen again in in the dark shadows of -distant mountains when the air between the eye and those shadows -will look very blue, though the brightest parts of those mountains -will not differ much from their true colour. But if any one wishes -for a final proof let him paint a board with various colours, among -them an intense black; and over all let him lay a very thin and -transparent [coating of] white. He will then see that this -transparent white will nowhere show a more beautiful blue than over -the black--but it must be very thin and finely ground. - -[Footnote 7: _reta_ here has the sense of _malanno_.] - -301. - -Experience shows us that the air must have darkness beyond it and -yet it appears blue. If you produce a small quantity of smoke from -dry wood and the rays of the sun fall on this smoke, and if you then -place behind the smoke a piece of black velvet on which the sun does -not shine, you will see that all the smoke which is between the eye -and the black stuff will appear of a beautiful blue colour. And if -instead of the velvet you place a white cloth smoke, that is too -thick smoke, hinders, and too thin smoke does not produce, the -perfection of this blue colour. Hence a moderate amount of smoke -produces the finest blue. Water violently ejected in a fine spray -and in a dark chamber where the sun beams are admitted produces -these blue rays and the more vividly if it is distilled water, and -thin smoke looks blue. This I mention in order to show that the -blueness of the atmosphere is caused by the darkness beyond it, and -these instances are given for those who cannot confirm my experience -on Monboso. - -302. - -When the smoke from dry wood is seen between the eye of the -spectator and some dark space [or object], it will look blue. Thus -the sky looks blue by reason of the darkness beyond it. And if you -look towards the horizon of the sky, you will see the atmosphere is -not blue, and this is caused by its density. And thus at each -degree, as you raise your eyes above the horizon up to the sky over -your head, you will see the atmosphere look darker [blue] and this -is because a smaller density of air lies between your eye and the -[outer] darkness. And if you go to the top of a high mountain the -sky will look proportionately darker above you as the atmosphere -becomes rarer between you and the [outer] darkness; and this will be -more visible at each degree of increasing height till at last we -should find darkness. - -That smoke will look bluest which rises from the driest wood and -which is nearest to the fire and is seen against the darkest -background, and with the sunlight upon it. - -303. - -A dark object will appear bluest in proportion as it has a greater -mass of luminous atmosphere between it and the eye. As may be seen -in the colour of the sky. - -304. - -The atmosphere is blue by reason of the darkness above it because -black and white make blue. - -305. - -In the morning the mist is denser above than below, because the sun -draws it upwards; hence tall buildings, even if the summit is at the -same distance as the base have the summit invisible. Therefore, -also, the sky looks darkest [in colour] overhead, and towards the -horizon it is not blue but rather between smoke and dust colour. - -The atmosphere, when full of mist, is quite devoid of blueness, and -only appears of the colour of clouds, which shine white when the -weather is fine. And the more you turn to the west the darker it -will be, and the brighter as you look to the east. And the verdure -of the fields is bluish in a thin mist, but grows grey in a dense -one. - -The buildings in the west will only show their illuminated side, -where the sun shines, and the mist hides the rest. When the sun -rises and chases away the haze, the hills on the side where it lifts -begin to grow clearer, and look blue, and seem to smoke with the -vanishing mists; and the buildings reveal their lights and shadows; -through the thinner vapour they show only their lights and through -the thicker air nothing at all. This is when the movement of the -mist makes it part horizontally, and then the edges of the mist will -be indistinct against the blue of the sky, and towards the earth it -will look almost like dust blown up. In proportion as the atmosphere -is dense the buildings of a city and the trees in a landscape will -look fewer, because only the tallest and largest will be seen. - -Darkness affects every thing with its hue, and the more an object -differs from darkness, the more we see its real and natural colour. -The mountains will look few, because only those will be seen which -are farthest apart; since, at such a distance, the density increases -to such a degree that it causes a brightness by which the darkness -of the hills becomes divided and vanishes indeed towards the top. -There is less [mist] between lower and nearer hills and yet little -is to be distinguished, and least towards the bottom. - -306. - -The surface of an object partakes of the colour of the light which -illuminates it; and of the colour of the atmosphere which lies -between the eye and that object, that is of the colour of the -transparent medium lying between the object and the eye; and among -colours of a similar character the second will be of the same tone -as the first, and this is caused by the increased thickness of the -colour of the medium lying between the object and the eye. - -307. OF PAINTING. - -Of various colours which are none of them blue that which at a great -distance will look bluest is the nearest to black; and so, -conversely, the colour which is least like black will at a great -distance best preserve its own colour. - -Hence the green of fields will assume a bluer hue than yellow or -white will, and conversely yellow or white will change less than -green, and red still less. - -_VII._ - -_On the Proportions and on the Movements of the Human Figure._ - -_Leonardo's researches on the proportions and movements of the human -figure must have been for the most part completed and written before -the year_ 1498; _for LUCA PACIOLO writes, in the dedication to -Ludovico il Moro, of his book_ Divina Proportione, _which was -published in that year:_ "Leonardo da venci ... hauedo gia co tutta -diligetia al degno libro de pictura e movimenti humani posto fine". - -_The selection of Leonardo's axioms contained in the Vatican copy -attributes these words to the author:_ "e il resto si dira nella -universale misura del huomo". (_MANZI, p. 147; LUDWIG, No. 264_). -_LOMAZZO, again, in his_ Idea del Tempio della Pittura Milano 1590, -cap. IV, _says:_ "Lionardo Vinci ... dimostro anco in figura tutte -le proporzioni dei membri del corpo umano". - -_The Vatican copy includes but very few sections of the_ "Universale -misura del huomo" _and until now nothing has been made known of the -original MSS. on the subject which have supplied the very extensive -materials for this portion of the work. The collection at Windsor, -belonging to her Majesty the Queen, includes by far the most -important part of Leonardo's investigations on this subject, -constituting about half of the whole of the materials here -published; and the large number of original drawings adds greatly to -the interest which the subject itself must command. Luca Paciolo -would seem to have had these MSS. (which I have distinguished by the -initials W. P.) in his mind when he wrote the passage quoted above. -Still, certain notes of a later date--such as Nos. 360, 362 and 363, -from MS. E, written in 1513--14, sufficiently prove that Leonardo did -not consider his earlier studies on the Proportions and Movements of -the Human Figure final and complete, as we might suppose from Luca -Paciolo's statement. Or else he took the subject up again at a -subsequent period, since his former researches had been carried on -at Milan between 1490 and 1500. Indeed it is highly probable that -the anatomical studies which he was pursuing with so much zeal -between 1510--16 should have led him to reconsider the subject of -Proportion. - -Preliminary observations (308. 309). - -308. - -Every man, at three years old is half the full height he will grow -to at last. - -309. - -If a man 2 braccia high is too small, one of four is too tall, the -medium being what is admirable. Between 2 and 4 comes 3; therefore -take a man of 3 braccia in height and measure him by the rule I will -give you. If you tell me that I may be mistaken, and judge a man to -be well proportioned who does not conform to this division, I answer -that you must look at many men of 3 braccia, and out of the larger -number who are alike in their limbs choose one of those who are most -graceful and take your measurements. The length of the hand is 1/3 -of a braccio [8 inches] and this is found 9 times in man. And the -face [Footnote 7: The account here given of the _braccio_ is of -importance in understanding some of the succeeding chapters. _Testa_ -must here be understood to mean the face. The statements in this -section are illustrated in part on Pl. XI.] is the same, and from -the pit of the throat to the shoulder, and from the shoulder to the -nipple, and from one nipple to the other, and from each nipple to -the pit of the throat. - -Proportions of the head and face (310-318). - -310. - -The space between the parting of the lips [the mouth] and the base -of the nose is one-seventh of the face. - -The space from the mouth to the bottom of the chin _c d_ is the -fourth part of the face and equal to the width of the mouth. - -The space from the chin to the base of the nose _e f_ is the third -part of the face and equal to the length of the nose and to the -forehead. - -The distance from the middle of the nose to the bottom of the chin -_g h_, is half the length of the face. - -The distance from the top of the nose, where the eyebrows begin, to -the bottom of the chin, _i k_, is two thirds of the face. - -The space from the parting of the lips to the top of the chin _l m_, -that is where the chin ends and passes into the lower lip of the -mouth, is the third of the distance from the parting of the lips to -the bottom of the chin and is the twelfth part of the face. From the -top to the bottom of the chin _m n_ is the sixth part of the face -and is the fifty fourth part of a man's height. - -From the farthest projection of the chin to the throat _o p_ is -equal to the space between the mouth and the bottom of the chin, and -a fourth of the face. - -The distance from the top of the throat to the pit of the throat -below _q r_ is half the length of the face and the eighteenth part -of a man's height. - -From the chin to the back of the neck _s t_, is the same distance as -between the mouth and the roots of the hair, that is three quarters -of the head. - -From the chin to the jaw bone _v x_ is half the head and equal to -the thickness of the neck in profile. - -The thickness of the head from the brow to the nape is once and 3/4 -that of the neck. - -[Footnote: The drawings to this text, lines 1-10 are on Pl. VII, No. -I. The two upper sketches of heads, Pl. VII, No. 2, belong to lines -11-14, and in the original are placed immediately below the sketches -reproduced on Pl. VII, No. 1.] - -311. - -The distance from the attachment of one ear to the other is equal to -that from the meeting of the eyebrows to the chin, and in a fine -face the width of the mouth is equal to the length from the parting -of the lips to the bottom of the chin. - -312. - -The cut or depression below the lower lip of the mouth is half way -between the bottom of the nose and the bottom of the chin. - -The face forms a square in itself; that is its width is from the -outer corner of one eye to the other, and its height is from the -very top of the nose to the bottom of the lower lip of the mouth; -then what remains above and below this square amounts to the height -of such another square, _a_ _b_ is equal to the space between _c_ -_d_; _d_ _n_ in the same way to _n_ _c_, and likewise _s_ _r_, _q_ -_p_, _h_ _k_ are equal to each other. - -It is as far between _m_ and _s_ as from the bottom of the nose to -the chin. The ear is exactly as long as the nose. It is as far from -_x_ to _j_ as from the nose to the chin. The parting of the mouth -seen in profile slopes to the angle of the jaw. The ear should be as -high as from the bottom of the nose to the top of the eye-lid. The -space between the eyes is equal to the width of an eye. The ear is -over the middle of the neck, when seen in profile. The distance from -4 to 5 is equal to that from s_ to _r_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. I, where the text of lines 3-13 is also -given in facsimile.] - -313. - -(_a_ _b_) is equal to (_c_ _d_). - -[Footnote: See Pl. VII, No. 3. Reference may also be made here to -two pen and ink drawings of heads in profile with figured -measurements, of which there is no description in the MS. These are -given on Pl. XVII, No. 2.--A head, to the left, with part of the -torso [W. P. 5a], No. 1 on the same plate is from MS. A 2b and in -the original occurs on a page with wholly irrelevant text on matters -of natural history. M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A -has reproduced this head and discussed it fully [note on page 12]; -he has however somewhat altered the original measurements. The -complicated calculations which M. RAVAISSON has given appear to me -in no way justified. The sketch, as we see it, can hardly have been -intended for any thing more than an experimental attempt to -ascertain relative proportions. We do not find that Leonardo made -use of circular lines in any other study of the proportions of the -human head. At the same time we see that the proportions of this -sketch are not in accordance with the rules which he usually -observed (see for instance No. 310).] - -The head _a_ _f_ 1/6 larger than _n_ _f_. - -315. - -From the eyebrow to the junction of the lip with the chin, and the -angle of the jaw and the upper angle where the ear joins the temple -will be a perfect square. And each side by itself is half the head. - -The hollow of the cheek bone occurs half way between the tip of the -nose and the top of the jaw bone, which is the lower angle of the -setting on of the ear, in the frame here represented. - -From the angle of the eye-socket to the ear is as far as the length -of the ear, or the third of the face. - -[Footnote: See Pl. IX. The text, in the original is written behind -the head. The handwriting would seem to indicate a date earlier than -1480. On the same leaf there is a drawing in red chalk of two -horsemen of which only a portion of the upper figure is here -visible. The whole leaf measures 22 1/2 centimetres wide by 29 long, -and is numbered 127 in the top right-hand corner.] - -316. - -From _a_ to _b_--that is to say from the roots of the hair in front -to the top of the head--ought to be equal to _c_ _d_;--that is from -the bottom of the nose to the meeting of the lips in the middle of -the mouth. From the inner corner of the eye _m_ to the top of the -head _a_ is as far as from _m_ down to the chin _s_. _s_ _c_ _f_ _b_ -are all at equal distances from each other. - -[Footnote: The drawing in silver-point on bluish tinted paper--Pl. -X--which belongs to this chapter has been partly drawn over in ink -by Leonardo himself.] - -317. - -From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is 1/9, and from -the roots of the hair to the chin is 1/9 of the distance from the -roots of the hair to the ground. The greatest width of the face is -equal to the space between the mouth and the roots of the hair and -is 1/12 of the whole height. From the top of the ear to the top of -the head is equal to the distance from the bottom of the chin to the -lachrymatory duct of the eye; and also equal to the distance from -the angle of the chin to that of the jaw; that is the 1/16 of the -whole. The small cartilage which projects over the opening of the -ear towards the nose is half-way between the nape and the eyebrow; -the thickness of the neck in profile is equal to the space between -the chin and the eyes, and to the space between the chin and the -jaw, and it is 1/18 of the height of the man. - -318. - -_a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_, _i k_ are equal to each other in size -excepting that _d f_ is accidental. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XI.] - -Proportions of the head seen in front (319-321). - -319. - -_a n o f_ are equal to the mouth. - -_a c_ and _a f_ are equal to the space between one eye and the -other. - -_n m o f q r_ are equal to half the width of the eye lids, that is -from the inner [lachrymatory] corner of the eye to its outer corner; -and in like manner the division between the chin and the mouth; and -in the same way the narrowest part of the nose between the eyes. And -these spaces, each in itself, is the 19th part of the head, _n o_ is -equal to the length of the eye or of the space between the eyes. - -_m c_ is 1/3 of _n m_ measuring from the outer corner of the eyelids -to the letter _c_. _b s_ will be equal to the width of the nostril. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XII.] - -320. - -The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes is 1/3 of -the face. The space between the outer corners of the eyes, that is -where the eye ends in the eye socket which contains it, thus the -outer corners, is half the face. - -The greatest width of the face at the line of the eyes is equal to -the distance from the roots of the hair in front to the parting of -the lips. - -[Footnote: There are, with this section, two sketches of eyes, not -reproduced here.] - -321. - -The nose will make a double square; that is the width of the nose at -the nostrils goes twice into the length from the tip of the nose to -the eyebrows. And, in the same way, in profile the distance from the -extreme side of the nostril where it joins the cheek to the tip of -the nose is equal to the width of the nose in front from one nostril -to the other. If you divide the whole length of the nose--that is -from the tip to the insertion of the eyebrows, into 4 equal parts, -you will find that one of these parts extends from the tip of the -nostrils to the base of the nose, and the upper division lies -between the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the -eyebrows; and the two middle parts [together] are equal to the -length of the eye from the inner to the outer corner. - -[Footnote: The two bottom sketches on Pl. VII, No. 4 face the six -lines of this section,--With regard to the proportions of the head -in profile see No. 312.] - -322. - -The great toe is the sixth part of the foot, taking the measure in -profile, on the inside of the foot, from where this toe springs from -the ball of the sole of the foot to its tip _a b_; and it is equal -to the distance from the mouth to the bottom of the chin. If you -draw the foot in profile from the outside, make the little toe begin -at three quarters of the length of the foot, and you will find the -same distance from the insertion of this toe as to the farthest -prominence of the great toe. - -323. - -For each man respectively the distance between _a b_ is equal to _c -d_. - -324. - -Relative proportion of the hand and foot. - -The foot is as much longer than the hand as the thickness of the arm -at the wrist where it is thinnest seen facing. - -Again, you will find that the foot is as much longer than the hand -as the space between the inner angle of the little toe to the last -projection of the big toe, if you measure along the length of the -foot. - -The palm of the hand without the fingers goes twice into the length -of the foot without the toes. - -If you hold your hand with the fingers straight out and close -together you will find it to be of the same width as the widest part -of the foot, that is where it is joined onto the toes. - -And if you measure from the prominence of the inner ancle to the end -of the great toe you will find this measure to be as long as the -whole hand. - -From the top angle of the foot to the insertion of the toes is equal -to the hand from wrist joint to the tip of the thumb. - -The smallest width of the hand is equal to the smallest width of the -foot between its joint into the leg and the insertion of the toes. - -The width of the heel at the lower part is equal to that of the arm -where it joins the hand; and also to the leg where it is thinnest -when viewed in front. - -The length of the longest toe, from its first division from the -great toe to its tip is the fourth of the foot from the centre of -the ancle bone to the tip, and it is equal to the width of the -mouth. The distance between the mouth and the chin is equal to that -of the knuckles and of the three middle fingers and to the length of -their first joints if the hand is spread, and equal to the distance -from the joint of the thumb to the outset of the nails, that is the -fourth part of the hand and of the face. - -The space between the extreme poles inside and outside the foot -called the ancle or ancle bone _a b_ is equal to the space between -the mouth and the inner corner of the eye. - -325. - -The foot, from where it is attached to the leg, to the tip of the -great toe is as long as the space between the upper part of the chin -and the roots of the hair _a b_; and equal to five sixths of the -face. - -326. - -_a d_ is a head's length, _c b_ is a head's length. The four smaller -toes are all equally thick from the nail at the top to the bottom, -and are 1/13 of the foot. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XIV, No. 1, a drawing of a foot with the text in -three lines below it.] - -327. - -The whole length of the foot will lie between the elbow and the -wrist and between the elbow and the inner angle of the arm towards -the breast when the arm is folded. The foot is as long as the whole -head of a man, that is from under the chin to the topmost part of -the head[Footnote 2: _nel modo che qui i figurato_. See Pl. VII, No. -4, the upper figure. The text breaks off at the end of line 2 and -the text given under No. 321 follows below. It may be here remarked -that the second sketch on W. P. 311 has in the original no -explanatory text.] in the way here figured. - -Proportions of the leg (328-331). - -328. - -The greatest thickness of the calf of the leg is at a third of its -height _a b_, and is a twentieth part thicker than the greatest -thickness of the foot. - -_a c_ is half of the head, and equal to _d b_ and to the insertion -of the five toes _e f_. _d k_ diminishes one sixth in the leg _g h_. -_g h_ is 1/3 of the head; _m n_ increases one sixth from _a e_ and -is 7/12 of the head, _o p_ is 1/10 less than _d k_ and is 6/17 of -the head. _a_ is at half the distance between _b q_, and is 1/4 of -the man. _r_ is half way between _s_ and _b_[Footnote 11: _b_ is -here and later on measured on the right side of the foot as seen by -the spectator.]. The concavity of the knee outside _r_ is higher -than that inside _a_. The half of the whole height of the leg from -the foot _r_, is half way between the prominence _s_ and the ground -_b_. _v_ is half way between _t_ and _b_. The thickness of the thigh -seen in front is equal to the greatest width of the face, that is -2/3 of the length from the chin to the top of the head; _z r_ is 5/6 -of 7 to _v_; _m n_ is equal to 7 _v_ and is 1/4 of _r b_, _x y_ goes -3 times into _r b_, and into _r s_. - -[Footnote 22-35: The sketch illustrating these lines is on Pl. XIII, -No. 2.] - -[Footnote 22: a b _entra in_ c f 6 _e_ 6 _in_ c n. Accurate -measurement however obliges us to read 7 for 6.] _a b_ goes six -times into _c f_ and six times into _c n_ and is equal to _g h_; _i -k l m_ goes 4 times into _d f_, and 4 times into _d n_ and is 3/7 of -the foot; _p q r s_ goes 3 times into _d f, and 3 times into _b n_; -[Footnote: 25. _y_ is not to be found on the diagram and _x_ occurs -twice; this makes the passage very obscure.] _x y_ is 1/8 of _x f_ -and is equal to _n q_. 3 7 is 1/9 of _n f_; 4 5 is 1/10 of _n f_ -[Footnote: 22-27. Compare with this lines 18-24 of No. 331, and the -sketch of a leg in profile Pl. XV.]. - -I want to know how much a man increases in height by standing on -tip-toe and how much _p g_ diminishes by stooping; and how much it -increases at _n q_ likewise in bending the foot. - -[Footnote 34: _e f_ 4 _dal cazo_. By reading _i_ for _e_ the sense -of this passage is made clear.] _e f_ is four times in the distance -between the genitals and the sole of the foot; [Footnote 35: 2 is -not to be found in the sketch which renders the passage obscure. The -two last lines are plainly legible in the facsimile.] 3 7 is six -times from 3 to 2 and is equal to _g h_ and _i k_. - -[Footnote: The drawing of a leg seen in front Pl. XIII, No. 1 -belongs to the text from lines 3-21. The measurements in this -section should be compared with the text No. 331, lines 1-13, and -the sketch of a leg seen in front on Pl. XV.] - -329. - -The length of the foot from the end of the toes to the heel goes -twice into that from the heel to the knee, that is where the leg -bone [fibula] joins the thigh bone [femur]. - -330. - -_a n b_ are equal; _c n d_ are equal; _n c_ makes two feet; _n d_ -makes 2 feet. - -[Footnote: See the lower sketch, Pl. XIV, No. 1.] - -331. - -_m n o_ are equal. The narrowest width of the leg seen in front goes -8 times from the sole of the foot to the joint of the knee, and is -the same width as the arm, seen in front at the wrist, and as the -longest measure of the ear, and as the three chief divisions into -which we divide the face; and this measurement goes 4 times from the -wrist joint of the hand to the point of the elbow. [14] The foot is -as long as the space from the knee between _a_ and _b_; and the -patella of the knee is as long as the leg between _r_ and _s_. - -[18] The least thickness of the leg in profile goes 6 times from the -sole of the foot to the knee joint and is the same width as the -space between the outer corner of the eye and the opening of the -ear, and as the thickest part of the arm seen in profile and between -the inner corner of the eye and the insertion of the hair. - -_a b c_ [_d_] are all relatively of equal length, _c d_ goes twice -from the sole of the foot to the centre of the knee and the same -from the knee to the hip. - -[28]_a b c_ are equal; _a_ to _b_ is 2 feet--that is to say -measuring from the heel to the tip of the great toe. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XV. The text of lines 2-17 is to the left of the -front view of the leg, to which it refers. Lines 18-27 are in the -middle column and refer to the leg seen in profile and turned to the -left, on the right hand side of the writing. Lines 20-30 are above, -to the left and apply to the sketch below them. - -Some farther remarks on the proportion of the leg will be found in -No. 336, lines 6, 7.] - -On the central point of the whole body. - -332. - -In kneeling down a man will lose the fourth part of his height. - -When a man kneels down with his hands folded on his breast the navel -will mark half his height and likewise the points of the elbows. - -Half the height of a man who sits--that is from the seat to the top -of the head--will be where the arms fold below the breast, and -below the shoulders. The seated portion--that is from the seat to -the top of the head--will be more than half the man's [whole height] -by the length of the scrotum. - -[Footnote: See Pl. VIII, No. 2.] - -The relative proportions of the torso and of the whole figure. - -333. - -The cubit is one fourth of the height of a man and is equal to the -greatest width of the shoulders. From the joint of one shoulder to -the other is two faces and is equal to the distance from the top of -the breast to the navel. [Footnote 9: _dalla detta somita_. It would -seem more accurate to read here _dal detto ombilico_.] From this -point to the genitals is a face's length. - -[Footnote: Compare with this the sketches on the other page of the -same leaf. Pl. VIII, No. 2.] - -The relative proportions of the head and of the torso. - -334. - -From the roots of the hair to the top of the breast _a b_ is the -sixth part of the height of a man and this measure is equal. - -From the outside part of one shoulder to the other is the same -distance as from the top of the breast to the navel and this measure -goes four times from the sole of the foot to the lower end of the -nose. - -The [thickness of] the arm where it springs from the shoulder in -front goes 6 times into the space between the two outside edges of -the shoulders and 3 times into the face, and four times into the -length of the foot and three into the hand, inside or outside. - -[Footnote: The three sketches Pl. XIV, No. 2 belong to this text.] - -The relative proportions of the torso and of the leg (335. 336). - -335. - -_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the space from the armpit of -the shoulder to the genitals and to the distance from the tip of the -fingers of the hand to the joint of the arm, and to the half of the -breast; and you must know that _c b_ is the third part of the height -of a man from the shoulders to the ground; _d e f_ are equal to each -other and equal to the greatest width of the shoulders. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 1.] - -336. - ---Top of the chin--hip--the insertion of the middle finger. The end -of the calf of the leg on the inside of the thigh.--The end of the -swelling of the shin bone of the leg. [6] The smallest thickness of -the leg goes 3 times into the thigh seen in front. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XVII, No. 2, middle sketch.] - -The relative proportions of the torso and of the foot. - -337. - -The torso _a b_ in its thinnest part measures a foot; and from _a_ -to _b_ is 2 feet, which makes two squares to the seat--its thinnest -part goes 3 times into the length, thus making 3 squares. - -[Footnote: See Pl, VII, No. 2, the lower sketch.] - -The proportions of the whole figure (338-341). - -338. - -A man when he lies down is reduced to 1/9 of his height. - -339. - -The opening of the ear, the joint of the shoulder, that of the hip -and the ancle are in perpendicular lines; _a n_ is equal to _m o_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XVI, No. 2, the upper sketch.] - -340. - -From the chin to the roots of the hair is 1/10 of the whole figure. -From the joint of the palm of the hand to the tip of the longest -finger is 1/10. From the chin to the top of the head 1/8; and from -the pit of the stomach to the top of the breast is 1/6, and from the -pit below the breast bone to the top of the head 1/4. From the chin -to the nostrils 1/3 Part of the face, the same from the nostrils to -the brow and from the brow to the roots of the hair, and the foot is -1/6, the elbow 1/4, the width of the shoulders 1/4. - -341. - -The width of the shoulders is 1/4 of the whole. From the joint of -the shoulder to the hand is 1/3, from the parting of the lips to -below the shoulder-blade is one foot. - -The greatest thickness of a man from the breast to the spine is one -8th of his height and is equal to the space between the bottom of -the chin and the top of the head. - -The greatest width is at the shoulders and goes 4. - -The torso from the front and back. - -342. - -The width of a man under the arms is the same as at the hips. - -A man's width across the hips is equal to the distance from the top -of the hip to the bottom of the buttock, when a man stands equally -balanced on both feet; and there is the same distance from the top -of the hip to the armpit. The waist, or narrower part above the hips -will be half way between the arm pits and the bottom of the buttock. - -[Footnote: The lower sketch Pl. XVI, No. 2, is drawn by the side of -line 1.] - -Vitruvius' scheme of proportions. - -343. - -Vitruvius, the architect, says in his work on architecture that the -measurements of the human body are distributed by Nature as follows: -that is that 4 fingers make 1 palm, and 4 palms make 1 foot, 6 palms -make 1 cubit; 4 cubits make a man's height. And 4 cubits make one -pace and 24 palms make a man; and these measures he used in his -buildings. If you open your legs so much as to decrease your height -1/14 and spread and raise your arms till your middle fingers touch -the level of the top of your head you must know that the centre of -the outspread limbs will be in the navel and the space between the -legs will be an equilateral triangle. - -The length of a man's outspread arms is equal to his height. - -From the roots of the hair to the bottom of the chin is the tenth of -a man's height; from the bottom of the chin to the top of his head -is one eighth of his height; from the top of the breast to the top -of his head will be one sixth of a man. From the top of the breast -to the roots of the hair will be the seventh part of the whole man. -From the nipples to the top of the head will be the fourth part of a -man. The greatest width of the shoulders contains in itself the -fourth part of the man. From the elbow to the tip of the hand will -be the fifth part of a man; and from the elbow to the angle of the -armpit will be the eighth part of the man. The whole hand will be -the tenth part of the man; the beginning of the genitals marks the -middle of the man. The foot is the seventh part of the man. From the -sole of the foot to below the knee will be the fourth part of the -man. From below the knee to the beginning of the genitals will be -the fourth part of the man. The distance from the bottom of the chin -to the nose and from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows is, in -each case the same, and like the ear, a third of the face. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XVIII. The original leaf is 21 centimetres wide -and 33 1/2 long. At the ends of the scale below the figure are -written the words _diti_ (fingers) and _palmi_ (palms). The passage -quoted from Vitruvius is Book III, Cap. 1, and Leonardo's drawing is -given in the editions of Vitruvius by FRA GIOCONDO (Venezia 1511, -fol., Firenze 1513, 8vo.) and by CESARIANO (Como 1521).] - -The arm and head. - -344. - -From _b_ to _a_ is one head, as well as from _c_ to _a_ and this -happens when the elbow forms a right angle. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XLI, No. 1.] - -Proportions of the arm (345-349). - -345. - -From the tip of the longest finger of the hand to the shoulder joint -is four hands or, if you will, four faces. - -_a b c_ are equal and each interval is 2 heads. - -[Footnote: Lines 1-3 are given on Pl. XV below the front view of the -leg; lines 4 and 5 are below again, on the left side. The lettering -refers to the bent arm near the text.] - -346. - -The hand from the longest finger to the wrist joint goes 4 times -from the tip of the longest finger to the shoulder joint. - -347. - -_a b c_ are equal to each other and to the foot and to the space -between the nipple and the navel _d e_ will be the third part of the -whole man. - -_f g_ is the fourth part of a man and is equal to _g h_ and measures -a cubit. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 1. 1. _mamolino_ (=_bambino_, little -child) may mean here the navel.] - -348. - -_a b_ goes 4 times into _a c_ and 9 into _a m_. The greatest -thickness of the arm between the elbow and the hand goes 6 times -into _a m_ and is equal to _r f_. The greatest thickness of the arm -between the shoulder and the elbow goes 4 times into _c m_, and is -equal to _h n g_. The smallest thickness of the arm above the elbow -_x y_ is not the base of a square, but is equal to half the space -_h_ 3 which is found between the inner joint of the arm and the -wrist joint. - -[11]The width of the wrist goes 12 times into the whole arm; that is -from the tip of the fingers to the shoulder joint; that is 3 times -into the hand and 9 into the arm. - -The arm when bent is 4 heads. - -The arm from the shoulder to the elbow in bending increases in -length, that is in the length from the shoulder to the elbow, and -this increase is equal to the thickness of the arm at the wrist when -seen in profile. And the space between the bottom of the chin and -the parting of the lips, is equal to the thickness of the 2 middle -fingers, and to the width of the mouth and to the space between the -roots of the hair on the forehead and the top of the head [Footnote: -_Queste cose_. This passage seems to have been written on purpose to -rectify the foregoing lines. The error is explained by the -accompanying sketch of the bones of the arm.]. All these distances -are equal to each other, but they are not equal to the -above-mentioned increase in the arm. - -The arm between the elbow and wrist never increases by being bent or -extended. - -The arm, from the shoulder to the inner joint when extended. - -When the arm is extended, _p n_ is equal to _n a_. And when it is -bent _n a_ diminishes 1/6 of its length and _p n_ does the same. The -outer elbow joint increases 1/7 when bent; and thus by being bent it -increases to the length of 2 heads. And on the inner side, by -bending, it is found that whereas the arm from where it joins the -side to the wrist, was 2 heads and a half, in bending it loses the -half head and measures only two: one from the [shoulder] joint to -the end [by the elbow], and the other to the hand. - -The arm when folded will measure 2 faces up to the shoulder from the -elbow and 2 from the elbow to the insertion of the four fingers on -the palm of the hand. The length from the base of the fingers to the -elbow never alters in any position of the arm. - -If the arm is extended it decreases by 1/3 of the length between _b_ -and _h_; and if--being extended--it is bent, it will increase the -half of _o e_. [Footnote 59-61: The figure sketched in the margin is -however drawn to different proportions.] The length from the -shoulder to the elbow is the same as from the base of the thumb, -inside, to the elbow _a b c_. - -[Footnote 62-64: The arm sketch on the margin of the MS. is -identically the same as that given below on Pl. XX which may -therefore be referred to in this place. In line 62 we read therefore -_z c_ for _m n_.] The smallest thickness of the arm in profile _z c_ -goes 6 times between the knuckles of the hand and the dimple of the -elbow when extended and 14 times in the whole arm and 42 in the -whole man [64]. The greatest thickness of the arm in profile is -equal to the greatest thickness of the arm in front; but the first -is placed at a third of the arm from the shoulder joint to the elbow -and the other at a third from the elbow towards the hand. - -[Footnote: Compare Pl. XVII. Lines 1-10 and 11-15 are written in two -columns below the extended arm, and at the tips of the fingers we -find the words: _fine d'unghie_ (ends of the nails). Part of the -text--lines 22 to 25--is visible by the side of the sketches on Pl. -XXXV, No. 1.] - -349. - -From the top of the shoulder to the point of the elbow is as far as -from that point to the joints of the four fingers with the palm of -the hand, and each is 2 faces. - -[5]_a e_ is equal to the palm of the hand, _r f_ and _o g_ are equal -to half a head and each goes 4 times into _a b_ and _b c_. From _c_ -to _m_ is 1/2 a head; _m n_ is 1/3 of a head and goes 6 times into -_c b_ and into _b a_; _a b_ loses 1/7 of its length when the arm is -extended; _c b_ never alters; _o_ will always be the middle point -between _a_ and _s_. - -_y l_ is the fleshy part of the arm and measures one head; and when -the arm is bent this shrinks 2/5 of its length; _o a_ in bending -loses 1/6 and so does _o r_. - -_a b_ is 1/7 of _r c_. _f s_ will be 1/8 of _r c_, and each of those -2 measurements is the largest of the arm; _k h_ is the thinnest part -between the shoulder and the elbow and it is 1/8 of the whole arm _r -c_; _o p_ is 1/5 of _r l_; _c z_ goes 13 times into _r c_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XX where the text is also seen from lines 5-23.] - -The movement of the arm (350-354). - -350. - -In the innermost bend of the joints of every limb the reliefs are -converted into a hollow, and likewise every hollow of the innermost -bends becomes a convexity when the limb is straightened to the -utmost. And in this very great mistakes are often made by those who -have insufficient knowledge and trust to their own invention and do -not have recourse to the imitation of nature; and these variations -occur more in the middle of the sides than in front, and more at the -back than at the sides. - -351. - -When the arm is bent at an angle at the elbow, it will produce some -angle; the more acute the angle is, the more will the muscles within -the bend be shortened; while the muscles outside will become of -greater length than before. As is shown in the example; _d c e_ will -shrink considerably; and _b n_ will be much extended. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XIX, No. 2.] - -352. - -OF PAINTING. - -The arm, as it turns, thrusts back its shoulder towards the middle -of the back. - -353. - -The principal movements of the hand are 10; that is forwards, -backwards, to right and to left, in a circular motion, up or down, -to close and to open, and to spread the fingers or to press them -together. - -354. - -OF THE MOTIONS OF THE FINGERS. - -The movements of the fingers principally consist in extending and -bending them. This extension and bending vary in manner; that is, -sometimes they bend altogether at the first joint; sometimes they -bend, or extend, half way, at the 2nd joint; and sometimes they bend -in their whole length and in all the three joints at once. If the 2 -first joints are hindered from bending, then the 3rd joint can be -bent with greater ease than before; it can never bend of itself, if -the other joints are free, unless all three joints are bent. Besides -all these movements there are 4 other principal motions of which 2 -are up and down, the two others from side to side; and each of these -is effected by a single tendon. From these there follow an infinite -number of other movements always effected by two tendons; one tendon -ceasing to act, the other takes up the movement. The tendons are -made thick inside the fingers and thin outside; and the tendons -inside are attached to every joint but outside they are not. - -[Footnote 26: This head line has, in the original, no text to -follow.] Of the strength [and effect] of the 3 tendons inside the -fingers at the 3 joints. - -The movement of the torso (355-361). - -355. - -Observe the altered position of the shoulder in all the movements of -the arm, going up and down, inwards and outwards, to the back and to -the front, and also in circular movements and any others. - -And do the same with reference to the neck, hands and feet and the -breast above the lips &c. - -356. - -Three are the principal muscles of the shoulder, that is _b c d_, -and two are the lateral muscles which move it forward and backward, -that is _a o_; _a_ moves it forward, and _o_ pulls it back; and bed -raises it; _a b c_ moves it upwards and forwards, and _c d o_ -upwards and backwards. Its own weight almost suffices to move it -downwards. - -The muscle _d_ acts with the muscle _c_ when the arm moves forward; -and in moving backward the muscle _b_ acts with the muscle _c_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXI. In the original the lettering has been -written in ink upon the red chalk drawing and the outlines of the -figures have in most places been inked over.] - -357. - -OF THE LOINS, WHEN BENT. - -The loins or backbone being bent. The breasts are are always lower -than the shoulderblades of the back. - -If the breast bone is arched the breasts are higher than the -shoulderblades. - -If the loins are upright the breast will always be found at the same -level as the shoulderblades. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 1.] - -358. - -_a b_ the tendon and ankle in raising the heel approach each other -by a finger's breadth; in lowering it they separate by a finger's -breadth. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 2. Compare this facsimile and text with -Pl. III, No. 2, and p. 152 of MANZI'S edition. Also with No. 274 of -LUDWIG'S edition of the Vatican Copy.] - -359. - -Just so much as the part _d a_ of the nude figure decreases in this -position so much does the opposite part increase; that is: in -proportion as the length of the part _d a_ diminishes the normal -size so does the opposite upper part increase beyond its [normal] -size. The navel does not change its position to the male organ; and -this shrinking arises because when a figure stands on one foot, that -foot becomes the centre [of gravity] of the superimposed weight. -This being so, the middle between the shoulders is thrust above it -out of it perpendicular line, and this line, which forms the central -line of the external parts of the body, becomes bent at its upper -extremity [so as to be] above the foot which supports the body; and -the transverse lines are forced into such angles that their ends are -lower on the side which is supported. As is shown at _a b c_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 3.] - -360. - -OF PAINTING. - -Note in the motions and attitudes of figures how the limbs vary, and -their feeling, for the shoulderblades in the motions of the arms and -shoulders vary the [line of the] back bone very much. And you will -find all the causes of this in my book of Anatomy. - -361. - -OF [CHANGE OF] ATTITUDE. - -The pit of the throat is over the feet, and by throwing one arm -forward the pit of the throat is thrown off that foot. And if the -leg is thrown forward the pit of the throat is thrown forward; and. -so it varies in every attitude. - -362. - -OF PAINTING. - -Indicate which are the muscles, and which the tendons, which become -prominent or retreat in the different movements of each limb; or -which do neither [but are passive]. And remember that these -indications of action are of the first importance and necessity in -any painter or sculptor who professes to be a master &c. - -And indicate the same in a child, and from birth to decrepitude at -every stage of its life; as infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth &c. - -And in each express the alterations in the limbs and joints, which -swell and which grow thinner. - -363. - -O Anatomical Painter! beware lest the too strong indication of the -bones, sinews and muscles, be the cause of your becoming wooden in -your painting by your wish to make your nude figures display all -their feeling. Therefore, in endeavouring to remedy this, look in -what manner the muscles clothe or cover their bones in old or lean -persons; and besides this, observe the rule as to how these same -muscles fill up the spaces of the surface that extend between them, -which are the muscles which never lose their prominence in any -amount of fatness; and which too are the muscles of which the -attachments are lost to sight in the very least plumpness. And in -many cases several muscles look like one single muscle in the -increase of fat; and in many cases, in growing lean or old, one -single muscle divides into several muscles. And in this treatise, -each in its place, all their peculiarities will be explained--and -particularly as to the spaces between the joints of each limb &c. -Again, do not fail [to observe] the variations in the forms of the -above mentioned muscles, round and about the joints of the limbs of -any animal, as caused by the diversity of the motions of each limb; -for on some side of those joints the prominence of these muscles is -wholly lost in the increase or diminution of the flesh of which -these muscles are composed, &c. - -[Footnote: DE ROSSI remarks on this chapter, in the Roman edition of -the Trattato, p. 504: "_Non in questo luogo solo, ma in altri ancora -osserver� il lettore, che Lionardo va fungendo quelli che fanno -abuso della loro dottrina anatomica, e sicuramente con ci� ha in -mira il suo rivale Bonarroti, che di anatomia facea tanta pompa_." -Note, that Leonardo wrote this passage in Rome, probably under the -immediate impression of MICHAELANGELO'S paintings in the Sistine -Chapel and of RAPHAEL'S Isaiah in Sant' Agostino.] - -364. - -OF THE DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS OF BOYS AND MEN. - -There is a great difference in the length between the joints in men -and boys for, in man, from the top of the shoulder [by the neck] to -the elbow, and from the elbow to the tip of the thumb and from one -shoulder to the other, is in each instance two heads, while in a boy -it is but one because Nature constructs in us the mass which is the -home of the intellect, before forming that which contains the vital -elements. - -365. - -OF PAINTING. - -Which are the muscles which subdivide in old age or in youth, when -becoming lean? Which are the parts of the limbs of the human frame -where no amount of fat makes the flesh thicker, nor any degree of -leanness ever diminishes it? - -The thing sought for in this question will be found in all the -external joints of the bones, as the shoulder, elbow, wrists, -finger-joints, hips, knees, ankle-bone and toes and the like; all of -which shall be told in its place. The greatest thickness acquired by -any limb is at the part of the muscles which is farthest from its -attachments. - -Flesh never increases on those portions of the limb where the bones -are near to the surface. - -At _b r d a c e f_ the increase or diminution of the flesh never -makes any considerable difference. Nature has placed in front of man -all those parts which feel most pain under a blow; and these are the -shin of the leg, the forehead, and the nose. And this was done for -the preservation of man, since, if such pain were not felt in these -parts, the number of blows to which they would be exposed must be -the cause of their destruction. - -Describe why the bones of the arm and leg are double near the hand -and foot [respectively]. - -And where the flesh is thicker or thinner in the bending of the -limbs. - -366. - -OF PAINTING. - -Every part of the whole must be in proportion to the whole. Thus, if -a man is of a stout short figure he will be the same in all his -parts: that is with short and thick arms, wide thick hands, with -short fingers with their joints of the same character, and so on -with the rest. I would have the same thing understood as applying to -all animals and plants; in diminishing, [the various parts] do so in -due proportion to the size, as also in enlarging. - -367. - -OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE PROPORTION OF THE LIMBS. - -And again, remember to be very careful in giving your figures limbs, -that they must appear to agree with the size of the body and -likewise to the age. Thus a youth has limbs that are not very -muscular not strongly veined, and the surface is delicate and round, -and tender in colour. In man the limbs are sinewy and muscular, -while in old men the surface is wrinkled, rugged and knotty, and the -sinews very prominent. - -HOW YOUNG BOYS HAVE THEIR JOINTS JUST THE REVERSE OF THOSE OF MEN, -AS TO SIZE. - -Little children have all the joints slender and the portions between -them are thick; and this happens because nothing but the skin covers -the joints without any other flesh and has the character of sinew, -connecting the bones like a ligature. And the fat fleshiness is laid -on between one joint and the next, and between the skin and the -bones. But, since the bones are thicker at the joints than between -them, as a mass grows up the flesh ceases to have that superfluity -which it had, between the skin and the bones; whence the skin clings -more closely to the bone and the limbs grow more slender. But since -there is nothing over the joints but the cartilaginous and sinewy -skin this cannot dry up, and, not drying up, cannot shrink. Thus, -and for this reason, children are slender at the joints and fat -between the joints; as may be seen in the joints of the fingers, -arms, and shoulders, which are slender and dimpled, while in man on -the contrary all the joints of the fingers, arms, and legs are -thick; and wherever children have hollows men have prominences. - -The movement of the human figure (368-375). - -368. - -Of the manner of representing the 18 actions of man. Repose, -movement, running, standing, supported, sitting, leaning, kneeling, -lying down, suspended. Carrying or being carried, thrusting, -pulling, striking, being struck, pressing down and lifting up. - -[As to how a figure should stand with a weight in its hand [Footnote -8: The original text ends here.] Remember]. - -369. - -A sitting man cannot raise himself if that part of his body which is -front of his axis [centre of gravity] does not weigh more than that -which is behind that axis [or centre] without using his arms. - -A man who is mounting any slope finds that he must involuntarily -throw the most weight forward, on the higher foot, rather than -behind--that is in front of the axis and not behind it. Hence a man -will always, involuntarily, throw the greater weight towards the -point whither he desires to move than in any other direction. - -The faster a man runs, the more he leans forward towards the point -he runs to and throws more weight in front of his axis than behind. -A man who runs down hill throws the axis onto his heels, and one who -runs up hill throws it into the points of his feet; and a man -running on level ground throws it first on his heels and then on the -points of his feet. - -This man cannot carry his own weight unless, by drawing his body -back he balances the weight in front, in such a way as that the foot -on which he stands is the centre of gravity. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXII, No. 4.] - -370. - -How a man proceeds to raise himself to his feet, when he is sitting -on level ground. - -371. - -A man when walking has his head in advance of his feet. - -A man when walking across a long level plain first leans [rather] -backwards and then as much forwards. - -[Footnote 3-6: He strides forward with the air of a man going down -hill; when weary, on the contrary he walks like a man going up -hill.] - -372. - -A man when running throws less weight on his legs than when standing -still. And in the same way a horse which is running feels less the -weight of the man he carries. Hence many persons think it wonderful -that, in running, the horse can rest on one single foot. From this -it may be stated that when a weight is in progressive motion the -more rapid it is the less is the perpendicular weight towards the -centre. - -373. - -If a man, in taking a jump from firm ground, can leap 3 braccia, and -when he was taking his leap it were to recede 1/3 of a braccio, that -would be taken off his former leap; and so if it were thrust forward -1/3 of a braccio, by how much would his leap be increased? - -374. - -OF DRAWING. - -When a man who is running wants to neutralise the impetus that -carries him on he prepares a contrary impetus which is generated by -his hanging backwards. This can be proved, since, if the impetus -carries a moving body with a momentum equal to 4 and the moving body -wants to turn and fall back with a momentum of 4, then one momentum -neutralises the other contrary one, and the impetus is neutralised. - -Of walking up and down (375-379) - -375. - -When a man wants to stop running and check the impetus he is forced -to hang back and take short quick steps. [Footnote: Lines 5-31 refer -to the two upper figures, and the lower figure to the right is -explained by the last part of the chapter.] The centre of gravity of -a man who lifts one of his feet from the ground always rests on the -centre of the sole of the foot [he stands on]. - -A man, in going up stairs involuntarily throws so much weight -forward and on the side of the upper foot as to be a counterpoise to -the lower leg, so that the labour of this lower leg is limited to -moving itself. - -The first thing a man does in mounting steps is to relieve the leg -he is about to lift of the weight of the body which was resting on -that leg; and besides this, he gives to the opposite leg all the -rest of the bulk of the whole man, including [the weight of] the -other leg; he then raises the other leg and sets the foot upon the -step to which he wishes to raise himself. Having done this he -restores to the upper foot all the weight of the body and of the leg -itself, and places his hand on his thigh and throws his head forward -and repeats the movement towards the point of the upper foot, -quickly lifting the heel of the lower one; and with this impetus he -lifts himself up and at the same time extends the arm which rested -on his knee; and this extension of the arm carries up the body and -the head, and so straightens the spine which was curved. - -[32] The higher the step is which a man has to mount, the farther -forward will he place his head in advance of his upper foot, so as -to weigh more on _a_ than on _b_; this man will not be on the step -_m_. As is shown by the line _g f_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 1. The lower sketch to the left -belongs to the four first lines.] - -376. - -I ask the weight [pressure] of this man at every degree of motion on -these steps, what weight he gives to _b_ and to _c_. - -[Footnote 8: These lines are, in the original, written in ink] -Observe the perpendicular line below the centre of gravity of the -man. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 2.] - -377. - -In going up stairs if you place your hands on your knees all the -labour taken by the arms is removed from the sinews at the back of -the knees. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 3.] - -378. - -The sinew which guides the leg, and which is connected with the -patella of the knee, feels it a greater labour to carry the man -upwards, in proportion as the leg is more bent; and the muscle which -acts upon the angle made by the thigh where it joins the body has -less difficulty and has a less weight to lift, because it has not -the [additional] weight of the thigh itself. And besides this it has -stronger muscles, being those which form the buttock. - -379. - -A man coming down hill takes little steps, because the weight rests -upon the hinder foot, while a man mounting takes wide steps, because -his weight rests on the foremost foot. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXIII, No. 4.] - -On the human body in action (380-388). - -380. - -OF THE HUMAN BODY IN ACTION. - -When you want to represent a man as moving some weight consider what -the movements are that are to be represented by different lines; -that is to say either from below upwards, with a simple movement, as -a man does who stoops forward to take up a weight which he will lift -as he straightens himself. Or as a man does who wants to squash -something backwards, or to force it forwards or to pull it downwards -with ropes passed through pullies [Footnote 10: Compare the sketch -on page 198 and on 201 (S. K. M. II.1 86b).]. And here remember that -the weight of a man pulls in proportion as his centre of gravity is -distant from his fulcrum, and to this is added the force given by -his legs and bent back as he raises himself. - -381. - -Again, a man has even a greater store of strength in his legs than -he needs for his own weight; and to see if this is true, make a man -stand on the shore-sand and then put another man on his back, and -you will see how much he will sink in. Then take the man from off -his back and make him jump straight up as high as he can, and you -will find that the print of his feet will be made deeper by the jump -than from having the man on his back. Hence, here, by 2 methods it -is proved that a man has double the strength he requires to support -his own body. - -382. - -OF PAINTING. - -If you have to draw a man who is in motion, or lifting or pulling, -or carrying a weight equal to his own, in what way must you set on -his legs below his body? - -[Footnote: In the MS. this question remains unanswered.] - -383. - -OF THE STRENGTH OF MAN. - -A man pulling a [dead] weight balanced against himself cannot pull -more than his own weight. And if he has to raise it he will [be able -to] raise as much more than his weight as his strength may be more -than that of other men. [Footnote 7: The stroke at the end of this -line finishes in the original in a sort of loop or flourish, and a -similar flourish occurs at the end of the previous passage written -on the same page. M. RAVAISSON regards these as numbers (compare the -photograph of page 30b in his edition of MS. A). He remarks: "_Ce -chiffre_ 8 _et, a la fin de l'alinea precedent, le chiffre_ 7 _sont, -dans le manuscrit, des renvois_."] The greatest force a man can -apply, with equal velocity and impetus, will be when he sets his -feet on one end of the balance [or lever] and then presses his -shoulders against some stable body. This will raise a weight at the -other end of the balance [lever], equal to his own weight and [added -to that] as much weight as he can carry on his shoulders. - -384. - -No animal can simply move [by its dead weight] a greater weight than -the sum of its own weight outside the centre of his fulcrum. - -385. - -A man who wants to send an arrow very far from the bow must be -standing entirely on one foot and raising the other so far from the -foot he stands on as to afford the requisite counterpoise to his -body which is thrown on the front foot. And he must not hold his arm -fully extended, and in order that he may be more able to bear the -strain he must hold a piece of wood which there is in all crossbows, -extending from the hand to the breast, and when he wishes to shoot -he suddenly leaps forward at the same instant and extends his arm -with the bow and releases the string. And if he dexterously does -every thing at once it will go a very long way. - -386. - -When two men are at the opposite ends of a plank that is balanced, -and if they are of equal weight, and if one of them wants to make a -leap into the air, then his leap will be made down from his end of -the plank and the man will never go up again but must remain in his -place till the man at the other end dashes up the board. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXIV, No. 3.] - -387. - -Of delivering a blow to the right or left. - -[Footnote: Four sketches on Pl. XXIV, No. 1 belong to this passage. -The rest of the sketches and notes on that page are of a -miscellaneous nature.] - -388. - -Why an impetus is not spent at once [but diminishes] gradually in -some one direction? [Footnote 1: The paper has been damaged at the -end of line 1.] The impetus acquired in the line _a b c d_ is spent -in the line _d e_ but not so completely but that some of its force -remains in it and to this force is added the momentum in the line _d -e_ with the force of the motive power, and it must follow than the -impetus multiplied by the blow is greater that the simple impetus -produced by the momentum _d e_. - -[Footnote 8: The sketch No. 2 on Pl. XXIV stands, in the original, -between lines 7 and 8. Compare also the sketches on Pl. LIV.] A man -who has to deal a great blow with his weapon prepares himself with -all his force on the opposite side to that where the spot is which -he is to hit; and this is because a body as it gains in velocity -gains in force against the object which impedes its motion. - -On hair falling down in curls. - -389. - -Observe the motion of the surface of the water which resembles that -of hair, and has two motions, of which one goes on with the flow of -the surface, the other forms the lines of the eddies; thus the water -forms eddying whirlpools one part of which are due to the impetus of -the principal current and the other to the incidental motion and -return flow. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXV. Where also the text of this passage is given -in facsimile.] - -On draperies (390--392). - -390. - -OF THE NATURE OF THE FOLDS IN DRAPERY. - -That part of a fold which is farthest from the ends where it is -confined will fall most nearly in its natural form. - -Every thing by nature tends to remain at rest. Drapery, being of -equal density and thickness on its wrong side and on its right, has -a tendency to lie flat; therefore when you give it a fold or plait -forcing it out of its flatness note well the result of the -constraint in the part where it is most confined; and the part which -is farthest from this constraint you will see relapses most into the -natural state; that is to say lies free and flowing. - -EXAMPLE. - -[Footnote 13: _a c sia_. In the original text _b_ is written instead -of _c_--an evident slip of the pen.] Let _a b c_ be the fold of the -drapery spoken of above, _a c_ will be the places where this folded -drapery is held fast. I maintain that the part of the drapery which -is farthest from the plaited ends will revert most to its natural -form. - -Therefore, _b_ being farthest from _a_ and _c_ in the fold _a b c_ -it will be wider there than anywhere else. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 6, and compare the drawing from -Windsor Pl. XXX for farther illustration of what is here stated.] - -391. - -OF SMALL FOLDS IN DRAPERIES. - -How figures dressed in a cloak should not show the shape so much as -that the cloak looks as if it were next the flesh; since you surely -cannot wish the cloak to be next the flesh, for you must suppose -that between the flesh and the cloak there are other garments which -prevent the forms of the limbs appearing distinctly through the -cloak. And those limbs which you allow to be seen you must make -thicker so that the other garments may appear to be under the cloak. -But only give something of the true thickness of the limbs to a -nymph [Footnote 9: _Una nifa_. Compare the beautiful drawing of a -Nymph, in black chalk from the Windsor collection, Pl. XXVI.] or an -angel, which are represented in thin draperies, pressed and clinging -to the limbs of the figures by the action of the wind. - -392. - -You ought not to give to drapery a great confusion of many folds, -but rather only introduce them where they are held by the hands or -the arms; the rest you may let fall simply where it is its nature to -flow; and do not let the nude forms be broken by too many details -and interrupted folds. How draperies should be drawn from nature: -that is to say if youwant to represent woollen cloth draw the folds -from that; and if it is to be silk, or fine cloth or coarse, or of -linen or of crape, vary the folds in each and do not represent -dresses, as many do, from models covered with paper or thin leather -which will deceive you greatly. - -[Footnote: The little pen and ink drawing from Windsor (W. 102), -given on Pl. XXVIII, No. 7, clearly illustrates the statement made -at the beginning of this passage; the writing of the cipher 19 on -the same page is in Leonardo's hand; the cipher 21 is certainly -not.] - -_VIII._ - -_Botany for Painters and Elements of Landscape Painting._ - -_The chapters composing this portion of the work consist of -observations on Form, Light and Shade in Plants, and particularly in -Trees summed up in certain general rules by which the author intends -to guide the artist in the pictorial representation of landscape._ - -_With these the first principles of a_ Theory of Landscape painting -_are laid down--a theory as profoundly thought out in its main -lines as it is lucidly worked out in its details. In reading these -chapters the conviction is irresistible that such a_ Botany for -painters _is or ought to be of similar importance in the practice of -painting as the principles of the Proportions and Movements of the -human figure_ i. e. Anatomy for painters. - -_There can be no doubt that Leonardo, in laying down these rules, -did not intend to write on Botany in the proper scientific -sense--his own researches on that subject have no place here; it -need only be observed that they are easily distinguished by their -character and contents from those which are here collected and -arranged under the title 'Botany for painters'. In some cases where -this division might appear doubtful,--as for instance in No._ -402--_the Painter is directly addressed and enjoined to take the -rule to heart as of special importance in his art._ - -_The original materials are principally derived from MS._ G, _in -which we often find this subject treated on several pages in -succession without any of that intermixture of other matters, which -is so frequent in Leonardo's writings. This MS., too, is one of the -latest; when it was written, the great painter was already more than -sixty years of age, so we can scarcely doubt that he regarded all he -wrote as his final views on the subject. And the same remark applies -to the chapters from MSS._ E _and_ M _which were also written -between_ 1513--15. - -_For the sake of clearness, however, it has been desirable to -sacrifice--with few exceptions--the original order of the passages -as written, though it was with much reluctance and only after long -hesitation that I resigned myself to this necessity. Nor do I mean -to impugn the logical connection of the author's ideas in his MS.; -but it will be easily understood that the sequence of disconnected -notes, as they occurred to Leonardo and were written down from time -to time, might be hardly satisfactory as a systematic arrangement of -his principles. The reader will find in the Appendix an exact -account of the order of the chapters in the original MS. and from -the data there given can restore them at will. As the materials are -here arranged, the structure of the tree as regards the growth of -the branches comes first_ (394-411) _and then the insertion of the -leaves on the stems_ (412-419). _Then follow the laws of Light and -Shade as applied, first, to the leaves (420-434), and, secondly, to -the whole tree and to groups of trees_ (435-457). _After the remarks -on the Light and Shade in landscapes generally_ (458-464), _we find -special observations on that of views of towns and buildings_ -(465-469). _To the theory of Landscape Painting belong also the -passages on the effect of Wind on Trees_ (470-473) _and on the Light -and Shade of Clouds_ (474-477), _since we find in these certain -comparisons with the effect of Light and Shade on Trees_ (e. g.: _in -No._ 476, 4. 5; _and No._ 477, 9. 12). _The chapters given in the -Appendix Nos._ 478 _and_ 481 _have hardly any connection with the -subjects previously treated._ - -Classification of trees. - -393. - -TREES. - -Small, lofty, straggling, thick, that is as to foliage, dark, light, -russet, branched at the top; some directed towards the eye, some -downwards; with white stems; this transparent in the air, that not; -some standing close together, some scattered. - -The relative thickness of the branches to the trunk (393--396). - -394. - -All the branches of a tree at every stage of its height when put -together are equal in thickness to the trunk [below them]. - -All the branches of a water [course] at every stage of its course, -if they are of equal rapidity, are equal to the body of the main -stream. - -395. - -Every year when the boughs of a plant [or tree] have made an end of -maturing their growth, they will have made, when put together, a -thickness equal to that of the main stem; and at every stage of its -ramification you will find the thickness of the said main stem; as: -_i k_, _g h_, _e f_, _c d_, _a b_, will always be equal to each -other; unless the tree is pollard--if so the rule does not hold -good. - -All the branches have a direction which tends to the centre of the -tree _m_. - -[Footnote: The two sketches of leafless trees one above another on -the left hand side of Pl. XXVII, No. 1, belong to this passage.] - -396. - -If the plant n grows to the thickness shown at m, its branches will -correspond [in thickness] to the junction a b in consequence of the -growth inside as well as outside. - -The branches of trees or plants have a twist wherever a minor branch -is given off; and this giving off the branch forms a fork; this said -fork occurs between two angles of which the largest will be that -which is on the side of the larger branch, and in proportion, unless -accident has spoilt it. - -[Footnote: The sketches illustrating this are on the right hand side -of PI. XXVII, No. I, and the text is also given there in facsimile.] - -397. - -There is no boss on branches which has not been produced by some -branch which has failed. - -The lower shoots on the branches of trees grow more than the upper -ones and this occurs only because the sap that nourishes them, being -heavy, tends downwards more than upwards; and again, because those -[branches] which grow downwards turn away from the shade which -exists towards the centre of the plant. The older the branches are, -the greater is the difference between their upper and their lower -shoots and in those dating from the same year or epoch. - -[Footnote: The sketch accompanying this in the MS. is so effaced -that an exact reproduction was impossible.] - -398. - -OF THE SCARS ON TREES. - -The scars on trees grow to a greater thickness than is required by -the sap of the limb which nourishes them. - -399. - -The plant which gives out the smallest ramifications will preserve -the straightest line in the course of its growth. - -[Footnote: This passage is illustrated by two partly effaced -sketches. One of these closely resembles the lower one given under -No. 408, the other also represents short closely set boughs on an -upright trunk.] - -400. - -OF THE RAMIFICATION. - -The beginning of the ramification [the shoot] always has the central -line [axis] of its thickness directed to the central line [axis] of -the plant itself. - -401. - -In starting from the main stem the branches always form a base with -a prominence as is shown at _a b c d_. - -402. - -WHY, VERY FREQUENTLY, TIMBER HAS VEINS THAT ARE NOT STRAIGHT. - -When the branches which grow the second year above the branch of the -preceding year, are not of equal thickness above the antecedent -branches, but are on one side, then the vigour of the lower branch -is diverted to nourish the one above it, although it may be somewhat -on one side. - -But if the ramifications are equal in their growth, the veins of the -main stem will be straight [parallel] and equidistant at every -degree of the height of the plant. - -Wherefore, O Painter! you, who do not know these laws! in order to -escape the blame of those who understand them, it will be well that -you should represent every thing from nature, and not despise such -study as those do who work [only] for money. - -The direction of growth (403-407). - -403. - -OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF PLANTS. - -The plants which spread very much have the angles of the spaces -which divide their branches more obtuse in proportion as their point -of origin is lower down; that is nearer to the thickest and oldest -portion of the tree. Therefore in the youngest portions of the tree -the angles of ramification are more acute. [Footnote: Compare the -sketches on the lower portion of Pl. XXVII, No. 2.] - -404. - -The tips of the boughs of plants [and trees], unless they are borne -down by the weight of their fruits, turn towards the sky as much as -possible. - -The upper side of their leaves is turned towards the sky that it may -receive the nourishment of the dew which falls at night. - -The sun gives spirit and life to plants and the earth nourishes them -with moisture. [9] With regard to this I made the experiment of -leaving only one small root on a gourd and this I kept nourished -with water, and the gourd brought to perfection all the fruits it -could produce, which were about 60 gourds of the long kind, andi set -my mind diligently [to consider] this vitality and perceived that -the dews of night were what supplied it abundantly with moisture -through the insertion of its large leaves and gave nourishment to -the plant and its offspring--or the seeds which its offspring had -to produce--[21]. - -The rule of the leaves produced on the last shoot of the year will -be that they will grow in a contrary direction on the twin branches; -that is, that the insertion of the leaves turns round each branch in -such a way, as that the sixth leaf above is produced over the sixth -leaf below, and the way they turn is that if one turns towards its -companion to the right, the other turns to the left, the leaf -serving as the nourishing breast for the shoot or fruit which grows -the following year. - -[Footnote: A French translation of lines 9-12 was given by M. -RAVAISSON in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, Oct. 1877; his paper also -contains some valuable information as to botanical science in the -ancient classical writers and at the time of the Renaissance.] - -405. - -The lowest branches of those trees which have large leaves and heavy -fruits, such as nut-trees, fig-trees and the like, always droop -towards the ground. - -The branches always originate above [in the axis of] the leaves. - -406. - -The upper shoots of the lateral branches of plants lie closer to the -parent branch than the lower ones. - -407. - -The lowest branches, after they have formed the angle of their -separation from the parent stem, always bend downwards so as not to -crowd against the other branches which follow them on the same stem -and to be better able to take the air which nourishes them. As is -shown by the angle _b a c_; the branch _a c_ after it has made the -corner of the angle _a c_ bends downwards to _c d_ and the lesser -shoot _c_ dries up, being too thin. - -The main branch always goes below, as is shown by the branch _f n -m_, which does not go to _f n o_. - -The forms of trees (408--411). - -408. - -The elm always gives a greater length to the last branches of the -year's growth than to the lower ones; and Nature does this because -the highest branches are those which have to add to the size of the -tree; and those at the bottom must get dry because they grow in the -shade and their growth would be an impediment to the entrance of the -solar rays and the air among the main branches of the tree. - -The main branches of the lower part bend down more than those above, -so as to be more oblique than those upper ones, and also because -they are larger and older. - -409. - -In general almost all the upright portions of trees curve somewhat -turning the convexity towards the South; and their branches are -longer and thicker and more abundant towards the South than towards -the North. And this occurs because the sun draws the sap towards -that surface of the tree which is nearest to it. - -And this may be observed if the sun is not screened off by other -plants. - -410. - -The cherry-tree is of the character of the fir tree as regards its -ramification placed in stages round its main stem; and its branches -spring, 4 or five or 6 [together] opposite each other; and the tips -of the topmost shoots form a pyramid from the middle upwards; and -the walnut and oak form a hemisphere from the middle upwards. - -411. - -The bough of the walnut which is only hit and beaten when it has -brought to perfection... - -[Footnote: The end of the text and the sketch in red chalk belonging -to it, are entirely effaced.] - -The insertion of the leaves (412--419). - -412. - -OF THE INSERTION OF THE BRANCHES ON PLANTS. - -Such as the growth of the ramification of plants is on their -principal branches, so is that of the leaves on the shoots of the -same plant. These leaves have [Footnote 6: _Quattro modi_ (four -modes). Only three are described in the text, the fourth is only -suggested by a sketch. - -This passage occurs in MANZI'S edition of the Trattato, p. 399, but -without the sketches and the text is mutilated in an important part. -The whole passage has been commented on, from MANZI'S version, in -Part I of the _Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano_, by Prof. G. -UZIELLI (Florence 1869, Vol. I). He remarks as to the 'four modes': -"_Leonardo, come si vede nelle linie sententi da solo tre esempli. -Questa ed altre inessattezze fanno desiderare, sia esaminato di -nuovo il manoscritto Vaticano_". This has since been done by D. -KNAPP of Tubingen, and his accurate copy has been published by H. -LUDWIG, the painter. The passage in question occurs in his edition -as No. 833; and there also the drawings are wanting. The space for -them has been left vacant, but in the Vatican copy '_niente_' has -been written on the margin; and in it, as well as in LUDWIG'S and -MANZI'S edition, the text is mutilated.] four modes of growing one -above another. The first, which is the most general, is that the -sixth always originates over the sixth below [Footnote 8: _la sesta -di sotto. "Disposizione 2/5 o 1/5. Leonardo osservo probabilmente -soltanto la prima"_ (UZIELLl).]; the second is that two third ones -above are over the two third ones below [Footnote 10: _terze di -sotto: "Intende qui senza dubbio parlare di foglie decussate, in cui -il terzo verticello e nel piano del primo"_ (UZIELLI).]; and the -third way is that the third above is over the third below [Footnote -11: 3a _di sotto: "Disposizione 1/2"_ (UZIELLI).]. - -[Footnote: See the four sketches on the upper portion of the page -reproduced as fig. 2 on P1. XXVII.] - -413. - -A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELM. - -The ramification of the elm has the largest branch at the top. The -first and the last but one are smaller, when the main trunk is -straight. - -The space between the insertion of one leaf to the rest is half the -extreme length of the leaf or somewhat less, for the leaves are at -an interval which is about the 3rd of the width of the leaf. - -The elm has more leaves near the top of the boughs than at the base; -and the broad [surface] of the leaves varies little as to [angle -and] aspect. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 3. Above the sketch and close under -the number of the page is the word '_olmo_' (elm).] - -414. - -In the walnut tree the leaves which are distributed on the shoots of -this year are further apart from each other and more numerous in -proportion as the branch from which this shoot springs is a young -one. And they are inserted more closely and less in number when the -shoot that bears them springs from an old branch. Its fruits are -borne at the ends of the shoots. And its largest boughs are the -lowest on the boughs they spring from. And this arises from the -weight of its sap which is more apt to descend than to rise, and -consequently the branches which spring from them and rise towards -the sky are small and slender [20]; and when the shoot turns towards -the sky its leaves spread out from it [at an angle] with an equal -distribution of their tips; and if the shoot turns to the horizon -the leaves lie flat; and this arises from the fact that leaves -without exception, turn their underside to the earth [29]. - -The shoots are smaller in proportion as they spring nearer to the -base of the bough they spring from. - -[Footnote: See the two sketches on Pl XXVII, No. 4. The second -refers to the passage lines 20-30.] - -415. - -OF THE INSERTION OF THE LEAVES ON THE BRANCHES. - -The thickness of a branch never diminishes within the space between -one leaf and the next excepting by so much as the thickness of the -bud which is above the leaf and this thickness is taken off from the -branch above [the node] as far as the next leaf. - -Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many plants -that the sixth leaf is always above the first, and so on in -succession, if the rule is not [accidentally] interfered with; and -this occurs for two useful ends in the plant: First that as the -shoot and the fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye -which lies above and in close contact with the insertion of the leaf -[in the axil], the water which falls upon the shoot can run down to -nourish the bud, by the drop being caught in the hollow [axil] at -the insertion of the leaf. And the second advantage is, that as -these shoots develop in the following year one will not cover the -next below, since the 5 come forth on five different sides; and the -sixth which is above the first is at some distance. - -416. - -OF THE RAMIFICATIONS OF TREES AND THEIR FOLIAGE. - -The ramifications of any tree, such as the elm, are wide and slender -after the manner of a hand with spread fingers, foreshortened. And -these are seen in the distribution [thus]: the lower portions are -seen from above; and those that are above are seen from below; and -those in the middle, some from below and some from above. The upper -part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle -portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are -turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle -of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of -the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the -common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers. - -Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put -forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed -above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and -others. - -417. - -You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth -leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above -another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this -order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part -of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards -the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves -on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper -branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to -turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night, -it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no -longer form a cross. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.] - -418. - -A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may -the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently -from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the -plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but -shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy -which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that -is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate -between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the -first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the -sixth. - -419. - -Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the -axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from -the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above, -and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of -the sun. - -LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422). - -420. - -That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the -luminous ray coming between right angles. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.] - -421. - -Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark -than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in -May than in September. - -422. - -OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES. - -The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is: -shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency. - -OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS. - -These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at -a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or -shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous. - -The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426). - -423. - -OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF. - -Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade, -lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus, -if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at -_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_ -transparent. - -424. - -A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and -up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half -transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the -eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall -upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under -side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is -transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the -upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red -chalk.] - -425. - -Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great -extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it -may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will -have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to -have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye -is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without -exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the -lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the -shadows. - -The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the -same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour -that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is -placed between - -426. - -the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side. - -And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the -opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at -hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see -its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the -upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more -foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right -side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two -colours. - -Of the transparency of leaves (427-429). - -427. - -The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the -same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will -show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre -[reflected light] can never show through. - -428. - -When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the -leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in -those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere. - -And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between -it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the -reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong. - -It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and -dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some -distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which -is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous -atmosphere. - -429. - -Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are -confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will -be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow -has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is -[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and -consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation -of it should be avoided. - -The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an -acute angle. - -The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434). - -430. - -The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere -penetrates there can never be utter darkness. - -431. - -If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see -the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_ ---that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under -side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on -yellow. - -If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes -that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful -light green, being transparent. - -In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without -shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent -and the right side lustrous [reflecting light]. - -432. - -The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped -every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their -shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards -the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves -and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards -the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the -branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring -from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to -their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations -of light against a background of shadow. - -That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches -and few leaves. - -433. - -OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES. - -When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then -that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most -distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere; -and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the -tree, that is towards the light. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.] - -434. - -OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES. - -The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to -the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the -cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles -with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is -produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the -smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this -light usually produces when it falls on dark objects. - -OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN. - -But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the -atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as -every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that -mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the -yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed -together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of -light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow. - -A classification of trees according to their colours. - -435. - -The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as -some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels, -box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears, -vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts, -holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate, -vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds -and the like. Trees are of various forms ... - -The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440). - -436. - -OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES. - -That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow -which is farthest from the earth. - -To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated -hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth -_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the -hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces -the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this -reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it -is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the -laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because, -although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of -the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected -onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these -trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree. - -437. - -OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE. - -The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every -shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion -as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are -nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always -present themselves to the eye edgewise. - -OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS. - -The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most -nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon -it. - -438. - -OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE. - -In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere -and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated -by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend -to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the -atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated -by the sun will reflect light. - -439. - -OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE. - -The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender -branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants -which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow. - -440. - -ON PAINTING. - -In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree -illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be -seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let -the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated -by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in -the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other. -Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much -the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one -tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than -the other; &c. - -You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow, -while the same eye _c_ sees th� tree _b_ half in light and half in -shade. - -When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed -within the circle made by its boughs[23]. - -Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one -particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density -of their branches. - -[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3, -refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced -by Leonardo himself.] - -The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position -of the spectator (441-443). - -441. - -The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves -in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the -left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved -by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and -the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The -eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the -opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and -the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be -seen half in shadow and half in light. - -[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No. -3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram -and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No. -461.] - -442. - -OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD. - -Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among -them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the -stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which -the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that -is on the background beyond the shadow. - -OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT. - -Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in -front will be light; but this light will be broken by the -ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under -side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the -background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from -the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed -above the eye. - -443. - -FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE - -Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in -light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun -is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the -general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And -then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts -are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth. - -The effects of morning light (444-448). - -444. - -OF TREES TO THE SOUTH. - -When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North -have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in -proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in -proportion as they lie to the East. - -OF MEADOWS. - -If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other -small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to -the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in -those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant -green. - -445. - -OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES]. - -When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it -are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves -lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the -Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the -verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the -colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East, -which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is -moister. - -The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them -and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker. - -446. - -OF TREES IN THE EAST. - -When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will -have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows, -excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been -pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and -North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in -shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East -or to the West. - -The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and -lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with -the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of -shadow. - -The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species. - -447. - -OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES. - -The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or -left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible -gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and -those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This -possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this -note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.], -see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow -exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the -images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and -mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their -minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees, -and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by -the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests -are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen. - -448. - -OF TREES TO THE EAST. - -When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle -while their edges are light. - -The effects of midday light. - -449. - -OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW -THEY STAND OUT WELL. - -To represent a landscape choose that the sun shall be at noon and -look towards the West or East and then draw. And if you turn towards -the North, every object placed on that side will have no shadow, -particularly those which are nearest to the [direction of the] -shadow of your head. And if you turn towards the South every object -on that side will be wholly in shadow. All the trees which are -towards the sun and have the atmosphere for their background are -dark, and the other trees which lie against that darkness will be -black [very dark] in the middle and lighter towards the edges. - -The appearance of trees in the distance (450. 451). - -450. - -OF THE SPACES [SHOWING THE SKY] IN TREES THEMSELVES. - -The spaces between the parts in the mass of trees, and the spaces -between the trees in the air, are, at great distances, invisible to -the eye; for, where it is an effort [even] to see the whole it is -most difficult to discern the parts.--But a confused mixture is the -result, partaking chiefly of the [hue] which predominates. The -spaces between the leaves consist of particles of illuminated air -which are very much smaller than the tree and are lost sight of -sooner than the tree; but it does not therefore follow that they are -not there. Hence, necessarily, a compounded [effect] is produced of -the sky and of the shadows of the tree in shade, which both together -strike the eye which sees them. - -OF TREES WHICH CONCEAL THESE SPACES IN ONE ANOTHER. - -That part of a tree will show the fewest spaces, behind which a -large number of trees are standing between the tree and the air -[sky]; thus in the tree _a_ the spaces are not concealed nor in _b_, -as there is no tree behind. But in _c_ only half shows the spaces -filled up by the tree _d_, and part of the tree _d_ is filled up by -the tree _e_ and a little farther on all the spaces in the mass of -the trees are lost, and only that at the side remains. - -451. - -OF TREES. - -What outlines are seen in trees at a distance against the sky which -serves as their background? - -The outlines of the ramification of trees, where they lie against -the illuminated sky, display a form which more nearly approaches the -spherical on proportion as they are remote, and the nearer they are -the less they appear in this spherical form; as in the first tree -_a_ which, being near to the eye, displays the true form of its -ramification; but this shows less in _b_ and is altogether lost in -_c_, where not merely the branches of the tree cannot be seen but -the whole tree is distinguished with difficulty. Every object in -shadow, of whatever form it may be, at a great distance appears to -be spherical. And this occurs because, if it is a square body, at a -very short distance it loses its angles, and a little farther off it -loses still more of its smaller sides which remain. And thus before -the whole is lost [to sight] the parts are lost, being smaller than -the whole; as a man, who in such a distant position loses his legs, -arms and head before [the mass of] his body, then the outlines of -length are lost before those of breadth, and where they have become -equal it would be a square if the angles remained; but as they are -lost it is round. - -[Footnote: The sketch No. 4, Pl. XXVIII, belongs to this passage.] - -The cast shadow of trees (452. 453). - -452. - -The image of the shadow of any object of uniform breadth can never -be [exactly] the same as that of the body which casts it. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 5.] - -Light and shade on groups of trees (453-457). - -453. - -All trees seen against the sun are dark towards the middle and this -shadow will be of the shape of the tree when apart from others. - -The shadows cast by trees on which the sun shines are as dark as -those of the middle of the tree. - -The shadow cast by a tree is never less than the mass of the tree -but becomes taller in proportion as the spot on which it falls, -slopes towards the centre of the world. - -The shadow will be densest in the middle of the tree when the tree -has the fewest branches. - -[Footnote: The three diagrams which accompany this text are placed, -in the original, before lines 7-11. At the spots marked _B_ Leonardo -wrote _Albero_ (tree). At _A_ is the word _Sole_ (sun), at _C Monte_ -(mountain) at _D piano_ (plain) and at _E cima_ (summit).] - -Every branch participates of the central shadow of every other -branch and consequently [of that] of the whole tree. - -The form of any shadow from a branch or tree is circumscribed by the -light which falls from the side whence the light comes; and this -illumination gives the shape of the shadow, and this may be of the -distance of a mile from the side where the sun is. - -If it happens that a cloud should anywhere overshadow some part of a -hill the [shadow of the] trees there will change less than in the -plains; for these trees on the hills have their branches thicker, -because they grow less high each year than in the plains. Therefore -as these branches are dark by nature and being so full of shade, the -shadow of the clouds cannot darken them any more; but the open -spaces between the trees, which have no strong shadow change very -much in tone and particularly those which vary from green; that is -ploughed lands or fallen mountains or barren lands or rocks. Where -the trees are against the atmosphere they appear all the same -colour--if indeed they are not very close together or very thickly -covered with leaves like the fir and similar trees. When you see the -trees from the side from which the sun lights them, you will see -them almost all of the same tone, and the shadows in them will be -hidden by the leaves in the light, which come between your eye and -those shadows. - -TREES AT A SHORT DISTANCE. - -[Footnote 29: The heading _alberi vicini_ (trees at a short -distance) is in the original manuscript written in the margin.] When -the trees are situated between the sun and the eye, beyond the -shadow which spreads from their centre, the green of their leaves -will be seen transparent; but this transparency will be broken in -many places by the leaves and boughs in shadow which will come -between you and them, or, in their upper portions, they will be -accompanied by many lights reflected from the leaves. - -454. - -The trees of the landscape stand out but little from each other; -because their illuminated portions come against the illuminated -portions of those beyond and differ little from them in light and -shade. - -455. - -Of trees seen from below and against the light, one beyond the other -and near together. The topmost part of the first will be in great -part transparent and light, and will stand out against the dark -portion of the second tree. And thus it will be with all in -succession that are placed under the same conditions. - -Let _s_ be the light, and _r_ the eye, _c d n_ the first tree, _a b -c_ the second. Then I say that _r_, the eye, will see the portion _c -f_ in great part transparent and lighted by the light _s_ which -falls upon it from the opposite side, and it will see it, on a dark -ground _b c_ because that is the dark part and shadow of the tree _a -b c_. - -But if the eye is placed at _t_ it will see _o p_ dark on the light -background _n g_. - -Of the transparent and shadowy parts of trees, that which is nearest -to you is the darkest. - -456. - -That part of a tree which has shadow for background, is all of one -tone, and wherever the trees or branches are thickest they will be -darkest, because there are no little intervals of air. But where the -boughs lie against a background of other boughs, the brighter parts -are seen lightest and the leaves lustrous from the sunlight falling -on them. - -457. - -In the composition of leafy trees be careful not to repeat too often -the same colour of one tree against the same colour of another -[behind it]; but vary it with a lighter, or a darker, or a stronger -green. - -On the treatment of light for landscapes (458-464). - -458. - -The landscape has a finer azure [tone] when, in fine weather the sun -is at noon than at any other time of the day, because the air is -purified of moisture; and looking at it under that aspect you will -see the trees of a beautiful green at the outside and the shadows -dark towards the middle; and in the remoter distance the atmosphere -which comes between you and them looks more beautiful when there is -something dark beyond. And still the azure is most beautiful. The -objects seen from the side on which the sun shines will not show you -their shadows. But, if you are lower than the sun, you can see what -is not seen by the sun and that will be all in shade. The leaves of -the trees, which come between you and the sun are of two principal -colours which are a splendid lustre of green, and the reflection of -the atmosphere which lights up the objects which cannot be seen by -the sun, and the shaded portions which only face the earth, and the -darkest which are surrounded by something that is not dark. The -trees in the landscape which are between you and the sun are far -more beautiful than those you see when you are between the sun and -them; and this is so because those which face the sun show their -leaves as transparent towards the ends of their branches, and those -that are not transparent--that is at the ends--reflect the light; -and the shadows are dark because they are not concealed by any -thing. - -The trees, when you place yourself between them and the sun, will -only display to you their light and natural colour, which, in -itself, is not very strong, and besides this some reflected lights -which, being against a background which does not differ very much -from themselves in tone, are not conspicuous; and if you are lower -down than they are situated, they may also show those portions on -which the light of the sun does not fall and these will be dark. - -In the Wind. - -But, if you are on the side whence the wind blows, you will see the -trees look very much lighter than on the other sides, and this -happens because the wind turns up the under side of the leaves, -which, in all trees, is much whiter than the upper sides; and, more -especially, will they be very light indeed if the wind blows from -the quarter where the sun is, and if you have your back turned to -it. - -[Footnote: At _S_, in the original is the word _Sole_ (sun) and at -_N parte di nuvolo_ (the side of the clouds).] - -459. - -When the sun is covered by clouds, objects are less conspicuous, -because there is little difference between the light and shade of -the trees and of the buildings being illuminated by the brightness -of the atmosphere which surrounds the objects in such a way that the -shadows are few, and these few fade away so that their outline is -lost in haze. - -460. - -OF TREES AND LIGHTS ON THEM. - -The best method of practice in representing country scenes, or I -should say landscapes with their trees, is to choose them so that -the sun is covered with clouds so that the landscape receives an -universal light and not the direct light of the sun, which makes the -shadows sharp and too strongly different from the lights. - -461. - -OF PAINTING. - -In landscapes which represent [a scene in] winter. The mountains -should not be shown blue, as we see in the mountains in the summer. -And this is proved [Footnote 5. 6.: _Per la_ 4_a di questo_. It is -impossible to ascertain what this quotation refers to. _Questo_ -certainly does not mean the MS. in hand, nor any other now known to -us. The same remark applies to the phrase in line 15: _per la_ 2_a -di questo_.] in the 4th of this which says: Among mountains seen -from a great distance those will look of the bluest colour which are -in themselves the darkest; hence, when the trees are stripped of -their leaves, they will show a bluer tinge which will be in itself -darker; therefore, when the trees have lost their leaves they will -look of a gray colour, while, with their leaves, they are green, and -in proportion as the green is darker than the grey hue the green -will be of a bluer tinge than the gray. Also by the 2nd of this: The -shadows of trees covered with leaves are darker than the shadows of -those trees which have lost their leaves in proportion as the trees -covered with leaves are denser than those without leaves--and thus -my meaning is proved. - -The definition of the blue colour of the atmosphere explains why the -landscape is bluer in the summer than in the winter. - -462. - -OF PAINTING IN A LANDSCAPE. - -If the slope of a hill comes between the eye and the horizon, -sloping towards the eye, while the eye is opposite the middle of the -height of this slope, then that hill will increase in darkness -throughout its length. This is proved by the 7th of this which says -that a tree looks darkest when it is seen from below; the -proposition is verified, since this hill will, on its upper half -show all its trees as much from the side which is lighted by the -light of the sky, as from that which is in shade from the darkness -of the earth; whence it must result that these trees are of a medium -darkness. And from this [middle] spot towards the base of the hill, -these trees will be lighter by degrees by the converse of the 7th -and by the said 7th: For trees so placed, the nearer they are to the -summit of the hill the darker they necessarily become. But this -darkness is not in proportion to the distance, by the 8th of this -which says: That object shows darkest which is [seen] in the -clearest atmosphere; and by the 10th: That shows darkest which -stands out against a lighter background. - -[Footnote: The quotation in this passage again cannot be verified.] - -463. - -OF LANDSCAPES. - -The colours of the shadows in mountains at a great distance take a -most lovely blue, much purer than their illuminated portions. And -from this it follows that when the rock of a mountain is reddish the -illuminated portions are violet (?) and the more they are lighted -the more they display their proper colour. - -464. - -A place is most luminous when it is most remote from mountains. - -On the treatment of light for views of towns (465-469). - -465. - -OF LIGHT AND SHADOW IN A TOWN. - -When the sun is in the East and the eye is above the centre of a -town, the eye will see the Southern part of the town with its roofs -half in shade and half in light, and the same towards the North; the -Eastern side will be all in shadow and the Western will be all in -light. - -466. - -Of the houses of a town, in which the divisions between the houses -may be distinguished by the light which fall on the mist at the -bottom. If the eye is above the houses the light seen in the space -that is between one house and the next sinks by degrees into thicker -mist; and yet, being less transparent, it appears whiter; and if the -houses are some higher than the others, since the true [colour] is -always more discernible through the thinner atmosphere, the houses -will look darker in proportion as they are higher up. Let _n o p q_ -represent the various density of the atmosphere thick with moisture, -_a_ being the eye, the house _b c_ will look lightest at the bottom, -because it is in a thicker atmosphere; the lines _c d f_ will appear -equally light, for although _f_ is more distant than _c_, it is -raised into a thinner atmosphere, if the houses _b e_ are of the -same height, because they cross a brightness which is varied by -mist, but this is only because the line of the eye which starts from -above ends by piercing a lower and denser atmosphere at _d_ than at -_b_. Thus the line a _f_ is lower at _f_ than at _c_; and the house -_f_ will be seen darker at _e_ from the line _e k_ as far as _m_, -than the tops of the houses standing in front of it. - -467. - -OF TOWNS OR OTHER BUILDINGS SEEN IN THE EVENING OR THE MORNING -THROUGH THE MIST. - -Of buildings seen at a great distance in the evening or the morning, -as in mist or dense atmosphere, only those portions are seen in -brightness which are lighted up by the sun which is near the -horizon; and those portions which are not lighted up by the sun -remain almost of the same colour and medium tone as the mist. - -WHY OBJECTS WHICH ARE HIGH UP AND AT A DISTANCE ARE DARKER THAN THE -LOWER ONES, EVEN IF THE MIST IS UNIFORMLY DENSE. - -Of objects standing in a mist or other dense atmosphere, whether -from vapour or smoke or distance, those will be most visible which -are the highest. And among objects of equal height that will be the -darkest [strongest] which has for background the deepest mist. Thus -the eye _h_ looking at _a b c_, towers of equal height, one with -another, sees _c_ the top of the first tower at _r_, at two degrees -of depth in the mist; and sees the height of the middle tower _b_ -through one single degree of mist. Therefore the top of the tower -_c_ appears stronger than the top of the tower _b_, &c. - -468. - -OF THE SMOKE OF A TOWN. - -Smoke is seen better and more distinctly on the Eastern side than on -the Western when the sun is in the East; and this arises from two -causes; the first is that the sun, with its rays, shines through the -particles of the smoke and lights them up and makes them visible. -The second is that the roofs of the houses seen in the East at this -time are in shadow, because their obliquity does not allow of their -being illuminated by the sun. And the same thing occurs with dust; -and both one and the other look the lighter in proportion as they -are denser, and they are densest towards the middle. - -469. - -OF SMOKE AND DUST. - -If the sun is in the East the smoke of cities will not be visible in -the West, because on that side it is not seen penetrated by the -solar rays, nor on a dark background; since the roofs of the houses -turn the same side to the eye as they turn towards the sun, and on -this light background the smoke is not very visible. - -But dust, under the same aspect, will look darker than smoke being -of denser material than smoke which is moist. - -The effect of wind on trees (470-473). - -470. - -OF REPRESENTING WIND. - -In representing wind, besides the bending of the boughs and the -reversing of their leaves towards the quarter whence the wind comes, -you should also represent them amid clouds of fine dust mingled with -the troubled air. - -471. - -Describe landscapes with the wind, and the water, and the setting -and rising of the sun. - -THE WIND. - -All the leaves which hung towards the earth by the bending of the -shoots with their branches, are turned up side down by the gusts of -wind, and here their perspective is reversed; for, if the tree is -between you and the quarter of the wind, the leaves which are -towards you remain in their natural aspect, while those on the -opposite side which ought to have their points in a contrary -direction have, by being turned over, their points turned towards -you. - -472. - -Trees struck by the force of the wind bend to the side towards which -the wind is blowing; and the wind being past they bend in the -contrary direction, that is in reverse motion. - -473. - -That portion of a tree which is farthest from the force which -strikes it is the most injured by the blow because it bears most -strain; thus nature has foreseen this case by thickening them in -that part where they can be most hurt; and most in such trees as -grow to great heights, as pines and the like. [Footnote: Compare the -sketch drawn with a pen and washed with Indian ink on Pl. XL, No. 1. -In the Vatican copy we find, under a section entitled '_del fumo_', -the following remark: _Era sotto di questo capitulo un rompimento di -montagna, per dentro delle quali roture scherzaua fiame di fuoco, -disegnate di penna et ombrate d'acquarella, da uedere cosa mirabile -et uiua (Ed. MANZI, p. 235. Ed. LUDWIG, Vol. I, 460). This appears -to refer to the left hand portion of the drawing here given from the -Windsor collection, and from this it must be inferred, that the leaf -as it now exists in the library of the Queen of England, was already -separated from the original MS. at the time when the Vatican copy -was made.] - -Light and shade on clouds (474-477). - -474. - -Describe how the clouds are formed and how they dissolve, and what -cause raises vapour. - -475. - -The shadows in clouds are lighter in proportion as they are nearer -to the horizon. - -[Footnote: The drawing belonging to this was in black chalk and is -totally effaced.] - -476. - -When clouds come between the sun and the eye all the upper edges of -their round forms are light, and towards the middle they are dark, -and this happens because towards the top these edges have the sun -above them while you are below them; and the same thing happens with -the position of the branches of trees; and again the clouds, like -the trees, being somewhat transparent, are lighted up in part, and -at the edges they show thinner. - -But, when the eye is between the cloud and the sun, the cloud has -the contrary effect to the former, for the edges of its mass are -dark and it is light towards the middle; and this happens because -you see the same side as faces the sun, and because the edges have -some transparency and reveal to the eye that portion which is hidden -beyond them, and which, as it does not catch the sunlight like that -portion turned towards it, is necessarily somewhat darker. Again, it -may be that you see the details of these rounded masses from the -lower side, while the sun shines on the upper side and as they are -not so situated as to reflect the light of the sun, as in the first -instance they remain dark. - -The black clouds which are often seen higher up than those which are -illuminated by the sun are shaded by other clouds, lying between -them and the sun. - -Again, the rounded forms of the clouds that face the sun, show their -edges dark because they lie against the light background; and to see -that this is true, you may look at the top of any cloud that is -wholly light because it lies against the blue of the atmosphere, -which is darker than the cloud. - -[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk from the Windsor collection (see -Pl. XXIX), representing a landscape with storm-clouds, may serve to -illustrate this section as well as the following one.] - -477. - -OF CLOUDS, SMOKE AND DUST AND THE FLAMES OF A FURNACE OR OF A -BURNING KILN. - -The clouds do not show their rounded forms excepting on the sides -which face the sun; on the others the roundness is imperceptible -because they are in the shade. [Footnote: The text of this chapter -is given in facsimile on Pls. XXXVI and XXXVII. The two halves of -the leaf form but one in the original. On the margin close to lines -4 and 5 is the note: _rossore d'aria inverso l'orizonte_--(of the -redness of the atmosphere near the horizon). The sketches on the -lower portion of the page will be spoken of in No. 668.] - -If the sun is in the East and the clouds in the West, the eye placed -between the sun and the clouds sees the edges of the rounded forms -composing these clouds as dark, and the portions which are -surrounded by this dark [edge] are light. And this occurs because -the edges of the rounded forms of these clouds are turned towards -the upper or lateral sky, which is reflected in them. - -Both the cloud and the tree display no roundness at all on their -shaded side. - -On images reflected in water. - -478. - -Painters often deceive themselves, by representing water in which -they make the water reflect the objects seen by the man. But the -water reflects the object from one side and the man sees it from the -other; and it often happens that the painter sees an object from -below, and thus one and the same object is seen from hind part -before and upside down, because the water shows the image of the -object in one way, and the eye sees it in another. - -Of rainbows and rain (479. 480). - -479. - -The colours in the middle of the rainbow mingle together. - -The bow in itself is not in the rain nor in the eye that sees it; -though it is generated by the rain, the sun, and the eye. The -rainbow is always seen by the eye that is between the rain and the -body of the sun; hence if the sun is in the East and the rain is in -the West it will appear on the rain in the West. - -480. - -When the air is condensed into rain it would produce a vacuum if the -rest of the air did not prevent this by filling its place, as it -does with a violent rush; and this is the wind which rises in the -summer time, accompanied by heavy rain. - -Of flower seeds. - -481. - -All the flowers which turn towards the sun perfect their seeds; but -not the others; that is to say those which get only the reflection -of the sun. - -IX. - -_The Practice of Painting._ - -_It is hardly necessary to offer any excuses for the division -carried out in the arrangement of the text into practical -suggestions and theoretical enquiries. It was evidently intended by -Leonardo himself as we conclude from incidental remarks in the MSS. -(for instance No_ 110_). The fact that this arrangement was never -carried out either in the old MS. copies or in any edition since, is -easily accounted for by the general disorder which results from the -provisional distribution of the various chapters in the old copies. -We have every reason to believe that the earliest copyists, in -distributing the materials collected by them, did not in the least -consider the order in which the original MS.lay before them._ - -_It is evident that almost all the chapters which refer to the -calling and life of the painter--and which are here brought together -in the first section (Nos._ 482-508_)--may be referred to two -distinct periods in Leonardo's life; most of them can be dated as -belonging to the year_ 1492 _or to_ 1515. _At about this later time -Leonardo may have formed the project of completing his Libro della -Pittura, after an interval of some years, as it would seem, during -which his interest in the subject had fallen somewhat into the -background._ - -_In the second section, which treats first of the artist's studio, -the construction of a suitable window forms the object of careful -investigations; the special importance attached to this by Leonardo -is sufficiently obvious. His theory of the incidence of light which -was fully discussed in a former part of this work, was to him by no -means of mere abstract value, but, being deduced, as he says, from -experience (or experiment) was required to prove its utility in -practice. Connected with this we find suggestions for the choice of -a light with practical hints as to sketching a picture and some -other precepts of a practical character which must come under -consideration in the course of completing the painting. In all this -I have followed the same principle of arrangement in the text as was -carried out in the Theory of Painting, thus the suggestions for the -Perspective of a picture, (Nos._ 536-569_), are followed by the -theory of light and shade for the practical method of optics (Nos._ -548--566_) and this by the practical precepts or the treatment of -aerial perspective (_567--570_)._ - -_In the passage on Portrait and Figure Painting the principles of -painting as applied to a bust and head are separated and placed -first, since the advice to figure painters must have some connection -with the principles of the treatment of composition by which they -are followed._ - -_But this arrangement of the text made it seem advisable not to pick -out the practical precepts as to the representation of trees and -landscape from the close connection in which they were originally -placed--unlike the rest of the practical precepts--with the theory -of this branch of the subject. They must therefore be sought under -the section entitled Botany for Painters._ - -_As a supplement to the_ Libro di Pittura _I have here added those -texts which treat of the Painter's materials,--as chalk, drawing -paper, colours and their preparation, of the management of oils and -varnishes; in the appendix are some notes on chemical substances. -Possibly some of these, if not all, may have stood in connection -with the preparation of colours. It is in the very nature of things -that Leonardo's incidental indications as to colours and the like -should be now-a-days extremely obscure and could only be explained -by professional experts--by them even in but few instances. It might -therefore have seemed advisable to reproduce exactly the original -text without offering any translation. The rendering here given is -merely an attempt to suggest what Leonardo's meaning may have been._ - -_LOMAZZO tells us in his_ Trattato dell'arte della Pittura, Scultura -ed Architettura (Milano 1584, libro II, Cap. XIV): "Va discorrendo -ed argomentando Leonardo Vinci in un suo libro letto da me (?) -questi anni passati, ch'egli scrisse di mano stanca ai prieghi di -LUDOVICO SFORZA duca di Milano, in determinazione di questa -questione, se e piu nobile la pittura o la scultura; dicendo che -quanto piu un'arte porta seco fatica di corpo, e sudore, tanto piu e -vile, e men pregiata". _But the existence of any book specially -written for Lodovico il Moro on the superiority of Painting over -sculpture is perhaps mythical. The various passages in praise of -Painting as compared not merely with Sculpture but with Poetry, are -scattered among MSS. of very different dates._ - -_Besides, the way, in which the subject is discussed appears not to -support the supposition, that these texts were prepared at a special -request of the Duke._ - -I. - -MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING. - -How to ascertain the dispositions for an artistic career. - -482. - -A WARNING CONCERNING YOUTHS WISHING TO BE PAINTERS. - -Many are they who have a taste and love for drawing, but no talent; -and this will be discernible in boys who are not diligent and never -finish their drawings with shading. - -The course of instruction for an artist (483-485). - -483. - -The youth should first learn perspective, then the proportions of -objects. Then he may copy from some good master, to accustom himself -to fine forms. Then from nature, to confirm by practice the rules he -has learnt. Then see for a time the works of various masters. Then -get the habit of putting his art into practice and work. - -[Footnote: The Vatican copy and numerous abridgements all place this -chapter at the beginning of the _Trattato_, and in consequence -DUFRESNE and all subsequent editors have done the same. In the -Vatican copy however all the general considerations on the relation -of painting to the other arts are placed first, as introductory.] - -484. - -OF THE ORDER OF LEARNING TO DRAW. - -First draw from drawings by good masters done from works of art and -from nature, and not from memory; then from plastic work, with the -guidance of the drawing done from it; and then from good natural -models and this you must put into practice. - -485. - -PRECEPTS FOR DRAWING. - -The artist ought first to exercise his hand by copying drawings from -the hand of a good master. And having acquired that practice, under -the criticism of his master, he should next practise drawing objects -in relief of a good style, following the rules which will presently -be given. - -The study of the antique (486. 487). - -486. - -OF DRAWING. - -Which is best, to draw from nature or from the antique? and which is -more difficult to do outlines or light and shade? - -487. - -It is better to imitate [copy] the antique than modern work. - -[Footnote 486, 487: These are the only two passages in which -Leonardo alludes to the importance of antique art in the training of -an artist. The question asked in No. 486 remains unanswered by him -and it seems to me very doubtful whether the opinion stated in No. -487 is to be regarded as a reply to it. This opinion stands in the -MS. in a connection--as will be explained later on--which seems to -require us to limit its application to a single special case. At any -rate we may suspect that when Leonardo put the question, he felt -some hesitation as to the answer. Among his very numerous drawings I -have not been able to find a single study from the antique, though a -drawing in black chalk, at Windsor, of a man on horseback (PI. -LXXIII) may perhaps be a reminiscence of the statue of Marcus -Aurelius at Rome. It seems to me that the drapery in a pen and ink -drawing of a bust, also at Windsor, has been borrowed from an -antique model (Pl. XXX). G. G. Rossi has, I believe, correctly -interpreted Leonardo's feeling towards the antique in the following -note on this passage in manzi's edition, p. 501: "Sappiamo dalla -storia, che i valorosi artisti Toscani dell'et� dell'oro dell'arte -studiarono sugli antichi marmi raccolti dal Magnifico LORENZO DE' -MEDICI. Pare che il Vinci a tali monumenti non si accostasse. Quest' -uomo sempre riconosce per maestra la natura, e questo principio lo -stringeva alla sola imitazione d� essa"--Compare No. 10, 26--28 -footnote.] - -The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489). - -488. - -OF PAINTING. - -It is indispensable to a Painter who would be thoroughly familiar -with the limbs in all the positions and actions of which they are -capable, in the nude, to know the anatomy of the sinews, bones, -muscles and tendons so that, in their various movements and -exertions, he may know which nerve or muscle is the cause of each -movement and show those only as prominent and thickened, and not the -others all over [the limb], as many do who, to seem great -draughtsmen, draw their nude figures looking like wood, devoid of -grace; so that you would think you were looking at a sack of walnuts -rather than the human form, or a bundle of radishes rather than the -muscles of figures. - -489. - -HOW IT IS NECESSARY TO A PAINTER THAT HE SHOULD KNOW THE INTRINSIC -FORMS [STRUCTURE] OF MAN. - -The painter who is familiar with the nature of the sinews, muscles, -and tendons, will know very well, in giving movement to a limb, how -many and which sinews cause it; and which muscle, by swelling, -causes the contraction of that sinew; and which sinews, expanded -into the thinnest cartilage, surround and support the said muscle. -Thus he will variously and constantly demonstrate the different -muscles by means of the various attitudes of his figures, and will -not do, as many who, in a variety of movements, still display the -very same things [modelling] in the arms, back, breast and legs. And -these things are not to be regarded as minor faults. - -How to acquire practice. - -490. - -OF STUDY AND THE ORDER OF STUDY. - -I say that first you ought to learn the limbs and their mechanism, -and having this knowledge, their actions should come next, according -to the circumstances in which they occur in man. And thirdly to -compose subjects, the studies for which should be taken from natural -actions and made from time to time, as circumstances allow; and pay -attention to them in the streets and _piazze_ and fields, and note -them down with a brief indication of the forms; [Footnote 5: Lines -5-7 explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] -thus for a head make an o, and for an arm a straight or a bent line, -and the same for the legs and the body, [Footnote 7: Lines 5-7 -explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] and -when you return home work out these notes in a complete form. The -Adversary says that to acquire practice and do a great deal of work -it is better that the first period of study should be employed in -drawing various compositions done on paper or on walls by divers -masters, and that in this way practice is rapidly gained, and good -methods; to which I reply that the method will be good, if it is -based on works of good composition and by skilled masters. But since -such masters are so rare that there are but few of them to be found, -it is a surer way to go to natural objects, than to those which are -imitated from nature with great deterioration, and so form bad -methods; for he who can go to the fountain does not go to the -water-jar. - -[Footnote: This passage has been published by Dr. M. JORDAN, _Das -Malerbuck des L. da Vinci_, p. 89; his reading however varies -slightly from mine.] - -Industry and thoroughness the first conditions (491-493.) - -491. - -WHAT RULES SHOULD BE GIVEN TO BOYS LEARNING TO PAINT. - -We know for certain that sight is one of the most rapid actions we -can perform. In an instant we see an infinite number of forms, still -we only take in thoroughly one object at a time. Supposing that you, -Reader, were to glance rapidly at the whole of this written page, -you would instantly perceive that it was covered with various -letters; but you could not, in the time, recognise what the letters -were, nor what they were meant to tell. Hence you would need to see -them word by word, line by line to be able to understand the -letters. Again, if you wish to go to the top of a building you must -go up step by step; otherwise it will be impossible that you should -reach the top. Thus I say to you, whom nature prompts to pursue this -art, if you wish to have a sound knowledge of the forms of objects -begin with the details of them, and do not go on to the second -[step] till you have the first well fixed in memory and in practice. -And if you do otherwise you will throw away your time, or certainly -greatly prolong your studies. And remember to acquire diligence -rather than rapidity. - -492. - -HOW THAT DILIGENCE [ACCURACY] SHOULD FIRST BE LEARNT RATHER THAN -RAPID EXECUTION. - -If you, who draw, desire to study well and to good purpose, always -go slowly to work in your drawing; and discriminate in. the lights, -which have the highest degree of brightness, and to what extent and -likewise in the shadows, which are those that are darker than the -others and in what way they intermingle; then their masses and the -relative proportions of one to the other. And note in their -outlines, which way they tend; and which part of the lines is curved -to one side or the other, and where they are more or less -conspicuous and consequently broad or fine; and finally, that your -light and shade blend without strokes and borders [but] looking like -smoke. And when you have thus schooled your hand and your judgment -by such diligence, you will acquire rapidity before you are aware. - -The artist's private life and choice of company (493-494). - -493. - -OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN THE COUNTRY. - -A painter needs such mathematics as belong to painting. And the -absence of all companions who are alienated from his studies; his -brain must be easily impressed by the variety of objects, which -successively come before him, and also free from other cares -[Footnote 6: Leonardo here seems to be speaking of his own method of -work as displayed in his MSS. and this passage explains, at least in -part, the peculiarities in their arrangement.]. And if, when -considering and defining one subject, a second subject -intervenes--as happens when an object occupies the mind, then he -must decide which of these cases is the more difficult to work out, -and follow that up until it becomes quite clear, and then work out -the explanation of the other [Footnote 11: Leonardo here seems to be -speaking of his own method of work as displayed in his MSS. and this -passage explains, at least in part, the peculiarities in their -arrangement.]. And above all he must keep his mind as clear as the -surface of a mirror, which assumes colours as various as those of -the different objects. And his companions should be like him as to -their studies, and if such cannot be found he should keep his -speculations to himself alone, so that at last he will find no more -useful company [than his own]. - -[Footnote: In the title line Leonardo had originally written _del -pictore filosofo_ (the philosophical painter), but he himself struck -out_filosofo_. Compare in No. 363 _pictora notomista_ (anatomical -painter). The original text is partly reproduced on Pl. CI.] - -494. - -OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN HIS STUDIO. - -To the end that well-being of the body may not injure that of the -mind, the painter or draughtsman must remain solitary, and -particularly when intent on those studies and reflections which will -constantly rise up before his eye, giving materials to be well -stored in the memory. While you are alone you are entirely your own -[master] and if you have one companion you are but half your own, -and the less so in proportion to the indiscretion of his behaviour. -And if you have many companions you will fall deeper into the same -trouble. If you should say: "I will go my own way and withdraw -apart, the better to study the forms of natural objects", I tell -you, you will not be able to help often listening to their chatter. -And so, since one cannot serve two masters, you will badly fill the -part of a companion, and carry out your studies of art even worse. -And if you say: "I will withdraw so far that their words cannot -reach me and they cannot disturb me", I can tell you that you will -be thought mad. But, you see, you will at any rate be alone. And if -you must have companions ship find it in your studio. This may -assist you to have the advantages which arise from various -speculations. All other company may be highly mischievous. - -The distribution of time for studying (495-497). - -495. - -OF WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO DRAW WITH COMPANIONS OR NOT. - -I say and insist that drawing in company is much better than alone, -for many reasons. The first is that you would be ashamed to be seen -behindhand among the students, and such shame will lead you to -careful study. Secondly, a wholesome emulation will stimulate you to -be among those who are more praised than yourself, and this praise -of others will spur you on. Another is that you can learn from the -drawings of others who do better than yourself; and if you are -better than they, you can profit by your contempt for their defects, -while the praise of others will incite you to farther merits. - -[Footnote: The contradiction by this passage of the foregoing -chapter is only apparent. It is quite clear, from the nature of the -reasoning which is here used to prove that it is more improving to -work with others than to work alone, that the studies of pupils only -are under consideration here.] - -496. - -OF STUDYING, IN THE DARK, WHEN YOU WAKE, OR IN BED BEFORE YOU GO TO -SLEEP. - -I myself have proved it to be of no small use, when in bed in the -dark, to recall in fancy the external details of forms previously -studied, or other noteworthy things conceived by subtle speculation; -and this is certainly an admirable exercise, and useful for -impressing things on the memory. - -497. - -OF THE TIME FOR STUDYING SELECTION OF SUBJECTS. - -Winter evenings ought to be employed by young students in looking -over the things prepared during the summer; that is, all the -drawings from the nude done in the summer should be brought together -and a choice made of the best [studies of] limbs and bodies among -them, to apply in practice and commit to memory. - -OF POSITIONS. - -After this in the following summer you should select some one who is -well grown and who has not been brought up in doublets, and so may -not be of stiff carriage, and make him go through a number of agile -and graceful actions; and if his muscles do not show plainly within -the outlines of his limbs that does not matter at all. It is enough -that you can see good attitudes and you can correct [the drawing of] -the limbs by those you studied in the winter. - -[Footnote: An injunction to study in the evening occurs also in No. -524.] - -On the productive power of minor artists (498-501). - -498. - -He is a poor disciple who does not excel his master. - -499. - -Nor is the painter praiseworthy who does but one thing well, as the -nude figure, heads, draperies, animals, landscapes or other such -details, irrespective of other work; for there can be no mind so -inept, that after devoting itself to one single thing and doing it -constantly, it should fail to do it well. - -[Footnote: In MANZI'S edition (p. 502) the painter G. G. Bossi -indignantly remarks on this passage. "_Parla il Vince in questo -luogo come se tutti gli artisti avessero quella sublimita d'ingegno -capace di abbracciare tutte le cose, di cui era egli dotato"_ And he -then mentions the case of CLAUDE LORRAIN. But he overlooks the fact -that in Leonardo's time landscape painting made no pretensions to -independence but was reckoned among the details (_particulari_, -lines 3, 4).] - -500. - -THAT A PAINTER IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS HE IS UNIVERSAL. - -Some may distinctly assert that those persons are under a delusion -who call that painter a good master who can do nothing well but a -head or a figure. Certainly this is no great achievement; after -studying one single thing for a life-time who would not have -attained some perfection in it? But, since we know that painting -embraces and includes in itself every object produced by nature or -resulting from the fortuitous actions of men, in short, all that the -eye can see, he seems to me but a poor master who can only do a -figure well. For do you not perceive how many and various actions -are performed by men only; how many different animals there are, as -well as trees, plants, flowers, with many mountainous regions and -plains, springs and rivers, cities with public and private -buildings, machines, too, fit for the purposes of men, divers -costumes, decorations and arts? And all these things ought to be -regarded as of equal importance and value, by the man who can be -termed a good painter. - -501. - -OF THE MISERABLE PRETENCES MADE BY THOSE WHO FALSELY AND UNWORTHILY -ACQUIRE THE NAME OF PAINTERS. - -Now there is a certain race of painters who, having studied but -little, must need take as their standard of beauty mere gold and -azure, and these, with supreme conceit, declare that they will not -give good work for miserable payment, and that they could do as well -as any other if they were well paid. But, ye foolish folks! cannot -such artists keep some good work, and then say: this is a costly -work and this more moderate and this is average work and show that -they can work at all prices? - -A caution against one-sided study. - -502. - -HOW, IN IMPORTANT WORKS, A MAN SHOULD NOT TRUST ENTIRELY TO HIS -MEMORY WITHOUT CONDESCENDING TO DRAW FROM NATURE. - -Any master who should venture to boast that he could remember all -the forms and effects of nature would certainly appear to me to be -graced with extreme ignorance, inasmuch as these effects are -infinite and our memory is not extensive enough to retain them. -Hence, O! painter, beware lest the lust of gain should supplant in -you the dignity of art; for the acquisition of glory is a much -greater thing than the glory of riches. Hence, for these and other -reasons which might be given, first strive in drawing to represent -your intention to the eye by expressive forms, and the idea -originally formed in your imagination; then go on taking out or -putting in, until you have satisfied yourself. Then have living men, -draped or nude, as you may have purposed in your work, and take care -that in dimensions and size, as determined by perspective, nothing -is left in the work which is not in harmony with reason and the -effects in nature. And this will be the way to win honour in your -art. - -How to acquire universality (503-506). - -503. - -OF VARIETY IN THE FIGURES. - -The painter should aim at universality, because there is a great -want of self-respect in doing one thing well and another badly, as -many do who study only the [rules of] measure and proportion in the -nude figure and do not seek after variety; for a man may be well -proportioned, or he may be fat and short, or tall and thin, or -medium. And a painter who takes no account of these varieties always -makes his figures on one pattern so that they might all be taken for -brothers; and this is a defect that demands stern reprehension. - -504. - -HOW SOMETHING MAY BE LEARNT EVERYWHERE. - -Nature has beneficently provided that throughout the world you may -find something to imitate. - -505. - -OF THE MEANS OF ACQUIRING UNIVERSALITY. - -It is an easy matter to men to acquire universality, for all -terrestrial animals resemble each other as to their limbs, that is -in their muscles, sinews and bones; and they do not vary excepting -in length or in thickness, as will be shown under Anatomy. But then -there are aquatic animals which are of great variety; I will not try -to convince the painter that there is any rule for them for they are -of infinite variety, and so is the insect tribe. - -506. - -PAINTING. - -The mind of the painter must resemble a mirror, which always takes -the colour of the object it reflects and is completely occupied by -the images of as many objects as are in front of it. Therefore you -must know, Oh Painter! that you cannot be a good one if you are not -the universal master of representing by your art every kind of form -produced by nature. And this you will not know how to do if you do -not see them, and retain them in your mind. Hence as you go through -the fields, turn your attention to various objects, and, in turn -look now at this thing and now at that, collecting a store of divers -facts selected and chosen from those of less value. But do not do -like some painters who, when they are wearied with exercising their -fancy dismiss their work from their thoughts and take exercise in -walking for relaxation, but still keep fatigue in their mind which, -though they see various objects [around them], does not apprehend -them; but, even when they meet friends or relations and are saluted -by them, although they see and hear them, take no more cognisance of -them than if they had met so much empty air. - -Useful games and exercises (507. 508). - -507. - -OF GAMES TO BE PLAYED BY THOSE WHO DRAW. - -When, Oh draughtsmen, you desire to find relaxation in games you -should always practise such things as may be of use in your -profession, by giving your eye good practice in judging accurately -of the breadth and length of objects. Thus, to accustom your mind to -such things, let one of you draw a straight line at random on a -wall, and each of you, taking a blade of grass or of straw in his -hand, try to cut it to the length that the line drawn appears to him -to be, standing at a distance of 10 braccia; then each one may go up -to the line to measure the length he has judged it to be. And he who -has come nearest with his measure to the length of the pattern is -the best man, and the winner, and shall receive the prize you have -settled beforehand. Again you should take forshortened measures: -that is take a spear, or any other cane or reed, and fix on a point -at a certain distance; and let each one estimate how many times he -judges that its length will go into that distance. Again, who will -draw best a line one braccio long, which shall be tested by a -thread. And such games give occasion to good practice for the eye, -which is of the first importance in painting. - -508. - -A WAY OF DEVELOPING AND AROUSING THE MIND TO VARIOUS INVENTIONS. - -I cannot forbear to mention among these precepts a new device for -study which, although it may seem but trivial and almost ludicrous, -is nevertheless extremely useful in arousing the mind to various -inventions. And this is, when you look at a wall spotted with -stains, or with a mixture of stones, if you have to devise some -scene, you may discover a resemblance to various landscapes, -beautified with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, wide -valleys and hills in varied arrangement; or again you may see -battles and figures in action; or strange faces and costumes, and an -endless variety of objects, which you could reduce to complete and -well drawn forms. And these appear on such walls confusedly, like -the sound of bells in whose jangle you may find any name or word you -choose to imagine. - -II. - -THE ARTIST'S STUDIO.--INSTRUMENTS AND HELPS FOR THE APPLICATION OF -PERSPECTIVE.--ON JUDGING OF A PICTURE. - -On the size of the studio. - -509. - -Small rooms or dwellings discipline the mind, large ones weaken it. - -On the construction of windows (510-512). - -510. - -The larger the wall the less the light will be. - -511. - -The different kinds of light afforded in cellars by various forms of -windows. The least useful and the coldest is the window at _a_. The -most useful, the lightest and warmest and most open to the sky is -the window at _b_. The window at _c_ is of medium utility. - -[Footnote: From a reference to the notes on the right light for -painting it becomes evident that the observations made on -cellar-windows have a direct bearing on the construction of the -studio-window. In the diagram _b_ as well as in that under No. 510 -the window-opening is reduced to a minimum, but only, it would seem, -in order to emphasize the advantage of walls constructed on the plan -there shown.] - -512. - -OF THE PAINTER'S WINDOW AND ITS ADVANTAGE. - -The painter who works from nature should have a window, which he can -raise and lower. The reason is that sometimes you will want to -finish a thing you are drawing, close to the light. - -Let _a b c d_ be the chest on which the work may be raised or -lowered, so that the work moves up and down and not the painter. And -every evening you can let down the work and shut it up above so that -in the evening it may be in the fashion of a chest which, when shut -up, may serve the purpose of a bench. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 2. In this plate the lines have -unfortunately lost their sharpness, for the accidental loss of the -negative has necessitated a reproduction from a positive. But having -formerly published this sketch by another process, in VON LUTZOW'S -_Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_ (Vol. XVII, pg. 13) I have -reproduced it here in the text. The sharpness of the outline in the -original sketch is here preserved but it gives it from the reversed -side.] - -On the best light for painting (513-520). - -513. - -Which light is best for drawing from nature; whether high or low, or -large or small, or strong and broad, or strong and small, or broad -and weak or small and weak? - -[Footnote: The question here put is unanswered in the original MS.] - -514. - -OF THE QUALITY OF THE LIGHT. - -A broad light high up and not too strong will render the details of -objects very agreeable. - -515. - -THAT THE LIGHT FOR DRAWING FROM NATURE SHOULD BE HIGH UP. - -The light for drawing from nature should come from the North in -order that it may not vary. And if you have it from the South, keep -the window screened with cloth, so that with the sun shining the -whole day the light may not vary. The height of the light should be -so arranged as that every object shall cast a shadow on the ground -of the same length as itself. - -516. - -THE KIND OF LIGHT REQUISITE FOR PAINTING LIGHT AND SHADE. - -An object will display the greatest difference of light and shade -when it is seen in the strongest light, as by sunlight, or, at -night, by the light of a fire. But this should not be much used in -painting because the works remain crude and ungraceful. - -An object seen in a moderate light displays little difference in the -light and shade; and this is the case towards evening or when the -day is cloudy, and works then painted are tender and every kind of -face becomes graceful. Thus, in every thing extremes are to be -avoided: Too much light gives crudeness; too little prevents our -seeing. The medium is best. - -OF SMALL LIGHTS. - -Again, lights cast from a small window give strong differences of -light and shade, all the more if the room lighted by it be large, -and this is not good for painting. - -517. - -PAINTING. - -The luminous air which enters by passing through orifices in walls -into dark rooms will render the place less dark in proportion as the -opening cuts into the walls which surround and cover in the -pavement. - -518. - -OF THE QUALITY OF LIGHT. - -In proportion to the number of times that _a b_ goes into _c d_ will -it be more luminous than _c d_. And similarly, in proportion as the -point _e_ goes into _c d_ will it be more luminous than _c d;_ and -this light is useful for carvers of delicate work. [Footnote 5: For -the same reason a window thus constructed would be convenient for an -illuminator or a miniature painter.] - -[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON in his edition of the Paris MS. A remarks on -this passage: _"La figure porte les lettres_ f _et_ g, _auxquelles -rien ne renvoie dans l'explication; par consequent, cette -explication est incomplete. La figure semblerait, d'ailleurs, se -rapporter a l'effet de la reflexion par un miroir concave."_ So far -as I can see the text is not imperfect, nor is the sense obscure. It -is hardly necessary to observe that _c d_ here indicate the wall of -the room opposite to the window _e_ and the semicircle described by -_f g_ stands for the arch of the sky; this occurs in various -diagrams, for example under 511. A similar semicircle, Pl III, No. 2 -(and compare No. 149) is expressly called '_orizonte_' in writing.] - -519. - -That the light should fall upon a picture from one window only. This -may be seen in the case of objects in this form. If you want to -represent a round ball at a certain height you must make it oval in -this shape, and stand so far off as that by foreshortening it -appears round. - -520. - -OF SELECTING THE LIGHT WHICH GIVES MOST GRACE TO FACES. - -If you should have a court yard that you can at pleasure cover with -a linen awning that light will be good. Or when you want to take a -portrait do it in dull weather, or as evening falls, making the -sitter stand with his back to one of the walls of the court yard. -Note in the streets, as evening falls, the faces of the men and -women, and when the weather is dull, what softness and delicacy you -may perceive in them. Hence, Oh Painter! have a court arranged with -the walls tinted black and a narrow roof projecting within the -walls. It should be 10 braccia wide and 20 braccia long and 10 -braccia high and covered with a linen awning; or else paint a work -towards evening or when it is cloudy or misty, and this is a perfect -light. - -On various helps in preparing a picture (521-530). - -521. - -To draw a nude figure from nature, or any thing else, hold in your -hand a plumb-line to enable you to judge of the relative position -of objects. - -522. - -OF DRAWING AN OBJECT. - -When you draw take care to set up a principal line which you must -observe all throughout the object you are drawing; every thing -should bear relation to the direction of this principal line. - -523. - -OF A MODE OF DRAWING A PLACE ACCURATELY. - -Have a piece of glass as large as a half sheet of royal folio paper -and set thus firmly in front of your eyes that is, between your eye -and the thing you want to draw; then place yourself at a distance of -2/3 of a braccia from the glass fixing your head with a machine in -such a way that you cannot move it at all. Then shut or entirely -cover one eye and with a brush or red chalk draw upon the glass that -which you see beyond it; then trace it on paper from the glass, -afterwards transfer it onto good paper, and paint it if you like, -carefully attending to the arial perspective. - -HOW TO LEARN TO PLACE YOUR FIGURES CORRECTLY. - -If you want to acquire a practice of good and correct attitudes for -your figures, make a square frame or net, and square it out with -thread; place this between your eye and the nude model you are -drawing, and draw these same squares on the paper on which you mean -to draw the figure, but very delicately. Then place a pellet of wax -on a spot of the net which will serve as a fixed point, which, -whenever you look at your model, must cover the pit of the throat; -or, if his back is turned, it may cover one of the vertebrae of the -neck. Thus these threads will guide you as to each part of the body -which, in any given attitude will be found below the pit of the -throat, or the angles of the shoulders, or the nipples, or hips and -other parts of the body; and the transverse lines of the net will -show you how much the figure is higher over the leg on which it is -posed than over the other, and the same with the hips, and the knees -and the feet. But always fix the net perpendicularly so that all the -divisions that you see the model divided into by the net work -correspond with your drawing of the model on the net work you have -sketched. The squares you draw may be as much smaller than those of -the net as you wish that your figure should be smaller than nature. -Afterwards remember when drawing figures, to use the rule of the -corresponding proportions of the limbs as you have learnt it from -the frame and net. This should be 3 braccia and a half high and 3 -braccia wide; 7 braccia distant from you and 1 braccio from the -model. - -[Footnote: Leonardo is commonly credited with the invention of the -arrangement of a plate of glass commonly known as the "vertical -plane." Professor E. VON BRUCKE in his _"Bruchstucke aus der Theorie -der bildenden Kunste,"_ Leipzig 1877, pg. 3, writes on this -contrivance. _"Unsere Glastafel ist die sogenannte Glastafel des -Leonardo da Vinci, die in Gestalt einer Glastafel vorgestellte -Bildflache."_] - -524. - -A METHOD OF DRAWING AN OBJECT IN RELIEF AT NIGHT. - -Place a sheet of not too transparent paper between the relievo and -the light and you can draw thus very well. - -[Footnote: Bodies thus illuminated will show on the surface of the -paper how the copyist has to distribute light and shade.] - -525. - -If you want to represent a figure on a wall, the wall being -foreshortened, while the figure is to appear in its proper form, and -as standing free from the wall, you must proceed thus: have a thin -plate of iron and make a small hole in the centre; this hole must be -round. Set a light close to it in such a position as that it shines -through the central hole, then place any object or figure you please -so close to the wall that it touches it and draw the outline of the -shadow on the wall; then fill in the shade and add the lights; place -the person who is to see it so that he looks through that same hole -where at first the light was; and you will never be able to persuade -yourself that the image is not detached from the wall. - -[Footnote: _uno piccolo spiracelo nel mezzo_. M. RAVAISSON, in his -edition of MS. A (Paris), p. 52, reads _nel muro_--evidently a -mistake for _nel mezzo_ which is quite plainly written; and he -translates it _"fait lui une petite ouverture dans le mur,"_ adding -in a note: _"les mots 'dans le mur' paraissent etre de trop. -Leonardo a du les ecrire par distraction"_ But _'nel mezzo'_ is -clearly legible even on the photograph facsimile given by Ravaisson -himself, and the objection he raises disappears at once. It is not -always wise or safe to try to prove our author's absence of mind or -inadvertence by apparent difficulties in the sense or connection of -the text.] - -526. - -TO DRAW A FIGURE ON A WALL 12 BRACCIA HIGH WHICH SHALL LOOK 24 -BRACCIA HIGH. - -If you wish to draw a figure or any other object to look 24 braccia -high you must do it in this way. First, on the surface _m r_ draw -half the man you wish to represent; then the other half; then put on -the vault _m n_ [the rest of] the figure spoken of above; first set -out the vertical plane on the floor of a room of the same shape as -the wall with the coved part on which you are to paint your figure. -Then, behind it, draw a figure set out in profile of whatever size -you please, and draw lines from it to the point _f_ and, as these -lines cut _m n_ on the vertical plane, so will the figure come on -the wall, of which the vertical plane gives a likeness, and you will -have all the [relative] heights and prominences of the figure. And -the breadth or thickness which are on the upright wall _m n_ are to -be drawn in their proper form, since, as the wall recedes the figure -will be foreshortened by itself; but [that part of] the figure which -goes into the cove you must foreshorten, as if it were standing -upright; this diminution you must set out on a flat floor and there -must stand the figure which is to be transferred from the vertical -plane _r n_[Footnote 17: _che leverai dalla pariete r n_. The -letters refer to the larger sketch, No. 3 on Pl. XXXI.] in its real -size and reduce it once more on a vertical plane; and this will be a -good method [Footnote 18: Leonardo here says nothing as to how the -image foreshortened by perspective and thus produced on the vertical -plane is to be transferred to the wall; but from what is said in -Nos. 525 and 523 we may conclude that he was familiar with the -process of casting the enlarged shadow of a squaring net on the -surface of a wall to guide him in drawing the figure. - -_Pariete di rilieuo; "sur une parai en relief"_ (RAVAISSON). _"Auf -einer Schnittlinie zum Aufrichten"_ (LUDWIG). The explanation of -this puzzling expression must be sought in No. 545, lines 15-17.]. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. 3. The second sketch, which in the plate is -incomplete, is here reproduced and completed from the original to -illustrate the text. In the original the larger diagram is placed -between lines 5 and 6. - -1. 2. C. A. 157a; 463a has the similar heading: '_del cressciere -della figura_', and the text begins: "_Se voli fare 1a figura -grande_ b c" but here it breaks off. The translation here given -renders the meaning of the passage as I think it must be understood. -The MS. is perfectly legible and the construction of the sentence is -simple and clear; difficulties can only arise from the very fullness -of the meaning, particularly towards the end of the passage.] - -527. - -If you would to draw a cube in an angle of a wall, first draw the -object in its own proper shape and raise it onto a vertical plane -until it resembles the angle in which the said object is to be -represented. - -528. - -Why are paintings seen more correctly in a mirror than out of it? - -529. - -HOW THE MIRROR IS THE MASTER [AND GUIDE] OF PAINTERS. - -When you want to see if your picture corresponds throughout with the -objects you have drawn from nature, take a mirror and look in that -at the reflection of the real things, and compare the reflected -image with your picture, and consider whether the subject of the two -images duly corresponds in both, particularly studying the mirror. -You should take the mirror for your guide--that is to say a flat -mirror--because on its surface the objects appear in many respects -as in a painting. Thus you see, in a painting done on a flat -surface, objects which appear in relief, and in the mirror--also a -flat surface--they look the same. The picture has one plane surface -and the same with the mirror. The picture is intangible, in so far -as that which appears round and prominent cannot be grasped in the -hands; and it is the same with the mirror. And since you can see -that the mirror, by means of outlines, shadows and lights, makes -objects appear in relief, you, who have in your colours far stronger -lights and shades than those in the mirror, can certainly, if you -compose your picture well, make that also look like a natural scene -reflected in a large mirror. - -[Footnote: I understand the concluding lines of this passage as -follows: If you draw the upper half a figure on a large sheet of -paper laid out on the floor of a room (_sala be piana_) to the same -scale (_con le sue vere grosseze_) as the lower half, already drawn -upon the wall (lines 10, 11)you must then reduce them on a '_pariete -di rilievo_,' a curved vertical plane which serves as a model to -reproduce the form of the vault.] - -530. - -OF JUDGING YOUR OWN PICTURES. - -We know very well that errors are better recognised in the works of -others than in our own; and that often, while reproving little -faults in others, you may ignore great ones in yourself. To avoid -such ignorance, in the first place make yourself a master of -perspective, then acquire perfect knowledge of the proportions of -men and other animals, and also, study good architecture, that is so -far as concerns the forms of buildings and other objects which are -on the face of the earth; these forms are infinite, and the better -you know them the more admirable will your work be. And in cases -where you lack experience do not shrink from drawing them from -nature. But, to carry out my promise above [in the title]--I say -that when you paint you should have a flat mirror and often look at -your work as reflected in it, when you will see it reversed, and it -will appear to you like some other painter's work, so you will be -better able to judge of its faults than in any other way. Again, it -is well that you should often leave off work and take a little -relaxation, because, when you come back to it you are a better -judge; for sitting too close at work may greatly deceive you. Again, -it is good to retire to a distance because the work looks smaller -and your eye takes in more of it at a glance and sees more easily -the discords or disproportion in the limbs and colours of the -objects. - -On the management of works (531. 532). - -531. - -OF A METHOD OF LEARNING WELL BY HEART. - -When you want to know a thing you have studied in your memory -proceed in this way: When you have drawn the same thing so many -times that you think you know it by heart, test it by drawing it -without the model; but have the model traced on flat thin glass and -lay this on the drawing you have made without the model, and note -carefully where the tracing does not coincide with your drawing, and -where you find you have gone wrong; and bear in mind not to repeat -the same mistakes. Then return to the model, and draw the part in -which you were wrong again and again till you have it well in your -mind. If you have no flat glass for tracing on, take some very thin -kidts-kin parchment, well oiled and dried. And when you have used it -for one drawing you can wash it clean with a sponge and make a -second. - -532. - -THAT A PAINTER OUGHT TO BE CURIOUS TO HEAR THE OPINIONS OF EVERY ONE -ON HIS WORK. - -Certainly while a man is painting he ought not to shrink from -hearing every opinion. For we know very well that a man, though he -may not be a painter, is familiar with the forms of other men and -very capable of judging whether they are hump backed, or have one -shoulder higher or lower than the other, or too big a mouth or nose, -and other defects; and, as we know that men are competent to judge -of the works of nature, how much more ought we to admit that they -can judge of our errors; since you know how much a man may be -deceived in his own work. And if you are not conscious of this in -yourself study it in others and profit by their faults. Therefore be -curious to hear with patience the opinions of others, consider and -weigh well whether those who find fault have ground or not for -blame, and, if so amend; but, if not make as though you had not -heard, or if he should be a man you esteem show him by argument the -cause of his mistake. - -On the limitations of painting (533-535) - -533. - -HOW IN SMALL OBJECTS ERRORS ARE LESS EVIDENT THAN IN LARGE ONES. - -In objects of minute size the extent of error is not so perceptible -as in large ones; and the reason is that if this small object is a -representation of a man or of some other animal, from the immense -diminution the details cannot be worked out by the artist with the -finish that is requisite. Hence it is not actually complete; and, -not being complete, its faults cannot be determined. For instance: -Look at a man at a distance of 300 braccia and judge attentively -whether he be handsome or ugly, or very remarkable or of ordinary -appearance. You will find that with the utmost effort you cannot -persuade yourself to decide. And the reason is that at such a -distance the man is so much diminished that the character of the -details cannot be determined. And if you wish to see how much this -man is diminished [by distance] hold one of your fingers at a span's -distance from your eye, and raise or lower it till the top joint -touches the feet of the figure you are looking at, and you will see -an incredible reduction. For this reason we often doubt as to the -person of a friend at a distance. - -534. - -WHY A PAINTING CAN NEVER APPEAR DETACHED AS NATURAL OBJECTS DO. - -Painters often fall into despair of imitating nature when they see -their pictures fail in that relief and vividness which objects have -that are seen in a mirror; while they allege that they have colours -which for brightness or depth far exceed the strength of light and -shade in the reflections in the mirror, thus displaying their own -ignorance rather than the real cause, because they do not know it. -It is impossible that painted objects should appear in such relief -as to resemble those reflected in the mirror, although both are seen -on a flat surface, unless they are seen with only one eye; and the -reason is that two eyes see one object behind another as _a_ and _b_ -see _m_ and _n_. _m_ cannot exactly occupy [the space of] _n_ -because the base of the visual lines is so broad that the second -body is seen beyond the first. But if you close one eye, as at _s_ -the body _f_ will conceal _r_, because the line of sight proceeds -from a single point and makes its base in the first body, whence the -second, of the same size, can never be seen. - -[Footnote: This passage contains the solution of the problem -proposed in No. 29, lines 10-14. Leonardo was evidently familiar -with the law of optics on which the construction of the stereoscope -depends. Compare E. VON BRUCKE, _Bruchstucke aus der Theorie der -bildenden Kunste_, pg. 69: "_Schon Leonardo da Vinci wusste, dass -ein noch so gut gemaltes Bild nie den vollen Eindruck der -Korperlichkeit geben kann, wie ihn die Natur selbst giebt. Er -erklart dies auch in Kap. LIII und Kap. CCCXLI_ (ed. DU FRESNE) -_des_ 'Trattato' _in sachgemasser Weise aus dem Sehen mit beiden -Augen_." - -Chap. 53 of DU FRESNE'S edition corresponds to No. 534 of this -work.] - -535. - -WHY OF TWO OBJECTS OF EQUAL SIZE A PAINTED ONE WILL LOOK LARGER THAN -A SOLID ONE. - -The reason of this is not so easy to demonstrate as many others. -Still I will endeavour to accomplish it, if not wholly, at any rate -in part. The perspective of diminution demonstrates by reason, that -objects diminish in proportion as they are farther from the eye, and -this reasoning is confirmed by experience. Hence, the lines of sight -that extend between the object and the eye, when they are directed -to the surface of a painting are all intersected at uniform limits, -while those lines which are directed towards a piece of sculpture -are intersected at various limits and are of various lengths. The -lines which are longest extend to a more remote limb than the others -and therefore that limb looks smaller. As there are numerous lines -each longer than the others--since there are numerous parts, each -more remote than the others and these, being farther off, -necessarily appear smaller, and by appearing smaller it follows that -their diminution makes the whole mass of the object look smaller. -But this does not occur in painting; since the lines of sight all -end at the same distance there can be no diminution, hence the parts -not being diminished the whole object is undiminished, and for this -reason painting does not diminish, as a piece of sculpture does. - -On the choice of a position (536-537) - -536. - -HOW HIGH THE POINT OF SIGHT SHOULD BE PLACED. - -The point of sight must be at the level of the eye of an ordinary -man, and the farthest limit of the plain where it touches the sky -must be placed at the level of that line where the earth and sky -meet; excepting mountains, which are independent of it. - -537. - -OF THE WAY TO DRAW FIGURES FOR HISTORICAL PICTURES. - -The painter must always study on the wall on which he is to picture -a story the height of the position where he wishes to arrange his -figures; and when drawing his studies for them from nature he must -place himself with his eye as much below the object he is drawing -as, in the picture, it will have to be above the eye of the -spectator. Otherwise the work will look wrong. - -The apparent size of figures in a picture (538-539) - -538. - -OF PLACING A FIGURE IN THE FOREGROUND OF A HISTORICAL PICTURE. - -You must make the foremost figure in the picture less than the size -of nature in proportion to the number of braccia at which you place -it from the front line, and make the others in proportion by the -above rule. - -539. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -You are asked, O Painter, why the figures you draw on a small scale -according to the laws of perspective do not appear--notwithstanding -the demonstration of distance--as large as real ones--their height -being the same as in those painted on the wall. - -And why [painted] objects seen at a small distance appear larger -than the real ones? - -The right position of the artist, when painting, and of the -spectator (540-547) - -540. - -OF PAINTING. - -When you draw from nature stand at a distance of 3 times the height -of the object you wish to draw. - -541. - -OF DRAWING FROM RELIEF. - -In drawing from the round the draughtsman should so place himself -that the eye of the figure he is drawing is on a level with his own. -This should be done with any head he may have to represent from -nature because, without exception, the figures or persons you meet -in the streets have their eyes on the same level as your own; and if -you place them higher or lower you will see that your drawing will -not be true. - -542. - -WHY GROUPS OF FIGURES ONE ABOVE ANOTHER ARE TO BE AVOIDED. - -The universal practice which painters adopt on the walls of chapels -is greatly and reasonably to be condemned. Inasmuch as they -represent one historical subject on one level with a landscape and -buildings, and then go up a step and paint another, varying the -point [of sight], and then a third and a fourth, in such a way as -that on one wall there are 4 points of sight, which is supreme folly -in such painters. We know that the point of sight is opposite the -eye of the spectator of the scene; and if you would [have me] tell -you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several -pictures on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out -the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of -the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more -important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees -the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you -can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of -the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the -figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or -clouds or similar objects; otherwise do not trouble yourself with it -for your whole work will be wrong. - -543. - -A PICTURE OF OBJECTS IN PERSPECTIVE WILL LOOK MORE LIFELIKE WHEN -SEEN FROM THE POINT FROM WHICH THE OBJECTS WERE DRAWN. - -If you want to represent an object near to you which is to have the -effect of nature, it is impossible that your perspective should not -look wrong, with every false relation and disagreement of proportion -that can be imagined in a wretched work, unless the spectator, when -he looks at it, has his eye at the very distance and height and -direction where the eye or the point of sight was placed in doing -this perspective. Hence it would be necessary to make a window, or -rather a hole, of the size of your face through which you can look -at the work; and if you do this, beyond all doubt your work, if it -is correct as to light and shade, will have the effect of nature; -nay you will hardly persuade yourself that those objects are -painted; otherwise do not trouble yourself about it, unless indeed -you make your view at least 20 times as far off as the greatest -width or height of the objects represented, and this will satisfy -any spectator placed anywhere opposite to the picture. - -If you want the proof briefly shown, take a piece of wood in the -form of a little column, eight times as high as it is thick, like a -column without any plinth or capital; then mark off on a flat wall -40 equal spaces, equal to its width so that between them they make -40 columns resembling your little column; you then must fix, -opposite the centre space, and at 4 braccia from the wall, a thin -strip of iron with a small round hole in the middle about as large -as a big pearl. Close to this hole place a light touching it. Then -place your column against each mark on the wall and draw the outline -of its shadow; afterwards shade it and look through the hole in the -iron plate. - -[Footnote: In the original there is a wide space between lines 3 and -4 in which we find two sketches not belonging to the text. It is -unnecessary to give prominence to the points in which my reading -differs from that of M. RAVAISSON or to justify myself, since they -are all of secondary importance and can also be immediately verified -from the photograph facsimile in his edition.] - -544. - -A diminished object should be seen from the same distance, height -and direction as the point of sight of your eye, or else your -knowledge will produce no good effect. - -And if you will not, or cannot, act on this principle--because as -the plane on which you paint is to be seen by several persons you -would need several points of sight which would make it look -discordant and wrong--place yourself at a distance of at least 10 -times the size of the objects. - -The lesser fault you can fall into then, will be that of -representing all the objects in the foreground of their proper size, -and on whichever side you are standing the objects thus seen will -diminish themselves while the spaces between them will have no -definite ratio. For, if you place yourself in the middle of a -straight row [of objects], and look at several columns arranged in a -line you will see, beyond a few columns separated by intervals, that -the columns touch; and beyond where they touch they cover each -other, till the last column projects but very little beyond the last -but one. Thus the spaces between the columns are by degrees entirely -lost. So, if your method of perspective is good, it will produce the -same effect; this effect results from standing near the line in -which the columns are placed. This method is not satisfactory unless -the objects seen are viewed from a small hole, in the middle of -which is your point of sight; but if you proceed thus your work will -be perfect and will deceive the beholder, who will see the columns -as they are here figured. - -Here the eye is in the middle, at the point _a_ and near to the -columns. - -[Footnote: The diagram which stands above this chapter in the -original with the note belonging to it: "a b _e la ripruova_" (_a b_ -is the proof) has obviously no connection with the text. The second -sketch alone is reproduced and stands in the original between lines -22 and 23.] - -545. - -If you cannot arrange that those who look at your work should stand -at one particular point, when constructing your work, stand back -until your eye is at least 20 times as far off as the greatest -height and width of your work. This will make so little difference -when the eye of the spectator moves, that it will be hardly -appreciable, and it will look very good. - -If the point of sight is at _t_ you would make the figures on the -circle _d b e_ all of one size, as each of them bears the same -relation to the point _t_. But consider the diagram given below and -you will see that this is wrong, and why I shall make _b_ smaller -than _d e_ [Footnote 8: The second diagram of this chapter stands in -the original between lines 8 and 9.]. - -It is easy to understand that if 2 objects equal to each other are -placed side by side the one at 3 braccia distance looks smaller than -that placed at 2 braccia. This however is rather theoretical than -for practice, because you stand close by [Footnote 11: Instead of -'_se preso_' (=_sie presso_) M. RAVAISSON reads '_sempre se_' which -gives rise to the unmeaning rendering: '_parceque toujours_ ...']. - -All the objects in the foreground, whether large or small, are to be -drawn of their proper size, and if you see them from a distance they -will appear just as they ought, and if you see them close they will -diminish of themselves. - -[Footnote 15: Compare No. 526 line 18.] Take care that the vertical -plan on which you work out the perspective of the objects seen is of -the same form as the wall on which the work is to be executed. - -546. - -OF PAINTING. - -The size of the figures represented ought to show you the distance -they are seen from. If you see a figure as large as nature you know -it appears to be close to the eye. - -547. - -WHERE A SPECTATOR SHOULD STAND TO LOOK AT A PICTURE. - -Supposing _a b_ to be the picture and _d_ to be the light, I say -that if you place yourself between _c_ and _e_ you will not -understand the picture well and particularly if it is done in oils, -or still more if it is varnished, because it will be lustrous and -somewhat of the nature of a mirror. And for this reason the nearer -you go towards the point _c_, the less you will see, because the -rays of light falling from the window on the picture are reflected -to that point. But if you place yourself between _e_ and _d_ you -will get a good view of it, and the more so as you approach the -point _d_, because that spot is least exposed to these reflected -rays of light. - -III. - -THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. - -Gradations of light and shade. - -548. - -OF PAINTING: OF THE DARKNESS OF THE SHADOWS, OR I MAY SAY, THE -BRIGHTNESS OF THE LIGHTS. - -Although practical painters attribute to all shaded objects--trees, -fields, hair, beards and skin--four degrees of darkness in each -colour they use: that is to say first a dark foundation, secondly a -spot of colour somewhat resembling the form of the details, thirdly -a somewhat brighter and more defined portion, fourthly the lights -which are more conspicuous than other parts of the figure; still to -me it appears that these gradations are infinite upon a continuous -surface which is in itself infinitely divisible, and I prove it -thus:--[Footnote 7: See Pl. XXXI, No. 1; the two upper sketches.] -Let _a g_ be a continuous surface and let _d_ be the light which -illuminates it; I say--by the 4th [proposition] which says that that -side of an illuminated body is most highly lighted which is nearest -to the source of light--that therefore _g_ must be darker than _c_ -in proportion as the line _d g_ is longer than the line _d c_, and -consequently that these gradations of light--or rather of shadow, -are not 4 only, but may be conceived of as infinite, because _c d_ -is a continuous surface and every continuous surface is infinitely -divisible; hence the varieties in the length of lines extending -between the light and the illuminated object are infinite, and the -proportion of the light will be the same as that of the length of -the lines between them; extending from the centre of the luminous -body to the surface of the illuminated object. - -On the choice of light for a picture (549-554). - -549. - -HOW THE PAINTER MUST PLACE HIMSELF WITH REFERENCE TO THE LIGHT, TO -GIVE THE EFFECT OF RELIEF. - -Let _a b_ be the window, _m_ the point of light. I say that on -whichever side the painter places himself he will be well placed if -only his eye is between the shaded and the illuminated portions of -the object he is drawing; and this place you will find by putting -yourself between the point _m_ and the division between the shadow -and the light on the object to be drawn. - -550. - -THAT SHADOWS CAST BY A PARTICULAR LIGHT SHOULD BE AVOIDED, BECAUSE -THEY ARE EQUALLY STRONG AT THE ENDS AND AT THE BEGINNING. - -The shadows cast by the sun or any other particular light have not a -pleasing effect on the body to which they belong, because the parts -remain confuse, being divided by distinct outlines of light and -shade. And the shadows are of equal strength at the end and at the -beginning. - -551. - -HOW LIGHT SHOULD BE THROWN UPON FIGURES. - -The light must be arranged in accordance with the natural conditions -under which you wish to represent your figures: that is, if you -represent them in the sunshine make the shadows dark with large -spaces of light, and mark their shadows and those of all the -surrounding objects strongly on the ground. And if you represent -them as in dull weather give little difference of light and shade, -without any shadows at their feet. If you represent them as within -doors, make a strong difference between the lights and shadows, with -shadows on the ground. If the window is screened and the walls -white, there will be little difference of light. If it is lighted by -firelight make the high lights ruddy and strong, and the shadows -dark, and those cast on the walls and on the floor will be clearly -defined and the farther they are from the body the broader and -longer will they be. If the light is partly from the fire and partly -from the outer day, that of day will be the stronger and that of the -fire almost as red as fire itself. Above all see that the figures -you paint are broadly lighted and from above, that is to say all -living persons that you paint; for you will see that all the people -you meet out in the street are lighted from above, and you must know -that if you saw your most intimate friend with a light [on his face] -from below you would find it difficult to recognise him. - -552. - -OF HELPING THE APPARENT RELIEF OF A PICTURE BY GIVING IT ARTIFICIAL -LIGHT AND SHADE. - -To increase relief of a picture you may place, between your figure -and the solid object on which its shadow falls, a line of bright -light, dividing the figure from the object in shadow. And on the -same object you shall represent two light parts which will surround -the shadow cast upon the wall by the figure placed opposite [6]; and -do this frequently with the limbs which you wish should stand out -somewhat from the body they belong to; particularly when the arms -cross the front of the breast show, between the shadow cast by the -arms on the breast and the shadow on the arms themselves, a little -light seeming to fall through a space between the breast and the -arms; and the more you wish the arm to look detached from the breast -the broader you must make the light; always contrive also to arrange -the figures against the background in such a way as that the parts -in shadow are against a light background and the illuminated -portions against a dark background. - -[Footnote 6: Compare the two diagrams under No. 565.] - -553. - -OF SITUATION. - -Remember [to note] the situation of your figures; for the light and -shade will be one thing if the object is in a dark place with a -particular light, and another thing if it is in a light place with -direct sunlight; one thing in a dark place with a diffused evening -light or a cloudy sky, and another in the diffused light of the -atmosphere lighted by the sun. - -554. - -OF THE JUDGMENT TO BE MADE OF A PAINTER'S WORK. - -First you must consider whether the figures have the relief required -by their situation and the light which illuminates them; for the -shadows should not be the same at the extreme ends of the -composition as in the middle, because it is one thing when figures -are surrounded by shadows and another when they have shadows only on -one side. Those which are in the middle of the picture are -surrounded by shadows, because they are shaded by the figures which -stand between them and the light. And those are lighted on one side -only which stand between the principal group and the light, because -where they do not look towards the light they face the group and the -darkness of the group is thrown on them: and where they do not face -the group they face the brilliant light and it is their own darkness -shadowing them, which appears there. - -In the second place observe the distribution or arrangement of -figures, and whether they are distributed appropriately to the -circumstances of the story. Thirdly, whether the figures are -actively intent on their particular business. - -555. - -OF THE TREATMENT OF THE LIGHTS. - -First give a general shadow to the whole of that extended part which -is away from the light. Then put in the half shadows and the strong -shadows, comparing them with each other and, in the same way give -the extended light in half tint, afterwards adding the half lights -and the high lights, likewise comparing them together. - -The distribution of light and shade (556-559) - -556. - -OF SHADOWS ON BODIES. - -When you represent the dark shadows in bodies in light and shade, -always show the cause of the shadow, and the same with reflections; -because the dark shadows are produced by dark objects and the -reflections by objects only moderately lighted, that is with -diminished light. And there is the same proportion between the -highly lighted part of a body and the part lighted by a reflection -as between the origin of the lights on the body and the origin of -the reflections. - -557. - -OF LIGHTS AND SHADOWS. - -I must remind you to take care that every portion of a body, and -every smallest detail which is ever so little in relief, must be -given its proper importance as to light and shade. - -558. - -OF THE WAY TO MAKE THE SHADOW ON FIGURES CORRESPOND TO THE LIGHT AND -TO [THE COLOUR] OF THE BODY. - -When you draw a figure and you wish to see whether the shadow is the -proper complement to the light, and neither redder nor yellower than -is the nature of the colour you wish to represent in shade, proceed -thus. Cast a shadow with your finger on the illuminated portion, and -if the accidental shadow that you have made is like the natural -shadow cast by your finger on your work, well and good; and by -putting your finger nearer or farther off, you can make darker or -lighter shadows, which you must compare with your own. - -559. - -OF SURROUNDING BODIES BY VARIOUS FORMS OF SHADOW. - -Take care that the shadows cast upon the surface of the bodies by -different objects must undulate according to the various curves of -the limbs which cast the shadows, and of the objects on which they -are cast. - -The juxtaposition of light and shade (560, 561). - -560. - -ON PAINTING. - -The comparison of the various qualities of shadows and lights not -infrequently seems ambiguous and confused to the painter who desires -to imitate and copy the objects he sees. The reason is this: If you -see a white drapery side by side with a black one, that part of the -white drapery which lies against the black one will certainly look -much whiter than the part which lies against something whiter than -itself. [Footnote: It is evident from this that so early as in 1492 -Leonardo's writing in perspective was so far advanced that he could -quote his own statements.--As bearing on this subject compare what -is said in No. 280.] And the reason of this is shown in my [book on] -perspective. - -561. - -OF SHADOWS. - -Where a shadow ends in the light, note carefully where it is paler -or deeper and where it is more or less indistinct towards the light; -and, above all, in [painting] youthful figures I remind you not to -make the shadow end like a stone, because flesh has a certain -transparency, as may be seen by looking at a hand held between the -eye and the sun, which shines through it ruddy and bright. Place the -most highly coloured part between the light and shadow. And to see -what shadow tint is needed on the flesh, cast a shadow on it with -your finger, and according as you wish to see it lighter or darker -hold your finger nearer to or farther from your picture, and copy -that [shadow]. - -On the lighting of the background (562-565). - -562. - -OF THE BACKGROUNDS FOR PAINTED FIGURES. - -The ground which surrounds the forms of any object you paint should -be darker than the high lights of those figures, and lighter than -their shadowed part: &c. - -563. - -OF THE BACKGROUND THAT THE PAINTER SHOULD ADOPT IN HIS WORKS. - -Since experience shows us that all bodies are surrounded by light -and shade it is necessary that you, O Painter, should so arrange -that the side which is in light shall terminate against a dark body -and likewise that the shadow side shall terminate against a light -body. And by [following] this rule you will add greatly to the -relief of your figures. - -564. - -A most important part of painting consists in the backgrounds of the -objects represented; against these backgrounds the outlines of -those natural objects which are convex are always visible, and also -the forms of these bodies against the background, even though the -colours of the bodies should be the same as that of the background. -This is caused by the convex edges of the objects not being -illuminated in the same way as, by the same light, the background is -illuminated, since these edges will often be lighter or darker than -the background. But if the edge is of the same colour as the -background, beyond a doubt it will in that part of the picture -interfere with your perception of the outline, and such a choice in -a picture ought to be rejected by the judgment of good painters, -inasmuch as the purpose of the painter is to make his figures appear -detached from the background; while in the case here described the -contrary occurs, not only in the picture, but in the objects -themselves. - -565. - -That you ought, when representing objects above the eye and on one -side--if you wish them to look detached from the wall--to show, -between the shadow on the object and the shadow it casts a middle -light, so that the body will appear to stand away from the wall. - -On the lighting of white objects. - -566. - -HOW WHITE BODIES SHOULD BE REPRESENTED. - -If you are representing a white body let it be surrounded by ample -space, because as white has no colour of its own, it is tinged and -altered in some degree by the colour of the objects surrounding it. -If you see a woman dressed in white in the midst of a landscape, -that side which is towards the sun is bright in colour, so much so -that in some portions it will dazzle the eyes like the sun itself; -and the side which is towards the atmosphere,--luminous through -being interwoven with the sun's rays and penetrated by them--since -the atmosphere itself is blue, that side of the woman's figure will -appear steeped in blue. If the surface of the ground about her be -meadows and if she be standing between a field lighted up by the sun -and the sun itself, you will see every portion of those folds which -are towards the meadow tinged by the reflected rays with the colour -of that meadow. Thus the white is transmuted into the colours of the -luminous and of the non-luminous objects near it. - -The methods of aerial (567--570). - -567. - -WHY FACES [SEEN] AT A DISTANCE LOOK DARK. - -We see quite plainly that all the images of visible objects that lie -before us, whether large or small, reach our sense by the minute -aperture of the eye; and if, through so small a passage the image -can pass of the vast extent of sky and earth, the face of a -man--being by comparison with such large images almost nothing by -reason of the distance which diminishes it,--fills up so little of -the eye that it is indistinguishable. Having, also, to be -transmitted from the surface to the sense through a dark medium, -that is to say the crystalline lens which looks dark, this image, -not being strong in colour becomes affected by this darkness on its -passage, and on reaching the sense it appears dark; no other reason -can in any way be assigned. If the point in the eye is black, it is -because it is full of a transparent humour as clear as air and acts -like a perforation in a board; on looking into it it appears dark -and the objects seen through the bright air and a dark one become -confused in this darkness. - -WHY A MAN SEEN AT A CERTAIN DISTANCE IS NOT RECOGNISABLE. - -The perspective of diminution shows us that the farther away an -object is the smaller it looks. If you look at a man at a distance -from you of an arrow's flight, and hold the eye of a small needle -close to your own eye, you can see through it several men whose -images are transmitted to the eye and will all be comprised within -the size of the needle's eye; hence, if the man who is at the -distance of an arrow's flight can send his whole image to your eye, -occupying only a small space in the needle's eye how can you -[expect] in so small a figure to distinguish or see the nose or -mouth or any detail of his person? and, not seeing these you cannot -recognise the man, since these features, which he does not show, are -what give men different aspects. - -568. - -THE REASON WHY SMALL FIGURES SHOULD NOT BE MADE FINISHED. - -I say that the reason that objects appear diminished in size is -because they are remote from the eye; this being the case it is -evident that there must be a great extent of atmosphere between the -eye and the objects, and this air interferes with the distinctness -of the forms of the object. Hence the minute details of these -objects will be indistinguishable and unrecognisable. Therefore, O -Painter, make your smaller figures merely indicated and not highly -finished, otherwise you will produce effects the opposite to nature, -your supreme guide. The object is small by reason of the great -distance between it and the eye, this great distance is filled with -air, that mass of air forms a dense body which intervenes and -prevents the eye seeing the minute details of objects. - -569. - -Whenever a figure is placed at a considerable distance you lose -first the distinctness of the smallest parts; while the larger parts -are left to the last, losing all distinctness of detail and outline; -and what remains is an oval or spherical figure with confused edges. - -570. - -OF PAINTING. - -The density of a body of smoke looks white below the horizon while -above the horizon it is dark, even if the smoke is in itself of a -uniform colour, this uniformity will vary according to the variety -in the ground on which it is seen. - -IV. - -OF PORTRAIT AND FIGURE PAINTING. - -Of sketching figures and portraits (571-572). - -571. - -OF THE WAY TO LEARN TO COMPOSE FIGURES [IN GROUPS] IN HISTORICAL -PICTURES. - -When you have well learnt perspective and have by heart the parts -and forms of objects, you must go about, and constantly, as you go, -observe, note and consider the circumstances and behaviour of men in -talking, quarrelling or laughing or fighting together: the action of -the men themselves and the actions of the bystanders, who separate -them or who look on. And take a note of them with slight strokes -thus, in a little book which you should always carry with you. And -it should be of tinted paper, that it may not be rubbed out, but -change the old [when full] for a new one; since these things should -not be rubbed out but preserved with great care; for the forms, and -positions of objects are so infinite that the memory is incapable of -retaining them, wherefore keep these [sketches] as your guides and -masters. - -[Footnote: Among Leonardo's numerous note books of pocket size not -one has coloured paper, so no sketches answering to this description -can be pointed out. The fact that most of the notes are written in -ink, militates against the supposition that they were made in the -open air.] - -572. - -OF A METHOD OF KEEPING IN MIND THE FORM OF A FACE. - -If you want to acquire facility for bearing in mind the expression -of a face, first make yourself familiar with a variety of [forms of] -several heads, eyes, noses, mouths, chins and cheeks and necks and -shoulders: And to put a case: Noses are of 10 types: straight, -bulbous, hollow, prominent above or below the middle, aquiline, -regular, flat, round or pointed. These hold good as to profile. In -full face they are of 11 types; these are equal thick in the middle, -thin in the middle, with the tip thick and the root narrow, or -narrow at the tip and wide at the root; with the nostrils wide or -narrow, high or low, and the openings wide or hidden by the point; -and you will find an equal variety in the other details; which -things you must draw from nature and fix them in your mind. Or else, -when you have to draw a face by heart, carry with you a little book -in which you have noted such features; and when you have cast a -glance at the face of the person you wish to draw, you can look, in -private, which nose or mouth is most like, or there make a little -mark to recognise it again at home. Of grotesque faces I need say -nothing, because they are kept in mind without difficulty. - -The position of the head. - -573. - -HOW YOU SHOULD SET TO WORK TO DRAW A HEAD OF WHICH ALL THE PARTS -SHALL AGREE WITH THE POSITION GIVEN TO IT. - -To draw a head in which the features shall agree with the turn and -bend of the head, pursue this method. You know that the eyes, -eyebrows, nostrils, corners of the mouth, and sides of the chin, the -jaws, cheeks, ears and all the parts of a face are squarely and -straightly set upon the face. - -[Footnote: Compare the drawings and the text belonging to them on -Pl. IX. (No. 315), Pl. X (No. 316), Pl. XL (No. 318) and Pl. XII. -(No. 319).] - -Therefore when you have sketched the face draw lines passing from -one corner of the eye to the other; and so for the placing of each -feature; and after having drawn the ends of the lines beyond the two -sides of the face, look if the spaces inside the same parallel lines -on the right and on the left are equal [12]. But be sure to remember -to make these lines tend to the point of sight. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI, No. 4, the slight sketch on the left hand -side. The text of this passage is written by the side of it. In this -sketch the lines seem intentionally incorrect and converging to the -right (compare I. 12) instead of parallel. Compare too with this -text the drawing in red chalk from Windsor Castle which is -reproduced on Pl. XL, No. 2.] - -Of the light on the face (574-576). - -574. - -HOW TO KNOW WHICH SIDE OF AN OBJECT IS TO BE MORE OR LESS LUMINOUS -THAN THE OTHER. - -Let _f_ be the light, the head will be the object illuminated by it -and that side of the head on which the rays fall most directly will -be the most highly lighted, and those parts on which the rays fall -most aslant will be less lighted. The light falls as a blow might, -since a blow which falls perpendicularly falls with the greatest -force, and when it falls obliquely it is less forcible than the -former in proportion to the width of the angle. _Exempli gratia_ if -you throw a ball at a wall of which the extremities are equally far -from you the blow will fall straight, and if you throw the ball at -the wall when standing at one end of it the ball will hit it -obliquely and the blow will not tell. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXI. No. 4; the sketch on the right hand side.] - -575. - -THE PROOF AND REASON WHY AMONG THE ILLUMINATED PARTS CERTAIN -PORTIONS ARE IN HIGHER LIGHT THAN OTHERS. - -Since it is proved that every definite light is, or seems to be, -derived from one single point the side illuminated by it will have -its highest light on the portion where the line of radiance falls -perpendicularly; as is shown above in the lines _a g_, and also in -_a h_ and in _l a_; and that portion of the illuminated side will be -least luminous, where the line of incidence strikes it between two -more dissimilar angles, as is seen at _b c d_. And by this means you -may also know which parts are deprived of light as is seen at _m k_. - -Where the angles made by the lines of incidence are most equal there -will be the highest light, and where they are most unequal it will -be darkest. - -I will make further mention of the reason of reflections. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXII. The text, here given complete, is on the -right hand side. The small circles above the beginning of lines 5 -and 11 as well as the circle above the text on Pl. XXXI, are in a -paler ink and evidently added by a later hand in order to -distinguish the text as belonging to the _Libro di Pittura_ (see -Prolegomena. No. 12, p. 3). The text on the left hand side of this -page is given as Nos. 577 and 137.] - -576. - -Where the shadow should be on the face. - -General suggestions for historical pictures (577-581). - -577. - -When you compose a historical picture take two points, one the point -of sight, and the other the source of light; and make this as -distant as possible. - -578. - -Historical pictures ought not to be crowded and confused with too -many figures. - -579. - -PRECEPTS IN PAINTING. - -Let you sketches of historical pictures be swift and the working out -of the limbs not be carried too far, but limited to the position of -the limbs, which you can afterwards finish as you please and at your -leisure. - -[Footnote: See Pl. XXXVIII, No. 2. The pen and ink drawing given -there as No. 3 may also be compared with this passage. It is in the -Windsor collection where it is numbered 101.] - -580. - -The sorest misfortune is when your views are in advance of your -work. - -581. - -Of composing historical pictures. Of not considering the limbs in -the figures in historical pictures; as many do who, in the wish to -represent the whole of a figure, spoil their compositions. And when -you place one figure behind another take care to draw the whole of -it so that the limbs which come in front of the nearer figures may -stand out in their natural size and place. - -How to represent the differences of age and sex (582-583). - -582. - -How the ages of man should be depicted: that is, Infancy, Childhood, -Youth, Manhood, Old age, Decrepitude. - -[Footnote: No answer is here given to this question, in the original -MS.] - -583. - -Old men ought to be represented with slow and heavy movements, their -legs bent at the knees, when they stand still, and their feet placed -parallel and apart; bending low with the head leaning forward, and -their arms but little extended. - -Women must be represented in modest attitudes, their legs close -together, their arms closely folded, their heads inclined and -somewhat on one side. - -Old women should be represented with eager, swift and furious -gestures, like infernal furies; but the action should be more -violent in their arms and head than in their legs. - -Little children, with lively and contorted movements when sitting, -and, when standing still, in shy and timid attitudes. - -[Footnote: _bracci raccolte_. Compare Pl. XXXIII. This drawing, in -silver point on yellowish tinted paper, the lights heightened with -white, represents two female hands laid together in a lap. Above is -a third finished study of a right hand, apparently holding a veil -from the head across the bosom. This drawing evidently dates from -before 1500 and was very probably done at Florence, perhaps as a -preparatory study for some picture. The type of hand with its -slender thin forms is more like the style of the _Vierge aux -Rochers_ in the Louvre than any later works--as the Mona Lisa for -instance.] - -Of representing the emotions. - -584. - -THAT A FIGURE IS NOT ADMIRABLE UNLESS IT EXPRESSES BY ITS ACTION THE -PASSION OF ITS SENTIMENT. - -That figure is most admirable which by its actions best expresses -the passion that animates it. - -HOW AN ANGRY MAN IS TO BE FIGURED. - -You must make an angry person holding someone by the hair, wrenching -his head against the ground, and with one knee on his ribs; his -right arm and fist raised on high. His hair must be thrown up, his -brow downcast and knit, his teeth clenched and the two corners of -his mouth grimly set; his neck swelled and bent forward as he leans -over his foe, and full of furrows. - -HOW TO REPRESENT A MAN IN DESPAIR. - -You must show a man in despair with a knife, having already torn -open his garments, and with one hand tearing open the wound. And -make him standing on his feet and his legs somewhat bent and his -whole person leaning towards the earth; his hair flying in disorder. - -Of representing imaginary animals. - -585. - -HOW YOU SHOULD MAKE AN IMAGINARY ANIMAL LOOK NATURAL. - -You know that you cannot invent animals without limbs, each of -which, in itself, must resemble those of some other animal. Hence if -you wish to make an animal, imagined by you, appear natural--let us -say a Dragon, take for its head that of a mastiff or hound, with the -eyes of a cat, the ears of a porcupine, the nose of a greyhound, the -brow of a lion, the temples of an old cock, the neck of a water -tortoise. - -[Footnote: The sketch here inserted of two men on horseback fighting -a dragon is the facsimile of a pen and ink drawing belonging to -BARON EDMOND DE ROTHSCHILD of Paris.] - -The selection of forms. - -586. - -OF THE DELUSIONS WHICH ARISE IN JUDGING OF THE LIMBS. - -A painter who has clumsy hands will paint similar hands in his -works, and the same will occur with any limb, unless long study has -taught him to avoid it. Therefore, O Painter, look carefully what -part is most ill-favoured in your own person and take particular -pains to correct it in your studies. For if you are coarse, your -figures will seem the same and devoid of charm; and it is the same -with any part that may be good or poor in yourself; it will be shown -in some degree in your figures. - -587. - -OF THE SELECTION OF BEAUTIFUL FACES. - -It seems to me to be no small charm in a painter when he gives his -figures a pleasing air, and this grace, if he have it not by nature, -he may acquire by incidental study in this way: Look about you and -take the best parts of many beautiful faces, of which the beauty is -confirmed rather by public fame than by your own judgment; for you -might be mistaken and choose faces which have some resemblance to -your own. For it would seem that such resemblances often please us; -and if you should be ugly, you would select faces that were not -beautiful and you would then make ugly faces, as many painters do. -For often a master's work resembles himself. So select beauties as I -tell you, and fix them in your mind. - -588. - -Of the limbs, which ought to be carefully selected, and of all the -other parts with regard to painting. - -589. - -When selecting figures you should choose slender ones rather than -lean and wooden ones. - -590. - -OF THE MUSCLES OF ANIMALS. - -The hollow spaces interposed between the muscles must not be of such -a character as that the skin should seem to cover two sticks laid -side by side like _c_, nor should they seem like two sticks somewhat -remote from such contact so that the skin hangs in an empty loose -curve as at _f_; but it should be like _i_, laid over the spongy fat -that lies in the angles as the angle _n m o_; which angle is formed -by the contact of the ends of the muscles and as the skin cannot -fold down into such an angle, nature has filled up such angles with -a small quantity of spongy and, as I may say, vesicular fat, with -minute bladders [in it] full of air, which is condensed or rarefied -in them according to the increase or the diminution of the substance -of the muscles; in which latter case the concavity _i_ always has a -larger curve than the muscle. - -591. - -OF UNDULATING MOVEMENTS AND EQUIPOISE IN FIGURES AND OTHER ANIMALS. - -When representing a human figure or some graceful animal, be careful -to avoid a wooden stiffness; that is to say make them move with -equipoise and balance so as not to look like a piece of wood; but -those you want to represent as strong you must not make so, -excepting in the turn of the head. - -How to pose figures. - -592. - -OF GRACE IN THE LIMBS. - -The limbs should be adapted to the body with grace and with -reference to the effect that you wish the figure to produce. And if -you wish to produce a figure that shall of itself look light and -graceful you must make the limbs elegant and extended, and without -too much display of the muscles; and those few that are needed for -your purpose you must indicate softly, that is, not very prominent -and without strong shadows; the limbs, and particularly the arms -easy; that is, none of the limbs should be in a straight line with -the adjoining parts. And if the hips, which are the pole of a man, -are by reason of his position, placed so, that the right is higher -than the left, make the point of the higher shoulder in a -perpendicular line above the highest prominence of the hip, and let -this right shoulder be lower than the left. Let the pit of the -throat always be over the centre of the joint of the foot on which -the man is leaning. The leg which is free should have the knee lower -than the other, and near the other leg. The positions of the head -and arms are endless and I shall therefore not enlarge on any rules -for them. Still, let them be easy and pleasing, with various turns -and twists, and the joints gracefully bent, that they may not look -like pieces of wood. - -Of appropriate gestures (593-600). - -593. - -A picture or representation of human figures, ought to be done in -such a way as that the spectator may easily recognise, by means of -their attitudes, the purpose in their minds. Thus, if you have to -represent a man of noble character in the act of speaking, let his -gestures be such as naturally accompany good words; and, in the same -way, if you wish to depict a man of a brutal nature, give him fierce -movements; as with his arms flung out towards the listener, and his -head and breast thrust forward beyond his feet, as if following the -speaker's hands. Thus it is with a deaf and dumb person who, when he -sees two men in conversation--although he is deprived of -hearing--can nevertheless understand, from the attitudes and -gestures of the speakers, the nature of their discussion. I once saw -in Florence a man who had become deaf who, when you spoke very loud -did not understand you, but if you spoke gently and without making -any sound, understood merely from the movement of the lips. Now -perhaps you will say that the lips of a man who speaks loudly do not -move like those of one speaking softly, and that if they were to -move them alike they would be alike understood. As to this argument, -I leave the decision to experiment; make a man speak to you gently -and note [the motion of] his lips. - -[Footnote: The first ten lines of this text have already been -published, but with a slightly different reading by Dr. M. JORDAN: -_Das Malerbuch Leonardo da Vinci's_ p. 86.] - -594. - -OF REPRESENTING A MAN SPEAKING TO A MULTITUDE. - -When you wish to represent a man speaking to a number of people, -consider the matter of which he has to treat and adapt his action to -the subject. Thus, if he speaks persuasively, let his action be -appropriate to it. If the matter in hand be to set forth an -argument, let the speaker, with the fingers of the right hand hold -one finger of the left hand, having the two smaller ones closed; and -his face alert, and turned towards the people with mouth a little -open, to look as though he spoke; and if he is sitting let him -appear as though about to rise, with his head forward. If you -represent him standing make him leaning slightly forward with body -and head towards the people. These you must represent as silent and -attentive, all looking at the orator's face with gestures of -admiration; and make some old men in astonishment at the things they -hear, with the corners of their mouths pulled down and drawn in, -their cheeks full of furrows, and their eyebrows raised, and -wrinkling the forehead where they meet. Again, some sitting with -their fingers clasped holding their weary knees. Again, some bent -old man, with one knee crossed over the other; on which let him hold -his hand with his other elbow resting in it and the hand supporting -his bearded chin. - -[Footnote: The sketches introduced here are a facsimile of a pen and -ink drawing in the Louvre which Herr CARL BRUN considers as studies -for the Last Supper in the church of _Santa Maria delle Grazie_ (see -Leonardo da Vinci, LXI, pp. 21, 27 and 28 in DOHME'S _Kunst und -Kunstler_, Leipzig, Seemann). I shall not here enter into any -discussion of this suggestion; but as a justification for -introducing the drawing in this place, I may point out that some of -the figures illustrate this passage as perfectly as though they had -been drawn for that express purpose. I have discussed the -probability of a connection between this sketch and the picture of -the Last Supper on p. 335. The original drawing is 27 3/4 -centimetres wide by 21 high.--The drawing in silver point on reddish -paper given on Pl. LII. No. 1--the original at Windsor Castle--may -also serve to illustrate the subject of appropriate gestures, -treated in Nos. 593 and 594.] - -595. - -OF THE DISPOSITION OF LIMBS. - -As regards the disposition of limbs in movement you will have to -consider that when you wish to represent a man who, by some chance, -has to turn backwards or to one side, you must not make him move his -feet and all his limbs towards the side to which he turns his head. -Rather must you make the action proceed by degrees and through the -different joints; that is, those of the foot, the knee and the hip -and the neck. And if you set him on the right leg, you must make the -left knee bend inwards, and let his foot be slightly raised on the -outside, and the left shoulder be somewhat lower than the right, -while the nape of the neck is in a line directly over the outer -ancle of the left foot. And the left shoulder will be in a -perpendicular line above the toes of the right foot. And always set -your figures so that the side to which the head turns is not the -side to which the breast faces, since nature for our convenience has -made us with a neck which bends with ease in many directions, the -eye wishing to turn to various points, the different joints. And if -at any time you make a man sitting with his arms at work on -something which is sideways to him, make the upper part of his body -turn upon the hips. - -[Footnote: Compare Pl. VII, No. 5. The original drawing at Windsor -Castle is numbered 104.] - -596. - -When you draw the nude always sketch the whole figure and then -finish those limbs which seem to you the best, but make them act -with the other limbs; otherwise you will get a habit of never -putting the limbs well together on the body. - -Never make the head turn the same way as the torso, nor the arm and -leg move together on the same side. And if the face is turned to the -right shoulder, make all the parts lower on the left side than on -the right; and when you turn the body with the breast outwards, if -the head turns to the left side make the parts on the right side -higher than those on the left. - -[Footnote: In the original MS. a much defaced sketch is to be seen -by the side of the second part of this chapter; its faded condition -has rendered reproduction impossible. In M. RAVAISSON'S facsimile -the outlines of the head have probably been touched up. This passage -however is fitly illustrated by the drawings on Pl. XXI.] - -597. - -OF PAINTING. - -Of the nature of movements in man. Do not repeat the same gestures -in the limbs of men unless you are compelled by the necessity of -their action, as is shown in _a b_. - -[Footnote: See Pl. V, where part of the text is also reproduced. The -effaced figure to the extreme left has evidently been cancelled by -Leonardo himself as unsatisfactory.] - -598. - -The motions of men must be such as suggest their dignity or their -baseness. - -599. - -OF PAINTING. - -Make your work carry out your purpose and meaning. That is when you -draw a figure consider well who it is and what you wish it to be -doing. - -OF PAINTING. - -With regard to any action which you give in a picture to an old man -or to a young one, you must make it more energetic in the young man -in proportion as he is stronger than the old one; and in the same -way with a young man and an infant. - -600. - -OF SETTING ON THE LIMBS. - -The limbs which are used for labour must be muscular and those which -are not much used you must make without muscles and softly rounded. - -OF THE ACTION OF THE FIGURES. - -Represent your figures in such action as may be fitted to express -what purpose is in the mind of each; otherwise your art will not be -admirable. - -V. - -SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS. - -Of painting battle pieces (601-603). - -601. - -OF THE WAY OF REPRESENTING A BATTLE. - -First you must represent the smoke of artillery mingling in the air -with the dust and tossed up by the movement of horses and the -combatants. And this mixture you must express thus: The dust, being -a thing of earth, has weight; and although from its fineness it is -easily tossed up and mingles with the air, it nevertheless readily -falls again. It is the finest part that rises highest; hence that -part will be least seen and will look almost of the same colour as -the air. The higher the smoke mixed with the dust-laden air rises -towards a certain level, the more it will look like a dark cloud; -and it will be seen that at the top, where the smoke is more -separate from the dust, the smoke will assume a bluish tinge and the -dust will tend to its colour. This mixture of air, smoke and dust -will look much lighter on the side whence the light comes than on -the opposite side. The more the combatants are in this turmoil the -less will they be seen, and the less contrast will there be in their -lights and shadows. Their faces and figures and their appearance, -and the musketeers as well as those near them you must make of a -glowing red. And this glow will diminish in proportion as it is -remote from its cause. - -The figures which are between you and the light, if they be at a -distance, will appear dark on a light background, and the lower part -of their legs near the ground will be least visible, because there -the dust is coarsest and densest [19]. And if you introduce horses -galloping outside the crowd, make the little clouds of dust distant -from each other in proportion to the strides made by the horses; and -the clouds which are furthest removed from the horses, should be -least visible; make them high and spreading and thin, and the nearer -ones will be more conspicuous and smaller and denser [23]. The air -must be full of arrows in every direction, some shooting upwards, -some falling, some flying level. The balls from the guns must have a -train of smoke following their flight. The figures in the foreground -you must make with dust on the hair and eyebrows and on other flat -places likely to retain it. The conquerors you will make rushing -onwards with their hair and other light things flying on the wind, -with their brows bent down, - -[Footnote: 19--23. Compare 608. 57--75.] - -602. - -and with the opposite limbs thrust forward; that is where a man puts -forward the right foot the left arm must be advanced. And if you -make any one fallen, you must show the place where he has slipped -and been dragged along the dust into blood stained mire; and in the -half-liquid earth arround show the print of the tramping of men and -horses who have passed that way. Make also a horse dragging the dead -body of his master, and leaving behind him, in the dust and mud, the -track where the body was dragged along. You must make the conquered -and beaten pale, their brows raised and knit, and the skin above -their brows furrowed with pain, the sides of the nose with wrinkles -going in an arch from the nostrils to the eyes, and make the -nostrils drawn up--which is the cause of the lines of which I -speak--, and the lips arched upwards and discovering the upper -teeth; and the teeth apart as with crying out and lamentation. And -make some one shielding his terrified eyes with one hand, the palm -towards the enemy, while the other rests on the ground to support -his half raised body. Others represent shouting with their mouths -open, and running away. You must scatter arms of all sorts among the -feet of the combatants, as broken shields, lances, broken swords and -other such objects. And you must make the dead partly or entirely -covered with dust, which is changed into crimson mire where it has -mingled with the flowing blood whose colour shows it issuing in a -sinuous stream from the corpse. Others must be represented in the -agonies of death grinding their teeth, rolling their eyes, with -their fists clenched against their bodies and their legs contorted. -Some might be shown disarmed and beaten down by the enemy, turning -upon the foe, with teeth and nails, to take an inhuman and bitter -revenge. You might see some riderless horse rushing among the enemy, -with his mane flying in the wind, and doing no little mischief with -his heels. Some maimed warrior may be seen fallen to the earth, -covering himself with his shield, while the enemy, bending over him, -tries to deal him a deathstroke. There again might be seen a number -of men fallen in a heap over a dead horse. You would see some of the -victors leaving the fight and issuing from the crowd, rubbing their -eyes and cheeks with both hands to clean them of the dirt made by -their watering eyes smarting from the dust and smoke. The reserves -may be seen standing, hopeful but cautious; with watchful eyes, -shading them with their hands and gazing through the dense and murky -confusion, attentive to the commands of their captain. The captain -himself, his staff raised, hurries towards these auxiliaries, -pointing to the spot where they are most needed. And there may be a -river into which horses are galloping, churning up the water all -round them into turbulent waves of foam and water, tossed into the -air and among the legs and bodies of the horses. And there must not -be a level spot that is not trampled with gore. - -603. - -OF LIGHTING THE LOWER PARTS OF BODIES CLOSE TOGETHER, AS OF MEN IN -BATTLE. - -As to men and horses represented in battle, their different parts -will be dark in proportion as they are nearer to the ground on which -they stand. And this is proved by the sides of wells which grow -darker in proportion to their depth, the reason of which is that the -deepest part of the well sees and receives a smaller amount of the -luminous atmosphere than any other part. - -And the pavement, if it be of the same colour as the legs of these -said men and horses, will always be more lighted and at a more -direct angle than the said legs &c. - -604. - -OF THE WAY TO REPRESENT A NIGHT [SCENE]. - -That which is entirely bereft of light is all darkness; given a -night under these conditions and that you want to represent a night -scene,--arrange that there shall be a great fire, then the objects -which are nearest to this fire will be most tinged with its colour; -for those objects which are nearest to a coloured light participate -most in its nature; as therefore you give the fire a red colour, you -must make all the objects illuminated by it ruddy; while those which -are farther from the fire are more tinted by the black hue of night. -The figures which are seen against the fire look dark in the glare -of the firelight because that side of the objects which you see is -tinged by the darkness of the night and not by the fire; and those -who stand at the side are half dark and half red; while those who -are visible beyond the edges of the flame will be fully lighted by -the ruddy glow against a black background. As to their gestures, -make those which are near it screen themselves with their hands and -cloaks as a defence against the intense heat, and with their faces -turned away as if about to retire. Of those farther off represent -several as raising their hands to screen their eyes, hurt by the -intolerable glare. - -Of depicting a tempest (605. 606). - -605. - -Describe a wind on land and at sea. Describe a storm of rain. - -606. - -HOW TO REPRESENT A TEMPEST. - -If you wish to represent a tempest consider and arrange well its -effects as seen, when the wind, blowing over the face of the sea and -earth, removes and carries with it such things as are not fixed to -the general mass. And to represent the storm accurately you must -first show the clouds scattered and torn, and flying with the wind, -accompanied by clouds of sand blown up from the sea shore, and -boughs and leaves swept along by the strength and fury of the blast -and scattered with other light objects through the air. Trees and -plants must be bent to the ground, almost as if they would follow -the course of the gale, with their branches twisted out of their -natural growth and their leaves tossed and turned about [Footnote -11: See Pl. XL, No. 2.]. Of the men who are there some must have -fallen to the ground and be entangled in their garments, and hardly -to be recognized for the dust, while those who remain standing may -be behind some tree, with their arms round it that the wind may not -tear them away; others with their hands over their eyes for the -dust, bending to the ground with their clothes and hair streaming in -the wind. [Footnote 15: See Pl. XXXIV, the right hand lower sketch.] -Let the sea be rough and tempestuous and full of foam whirled among -the lofty waves, while the wind flings the lighter spray through the -stormy air, till it resembles a dense and swathing mist. Of the -ships that are therein some should be shown with rent sails and the -tatters fluttering through the air, with ropes broken and masts -split and fallen. And the ship itself lying in the trough of the sea -and wrecked by the fury of the waves with the men shrieking and -clinging to the fragments of the vessel. Make the clouds driven by -the impetuosity of the wind and flung against the lofty mountain -tops, and wreathed and torn like waves beating upon rocks; the air -itself terrible from the deep darkness caused by the dust and fog -and heavy clouds. - -Of representing the deluge (607-609). - -607. - -TO REPRESENT THE DELUGE. - -The air was darkened by the heavy rain whose oblique descent driven -aslant by the rush of the winds, flew in drifts through the air not -otherwise than as we see dust, varied only by the straight lines of -the heavy drops of falling water. But it was tinged with the colour -of the fire kindled by the thunder-bolts by which the clouds were -rent and shattered; and whose flashes revealed the broad waters of -the inundated valleys, above which was seen the verdure of the -bending tree tops. Neptune will be seen in the midst of the water -with his trident, and [15] let AEolus with his winds be shown -entangling the trees floating uprooted, and whirling in the huge -waves. The horizon and the whole hemisphere were obscure, but lurid -from the flashes of the incessant lightning. Men and birds might be -seen crowded on the tall trees which remained uncovered by the -swelling waters, originators of the mountains which surround the -great abysses [Footnote 23: Compare Vol. II. No. 979.]. - -608. - -OF THE DELUGE AND HOW TO REPRESENT IT IN A PICTURE. - -Let the dark and gloomy air be seen buffeted by the rush of contrary -winds and dense from the continued rain mingled with hail and -bearing hither and thither an infinite number of branches torn from -the trees and mixed with numberless leaves. All round may be seen -venerable trees, uprooted and stripped by the fury of the winds; and -fragments of mountains, already scoured bare by the torrents, -falling into those torrents and choking their valleys till the -swollen rivers overflow and submerge the wide lowlands and their -inhabitants. Again, you might have seen on many of the hill-tops -terrified animals of different kinds, collected together and subdued -to tameness, in company with men and women who had fled there with -their children. The waters which covered the fields, with their -waves were in great part strewn with tables, bedsteads, boats and -various other contrivances made from necessity and the fear of -death, on which were men and women with their children amid sounds -of lamentation and weeping, terrified by the fury of the winds which -with their tempestuous violence rolled the waters under and over and -about the bodies of the drowned. Nor was there any object lighter -than the water which was not covered with a variety of animals -which, having come to a truce, stood together in a frightened -crowd--among them wolves, foxes, snakes and others--fleing from -death. And all the waters dashing on their shores seemed to be -battling them with the blows of drowned bodies, blows which killed -those in whom any life remained [19]. You might have seen -assemblages of men who, with weapons in their hands, defended the -small spots that remained to them against lions, wolves and beasts -of prey who sought safety there. Ah! what dreadful noises were heard -in the air rent by the fury of the thunder and the lightnings it -flashed forth, which darted from the clouds dealing ruin and -striking all that opposed its course. Ah! how many you might have -seen closing their ears with their hands to shut out the tremendous -sounds made in the darkened air by the raging of the winds mingling -with the rain, the thunders of heaven and the fury of the -thunder-bolts. Others were not content with shutting their eyes, but -laid their hands one over the other to cover them the closer that -they might not see the cruel slaughter of the human race by the -wrath of God. Ah! how many laments! and how many in their terror -flung themselves from the rocks! Huge branches of great oaks loaded -with men were seen borne through the air by the impetuous fury of -the winds. How many were the boats upset, some entire, and some -broken in pieces, on the top of people labouring to escape with -gestures and actions of grief foretelling a fearful death. Others, -with desperate act, took their own lives, hopeless of being able to -endure such suffering; and of these, some flung themselves from -lofty rocks, others strangled themselves with their own hands, other -seized their own children and violently slew them at a blow; some -wounded and killed themselves with their own weapons; others, -falling on their knees recommended themselves to God. Ah! how many -mothers wept over their drowned sons, holding them upon their knees, -with arms raised spread out towards heaven and with words and -various threatening gestures, upbraiding the wrath of the gods. -Others with clasped hands and fingers clenched gnawed them and -devoured them till they bled, crouching with their breast down on -their knees in their intense and unbearable anguish. Herds of -animals were to be seen, such as horses, oxen, goats and swine -already environed by the waters and left isolated on the high peaks -of the mountains, huddled together, those in the middle climbing to -the top and treading on the others, and fighting fiercely -themselves; and many would die for lack of food. Already had the -birds begun to settle on men and on other animals, finding no land -uncovered which was not occupied by living beings, and already had -famine, the minister of death, taken the lives of the greater number -of the animals, when the dead bodies, now fermented, where leaving -the depth of the waters and were rising to the top. Among the -buffeting waves, where they were beating one against the other, and, -like as balls full of air, rebounded from the point of concussion, -these found a resting place on the bodies of the dead. And above -these judgements, the air was seen covered with dark clouds, riven -by the forked flashes of the raging bolts of heaven, lighting up on -all sides the depth of the gloom. - -The motion of the air is seen by the motion of the dust thrown up by -the horse's running and this motion is as swift in again filling up -the vacuum left in the air which enclosed the horse, as he is rapid -in passing away from the air. - -Perhaps it will seem to you that you may reproach me with having -represented the currents made through the air by the motion of the -wind notwithstanding that the wind itself is not visible in the air. -To this I must answer that it is not the motion of the wind but only -the motion of the things carried along by it which is seen in the -air. - -THE DIVISIONS. [Footnote 76: These observations, added at the bottom -of the page containing the full description of the doluge seem to -indicate that it was Leonardo's intention to elaborate the subject -still farther in a separate treatise.] - -Darkness, wind, tempest at sea, floods of water, forests on fire, -rain, bolts from heaven, earthquakes and ruins of mountains, -overthrow of cities [Footnote 81: _Spianamenti di citta_ (overthrow -of cities). A considerable number of drawings in black chalk, at -Windsor, illustrate this catastrophe. Most of them are much rubbed; -one of the least injured is reproduced at Pl. XXXIX. Compare also -the pen and ink sketch Pl. XXXVI.]. - -Whirlwinds which carry water [spouts] branches of trees, and men -through the air. - -Boughs stripped off by the winds, mingling by the meeting of the -winds, with people upon them. - -Broken trees loaded with people. - -Ships broken to pieces, beaten on rocks. - -Flocks of sheep. Hail stones, thunderbolts, whirlwinds. - -People on trees which are unable to to support them; trees and -rocks, towers and hills covered with people, boats, tables, troughs, -and other means of floating. Hills covered with men, women and -animals; and lightning from the clouds illuminating every thing. - -[Footnote: This chapter, which, with the next one, is written on a -loose sheet, seems to be the passage to which one of the compilers -of the Vatican copy alluded when he wrote on the margin of fol. 36: -"_Qua mi ricordo della mirabile discritione del Diluuio dello -autore._" It is scarcely necessary to point out that these chapters -are among those which have never before been published. The -description in No. 607 may be regarded as a preliminary sketch for -this one. As the MS. G. (in which it is to be found) must be -attributed to the period of about 1515 we may deduce from it the -approximate date of the drawings on Pl. XXXIV, XXXV, Nos. 2 and 3, -XXXVI and XXXVII, since they obviously belong to this text. The -drawings No. 2 on Pl. XXXV are, in the original, side by side with -the text of No. 608; lines 57 to 76 are shown in the facsimile. In -the drawing in Indian ink given on Pl. XXXIV we see Wind-gods in the -sky, corresponding to the allusion to Aeolus in No. 607 1. -15.-Plates XXXVI and XXXVII form one sheet in the original. The -texts reproduced on these Plates have however no connection with the -sketches, excepting the sketches of clouds on the right hand side. -These texts are given as No. 477. The group of small figures on Pl. -XXXVII, to the left, seems to be intended for a '_congregatione -d'uomini._' See No. 608, 1. 19.] - -609. - -DESCRIPTION OF THE DELUGE. - -Let there be first represented the summit of a rugged mountain with -valleys surrounding its base, and on its sides let the surface of -the soil be seen to slide, together with the small roots of the -bushes, denuding great portions of the surrounding rocks. And -descending ruinous from these precipices in its boisterous course, -let it dash along and lay bare the twisted and gnarled roots of -large trees overthrowing their roots upwards; and let the mountains, -as they are scoured bare, discover the profound fissures made in -them by ancient earthquakes. The base of the mountains may be in -great part clothed and covered with ruins of shrubs, hurled down -from the sides of their lofty peaks, which will be mixed with mud, -roots, boughs of trees, with all sorts of leaves thrust in with the -mud and earth and stones. And into the depth of some valley may have -fallen the fragments of a mountain forming a shore to the swollen -waters of its river; which, having already burst its banks, will -rush on in monstrous waves; and the greatest will strike upon and -destroy the walls of the cities and farmhouses in the valley [14]. -Then the ruins of the high buildings in these cities will throw up a -great dust, rising up in shape like smoke or wreathed clouds against -the falling rain; But the swollen waters will sweep round the pool -which contains them striking in eddying whirlpools against the -different obstacles, and leaping into the air in muddy foam; then, -falling back, the beaten water will again be dashed into the air. -And the whirling waves which fly from the place of concussion, and -whose impetus moves them across other eddies going in a contrary -direction, after their recoil will be tossed up into the air but -without dashing off from the surface. Where the water issues from -the pool the spent waves will be seen spreading out towards the -outlet; and there falling or pouring through the air and gaining -weight and impetus they will strike on the water below piercing it -and rushing furiously to reach its depth; from which being thrown -back it returns to the surface of the lake, carrying up the air that -was submerged with it; and this remains at the outlet in foam -mingled with logs of wood and other matters lighter than water. -Round these again are formed the beginnings of waves which increase -the more in circumference as they acquire more movement; and this -movement rises less high in proportion as they acquire a broader -base and thus they are less conspicuous as they die away. But if -these waves rebound from various objects they then return in direct -opposition to the others following them, observing the same law of -increase in their curve as they have already acquired in the -movement they started with. The rain, as it falls from the clouds is -of the same colour as those clouds, that is in its shaded side; -unless indeed the sun's rays should break through them; in that case -the rain will appear less dark than the clouds. And if the heavy -masses of ruin of large mountains or of other grand buildings fall -into the vast pools of water, a great quantity will be flung into -the air and its movement will be in a contrary direction to that of -the object which struck the water; that is to say: The angle of -reflection will be equal to the angle of incidence. Of the objects -carried down by the current, those which are heaviest or rather -largest in mass will keep farthest from the two opposite shores. The -water in the eddies revolves more swiftly in proportion as it is -nearer to their centre. The crests of the waves of the sea tumble to -their bases falling with friction on the bubbles of their sides; and -this friction grinds the falling water into minute particles and -this being converted into a dense mist, mingles with the gale in the -manner of curling smoke and wreathing clouds, and at last it, rises -into the air and is converted into clouds. But the rain which falls -through the atmosphere being driven and tossed by the winds becomes -rarer or denser according to the rarity or density of the winds that -buffet it, and thus there is generated in the atmosphere a moisture -formed of the transparent particles of the rain which is near to the -eye of the spectator. The waves of the sea which break on the slope -of the mountains which bound it, will foam from the velocity with -which they fall against these hills; in rushing back they will meet -the next wave as it comes and and after a loud noise return in a -great flood to the sea whence they came. Let great numbers of -inhabitants--men and animals of all kinds--be seen driven [54] by -the rising of the deluge to the peaks of the mountains in the midst -of the waters aforesaid. - -The wave of the sea at Piombino is all foaming water. [Footnote 55. -56: These two lines are written below the bottom sketch on Pl. XXXV, -3. The MS. Leic. being written about the year 1510 or later, it does -not seem to me to follow that the sketches must have been made at -Piombino, where Leonardo was in the year 1502 and possibly returned -there subsequently (see Vol. II. Topographical notes).] - -Of the water which leaps up from the spot where great masses fall on -its surface. Of the winds of Piombino at Piombino. Eddies of wind -and rain with boughs and shrubs mixed in the air. Emptying the boats -of the rain water. - -[Footnote: The sketches on Pl. XXXV 3 stand by the side of lines 14 -to 54.] - -Of depicting natural phenomena (610. 611). - -610. - -The tremendous fury of the wind driven by the falling in of the -hills on the caves within--by the falling of the hills which served -as roofs to these caverns. - -A stone flung through the air leaves on the eye which sees it the -impression of its motion, and the same effect is produced by the -drops of water which fall from the clouds when it [16] rains. - -[17] A mountain falling on a town, will fling up dust in the form of -clouds; but the colour of this dust will differ from that of the -clouds. Where the rain is thickest let the colour of the dust be -less conspicuous and where the dust is thickest let the rain be less -conspicuous. And where the rain is mingled with the wind and with -the dust the clouds created by the rain must be more transparent -than those of dust [alone]. And when flames of fire are mingled with -clouds of smoke and water very opaque and dark clouds will be formed -[Footnote 26-28: Compare Pl. XL, 1--the drawing in Indian ink on the -left hand side, which seems to be a reminiscence of his observations -of an eruption (see his remarks on Mount Etna in Vol II).]. And the -rest of this subject will be treated in detail in the book on -painting. - -[Footnote: See the sketches and text on Pl. XXXVIII, No. 1. Lines -1-16 are there given on the left hand side, 17-30 on the right. The -four lines at the bottom on the right are given as No. 472. Above -these texts, which are written backwards, there are in the original -sixteen lines in a larger writing from left to right, but only half -of this is here visible. They treat of the physical laws of motion -of air and water. It does not seem to me that there is any reason -for concluding that this writing from left to right is spurious. -Compare with it the facsimile of the rough copy of Leonardo's letter -to Ludovico il Moro in Vol. II.] - -611. - -People were to be seen eagerly embarking victuals on various kinds -of hastily made barks. But little of the waves were visible in those -places where the dark clouds and rain were reflected. - -But where the flashes caused by the bolts of heaven were reflected, -there were seen as many bright spots, caused by the image of the -flashes, as there were waves to reflect them to the eye of the -spectator. - -The number of the images produced by the flash of lightning on the -waves of the water were multiplied in proportion to the distance of -the spectator's eye. - -So also the number of the images was diminished in proportion as -they were nearer the eye which saw them [Footnote 22. 23: _Com'e -provato_. See Vol. II, Nos. 874-878 and 892-901], as it has been -proved in the definition of the luminosity of the moon, and of our -marine horizon when the sun's rays are reflected in it and the eye -which receives the reflection is remote from the sea. - -VI. - -THE ARTIST'S MATERIALS. - -Of chalk and paper (612--617). - -612. - -To make points [crayons] for colouring dry. Temper with a little wax -and do not dry it; which wax you must dissolve with water: so that -when the white lead is thus tempered, the water being distilled, may -go off in vapour and the wax may remain; you will thus make good -crayons; but you must know that the colours must be ground with a -hot stone. - -613. - -Chalk dissolves in wine and in vinegar or in aqua fortis and can be -recombined with gum. - -614. - -PAPER FOR DRAWING UPON IN BLACK BY THE AID OF YOUR SPITTLE. - -Take powdered gall nuts and vitriol, powder them and spread them on -paper like a varnish, then write on it with a pen wetted with -spittle and it will turn as black as ink. - -615. - -If you want to make foreshortened letters stretch the paper in a -drawing frame and then draw your letters and cut them out, and make -the sunbeams pass through the holes on to another stretched paper, -and then fill up the angles that are wanting. - -616. - -This paper should be painted over with candle soot tempered with -thin glue, then smear the leaf thinly with white lead in oil as is -done to the letters in printing, and then print in the ordinary way. -Thus the leaf will appear shaded in the hollows and lighted on the -parts in relief; which however comes out here just the contrary. - -[Footnote: This text, which accompanies a facsimile impression of a -leaf of sage, has already been published in the _Saggio delle Opere -di L. da Vinci_, Milano 1872, p. 11. G. GOVI observes on this -passage: "_Forse aveva egli pensato ancora a farsi un erbario, od -almeno a riprodurre facilmente su carta le forme e i particolari -delle foglie di diverse piante; poiche (modificando un metodo che -probabilmente gli eia stato insegnato da altri, e che piu tardi si -legge ripetuto in molti ricettarii e libri di segreti), accanto a -una foglia di Salvia impressa in nero su carta bianca, lascio -scritto: Questa carta ... - -Erano i primi tentativi di quella riproduzione immediata delle parti -vegetali, che poi sotto il nome d'Impressione Naturale, fu condotta -a tanta perfezione in questi ultimi tempi dal signor de Hauer e da -altri_."] - -617. - -Very excellent will be a stiff white paper, made of the usual -mixture and filtered milk of an herb called calves foot; and when -this paper is prepared and damped and folded and wrapped up it may -be mixed with the mixture and thus left to dry; but if you break it -before it is moistened it becomes somewhat like the thin paste -called _lasagne_ and you may then damp it and wrap it up and put it -in the mixture and leave it to dry; or again this paper may be -covered with stiff transparent white and _sardonio_ and then damped -so that it may not form angles and then covered up with strong -transparent size and as soon as it is firm cut it two fingers, and -leave it to dry; again you may make stiff cardboard of _sardonio_ -and dry it and then place it between two sheets of papyrus and break -it inside with a wooden mallet with a handle and then open it with -care holding the lower sheet of paper flat and firm so that the -broken pieces be not separated; then have a sheet of paper covered -with hot glue and apply it on the top of all these pieces and let -them stick fast; then turn it upside down and apply transparent size -several times in the spaces between the pieces, each time pouring in -first some black and then some stiff white and each time leaving it -to dry; then smooth it and polish it. - -On the preparation and use of colours (618-627). - -618. - -To make a fine green take green and mix it with bitumen and you will -make the shadows darker. Then, for lighter [shades] green with -yellow ochre, and for still lighter green with yellow, and for the -high lights pure yellow; then mix green and turmeric together and -glaze every thing with it. To make a fine red take cinnabar or red -chalk or burnt ochre for the dark shadows and for the lighter ones -red chalk and vermilion and for the lights pure vermilion and then -glaze with fine lake. To make good oil for painting. One part of -oil, one of the first refining and one of the second. - -619. - -Use black in the shadow, and in the lights white, yellow, green, -vermilion and lake. Medium shadows; take the shadow as above and mix -it with the flesh tints just alluded to, adding to it a little -yellow and a little green and occasionally some lake; for the -shadows take green and lake for the middle shades. - -[Footnote 618 and 619: If we may judge from the flourishes with -which the writing is ornamented these passages must have been -written in Leonardo's youth.] - -620. - -You can make a fine ochre by the same method as you use to make -white. - -621. - -A FINE YELLOW. - -Dissolve realgar with one part of orpiment, with aqua fortis. - -WHITE. - -Put the white into an earthen pot, and lay it no thicker than a -string, and let it stand in the sun undisturbed for 2 days; and in -the morning when the sun has dried off the night dews. - -622. - -To make reddish black for flesh tints take red rock crystals from -Rocca Nova or garnets and mix them a little; again armenian bole is -good in part. - -623. - -The shadow will be burnt ,terra-verte'. - -624. - -THE PROPORTIONS OF COLOURS. - -If one ounce of black mixed with one ounce of white gives a certain -shade of darkness, what shade of darkness will be produced by 2 -ounces of black to 1 ounce of white? - -625. - -Remix black, greenish yellow and at the end blue. - -626. - -Verdigris with aloes, or gall or turmeric makes a fine green and so -it does with saffron or burnt orpiment; but I doubt whether in a -short time they will not turn black. Ultramarine blue and glass -yellow mixed together make a beautiful green for fresco, that is -wall-painting. Lac and verdigris make a good shadow for blue in oil -painting. - -627. - -Grind verdigris many times coloured with lemon juice and keep it -away from yellow (?). - -Of preparing the panel. - -628. - -TO PREPARE A PANEL FOR PAINTING ON. - -The panel should be cypress or pear or service-tree or walnut. You -must coat it over with mastic and turpentine twice distilled and -white or, if you like, lime, and put it in a frame so that it may -expand and shrink according to its moisture and dryness. Then give -it [a coat] of aqua vitae in which you have dissolved arsenic or -[corrosive] sublimate, 2 or 3 times. Then apply boiled linseed oil -in such a way as that it may penetrate every part, and before it is -cold rub it well with a cloth to dry it. Over this apply liquid -varnish and white with a stick, then wash it with urine when it is -dry, and dry it again. Then pounce and outline your drawing finely -and over it lay a priming of 30 parts of verdigris with one of -verdigris with two of yellow. - -[Footnote: M. RAVAISSON'S reading varies from mine in the following -passages: - -1._opero allor [?] bo [alloro?]_ = "_ou bien de [laurier]_." - -6. _fregalo bene con un panno_. He reads _pane_ for _panno_ and -renders it. "_Frotte le bien avec un pain de facon [jusqu'a ce] -qu'il_" etc. - -7. _colla stecca po laua_. He reads "_polacca_" = "_avec le couteau -de bois [?] polonais [?]_."] - -The preparation of oils (629--634). - -629. - -OIL. - -Make some oil of mustard seed; and if you wish to make it with -greater ease mix the ground seeds with linseed oil and put it all -under the press. - -630. - -TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF OIL. - -Take the rank oil and put ten pints into a jar and make a mark on -the jar at the height of the oil; then add to it a pint of vinegar -and make it boil till the oil has sunk to the level of the mark and -thus you will be certain that the oil is returned to its original -quantity and the vinegar will have gone off in vapour, carrying with -it the evil smell; and I believe you may do the same with nut oil or -any other oil that smells badly. - -631. - -Since walnuts are enveloped in a thin rind, which partakes of the -nature of ..., if you do not remove it when you make the oil from -them, this skin tinges the oil, and when you work with it this skin -separates from the oil and rises to the surface of the painting, and -this is what makes it change. - -632. - -TO RESTORE OIL COLOURS THAT HAVE BECOME DRY. - -If you want to restore oil colours that have become dry keep them -soaking in soft soap for a night and, with your finger, mix them up -with the soft soap; then pour them into a cup and wash them with -water, and in this way you can restore colours that have got dry. -But take care that each colour has its own vessel to itself adding -the colour by degrees as you restore it and mind that they are -thoroughly softened, and when you wish to use them for tempera wash -them five and six times with spring water, and leave them to settle; -if the soft soap should be thick with any of the colours pass it -through a filter. [Footnote: The same remark applies to these -sections as to No. 618 and 619.] - -633. - -OIL. - -Mustard seed pounded with linseed oil. - -634. - -... outside the bowl 2 fingers lower than the level of the oil, and -pass it into the neck of a bottle and let it stand and thus all the -oil will separate from this milky liquid; it will enter the bottle -and be as clear as crystal; and grind your colours with this, and -every coarse or viscid part will remain in the liquid. You must know -that all the oils that have been created in seads or fruits are -quite clear by nature, and the yellow colour you see in them only -comes of your not knowing how to draw it out. Fire or heat by its -nature has the power to make them acquire colour. See for example -the exudation or gums of trees which partake of the nature of rosin; -in a short time they harden because there is more heat in them than -in oil; and after some time they acquire a certain yellow hue -tending to black. But oil, not having so much heat does not do so; -although it hardens to some extent into sediment it becomes finer. -The change in oil which occurs in painting proceeds from a certain -fungus of the nature of a husk which exists in the skin which covers -the nut, and this being crushed along with the nuts and being of a -nature much resembling oil mixes with it; it is of so subtle a -nature that it combines with all colours and then comes to the -surface, and this it is which makes them change. And if you want the -oil to be good and not to thicken, put into it a little camphor -melted over a slow fire and mix it well with the oil and it will -never harden. - -[Footnote: The same remark applies to these sections as to No. 618 -and 619.] - -On varnishes [or powders] (635-637). - -635. - -VARNISH [OR POWDER]. - -Take cypress [oil] and distil it and have a large pitcher, and put -in the extract with so much water as may make it appear like amber, -and cover it tightly so that none may evaporate. And when it is -dissolved you may add in your pitcher as much of the said solution, -as shall make it liquid to your taste. And you must know that amber -is the gum of the cypress-tree. - -VARNISH [OR POWDER]. - -And since varnish [powder] is the resin of juniper, if you distil -juniper you can dissolve the said varnish [powder] in the essence, -as explained above. - -636. - -VARNISH [OR POWDER]. - -Notch a juniper tree and give it water at the roots, mix the liquor -which exudes with nut-oil and you will have a perfect varnish -[powder], made like amber varnish [powder], fine and of the best -quality make it in May or April. - -637. - -VARNISH [OR POWDER]. - -Mercury with Jupiter and Venus,--a paste made of these must be -corrected by the mould (?) continuously, until Mercury separates -itself entirely from Jupiter and Venus. [Footnote: Here, and in No. -641 _Mercurio_ seems to mean quicksilver, _Giove_ stands for iron, -_Venere_ for copper and _Saturno_ for lead.] - -On chemical materials (638-650). - -638. - -Note how aqua vitae absorbs into itself all the colours and smells -of flowers. If you want to make blue put iris flowers into it and -for red solanum berries (?) - -639. - -Salt may be made from human excrement burnt and calcined and made -into lees, and dried by a slow fire, and all dung in like manner -yields salt, and these salts when distilled are very pungent. - -640. - -Sea water filtered through mud or clay, leaves all its saltness in -it. Woollen stuffs placed on board ship absorb fresh water. If sea -water is distilled under a retort it becomes of the first excellence -and any one who has a little stove in his kitchen can, with the same -wood as he cooks with, distil a great quantity of water if the -retort is a large one. - -641. - -MOULD(?). - -The mould (?) may be of Venus, or of Jupiter and Saturn and placed -frequently in the fire. And it should be worked with fine emery and -the mould (?) should be of Venus and Jupiter impasted over (?) -Venus. But first you will test Venus and Mercury mixed with Jove, -and take means to cause Mercury to disperse; and then fold them well -together so that Venus or Jupiter be connected as thinly as -possible. - -[Footnote: See the note to 637.] - -642. - -Nitre, vitriol, cinnabar, alum, salt ammoniac, sublimated mercury, -rock salt, alcali salt, common salt, rock alum, alum schist (?), -arsenic, sublimate, realgar, tartar, orpiment, verdegris. - -643. - -Pitch four ounces virgin wax, four ounces incense, two ounces oil of -roses one ounce. - -644. - -Four ounces virgin wax, four ounces Greek pitch, two ounces incense, -one ounce oil of roses, first melt the wax and oil then the Greek -pitch then the other things in powder. - -645. - -Very thin glass may be cut with scissors and when placed over inlaid -work of bone, gilt, or stained of other colours you can saw it -through together with the bone and then put it together and it will -retain a lustre that will not be scratched nor worn away by rubbing -with the hand. - -646. - -TO DILUTE WHITE WINE AND MAKE IT PURPLE. - -Powder gall nuts and let this stand 8 days in the white wine; and in -the same way dissolve vitriol in water, and let the water stand and -settle very clear, and the wine likewise, each by itself, and strain -them well; and when you dilute the white wine with the water the -wine will become red. - -647. - -Put marcasite into aqua fortis and if it turns green, know that it -has copper in it. Take it out with saltpetre and soft soap. - -648. - -A white horse may have the spots removed with the Spanish haematite -or with aqua fortis or with ... Removes the black hair on a white -horse with the singeing iron. Force him to the ground. - -649. - -FIRE. - -If you want to make a fire which will set a hall in a blaze without -injury do this: first perfume the hall with a dense smoke of incense -or some other odoriferous substance: It is a good trick to play. Or -boil ten pounds of brandy to evaporate, but see that the hall is -completely closed and throw up some powdered varnish among the fumes -and this powder will be supported by the smoke; then go into the -room suddenly with a lighted torch and at once it will be in a -blaze. - -650. - -FIRE. - -Take away that yellow surface which covers oranges and distill them -in an alembic, until the distillation may be said to be perfect. - -FIRE. - -Close a room tightly and have a brasier of brass or iron with fire -in it and sprinkle on it two pints of aqua vitae, a little at a -time, so that it may be converted into smoke. Then make some one -come in with a light and suddenly you will see the room in a blaze -like a flash of lightning, and it will do no harm to any one. - -VII. - -PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY OF THE ART OF PAINTING. - -The relation of art and nature (651. 652). - -651. - -What is fair in men, passes away, but not so in art. - -652. - -HE WHO DESPISES PAINTING LOVES NEITHER PHILOSOPHY NOR NATURE. - -If you condemn painting, which is the only imitator of all visible -works of nature, you will certainly despise a subtle invention which -brings philosophy and subtle speculation to the consideration of the -nature of all forms--seas and plains, trees, animals, plants and -flowers--which are surrounded by shade and light. And this is true -knowledge and the legitimate issue of nature; for painting is born -of nature--or, to speak more correctly, we will say it is the -grandchild of nature; for all visible things are produced by nature, -and these her children have given birth to painting. Hence we may -justly call it the grandchild of nature and related to God. - -Painting is superior to poetry (653. 654). - -653. - -THAT PAINTING SURPASSES ALL HUMAN WORKS BY THE SUBTLE CONSIDERATIONS -BELONGING TO IT. - -The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the principal -means by which the central sense can most completely and abundantly -appreciate the infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second, -which acquires dignity by hearing of the things the eye has seen. If -you, historians, or poets, or mathematicians had not seen things -with your eyes you could not report of them in writing. And if you, -0 poet, tell a story with your pen, the painter with his brush can -tell it more easily, with simpler completeness and less tedious to -be understood. And if you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may -call poetry blind painting. Now which is the worse defect? to be -blind or dumb? Though the poet is as free as the painter in the -invention of his fictions they are not so satisfactory to men as -paintings; for, though poetry is able to describe forms, actions and -places in words, the painter deals with the actual similitude of the -forms, in order to represent them. Now tell me which is the nearer -to the actual man: the name of man or the image of the man. The name -of man differs in different countries, but his form is never changed -but by death. - -654. - -And if the poet gratifies the sense by means of the ear, the painter -does so by the eye--the worthier sense; but I will say no more of -this but that, if a good painter represents the fury of a battle, -and if a poet describes one, and they are both together put before -the public, you will see where most of the spectators will stop, to -which they will pay most attention, on which they will bestow most -praise, and which will satisfy them best. Undoubtedly painting being -by a long way the more intelligible and beautiful, will please most. -Write up the name of God [Christ] in some spot and setup His image -opposite and you will see which will be most reverenced. Painting -comprehends in itself all the forms of nature, while you have -nothing but words, which are not universal as form is, and if you -have the effects of the representation, we have the representation -of the effects. Take a poet who describes the beauty of a lady to -her lover and a painter who represents her and you will see to which -nature guides the enamoured critic. Certainly the proof should be -allowed to rest on the verdict of experience. You have ranked -painting among the mechanical arts but, in truth, if painters were -as apt at praising their own works in writing as you are, it would -not lie under the stigma of so base a name. If you call it -mechanical because it is, in the first place, manual, and that it is -the hand which produces what is to be found in the imagination, you -too writers, who set down manually with the pen what is devised in -your mind. And if you say it is mechanical because it is done for -money, who falls into this error--if error it can be called--more -than you? If you lecture in the schools do you not go to whoever -pays you most? Do you do any work without pay? Still, I do not say -this as blaming such views, for every form of labour looks for its -reward. And if a poet should say: "I will invent a fiction with a -great purpose," the painter can do the same, as Apelles painted -Calumny. If you were to say that poetry is more eternal, I say the -works of a coppersmith are more eternal still, for time preserves -them longer than your works or ours; nevertheless they have not much -imagination [29]. And a picture, if painted on copper with enamel -colours may be yet more permanent. We, by our arts may be called the -grandsons of God. If poetry deals with moral philosophy, painting -deals with natural philosophy. Poetry describes the action of the -mind, painting considers what the mind may effect by the motions [of -the body]. If poetry can terrify people by hideous fictions, -painting can do as much by depicting the same things in action. -Supposing that a poet applies himself to represent beauty, ferocity, -or a base, a foul or a monstrous thing, as against a painter, he may -in his ways bring forth a variety of forms; but will the painter not -satisfy more? are there not pictures to be seen, so like the actual -things, that they deceive men and animals? - -Painting is superior to sculpture (655. 656). - -655. - -THAT SCULPTURE IS LESS INTELLECTUAL THAN PAINTING, AND LACKS MANY -CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURE. - -I myself, having exercised myself no less in sculpture than in -painting and doing both one and the other in the same degree, it -seems to me that I can, without invidiousness, pronounce an opinion -as to which of the two is of the greatest merit and difficulty and -perfection. In the first place sculpture requires a certain light, -that is from above, a picture carries everywhere with it its own -light and shade. Thus sculpture owes its importance to light and -shade, and the sculptor is aided in this by the nature, of the -relief which is inherent in it, while the painter whose art -expresses the accidental aspects of nature, places his effects in -the spots where nature must necessarily produce them. The sculptor -cannot diversify his work by the various natural colours of objects; -painting is not defective in any particular. The sculptor when he -uses perspective cannot make it in any way appear true; that of the -painter can appear like a hundred miles beyond the picture itself. -Their works have no aerial perspective whatever, they cannot -represent transparent bodies, they cannot represent luminous bodies, -nor reflected lights, nor lustrous bodies--as mirrors and the like -polished surfaces, nor mists, nor dark skies, nor an infinite number -of things which need not be told for fear of tedium. As regards the -power of resisting time, though they have this resistance [Footnote -19: From what is here said as to painting on copper it is very -evident that Leonardo was not acquainted with the method of painting -in oil on thin copper plates, introduced by the Flemish painters of -the XVIIth century. J. LERMOLIEFF has already pointed out that in -the various collections containing pictures by the great masters of -the Italian Renaissance, those painted on copper (for instance the -famous reading Magdalen in the Dresden Gallery) are the works of a -much later date (see _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst_. Vol. X pg. -333, and: _Werke italienischer Master in den Galerien von Munchen, -Dresden und Berlin_. Leipzig 1880, pg. 158 and 159.)--Compare No. -654, 29.], a picture painted on thick copper covered with white -enamel on which it is painted with enamel colours and then put into -the fire again and baked, far exceeds sculpture in permanence. It -may be said that if a mistake is made it is not easy to remedy it; -it is but a poor argument to try to prove that a work be the nobler -because oversights are irremediable; I should rather say that it -will be more difficult to improve the mind of the master who makes -such mistakes than to repair the work he has spoilt. - -656. - -We know very well that a really experienced and good painter will -not make such mistakes; on the contrary, with sound rules he will -remove so little at a time that he will bring his work to a good -issue. Again the sculptor if working in clay or wax, can add or -reduce, and when his model is finished it can easily be cast in -bronze, and this is the last operation and is the most permanent -form of sculpture. Inasmuch as that which is merely of marble is -liable to ruin, but not bronze. Hence a painting done on copper -which as I said of painting may be added to or altered, resembles -sculpture in bronze, which, having first been made in wax could then -be altered or added to; and if sculpture in bronze is durable, this -work in copper and enamel is absolutely imperishable. Bronze is but -dark and rough after all, but this latter is covered with various -and lovely colours in infinite variety, as has been said above; or -if you will have me only speak of painting on panel, I am content to -pronounce between it and sculpture; saying that painting is the more -beautiful and the more imaginative and the more copious, while -sculpture is the more durable but it has nothing else. Sculpture -shows with little labour what in painting appears a miraculous thing -to do; to make what is impalpable appear palpable, flat objects -appear in relief, distant objects seem close. In fact painting is -adorned with infinite possibilities which sculpture cannot command. - -Aphorisms (657-659). - -657. - -OF PAINTING. - -Men and words are ready made, and you, O Painter, if you do not know -how to make your figures move, are like an orator who knows not how -to use his words. - -658. - -As soon as the poet ceases to represent in words what exists in -nature, he in fact ceases to resemble the painter; for if the poet, -leaving such representation, proceeds to describe the flowery and -flattering speech of the figure, which he wishes to make the -speaker, he then is an orator and no longer a poet nor a painter. -And if he speaks of the heavens he becomes an astrologer, and -philosopher; and a theologian, if he discourses of nature or God. -But, if he restricts himself to the description of objects, he would -enter the lists against the painter, if with words he could satisfy -the eye as the painter does. - -659. - -Though you may be able to tell or write the exact description of -forms, the painter can so depict them that they will appear alive, -with the shadow and light which show the expression of a face; which -you cannot accomplish with the pen though it can be achieved by the -brush. - -On the history of painting (660. 661). - -660. - -THAT PAINTING DECLINES AND DETERIORATES FROM AGE TO AGE, WHEN -PAINTERS HAVE NO OTHER STANDARD THAN PAINTING ALREADY DONE. - -Hence the painter will produce pictures of small merit if he takes -for his standard the pictures of others. But if he will study from -natural objects he will bear good fruit; as was seen in the painters -after the Romans who always imitated each other and so their art -constantly declined from age to age. After these came Giotto the -Florentine who--not content with imitating the works of Cimabue his -master--being born in the mountains and in a solitude inhabited only -by goats and such beasts, and being guided by nature to his art, -began by drawing on the rocks the movements of the goats of which he -was keeper. And thus he began to draw all the animals which were to -be found in the country, and in such wise that after much study he -excelled not only all the masters of his time but all those of many -bygone ages. Afterwards this art declined again, because everyone -imitated the pictures that were already done; thus it went on from -century to century until Tomaso, of Florence, nicknamed Masaccio, -showed by his perfect works how those who take for their standard -any one but nature--the mistress of all masters--weary themselves in -vain. And, I would say about these mathematical studies that those -who only study the authorities and not the works of nature are -descendants but not sons of nature the mistress of all good authors. -Oh! how great is the folly of those who blame those who learn from -nature [Footnote 22: _lasciando stare li autori_. In this -observation we may detect an indirect evidence that Leonardo -regarded his knowledge of natural history as derived from his own -investigations, as well as his theories of perspective and optics. -Compare what he says in praise of experience (Vol II; _XIX_).], -setting aside those authorities who themselves were the disciples of -nature. - -661. - -That the first drawing was a simple line drawn round the shadow of a -man cast by the sun on a wall. - -The painter's scope. - -662. - -The painter strives and competes with nature. - -_X. - -Studies and Sketches for Pictures and Decorations. - -An artist's manuscript notes can hardly be expected to contain any -thing more than incidental references to those masterpieces of his -work of which the fame, sounded in the writings of his -contemporaries, has left a glorious echo to posterity. We need not -therefore be surprised to find that the texts here reproduced do not -afford us such comprehensive information as we could wish. On the -other hand, the sketches and studies prepared by Leonardo for the -two grandest compositions he ever executed: The Fresco of the Last -Supper in the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and -the Cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari, for the Palazzo della -Signoria at Florence--have been preserved; and, though far from -complete, are so much more numerous than the manuscript notes, that -we are justified in asserting that in value and interest they amply -compensate for the meagerness of the written suggestions. - -The notes for the composition of the Last Supper, which are given -under nos._ 665 _and_ 666 _occur in a MS. at South Kensington, II2, -written in the years_ 1494-1495. _This MS. sketch was noted down not -more than three or four years before the painting was executed, -which justifies the inference that at the time when it was written -the painter had not made up his mind definitely even as to the -general scheme of the work; and from this we may also conclude that -the drawings of apostles' heads at Windsor, in red chalk, must be -ascribed to a later date. They are studies for the head of St. -Matthew, the fourth figure on Christ's left hand--see Pl. XL VII, -the sketch (in black chalk) for the head of St. Philip, the third -figure on the left hand--see Pl. XL VIII, for St. Peter's right -arm--see Pl. XLIX, and for the expressive head of Judas which has -unfortunately somewhat suffered by subsequent restoration of -outlines,--see Pl. L. According to a tradition, as unfounded as it -is improbable, Leonardo made use of the head of Padre Bandelli, the -prior of the convent, as the prototype of his Judas; this however -has already been contradicted by Amoretti "Memorie storiche" cap. -XIV. The study of the head of a criminal on Pl. LI has, it seems to -me, a better claim to be regarded as one of the preparatory sketches -for the head of Judas. The Windsor collection contains two old -copies of the head of St. Simon, the figure to the extreme left of -Christ, both of about equal merit (they are marked as Nos._ 21 _and_ -36_)--the second was reproduced on Pl. VIII of the Grosvenor -Gallery Publication in_ 1878. _There is also at Windsor a drawing in -black chalk of folded hands (marked with the old No._ 212; _No. LXI -of the Grosvenor Gallery Publication) which I believe to be a copy -of the hands of St. John, by some unknown pupil. A reproduction of -the excellent drawings of heads of Apostles in the possession of H. -R. H. the Grand Duchess of Weimar would have been out of my province -in this work, and, with regard to them, I must confine myself to -pointing out that the difference in style does not allow of our -placing the Weimar drawings in the same category as those here -reproduced. The mode of grouping in the Weimar drawings is of itself -sufficient to indicate that they were not executed before the -picture was painted, but, on the contrary, afterwards, and it is, on -the face of it, incredible that so great a master should thus have -copied from his own work. - -The drawing of Christ's head, in the Brera palace at Milan was -perhaps originally the work of Leonardo's hand; it has unfortunately -been entirely retouched and re-drawn, so that no decisive opinion -can be formed as to its genuineness. - -The red chalk drawing reproduced on Pl. XLVI is in the Accademia at -Venice; it was probably made before the text, Nos._ 664 _and_ 665, -_was written. - -The two pen and ink sketches on Pl. XLV seem to belong to an even -earlier date; the more finished drawing of the two, on the right -hand, represents Christ with only St. John and Judas and a third -disciple whose action is precisely that described in No._ 666, -_Pl._ 4. _It is hardly necessary to observe that the other sketches -on this page and the lines of text below the circle (containing the -solution of a geometrical problem) have no reference to the picture -of the Last Supper. With this figure of Christ may be compared a -similar pen and ink drawing reproduced on page_ 297 _below on the -left hand; the original is in the Louvre. On this page again the -rest of the sketches have no direct bearing on the composition of -the Last Supper, not even, as it seems to me, the group of four men -at the bottom to the right hand--who are listening to a fifth, in -their midst addressing them. Moreover the writing on this page (an -explanation of a disk shaped instrument) is certainly not in the -same style as we find constantly used by Leonardo after the year_ -1489. - -_It may be incidentally remarked that no sketches are known for the -portrait of "Mona Lisa", nor do the MS. notes ever allude to it, -though according to Vasari the master had it in hand for fully four -years. - -Leonardo's cartoon for the picture of the battle of Anghiari has -shared the fate of the rival work, Michaelangelo's "Bathers summoned -to Battle". Both have been lost in some wholly inexplicable manner. -I cannot here enter into the remarkable history of this work; I can -only give an account of what has been preserved to us of Leonardo's -scheme and preparations for executing it. The extent of the material -in studies and drawings was till now quite unknown. Their -publication here may give some adequate idea of the grandeur of this -famous work. The text given as No._ 669 _contains a description of -the particulars of the battle, but for the reasons given in the note -to this text, I must abandon the idea of taking this passage as the -basis of my attempt to reconstruct the picture as the artist -conceived and executed it. - -I may here remind the reader that Leonardo prepared the cartoon in -the Sala del Papa of Santa Maria Novella at Florence and worked -there from the end of October 1503 till February 1504, and then was -busied with the painting in the Sala del Consiglio in the Palazzo -della Signoria, till the work was interrupted at the end of May -1506. (See Milanesi's note to Vasari pp. 43--45 Vol. IV ed. 1880.) -Vasari, as is well known, describes only one scene or episode of the -cartoon--the Battle for the Standard in the foreground of the -composition, as it would seem; and this only was ever finished as a -mural decoration in the Sala del Consiglio. This portion of the -composition is familiar to all from the disfigured copy engraved by -Edelinck. Mariette had already very acutely observed that Edelinck -must surely have worked from a Flemish copy of the picture. There is -in the Louvre a drawing by Rubens (No. 565) which also represents -four horsemen fighting round a standard and which agrees with -Edelinck's engraving, but the engraving reverses the drawing. An -earlier Flemish drawing, such as may have served as the model for -both Rubens and Edelinck, is in the Uffizi collection (see -Philpots's Photograph, No. 732). It seems to be a work of the second -half of the XVIth century, a time when both the picture and the -cartoon had already been destroyed. It is apparently the production -of a not very skilled hand. Raphael Trichet du Fresne, 1651, -mentions that a small picture by Leonardo himself of the Battle of -the Standard was then extant in the Tuileries; by this he probably -means the painting on panel which is now in the possession of Madame -Timbal in Paris, and which has lately been engraved by Haussoullier -as a work by Leonardo. The picture, which is very carefully painted, -seems to me however to be the work of some unknown Florentine -painter, and probably executed within the first ten years of the -XVIth century. At the same time, it would seem to be a copy not from -Leonardo's cartoon, but from his picture in the Palazzo della -Signoria; at any rate this little picture, and the small Flemish -drawing in Florence are the oldest finished copies of this episode -in the great composition of the Battle of Anghiari. - -In his Life of Raphael, Vasari tells us that Raphael copied certain -works of Leonardo's during his stay in Florence. Raphael's first -visit to Florence lasted from the middle of October 1504 till July -1505, and he revisited it in the summer of 1506. The hasty sketch, -now in the possession of the University of Oxford and reproduced on -page 337 also represents the Battle of the Standard and seems to -have been made during his first stay, and therefore not from the -fresco but from the cartoon; for, on the same sheet we also find, -besides an old man's head drawn in Leonardo's style, some studies -for the figure of St. John the Martyr which Raphael used in 1505 in -his great fresco in the Church of San Severo at Perugia. - -Of Leonardo's studies for the Battle of Anghiari I must in the first -place point to five, on three of which--Pl. LII 2, Pl. LIII, Pl. -LVI--we find studies for the episode of the Standard. The standard -bearer, who, in the above named copies is seen stooping, holding on -to the staff across his shoulder, is immediately recognisable as the -left-hand figure in Raphael's sketch, and we find it in a similar -attitude in Leonardo's pen and ink drawing in the British -Museum--Pl. LII, 2--the lower figure to the right. It is not -difficult to identify the same figure in two more complicated groups -in the pen and ink drawings, now in the Accademia at Venice--Pl. -LIII, and Pl. LIV--where we also find some studies of foot soldiers -fighting. On the sheet in the British Museum--Pl. LII, 2--we find, -among others, one group of three horses galloping forwards: one -horseman is thrown and protects himself with his buckler against the -lance thrusts of two others on horseback, who try to pierce him as -they ride past. The same action is repeated, with some variation, in -two sketches in pen and ink on a third sheet, in the Accademia at -Venice, Pl. LV; a coincidence which suggests the probability of such -an incident having actually been represented on the cartoon. We are -not, it is true, in a position to declare with any certainty which -of these three dissimilar sketches may have been the nearest to the -group finally adopted in executing the cartoon. - -With regard, however, to one of the groups of horsemen it is -possible to determine with perfect certainty not only which -arrangement was preferred, but the position it occupied in the -composition. The group of horsemen on Pl. LVII is a drawing in black -chalk at Windsor, which is there attributed to Leonardo, but which -appears to me to be the work of Cesare da Sesto, and the -Commendatore Giov. Morelli supports me in this view. It can hardly -be doubted that da Sesto, as a pupil of Leonardo's, made this -drawing from his master's cartoon, if we compare it with the copy -made by Raphael--here reproduced, for just above the fighting -horseman in Raphael's copy it is possible to detect a horse which is -seen from behind, going at a slower pace, with his tail flying out -to the right and the same horse may be seen in the very same -attitude carrying a dimly sketched rider, in the foreground of -Cesare da Sesto's drawing._ - -_If a very much rubbed drawing in black chalk at Windsor--Pl. -LVI--is, as it appears to be, the reversed impression of an original -drawing, it is not difficult to supplement from it the portions -drawn by Cesare da Sesto. Nay, it may prove possible to reconstruct -the whole of the lost cartoon from the mass of materials we now have -at hand which we may regard as the nucleus of the composition. A -large pen and ink drawing by Raphael in the Dresden collection, -representing three horsemen fighting, and another, by Cesare da -Sesto, in the Uffizi, of light horsemen fighting are a further -contribution which will help us to reconstruct it._ - -_The sketch reproduced on Pl. LV gives a suggestive example of the -way in which foot-soldiers may have been introduced into the cartoon -as fighting among the groups of horsemen; and I may here take the -opportunity of mentioning that, for reasons which it would be out of -place to enlarge upon here, I believe the two genuine drawings by -Raphael's hand in his "Venetian sketch-book" as it is called--one of -a standard bearer marching towards the left, and one of two -foot-soldiers armed with spears and fighting with a horseman--to be -undoubtedly copies from the cartoon of the Battle of Anghiari._ - -_Leonardo's two drawings, preserved in the museum at Buda-Pesth and -reproduced on pages 338 and 339 are preliminary studies for the -heads of fighting warriors. The two heads drawn in black chalk (pg. -338) and the one seen in profile, turned to the left, drawn in red -chalk (pg. 339), correspond exactly with those of two horsemen in -the scene of the fight round the standard as we see them in Madame -Timbal's picture and in the other finished copies. An old copy of -the last named drawing by a pupil of Leonardo is in MS. C. A. 187b; -561b (See Saggio, Tav. XXII). Leonardo used to make such finished -studies of heads as those, drawn on detached sheets, before -beginning his pictures from his drawings--compare the preparatory -studies for the fresco of the Last Supper, given on Pl. XLVII and -Pl. L. Other drawings of heads, all characterised by the expression -of vehement excitement that is appropriate to men fighting, are to -be seen at Windsor (No. 44) and at the Accademia at Venice (IV, 13); -at the back of one of the drawings at Buda-Pesth there is the bust -of a warrior carrying a spear on his left shoulder, holding up the -left arm (See Csatakepek a XVI--lk Szazadbol osszeallitotta Pvlszky -Karoly). These drawings may have been made for other portions of the -cartoon, of which no copies exist, and thus we are unable to -identify these preparatory drawings. Finally I may add that a sketch -of fighting horse and foot soldiers, formerly in the possession of -M. Thiers and published by Charles Blanc in his "Vies des Peintres" -can hardly be accepted as genuine. It is not to be found, as I am -informed, among the late President's property, and no one appears to -know where it now is._ - -_An attempted reconstruction of the Cartoon, which is not only -unsuccessful but perfectly unfounded, is to be seen in the -lithograph by Bergeret, published in Charles Blanc's "Vies des -peintres" and reprinted in "The great Artists. L. da Vinci", p. 80. -This misleading pasticcio may now be rejected without hesitation._ - -_There are yet a few original drawings by Leonardo which might be -mentioned here as possibly belonging to the cartoon of the Battle; -such as the pen and ink sketches on Pl. XXI and on Pl. XXXVIII, No. -3, but we should risk too wide a departure from the domain of -ascertained fact._ - -_With regard to the colours and other materials used by Leonardo the -reader may be referred to the quotations from the accounts for the -picture in question given by Milanesi in his edition of Vasari (Vol. -IV, p. 44, note) where we find entries of a similar character to -those in Leonardo's note books for the year 1505; S. K. M. 12 (see -No. 636)._ - -_That Leonardo was employed in designing decorations and other -preparations for high festivals, particularly for the court of -Milan, we learn not only from the writings of his contemporaries but -from his own incidental allusions; for instance in MS. C. l5b (1), -l. 9. In the arrangement of the texts referring to this I have -placed those first, in which historical personages are named--Nos. -670-674. Among the descriptions of Allegorical subjects two texts -lately found at Oxford have been included, Nos. 676 and 677. They -are particularly interesting because they are accompanied by large -sketches which render the meaning of the texts perfectly clear. It -is very intelligible that in other cases, where there are no -illustrative sketches, the notes must necessarily remain obscure or -admit of various interpretations. The literature of the time affords -ample evidence of the use of such allegorical representations, -particularly during the Carnival and in Leonardo's notes we find the -Carnival expressly mentioned--Nos. 685 and 704. Vasari in his Life -of Pontormo, particularly describes that artist's various -undertakings for Carnival festivities. These very graphic -descriptions appear to me to throw great light in more ways than one -on the meaning of Leonardo's various notes as to allegorical -representations and also on mottoes and emblems--Nos. 681-702. In -passing judgment on the allegorical sketches and emblems it must not -be overlooked that even as pictures they were always accompanied by -explanations in words. Several finished drawings of allegorical -compositions or figures have been preserved, but as they have no -corresponding explanation in the MSS. they had no claim to be -reproduced here. The female figure on Pl. XXVI may perhaps be -regarded as a study for such an allegorical painting, of which the -purport would have been explained by an inscription._ - -On Madonna pictures. - -663. - -[In the autumn of] 1478 I began the two Madonna [pictures]. - -[Footnote: Photographs of this page have been published by BRAUN, -No. 439, and PHILPOT, No. 718. - -1. _Incominciai_. We have no other information as to the two -pictures of the Madonna here spoken of. As Leonardo here tells us -that he had begun two Madonnas at the same time, the word -'_incominciai_' may be understood to mean that he had begun at the -same time preparatory studies for two pictures to be painted later. -If this is so, the non-existence of the pictures may be explained by -supposing that they were only planned and never executed. I may here -mention a few studies for pictures of the Madonna which probably -belong to this early time; particularly a drawing in silver-point on -bluish tinted paper at Windsor--see Pl. XL, No. 3--, a drawing of -which the details have almost disappeared in the original but have -been rendered quite distinct in the reproduction; secondly a slight -pen and ink sketch in, the Codex VALLARDI, in the Louvre, fol. 64, -No. 2316; again a silver point drawing of a Virgin and child drawn -over again with the pen in the His de la Salle collection also in -the Louvre, No. 101. (See Vicomte BOTH DE TAUZIA, _Notice des -dessins de la collection His de la Salle, exposes au Louvre_. Paris -1881, pp. 80, 81.) This drawing is, it is true, traditionally -ascribed to Raphael, but the author of the catalogue very justly -points out its great resemblance with the sketches for Madonnas in -the British Museum which are indisputably Leonardo's. Some of these -have been published by Mr. HENRY WALLIS in the Art Journal, New Ser. -No. 14, Feb. 1882. If the non-existence of the two pictures here -alluded to justifies my hypothesis that only studies for such -pictures are meant by the text, it may also be supposed that the -drawings were made for some comrade in VERROCCHIO'S atelier. (See -VASARI, Sansoni's ed. Florence 1880. Vol. IV, p. 564): "_E perche a -Lerenzo piaceva fuor di modo la maniera di Lionardo, la seppe cosi -bene imitare, che niuno fu che nella pulitezza e nel finir l'opere -con diligenza l'imitasse pi� di lui_." Leonardo's notes give me no -opportunity of discussing the pictures executed by him in Florence, -before he moved to Milan. So the studies for the unfinished picture -of the Adoration of the Magi--in the Uffizi, Florence--cannot be -described here, nor would any discussion about the picture in the -Louvre "_La Vierge aux Rochers_" be appropriate in the absence of -all allusion to it in the MSS. Therefore, when I presently add a few -remarks on this painting in explanation of the Master's drawings for -it, it will be not merely with a view to facilitate critical -researches about the picture now in the National Gallery, London, -which by some critics has been pronounced to be a replica of the -Louvre picture, but also because I take this opportunity of -publishing several finished studies of the Master's which, even if -they were not made in Florence but later in Milan, must have been -prior to the painting of the Last Supper. The original picture in -Paris is at present so disfigured by dust and varnish that the -current reproductions in photography actually give evidence more of -the injuries to which the picture has been exposed than of the -original work itself. The wood-cut given on p. 344, is only intended -to give a general notion of the composition. It must be understood -that the outline and expression of the heads, which in the picture -is obscured but not destroyed, is here altogether missed. The -facsimiles which follow are from drawings which appear to me to be -studies for "_La Vierge aux Rochers_." - -1. A drawing in silver point on brown toned paper of a woman's head -looking to the left. In the Royal Library at Turin, apparently a -study from nature for the Angel's head (Pl. XLII). - -2. A study of drapery for the left leg of the same figure, done with -the brush, Indian ink on greenish paper, the lights heightened with -white. - -The original is at Windsor, No. 223. The reproduction Pl. XLIII is -defective in the shadow on the upper part of the thigh, which is not -so deep as in the original; it should also be observed that the -folds of the drapery near the hips are somewhat altered in the -finished work in the Louvre, while the London copy shows a greater -resemblance to this study in that particular. - -3. A study in red chalk for the bust of the Infant Christ--No. 3 in -the Windsor collection (Pl. XLIV). The well-known silver-point -drawing on pale green paper, in the Louvre, of a boy's head (No. 363 -in REISET, _Notice des dessins, Ecoles d'Italie_) seems to me to be -a slightly altered copy, either from the original picture or from -this red chalk study. - -4. A silver-point study on greenish paper, for the head of John the -Baptist, reproduced on p. 342. This was formerly in the Codex -Vallardi and is now exhibited among the drawings in the Louvre. The -lights are, in the original, heightened with white; the outlines, -particularly round the head and ear, are visibly restored. - -There is a study of an outstretched hand--No. 288 in the Windsor -collection--which was published in the Grosvenor Gallery -Publication, 1878, simply under the title of: "No. 72 Study of a -hand, pointing" which, on the other hand, I regard as a copy by a -pupil. The action occurs in the kneeling angel of the Paris picture -and not in the London copy. - -These four genuine studies form, I believe, a valuable substitute in -the absence of any MS. notes referring to the celebrated Paris -picture.] - -Bernardo di Bandino's Portrait. - -664. - -A tan-coloured small cap, A doublet of black serge, A black jerkin -lined A blue coat lined, with fur of foxes' breasts, and the collar -of the jerkin covered with black and white stippled velvet Bernardo -di Bandino Baroncelli; black hose. - -[Footnote: These eleven lines of text are by the side of the pen and -ink drawing of a man hanged--Pl. LXII, No. 1. This drawing was -exhibited in 1879 at the _Ecole des Beaux-Arts_ in Paris and the -compilers of the catalogue amused themselves by giving the victim's -name as follows: "_Un pendu, vetu d'une longue robe, les mains li�es -sur le dos ... Bernardo di Bendino Barontigni, marchand de -pantalons_" (see _Catalogue descriptif des Dessins de Mailres -anciens exposes a l'Ecole des Beaux Arts_, Paris 1879; No. 83, pp. -9-10). Now, the criminal represented here, is none other than -Bernardino di Bandino Baroncelli the murderer of Giuliano de'Medici, -whose name as a coadjutor in the conspiracy of the Pazzi has gained -a melancholy notoriety by the tragedy of the 26th April 1478. -Bernardo was descended from an ancient family and the son of the man -who, under King Ferrante, was President of the High Court of Justice -in Naples. His ruined fortunes, it would seem, induced him to join -the Pazzi; he and Francesco Pazzi were entrusted with the task of -murdering Giuliano de'Medici on the fixed day. Their victim not -appearing in the cathedral at the hour when they expected him, the -two conspirators ran to the palace of the Medici and induced him to -accompany them. Giuliano then took his place in the chancel of the -Cathedral, and as the officiating priest raised the Host--the sign -agreed upon--Bernardo stabbed the unsuspecting Giuliano in the -breast with a short sword; Giuliano stepped backwards and fell dead. -The attempt on Lorenzo's life however, by the other conspirators at -the same moment, failed of success. Bernardo no sooner saw that -Lorenzo tried to make his escape towards the sacristy, than he -rushed upon him, and struck down Francesco Nori who endeavoured to -protect Lorenzo. How Lorenzo then took refuge behind the brazen -doors of the sacristy, and how, as soon as Giuliano's death was made -known, the further plans of the conspirators were defeated, while a -terrible vengeance overtook all the perpetrators and accomplices, -this is no place to tell. Bernardo Bandini alone seemed to be -favoured by fortune; he hid first in the tower of the Cathedral, and -then escaped undiscovered from Florence. Poliziano, who was with -Lorenzo in the Cathedral, says in his 'Conjurationis Pactianae -Commentarium': "_Bandinus fugitans in Tiphernatem incidit, a quo in -aciem receptus Senas pervenit_." And Gino Capponi in summing up the -reports of the numerous contemporary narrators of the event, says: -"_Bernardo Bandini ricoverato in Costantinopoli, fu per ordine del -Sultano preso e consegnato a un Antonio di Bernardino dei Medici, -che Lorenzo aveva mandato apposta in Turchia: cos� era grande la -potenza di quest' uomo e grande la voglia di farne mostra e che non -restasse in vita chi aveagli ucciso il fratello, fu egli applicato -appena giunto_" (_Storia della Republica di Firenze II_, 377, 378). -Details about the dates may be found in the _Chronichetta di -Belfredello Strinati Alfieri_: "_Bernardo di Bandino Bandini -sopradetto ne venne preso da Gostantinopoti a d� 14. Dicembre 1479 e -disaminato, che fu al Bargello, fu impiccato alle finestre di detto -Bargello allato alla Doana a d� 29. Dicembre MCCCCLXXIX che pochi d� -stette_." It may however be mentioned with reference to the mode of -writing the name of the assassin that, though most of his -contemporaries wrote Bernardo Bandini, in the _Breve Chronicon -Caroli Petri de Joanninis_ he is called Bernardo di Bandini -Baroncelli; and, in the _Sententiae Domini Matthaei de Toscana_, -Bernardus Joannis Bandini de Baroncellis, as is written on -Leonardo's drawing of him when hanged. Now VASARI, in the life of -_Andrea del Castagno_ (Vol. II, 680; ed. Milanesi 1878), tells us -that in 1478 this painter was commissioned by order of the Signoria -to represent the members of the Pazzi conspiracy as traitors, on the -facade of the Palazzo del Podest�--the Bargello. This statement is -obviously founded on a mistake, for Andrea del Castagno was already -dead in 1457. He had however been commissioned to paint Rinaldo -degli Albizzi, when declared a rebel and exiled in 1434, and his -adherents, as hanging head downwards; and in consequence he had -acquired the nickname of Andrea degl' Impiccati. On the 21st July -1478 the Council of Eight came to the following resolution: "_item -servatis etc. deliberaverunt et santiaverunt Sandro Botticelli pro -ejus labore in pingendo proditores flor. quadraginta largos_" (see -G. MILANESI, _Arch. star. VI_ (1862) p. 5 note.) - -As has been told, Giuliano de' Medici was murdered on the 26th April -1478, and we see by this that only three months later Botticelli was -paid for his painting of the "_proditores_". We can however hardly -suppose that all the members of the conspiracy were depicted by him -in fresco on the facade of the palace, since no fewer than eighty -had been condemned to death. We have no means of knowing whether, -besides Botticelli, any other painters, perhaps Leonardo, was -commissioned, when the criminals had been hanged in person out of -the windows of the Palazzo del Podest� to represent them there -afterwards in effigy in memory of their disgrace. Nor do we know -whether the assassin who had escaped may at first not have been -provisionally represented as hanged in effigy. Now, when we try to -connect the historical facts with this drawing by Leonardo -reproduced on Pl. LXII, No. I, and the full description of the -conspirator's dress and its colour on the same sheet, there seems to -be no reasonable doubt that Bernardo Bandini is here represented as -he was actually hanged on December 29th, 1479, after his capture at -Constantinople. The dress is certainly not that in which he -committed the murder. A long furred coat might very well be worn at -Constantinople or at Florence in December, but hardly in April. The -doubt remains whether Leonardo described Bernardo's dress so fully -because it struck him as remarkable, or whether we may not rather -suppose that this sketch was actually made from nature with the -intention of using it as a study for a wall painting to be executed. -It cannot be denied that the drawing has all the appearance of -having been made for this purpose. Be this as it may, the sketch -under discussion proves, at any rate, that Leonardo was in Florence -in December 1479, and the note that accompanies it is valuable as -adding one more characteristic specimen to the very small number of -his MSS. that can be proved to have been written between 1470 and -1480.] - -Notes on the Last Supper (665-668). - -665. - -One who was drinking and has left the glass in its position and -turned his head towards the speaker. - -Another, twisting the fingers of his hands together turns with stern -brows to his companion [6]. Another with his hands spread open shows -the palms, and shrugs his shoulders up his ears making a mouth of -astonishment [8]. - -[9] Another speaks into his neighbour's ear and he, as he listens to -him, turns towards him to lend an ear [10], while he holds a knife -in one hand, and in the other the loaf half cut through by the -knife. [13] Another who has turned, holding a knife in his hand, -upsets with his hand a glass on the table [14]. - -[Footnote 665, 666: In the original MS. there is no sketch to -accompany these passages, and if we compare them with those drawings -made by Leonardo in preparation for the composition of the -picture--Pl. XLV, XLVI--, (compare also Pl. LII, 1 and the drawings -on p. 297) it is impossible to recognise in them a faithful -interpretation of the whole of this text; but, if we compare these -passages with the finished picture (see p. 334) we shall see that in -many places they coincide. For instance, compare No. 665, 1. 6--8, -with the fourth figure on the right hand of Christ. The various -actions described in lines 9--10, 13--14 are to be seen in the group -of Peter, John and Judas; in the finished picture however it is not -a glass but a salt cellar that Judas is upsetting.] - -666. - -Another lays his hand on the table and is looking. Another blows his -mouthful. [3] Another leans forward to see the speaker shading his -eyes with his hand. [5] Another draws back behind the one who leans -forward, and sees the speaker between the wall and the man who is -leaning [Footnote: 6. _chinato_. I have to express my regret for -having misread this word, written _cinato_ in the original, and -having altered it to _"ciclo"_ when I first published this text, in -'The Academy' for Nov. 8, 1879 immediately after I had discovered -it, and subsequently in the small biography of Leonardo da Vinci -(Great Artists) p. 29.]. - -[Footnote: In No. 666. Line I must refer to the furthest figure on -the left; 3, 5 and 6 describe actions which are given to the group -of disciples on the left hand of Christ.] - -667. - -CHRIST. - -Count Giovanni, the one with the Cardinal of Mortaro. - -[Footnote: As this note is in the same small Manuscript as the -passage here immediately preceding it, I may be justified in -assuming that Leonardo meant to use the features of the person here -named as a suitable model for the figure of Christ. The celebrated -drawing of the head of Christ, now hanging in the Brera Gallery at -Milan, has obviously been so much restored that it is now impossible -to say, whether it was ever genuine. We have only to compare it with -the undoubtedly genuine drawings of heads of the disciples in PI. -XLVII, XLVIII and L, to admit that not a single line of the Milan -drawing in its present state can be by the same hand.] - -668. - -Philip, Simon, Matthew, Thomas, James the Greater, Peter, Philip, -Andrew, Bartholomew. - -[Footnote: See PI. XLVI. The names of the disciples are given in the -order in which they are written in the original, from right to left, -above each head. The original drawing is here slightly reduced in -scale; it measures 39 centimetres in length by 26 in breadth.] - -669. - - On the battle of Anghiari. - Florentine - Neri di Gino Capponi - Bernardetto de' Medici - Micheletto, - Niccolo da Pisa - Conte Francesco - Pietro Gian Paolo - Guelfo Orsino, - Messer Rinaldo degli - Albizzi - -Begin with the address of Niccolo Piccinino to the soldiers and the -banished Florentines among whom are Messer Rinaldo degli Albizzi and -other Florentines. Then let it be shown how he first mounted on -horseback in armour; and the whole army came after him--40 squadrons -of cavalry, and 2000 foot soldiers went with him. Very early in the -morning the Patriarch went up a hill to reconnoitre the country, -that is the hills, fields and the valley watered by a river; and -from thence he beheld Niccolo Picinino coming from Borgo San -Sepolcro with his people, and with a great dust; and perceiving them -he returned to the camp of his own people and addressed them. Having -spoken he prayed to God with clasped hands, when there appeared a -cloud in which Saint Peter appeared and spoke to the Patriarch.--500 -cavalry were sent forward by the Patriarch to hinder or check the -rush of the enemy. In the foremost troop Francesco the son of -Niccolo Piccinino [24] was the first to attack the bridge which was -held by the Patriarch and the Florentines. Beyond the bridge to his -left he sent forward some infantry to engage ours, who drove them -back, among whom was their captain Micheletto [29] whose lot it was -to be that day at the head of the army. Here, at this bridge there -is a severe struggle; our men conquer and the enemy is repulsed. -Here Guido and Astorre, his brother, the Lord of Faenza with a great -number of men, re-formed and renewed the fight, and rushed upon the -Florentines with such force that they recovered the bridge and -pushed forward as far as the tents. But Simonetto advanced with 600 -horse, and fell upon the enemy and drove them back once more from -the place, and recaptured the bridge; and behind him came more men -with 2000 horse soldiers. And thus for a long time they fought with -varying fortune. But then the Patriarch, in order to divert the -enemy, sent forward Niccolo da Pisa [44] and Napoleone Orsino, a -beardless lad, followed by a great multitude of men, and then was -done another great feat of arms. At the same time Niccolo Piccinino -urged forward the remnant of his men, who once more made ours give -way; and if it had not been that the Patriarch set himself at their -head and, by his words and deeds controlled the captains, our -soldiers would have taken to flight. The Patriarch had some -artillery placed on the hill and with these he dispersed the enemy's -infantry; and the disorder was so complete that Niccolo began to -call back his son and all his men, and they took to flight towards -Borgo. And then began a great slaughter of men; none escaped but the -foremost of those who had fled or who hid themselves. The battle -continued until sunset, when the Patriarch gave his mind to -recalling his men and burying the dead, and afterwards a trophy was -erected. - -[Footnote: 669. This passage does not seem to me to be in Leonardo's -hand, though it has hitherto been generally accepted as genuine. Not -only is the writing unlike his, but the spelling also is quite -different. I would suggest that this passage is a description of the -events of the battle drawn up for the Painter by order of the -Signoria, perhaps by some historian commissioned by them, to serve -as a scheme or programme of the work. The whole tenor of the style -seems to me to argue in favour of this theory; and besides, it would -be in no way surprising that such a document should have been -preserved among Leonardo's autographs.] - -Allegorical representations referring to the duke of Milan -(670-673). - -670. - -Ermine with blood Galeazzo, between calm weather and a -representation of a tempest. - -[Footnote: 670. Only the beginning of this text is legible; the -writing is much effaced and the sense is consequently obscure. It -seems to refer like the following passage to an allegorical -picture.] - -671. - -Il Moro with spectacles, and Envy depicted with False Report and -Justice black for il Moro. - -Labour as having a branch of vine [_or_ a screw] in her hand. - -672. - -Il Moro as representing Good Fortune, with hair, and robes, and his -hands in front, and Messer Gualtieri taking him by the robes with a -respectful air from below, having come in from the front [5]. - -Again, Poverty in a hideous form running behind a youth. Il Moro -covers him with the skirt of his robe, and with his gilt sceptre he -threatens the monster. - -A plant with its roots in the air to represent one who is at his -last;--a robe and Favour. - -Of tricks [_or_ of magpies] and of burlesque poems [_or_ of -starlings]. - -Those who trust themselves to live near him, and who will be a large -crowd, these shall all die cruel deaths; and fathers and mothers -together with their families will be devoured and killed by cruel -creatures. - -[Footnote: 1--10 have already been published by _Amoretti_ in -_Memorie Storiche_ cap. XII. He adds this note with regard to -Gualtieri: "_A questo M. Gualtieri come ad uomo generoso e benefico -scrive il Bellincioni un Sonetto (pag, 174) per chiedergli un -piacere; e 'l Tantio rendendo ragione a Lodovico il Moro, perche -pubblicasse le Rime del Bellincioni; ci� hammi imposto, gli dice: -l'humano fidele, prudente e sollicito executore delli tuoi -comandamenti Gualtero, che fa in tutte le cose ove tu possi far -utile, ogni studio vi metti._" A somewhat mysterious and evidently -allegorical composition--a pen and ink drawing--at Windsor, see PL -LVIII, contains a group of figures in which perhaps the idea is -worked out which is spoken of in the text, lines 1-5.] - -673. - -He was blacker than a hornet, his eyes were as red as a burning fire -and he rode on a tall horse six spans across and more than 20 long -with six giants tied up to his saddle-bow and one in his hand which -he gnawed with his teeth. And behind him came boars with tusks -sticking out of their mouths, perhaps ten spans. - -Allegorical representations (674--678). - -674. - -Above the helmet place a half globe, which is to signify our -hemisphere, in the form of a world; on which let there be a peacock, -richly decorated, and with his tail spread over the group; and every -ornament belonging to the horse should be of peacock's feathers on a -gold ground, to signify the beauty which comes of the grace bestowed -on him who is a good servant. - -On the shield a large mirror to signify that he who truly desires -favour must be mirrored in his virtues. - -On the opposite side will be represented Fortitude, in like manner -in her place with her pillar in her hand, robed in white, to signify -... And all crowned; and Prudence with 3 eyes. The housing of the -horse should be of plain cloth of gold closely sprinkled with -peacock's eyes, and this holds good for all the housings of the -horse, and the man's dress. And the man's crest and his neck-chain -are of peacock's feathers on golden ground. - -On the left side will be a wheel, the centre of which should be -attached to the centre of the horse's hinder thigh piece, and in the -centre Prudence is seen robed in red, Charity sitting in a fiery -chariot and with a branch of laurel in her hand, to signify the hope -which comes of good service. - -[21] Messer Antonio Grimani of Venice companion of Antonio Maria -[23]. - -[Footnote: _Messer Antonio Gri_. His name thus abbreviated is, there -can be no doubt, Grimani. Antonio Grimani was the famous Doge who in -1499 commanded the Venetian fleet in battle against the Turks. But -after the abortive conclusion of the expedition--Ludovico being the -ally of the Turks who took possession of Friuli--, Grimani was driven -into exile; he went to live at Rome with his son Cardinal Domenico -Grimani. On being recalled to Venice he filled the office of Doge -from 1521 to 1523. _Antonio Maria_ probably means Antonio Maria -Grimani, the Patriarch of Aquileia.] - -675. - -Fame should be depicted as covered all over with tongues instead of -feathers, and in the figure of a bird. - -676. - -Pleasure and Pain represent as twins, since there never is one -without the other; and as if they were united back to back, since -they are contrary to each other. - -[6] Clay, gold. - -[Footnote: 7. _oro. fango_: gold, clay. These words stand below the -allegorical figure.] - -If you take Pleasure know that he has behind him one who will deal -you Tribulation and Repentance. - -[9] This represents Pleasure together with Pain, and show them as -twins because one is never apart from the other. They are back to -back because they are opposed to each other; and they exist as -contraries in the same body, because they have the same basis, -inasmuch as the origin of pleasure is labour and pain, and the -various forms of evil pleasure are the origin of pain. Therefore it -is here represented with a reed in his right hand which is useless -and without strength, and the wounds it inflicts are poisoned. In -Tuscany they are put to support beds, to signify that it is here -that vain dreams come, and here a great part of life is consumed. It -is here that much precious time is wasted, that is, in the morning, -when the mind is composed and rested, and the body is made fit to -begin new labours; there again many vain pleasures are enjoyed; both -by the mind in imagining impossible things, and by the body in -taking those pleasures that are often the cause of the failing of -life. And for these reasons the reed is held as their support. - -[Footnote: 676. The pen and ink drawing on PI. LIX belongs to this -passage.] - -[Footnote: 8. _tribolatione_. In the drawing caltrops may be seen -lying in the old man's right hand, others are falling and others -again are shewn on the ground. Similar caltrops are drawn in MS. -Tri. p. 98 and underneath them, as well as on page 96 the words -_triboli di ferro_ are written. From the accompanying text it -appears that they were intended to be scattered on the ground at the -bottom of ditches to hinder the advance of the enemy. Count Giulio -Porro who published a short account of the Trivulzio MS. in the -"_Archivio Storico Lombardo_", Anno VIII part IV (Dec. 31, 1881) has -this note on the passages treating of "_triboli_": "_E qui -aggiunger� che anni sono quando venne fabbricata la nuova -cavallerizza presso il castello di Milano, ne furono trovati due che -io ho veduto ed erano precisamente quali si trovano descritti e -disegnati da Leonardo in questo codice_". - -There can therefore be no doubt that this means of defence was in -general use, whether it were originally Leonardo's invention or not. -The play on the word "_tribolatione_", as it occurs in the drawing -at Oxford, must then have been quite intelligible.] - -[Footnote: 9--22. These lines, in the original, are written on the -left side of the page and refer to the figure shown on PI. LXI. Next -to it is placed the group of three figures given in PI. LX No. I. -Lines 21 and 22, which are written under it, are the only -explanation given.] - -Evil-thinking is either Envy or Ingratitude. - -677. - -Envy must be represented with a contemptuous motion of the hand -towards heaven, because if she could she would use her strength -against God; make her with her face covered by a mask of fair -seeming; show her as wounded in the eye by a palm branch and by an -olive-branch, and wounded in the ear by laurel and myrtle, to -signify that victory and truth are odious to her. Many thunderbolts -should proceed from her to signify her evil speaking. Let her be -lean and haggard because she is in perpetual torment. Make her heart -gnawed by a swelling serpent, and make her with a quiver with -tongues serving as arrows, because she often offends with it. Give -her a leopard's skin, because this creature kills the lion out of -envy and by deceit. Give her too a vase in her hand full of flowers -and scorpions and toads and other venomous creatures; make her ride -upon death, because Envy, never dying, never tires of ruling. Make -her bridle, and load her with divers kinds of arms because all her -weapons are deadly. - -Toleration. - -Intolerable. - -No sooner is Virtue born than Envy comes into the world to attack -it; and sooner will there be a body without a shadow than Virtue -without Envy. - -[Footnote: The larger of the two drawings on PI. LXI is explained by -the first 21 lines of this passage. L. 22 and 23, which are written -above the space between the two drawings, do not seem to have any -reference to either. L. 24-27 are below the allegorical twin figure -which they serve to explain.] - -678. - -When Pluto's Paradise is opened, then there may be devils placed in -twelve pots like openings into hell. Here will be Death, the Furies, -ashes, many naked children weeping; living fires made of various -colours.... - -679. - - John the Baptist - Saint Augustin - Saint Peter - Paul - Elisabeth - Saint Clara. - Bernardino - Our Lady Louis - Bonaventura - Anthony of Padua. - Saint Francis. - Francis, - Anthony, a lily and book; - Bernardino with the [monogram of] Jesus, - Louis with 3 fleur de lys on his breast and - the crown at his feet, - Bonaventura with Seraphim, - Saint Clara with the tabernacle, - Elisabeth with a Queen's crown. - -[Footnote: 679. The text of the first six lines is written within a -square space of the same size as the copy here given. The names are -written in the margin following the order in which they are here -printed. In lines 7--12 the names of those saints are repeated of -whom it seemed necessary to point out the emblems.] - -List of drawings. - -680. - - A head, full face, of a young man - with fine flowing hair, - Many flowers drawn from nature, - A head, full face, with curly hair, - Certain figures of Saint Jerome, - [6] The measurements of a figure, - Drawings of furnaces. - A head of the Duke, - [9] many designs for knots, - 4 studies for the panel of Saint Angelo - A small composition of Girolamo da Fegline, - A head of Christ done with the pen, - [13] 8 Saint Sebastians, - Several compositions of Angels, - A chalcedony, - A head in profile with fine hair, - Some pitchers seen in(?) perspective, - Some machines for ships, - Some machines for waterworks, - A head, a portrait of Atalanta raising her - face; - The head of Geronimo da Fegline, - The head of Gian Francisco Borso, - Several throats of old women, - Several heads of old men, - Several nude figures, complete, - Several arms, eyes, feet, and positions, - A Madonna, finished, - Another, nearly in profile, - Head of Our Lady ascending into Heaven, - A head of an old man with long chin, - A head of a gypsy girl, - A head with a hat on, - A representation of the Passion, a cast, - A head of a girl with her hair gathered in a knot, - A head, with the brown hair dressed. - -[Footnote: 680. This has already been published by AMORETTI _Memorie -storiche_ cap. XVI. His reading varies somewhat from that here -given, _e. g._ l. 5 and 6. _Certi Sangirolami in su d'una figura_; -and instead of I. 13. _Un San Bastiano_.] - -[Footnote: 680. 9. _Molti disegni di gruppi_. VASARI in his life of -Leonardo (IV, 21, ed. MILANESI 1880) says: "_Oltrech� perse tempo -fino a disegnare_ gruppi _di corde fatti con ordine, e che da un -capo seguissi tutto il resto fino all' altro, tanto che s'empiessi -un tondo; che se ne vede in istampa uno difficilissimo e molto -bello, e nel mezzo vi sono queste parole: Leonardus Vinci -Accademia_". _Gruppi_ must here be understood as a technical -expression for those twisted ornaments which are well known through -wood cuts. AMORETTI mentions six different ones in the Ambrosian -Library. I am indebted to M. DELABORDE for kindly informing me that -the original blocks of these are preserved in his department in the -Biblioth�que Nationale in Paris. On the cover of these volumes is a -copy from one of them. The size of the original is 23 1/2 -centimetres by 26 1/4. The centre portion of another is given on p. -361. G. Govi remarks on these ornaments (_Saggio_ p. 22): "_Codesti -gruppi eran probabilmente destinati a servir di modello a ferri da -rilegatori per adornar le cartelle degli scolari (?). Fregi -somigliantissimi a questi troviamo infatti impressi in oro sui -cartoni di vari volumi contemporanei, e li vediam pur figurare nelle -lettere iniziali di alcune edizioni del tempo._" - -D�rer who copied them, omitting the inscription, added to the second -impressions his own monogram. In his diary he designates them simply -as "_Die sechs Knoten_" (see THAUSING, Life of A. D�rer I, 362, -363). In Leonardo's MSS. we find here and there little sketches or -suggestions for similar ornaments. Compare too G. MONGERI, _L'Arte -in Milano_, p. 315 where an ornament of the same character is given -from the old decorations of the vaulted ceiling of the Sacristy of -S. Maria delle Grazie.] - -[Footnote: 680, 17. The meaning in which the word _coppi_, literally -pitchers, is here used I am unable to determine; but a change to -_copie_ seems to me too doubtful to be risked.] - -681. - - Stubborn rigour. - Doomed rigour. - -[Footnote: See PI. LXII, No. 2, the two upper pen and ink drawings. -The originals, in the Windsor collection are slightly washed with -colour. The background is blue sky; the plough and the instrument -with the compass are reddish brown, the sun is tinted yellow]. - -682. - - Obstacles cannot crush me - Every obstacle yields to stern resolve - He who is fixed to a star does not change - his mind. - -[Footnote: This text is written to elucidate two sketches which were -obviously the first sketches for the drawings reproduced on PL LXII, -No. 2.] - -683. - -Ivy is [a type] of longevity. - -[Footnote: In the original there is, near this text, a sketch of a -coat wreathed above the waist with ivy.] - -684. - - Truth the sun. - falsehood a mask. - innocence, - malignity. - - Fire destroys falsehood, - that is sophistry, and - restores truth, driving out - darkness. - - Fire may be represented as the destroy of - all sophistry, and as the - image and demonstration of truth; - because it is light and drives - out darkness which conceals - all essences [or subtle things]. - -[Footnote: See PI. LXIII. L. 1-8 are in the middle of the page; 1. -9-14 to the right below; 1. 15-22 below in the middle column. The -rest of the text is below the sketches on the left. There are some -other passages on this page relating to geometry.] - -TRUTH. - - Fire destroys all sophistry, that is deceit; - and maintains truth alone, that is gold. - - Truth at last cannot be hidden. - Dissimulation is of no avail. Dissimulation is - to no purpose before - so great a judge. - Falsehood puts on a mask. - Nothing is hidden under the sun. - - Fire is to represent truth because it - destroys all sophistry and lies; and the - mask is for lying and falsehood - which conceal truth. - -685. - - Movement will cease before we are - weary - of being useful. - - Movement will fail sooner than usefulness. - Death sooner than I am never weary of - weariness. being useful, - In serving others I is a motto for carnval. - cannot do enough. Without fatigue. - - No labour is - sufficient to tire me. - - Hands into which - ducats and precious - stones fall like snow; they - never become tired by serving, - but this service is only for its - utility and not for our I am never weary - own benefit. of being useful. - - Naturally - nature has so disposed me. - -686. - - This shall be placed in the - hand of Ingratitude. - Wood nourishes the fire that - consumes it. - -687. - -TO REPRESENT INGRATITUDE. - - When the sun appears - which dispels darkness in - general, you put out the - light which dispelled it - for you in particular - for your need and convenience. - -688. - - On this side Adam and Eve on the other; - O misery of mankind, of how many things do - you make yourself the slave for money! - -[Footnote: See PI. LXIV. The figures of Adam and Eve in the clouds -here alluded to would seem to symbolise their superiority to all -earthly needs.] - -689. - -Thus are base unions sundered. - -[Footnote: A much blurred sketch is on the page by this text. It -seems to represent an unravelled plait or tissue.] - -690. - - Constancy does not begin, but is that - which perseveres. - -[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk, also rubbed, which stands in the -original in the middle of this text, seems to me to be intended for -a sword hilt, held in a fist.] - -691. - - Love, Fear, and Esteem,-- - Write these on three stones. Of servants. - -692. - -Prudence Strength. - -693. - - Fame alone raises herself to Heaven, - because virtuous things are in favour with God. - - Disgrace should be represented upside - down, because all her deeds are contrary to - God and tend to hell. - -694. - -Short liberty. - -695. - - Nothing is so much to be feared as Evil - Report. - This Evil Report is born of life. - -696. - -Not to disobey. - -697. - - A felled tree which is shooting - again. - - I am still hopeful. - A falcon, - Time. - -[Footnote: I. _Albero tagliato_. This emblem was displayed during -the Carnival at Florence in 1513. See VASARI VI, 251, ed. MILANESI -1881. But the coincidence is probably accidental.] - -698. - - Truth here makes Falsehood torment - lying tongues. - -699. - - Such as harm is when it hurts me not, - is good which avails me not. - -[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 2. Compare this sketch with that on PI. -LXII, No. 2. Below the two lines of the text there are two more -lines: _li g�chi (giunchi) che rit�g� le paglucole (pagliucole) -chelli (che li) anniegano_.] - -700. - -He who offends others, does not secure himself. - -[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 3.] - -701. - -Ingratitude. - -[Footnote: See PI. LX, No. 4. Below the bottom sketches are the -unintelligible words "_sta stilli_." For "_Ingratitudo_" compare -also Nos. 686 and 687.] - -702. - -One's thoughts turn towards Hope. - -[Footnote: 702. By the side of this passage is a sketch of -a cage with a bird sitting in it.] - -Ornaments and Decorations for feasts (703-705). - -703. - -A bird, for a comedy. - -[Footnote: The biographies say so much, and the author's notes say -so little of the invention attributed to Leonardo of making -artificial birds fly through the air, that the text here given is of -exceptional interest from being accompanied by a sketch. It is a -very slight drawing of a bird with outspread wings, which appears to -be sliding down a stretched string. Leonardo's flying machines and -his studies of the flight of birds will be referred to later.] - -704. - -A DRESS FOR THE CARNIVAL. - -To make a beautiful dress cut it in thin cloth and give it an -odoriferous varnish, made of oil of turpentine and of varnish in -grain, with a pierced stencil, which must be wetted, that it may not -stick to the cloth; and this stencil may be made in a pattern of -knots which afterwards may be filled up with black and the ground -with white millet.[Footnote 7: The grains of black and white millet -would stick to the varnish and look like embroidery.] - -[Footnote: Ser Giuliano, da Vinci the painter's brother, had been -commissioned, with some others, to order and to execute the garments -of the Allegorical figures for the Carnival at Florence in 1515--16; -VASARI however is incorrect in saying of the Florentine Carnival of -1513: "_equelli che feciono ed ordinarono gli abiti delle figure -furono Ser Piero da Vinci, padre di Lonardo, e Bernardino di -Giordano, bellissimi ingegni_" (See MILANESI'S ed. Voi. VI, pg. -251.)] - -705. - -Snow taken from the high peaks of mountains might be carried to hot -places and let to fall at festivals in open places at summer time. - - - -*** End of Volume 1 - - -The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci - -Volume 2 - -Translated by Jean Paul Richter - -1888 - - - - - - - -XI. - -The notes on Sculpture. - -Compared with the mass of manuscript treating of Painting, a very -small number of passages bearing on the practice and methods of -Sculpture are to be found scattered through the note books; these -are here given at the beginning of this section (Nos. 706-709). -There is less cause for surprise at finding that the equestrian -statue of Francesco Sforza is only incidentally spoken of; for, -although Leonardo must have worked at it for a long succession of -years, it is not in the nature of the case that it could have given -rise to much writing. We may therefore regard it as particularly -fortunate that no fewer than thirteen notes in the master's -handwriting can be brought together, which seem to throw light on -the mysterious history of this famous work. Until now writers on -Leonardo were acquainted only with the passages numbered 712, 719, -720, 722 and 723. - -In arranging these notes on sculpture I have given the precedence to -those which treat of the casting of the monument, not merely because -they are the fullest, but more especially with a view to -reconstructing the monument, an achievement which really almost lies -within our reach by combining and comparing the whole of the -materials now brought to light, alike in notes and in sketches. - -A good deal of the first two passages, Nos. 710 and 711, which refer -to this subject seems obscure and incomprehensible; still, they -supplement each other and one contributes in no small degree to the -comprehension of the other. A very interesting and instructive -commentary on these passages may be found in the fourth chapter of -Vasari's Introduzione della Scultura under the title "Come si fanno -i modelli per fare di bronzo le figure grandi e picciole, e come le -forme per buttarle; come si armino di ferri, e come si gettino di -metallo," &c. Among the drawings of models of the moulds for casting -we find only one which seems to represent the horse in the act of -galloping--No. 713. All the other designs show the horse as pacing -quietly and as these studies of the horse are accompanied by copious -notes as to the method of casting, the question as to the position -of the horse in the model finally selected, seems to be decided by -preponderating evidence. "Il cavallo dello Sforza"--C. Boito remarks -very appositely in the Saggio on page 26, "doveva sembrare fratello -al cavallo del Colleoni. E si direbbe che questo fosse figlio del -cavallo del Gattamelata, il quale pare figlio di uno dei quattro -cavalli che stavano forse sull' Arco di Nerone in Roma" (now at -Venice). The publication of the Saggio also contains the -reproduction of a drawing in red chalk, representing a horse walking -to the left and supported by a scaffolding, given here on Pl. LXXVI, -No. 1. It must remain uncertain whether this represents the model as -it stood during the preparations for casting it, or whether--as -seems to me highly improbable--this sketch shows the model as it was -exhibited in 1493 on the Piazza del Castello in Milan under a -triumphal arch, on the occasion of the marriage of the Emperor -Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza. The only important point here is -to prove that strong evidence seems to show that, of the numerous -studies for the equestrian statue, only those which represent the -horse pacing agree with the schemes of the final plans. - -The second group of preparatory sketches, representing the horse as -galloping, must therefore be considered separately, a distinction -which, in recapitulating the history of the origin of the monument -seems justified by the note given under No. 720. - -Galeazza Maria Sforza was assassinated in 1476 before his scheme for -erecting a monument to his father Francesco Sforza could be carried -into effect. In the following year Ludovico il Moro the young -aspirant to the throne was exiled to Pisa, and only returned to -Milan in 1479 when he was Lord (Governatore) of the State of Milan, -in 1480 after the minister Cecco Simonetta had been murdered. It may -have been soon after this that Ludovico il Moro announced a -competition for an equestrian statue, and it is tolerably certain -that Antonio del Pollajuolo took part in it, from this passage in -Vasari's Life of this artist: "E si trovo, dopo la morte sua, il -disegno e modello che a Lodovico Sforza egli aveva fatto per la -statua a cavallo di Francesco Sforza, duca di Milano; il quale -disegno e nel nostro Libro, in due modi: in uno egli ha sotto -Verona; nell'altro, egli tutto armato, e sopra un basamento pieno di -battaglie, fa saltare il cavallo addosso a un armato; ma la cagione -perche non mettesse questi disegni in opera, non ho gia potuto -sapere." One of Pollajuolo's drawings, as here described, has lately -been discovered by Senatore Giovanni Morelli in the Munich -Pinacothek. Here the profile of the horseman is a portrait of -Francesco Duke of Milan, and under the horse, who is galloping to -the left, we see a warrior thrown and lying on the ground; precisely -the same idea as we find in some of Leonardo's designs for the -monument, as on Pl. LXVI, LXVII, LXVIII, LXIX and LXXII No. 1; and, -as it is impossible to explain this remarkable coincidence by -supposing that either artist borrowed it from the other, we can only -conclude that in the terms of the competition the subject proposed -was the Duke on a horse in full gallop, with a fallen foe under its -hoofs. - -Leonardo may have been in the competition there and then, but the -means for executing the monument do not seem to have been at once -forthcoming. It was not perhaps until some years later that Leonardo -in a letter to the Duke (No. 719) reminded him of the project for -the monument. Then, after he had obeyed a summons to Milan, the plan -seems to have been so far modified, perhaps in consequence of a -remonstrance on the part of the artist, that a pacing horse was -substituted for one galloping, and it may have been at the same time -that the colossal dimensions of the statue were first decided on. -The designs given on Pl. LXX, LXXI, LXXII, 2 and 3, LXXIII and LXXIV -and on pp. 4 and 24, as well as three sketches on Pl. LXIX may be -studied with reference to the project in its new form, though it is -hardly possible to believe that in either of these we see the design -as it was actually carried out. It is probable that in Milan -Leonardo worked less on drawings, than in making small models of wax -and clay as preparatory to his larger model. Among the drawings -enumerated above, one in black chalk, Pl. LXXIII--the upper sketch -on the right hand side, reminds us strongly of the antique statue of -Marcus Aurelius. If, as it would seem, Leonardo had not until then -visited Rome, he might easily have known this statue from drawings -by his former master and friend Verrocchio, for Verrocchio had been -in Rome for a long time between 1470 and 1480. In 1473 Pope Sixtus -IV had this antique equestrian statue restored and placed on a new -pedestal in front of the church of San Giovanni in Luterano. -Leonardo, although he was painting independently as early as in 1472 -is still spoken of as working in Verrocchio's studio in 1477. Two -years later the Venetian senate decided on erecting an equestrian -statue to Colleoni; and as Verrocchio, to whom the work was -entrusted, did not at once move from Florence to Venice--where he -died in 1488 before the casting was completed--but on the contrary -remained in Florence for some years, perhaps even till 1485, -Leonardo probably had the opportunity of seeing all his designs for -the equestrian statue at Venice and the red chalk drawing on Pl. -LXXIV may be a reminiscence of it. - -The pen and ink drawing on Pl. LXXII, No. 3, reminds us of -Donatello's statue of Gattamelata at Padua. However it does not -appear that Leonardo was ever at Padua before 1499, but we may -conclude that he took a special interest in this early bronze statue -and the reports he could procure of it, form an incidental remark -which is to be found in C. A. 145a; 432a, and which will be given in -Vol. II under Ricordi or Memoranda. Among the studies--in the widest -sense of the word--made in preparation statue we may include the -Anatomy of the Horse which Lomazzo and Vas mention; the most -important parts of this work still exist in the Queen's Li Windsor. -It was beyond a doubt compiled by Leonardo when at Milan; only -interesting records to be found among these designs are reproduced -in Nos. 716a but it must be pointed out that out of 40 sheets of -studies of the movements of the belonging to that treatise, a horse -in full gallop occurs but once. - -If we may trust the account given by Paulus Jovius--about l527-- -Leonardo's horse was represented as "vehementer incitatus et -anhelatus". Jovius had probably seen the model exhibited at Milan; -but, need we, in fact, infer from this description that the horse -was galloping? Compare Vasari's description of the Gattamelata -monument at Padua: "Egli [Donatello] vi ando ben volentieri, e fece -il cavallo di bronzo, che e in sulla piazza di Sant Antonio, nel -quale si dimostra lo sbuffamento ed il fremito del cavallo, ed il -grande animo e la fierezza vivacissimamente espressa dall'arte nella -figura che lo cavalca". - -These descriptions, it seems to me, would only serve to mark the -difference between the work of the middle ages and that of the -renaissance. - -We learn from a statement of Sabba da Castiglione that, when Milan -was taken by the French in 1499, the model sustained some injury; -and this informant, who, however is not invariably trustworthy, adds -that Leonardo had devoted fully sixteen years to this work (la forma -del cavallo, intorno a cui Leonardo avea sedici anni continui -consumati). This often-quoted passage has given ground for an -assumption, which has no other evidence to support it, that Leonardo -had lived in Milan ever since 1483. But I believe it is nearer the -truth to suppose that this author's statement alludes to the fact -that about sixteen years must have past since the competition in -which Leonardo had taken part. - -I must in these remarks confine myself strictly to the task in hand -and give no more of the history of the Sforza monument than is -needed to explain the texts and drawings I have been able to -reproduce. In the first place, with regard to the drawings, I may -observe that they are all, with the following two exceptions, in the -Queen's Library at Windsor Castle; the red chalk drawing on Pl. -LXXVI No. 1 is in the MS. C. A. (see No. 7l2) and the fragmentary -pen and ink drawing on page 4 is in the Ambrosian Library. The -drawings from Windsor on Pl. LXVI have undergone a trifling -reduction from the size of the originals. - -There can no longer be the slightest doubt that the well-known -engraving of several horsemen (Passavant, Le Peintre-Graveur, Vol. -V, p. 181, No. 3) is only a copy after original drawings by -Leonardo, executed by some unknown engraver; we have only to compare -the engraving with the facsimiles of drawings on Pl. LXV, No. 2, Pl. -LXVII, LXVIII and LXIX which, it is quite evident, have served as -models for the engraver. - -On Pl. LXV No. 1, in the larger sketch to the right hand, only the -base is distinctly visible, the figure of the horseman is effaced. -Leonardo evidently found it unsatisfactory and therefore rubbed it -out. - -The base of the monument--the pedestal for the equestrian statue--is -repeatedly sketched on a magnificent plan. In the sketch just -mentioned it has the character of a shrine or aedicula to contain a -sarcophagus. Captives in chains are here represented on the -entablature with their backs turned to that portion of the monument -which more - -strictly constitutes the pedestal of the horse. The lower portion of -the aedicula is surrounded by columns. In the pen and ink drawing -Pl. LXVI--the lower drawing on the right hand side--the sarcophagus -is shown between the columns, and above the entablature is a plinth -on which the horse stands. But this arrangement perhaps seemed to -Leonardo to lack solidity, and in the little sketch on the left -hand, below, the sarcophagus is shown as lying under an arched -canopy. In this the trophies and the captive warriors are detached -from the angles. In the first of these two sketches the place for -the trophies is merely indicated by a few strokes; in the third -sketch on the left the base is altogether broader, buttresses and -pinnacles having been added so as to form three niches. The black -chalk drawing on Pl. LXVIII shows a base in which the angles are -formed by niches with pilasters. In the little sketch to the extreme -left on Pl. LXV, No. 1, the equestrian statue serves to crown a -circular temple somewhat resembling Bramante's tempietto of San -Pietro in Montario at Rome, while the sketch above to the right -displays an arrangement faintly reminding us of the tomb of the -Scaligers in Verona. The base is thus constructed of two platforms -or slabs, the upper one considerably smaller than the lower one -which is supported on flying buttresses with pinnacles. - -On looking over the numerous studies in which the horse is not -galloping but merely walking forward, we find only one drawing for -the pedestal, and this, to accord with the altered character of the -statue, is quieter and simpler in style (Pl. LXXIV). It rises almost -vertically from the ground and is exactly as long as the pacing -horse. The whole base is here arranged either as an independent -baldaquin or else as a projecting canopy over a recess in which the -figure of the deceased Duke is seen lying on his sarcophagus; in the -latter case it was probably intended as a tomb inside a church. -Here, too, it was intended to fill the angles with trophies or -captive warriors. Probably only No. 724 in the text refers to the -work for the base of the monument. - -If we compare the last mentioned sketch with the description of a -plan for an equestrian monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (No. 725) -it seems by no means impossible that this drawing is a preparatory -study for the very monument concerning which the manuscript gives us -detailed information. We have no historical record regarding this -sketch nor do the archives in the Trivulzio Palace give us any -information. The simple monument to the great general in San Nazaro -Maggiore in Milan consists merely of a sarcophagus placed in recess -high on the wall of an octagonal chapel. The figure of the warrior -is lying on the sarcophagus, on which his name is inscribed; a piece -of sculpture which is certainly not Leonardo's work. Gian Giacomo -Trivulzio died at Chartres in 1518, only five months before -Leonardo, and it seems to me highly improbable that this should have -been the date of this sketch; under these circumstances it would -have been done under the auspices of Francis I, but the Italian -general was certainly not in favour with the French monarch at the -time. Gian Giacomo Trivulzio was a sworn foe to Ludovico il Moro, -whom he strove for years to overthrow. On the 6th September 1499 he -marched victorious into Milan at the head of a French army. In a -short time, however, he was forced to quit Milan again when Ludovico -il Moro bore down upon the city with a force of Swiss troops. On the -15th of April following, after defeating Lodovico at Novara, -Trivulzio once more entered Milan as a Conqueror, but his hopes of -becoming _Governatore_ of the place were soon wrecked by intrigue. -This victory and triumph, historians tell us, were signalised by -acts of vengeance against the dethroned Sforza, and it might have -been particularly flattering to him that the casting and -construction of the Sforza monument were suspended for the time. - -It must have been at this moment--as it seems to me--that he -commissioned the artist to prepare designs for his own monument, -which he probably intended should find a place in the Cathedral or -in some other church. He, the husband of Margherita di Nicolino -Colleoni, would have thought that he had a claim to the same -distinction and public homage as his less illustrious connection had -received at the hands of the Venetian republic. It was at this very -time that Trivulzio had a medal struck with a bust portrait of -himself and the following remarkable inscription on the reverse:_ -DEO FAVENTE--1499--DICTVS--10--IA--EXPVLIT--LVDOVICV--SF-- -(Sfortiam) DVC-- (ducem) MLI (Mediolani)--NOIE -(nomine)--REGIS--FRANCORVM--EODEM--ANN --(anno) RED'T (redit)--LVS -(Ludovicus)--SVPERATVS ET CAPTVS--EST--AB--EO. _In the Library of -the Palazzo Trivulzio there is a MS. of Callimachus Siculus written -at the end of the XVth or beginning of the XVIth century. At the -beginning of this MS. there is an exquisite illuminated miniature of -an equestrian statue with the name of the general on the base; it is -however very doubtful whether this has any connection with -Leonardo's design. - -Nos. 731-740, which treat of casting bronze, have probably a very -indirect bearing on the arrangements made for casting the equestrian -statue of Francesco Sforza. Some portions evidently relate to the -casting of cannon. Still, in our researches about Leonardo's work on -the monument, we may refer to them as giving us some clue to the -process of bronze casting at that period. - -Some practical hints (706-709). - -7O6. - -OF A STATUE. - -If you wish to make a figure in marble, first make one of clay, and -when you have finished it, let it dry and place it in a case which -should be large enough, after the figure is taken out of it, to -receive also the marble, from which you intend to reveal the figure -in imitation of the one in clay. After you have put the clay figure -into this said case, have little rods which will exactly slip in to -the holes in it, and thrust them so far in at each hole that each -white rod may touch the figure in different parts of it. And colour -the portion of the rod that remains outside black, and mark each rod -and each hole with a countersign so that each may fit into its -place. Then take the clay figure out of this case and put in your -piece of marble, taking off so much of the marble that all your rods -may be hidden in the holes as far as their marks; and to be the -better able to do this, make the case so that it can be lifted up; -but the bottom of it will always remain under the marble and in this -way it can be lifted with tools with great ease. - -707. - -Some have erred in teaching sculptors to measure the limbs of their -figures with threads as if they thought that these limbs were -equally round in every part where these threads were wound about -them. - -708. - -MEASUREMENT AND DIVISION OF A STATUE. - -Divide the head into 12 degrees, and each degree divide into 12 -points, and each point into 12 minutes, and the minutes into minims -and the minims into semi minims. - -Degree--point--minute--minim. - -709. - -Sculptured figures which appear in motion, will, in their standing -position, actually look as if they were falling forward. - -[Footnote: _figure di rilievo_. Leonardo applies this term -exclusively to wholly detached figures, especially to those standing -free. This note apparently refers to some particular case, though we -have no knowledge of what that may have been. If we suppose it to -refer to the first model of the equestrian statue of Francesco -Sforza (see the introduction to the notes on Sculpture) this -observation may be regarded as one of his arguments for abandoning -the first scheme of the Sforza Monument, in which the horse was to -be galloping (see page 2). It is also in favour of this theory that -the note is written in a manuscript volume already completed in -1492. Leonardo's opinions as to the shortcomings of plastic works -when compared with paintings are given under No. 655 and 656.] - -Notes on the casting of the Sforza monument (710-715). - -710. - -Three braces which bind the mould. - -[If you want to make simple casts quickly, make them in a box of -river sand wetted with vinegar.] - -[When you shall have made the mould upon the horse you must make the -thickness of the metal in clay.] - -Observe in alloying how many hours are wanted for each -hundredweight. [In casting each one keep the furnace and its fire -well stopped up.] [Let the inside of all the moulds be wetted with -linseed oil or oil of turpentine, and then take a handful of -powdered borax and Greek pitch with aqua vitae, and pitch the mould -over outside so that being under ground the damp may not [damage -it?] - -[To manage the large mould make a model of the small mould, make a -small room in proportion.] - -[Make the vents in the mould while it is on the horse.] - -Hold the hoofs in the tongs, and cast them with fish glue. Weigh the -parts of the mould and the quantity of metal it will take to fill -them, and give so much to the furnace that it may afford to each -part its amount of metal; and this you may know by weighing the clay -of each part of the mould to which the quantity in the furnace must -correspond. And this is done in order that the furnace for the legs -when filled may not have to furnish metal from the legs to help out -the head, which would be impossible. [Cast at the same casting as -the horse the little door] - -[Footnote: The importance of the notes included under this number is -not diminished by the fact that they have been lightly crossed out -with red chalk. Possibly they were the first scheme for some fuller -observations which no longer exist; or perhaps they were crossed out -when Leonardo found himself obliged to give up the idea of casting -the equestrian statue. In the original the first two sketches are -above l. 1, and the third below l. 9.] - -711. - -THE MOULD FOR THE HORSE. - -Make the horse on legs of iron, strong and well set on a good -foundation; then grease it and cover it with a coating, leaving each -coat to dry thoroughly layer by layer; and this will thicken it by -the breadth of three fingers. Now fix and bind it with iron as may -be necessary. Moreover take off the mould and then make the -thickness. Then fill the mould by degrees and make it good -throughout; encircle and bind it with its irons and bake it inside -where it has to touch the bronze. - -OF MAKING THE MOULD IN PIECES. - -Draw upon the horse, when finished, all the pieces of the mould with -which you wish to cover the horse, and in laying on the clay cut it -in every piece, so that when the mould is finished you can take it -off, and then recompose it in its former position with its joins, by -the countersigns. - -The square blocks _a b_ will be between the cover and the core, that -is in the hollow where the melted bronze is to be; and these square -blocks of bronze will support the intervals between the mould and -the cover at an equal distance, and for this reason these squares -are of great importance. - -The clay should be mixed with sand. - -Take wax, to return [what is not used] and to pay for what is used. - -Dry it in layers. - -Make the outside mould of plaster, to save time in drying and the -expense in wood; and with this plaster enclose the irons [props] -both outside and inside to a thickness of two fingers; make terra -cotta. And this mould can be made in one day; half a boat load of -plaster will serve you. - -Good. - -Dam it up again with glue and clay, or white of egg, and bricks and -rubbish. - -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXV. The figure "40," close to the sketch in the -middle of the page between lines 16 and 17 has been added by a -collector's hand. - -In the original, below line 21, a square piece of the page has been -cut out about 9 centimetres by 7 and a blank piece has been gummed -into the place. - -Lines 22-24 are written on the margin. l. 27 and 28 are close to the -second marginal sketch. l. 42 is a note written above the third -marginal sketch and on the back of this sheet is the text given as -No. 642. Compare also No. 802.] - -712. - -All the heads of the large nails. - -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI, No. i. This drawing has already been -published in the "_Saggio delle Opere di L. da Vinci_." Milano 1872, -Pl. XXIV, No. i. But, for various reasons I cannot regard the -editor's suggestions as satisfactory. He says: "_Veggonsi le -armature di legname colle quali forse venne sostenuto il modello, -quando per le nozze di Bianca Maria Sforza con Massimiliano -imperatore, esso fu collocato sotto un arco trionfale davanti al -Castello_." - -713. - -These bindings go inside. - -714. - -Salt may be made from human excrements, burnt and calcined, made -into lees and dried slowly at a fire, and all the excrements produce -salt in a similar way and these salts when distilled, are very -strong. - -[Footnote: VASARI repeatedly states, in the fourth chapter of his -_Introduzione della Scultura_, that in preparing to cast bronze -statues horse-dung was frequently used by sculptors. If, -notwithstanding this, it remains doubtful whether I am justified in -having introduced here this text of but little interest, no such -doubt can be attached to the sketch which accompanies it.] - -715. - -METHOD OF FOUNDING AGAIN. - -This may be done when the furnace is made [Footnote: this note is -written below the sketches.] strong and bruised. - -Models for the horse of the Sforza monument (716-718). - -7l6. - -Messer Galeazzo's big genet - -717. - -Messer Galeazzo's Sicilian horse. - -[Footnote: These notes are by the side of a drawing of a horse with -figured measurements.] - -718. - -Measurement of the Sicilian horse the leg from behind, seen in -front, lifted and extended. - -[Footnote: There is no sketch belonging to this passage. Galeazze -here probably means Galeazze di San Severino, the famous captain who -married Bianca the daughter of Ludovico il Moro.] - -Occasional references to the Sforza monument (719-724). - -719. - -Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to the -immortal glory and eternal honour of the happy memory of the prince -your father, and of the illustrious house of Sforza. - -[Footnote: The letter from which this passage is here extracted will -be found complete in section XXI. (see the explanation of it, on -page 2).] - -720. - -On the 23rd of April 1490 I began this book, and recommenced the -horse. - -721. - -There is to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and Piacenza, a -multitude of shells and corals full of holes, still sticking to the -rocks, and when I was at work on the great horse for Milan, a large -sackful of them, which were found thereabout, was brought to me into -my workshop, by certain peasants. - -722. - -Believe me, Leonardo the Florentine, who has to do the equestrian -bronze statue of the Duke Francesco that he does not need to care -about it, because he has work for all his life time, and, being so -great a work, I doubt whether he can ever finish it. [Footnote: This -passage is quoted from a letter to a committee at Piacenza for whom -Leonardo seems to have undertaken to execute some work. The letter -is given entire in section XXL; in it Leonardo remonstrates as to -some unreasonable demands.] - -723. - -Of the horse I will say nothing because I know the times. [Footnote: -This passage occurs in a rough copy of a letter to Ludovico il Moro, -without date (see below among the letters).] - -724. - -During ten years the works on the marbles have been going on I will -not wait for my payment beyond the time, when my works are finished. -[Footnote: This possibly refers to the works for the pedestal of the -equestrian statue concerning which we have no farther information in -the MSS. See p. 6.] - -The project of the Trivulzio monument. - -725. - -THE MONUMENT TO MESSER GIOVANNI JACOMO DA TREVULZO. - -[2] Cost of the making and materials for the horse [5]. - -[Footnote: In the original, lines 2-5, 12-14, 33-35, are written on -the margin. This passage has been recently published by G. Govi in -Vol. V, Ser. 3a, of _Transunti, Reale Accademia dei Linea, sed. del -5 Giugno, 1881,_ with the following introductory note: _"Desidero -intanto che siano stampati questi pochi frammenti perche so che sono -stati trascritti ultimamente, e verranno messi in luce tra poco -fuori d'Italia. Li ripubblichi pure chi vuole, ma si sappia almeno -che anche tra noi si conoscevano, e s'eran raccolti da anni per -comporne, quando che fosse, una edizione ordinata degli scritti di -Leonardo."_ - -The learned editor has left out line 22 and has written 3 _pie_ for -8 _piedi_ in line 25. There are other deviations of less importance -from the original.] - -A courser, as large as life, with the rider requires for the cost of -the metal, duc. 500. - -And for cost of the iron work which is inside the model, and -charcoal, and wood, and the pit to cast it in, and for binding the -mould, and including the furnace where it is to be cast ... duc. -200. - -To make the model in clay and then in wax......... duc. 432. - -To the labourers for polishing it when it is cast. ....... duc. 450. - -in all. . duc. 1582. - -[12] Cost of the marble of the monument [14]. - -Cost of the marble according to the drawing. The piece of marble -under the horse which is 4 braccia long, 2 braccia and 2 inches wide -and 9 inches thick 58 hundredweight, at 4 Lire and 10 Soldi per -hundredweight.. duc. 58. - -And for 13 braccia and 6 inches of cornice, 7 in. wide and 4 in. -thick, 24 hundredweight....... duc. 24. - -And for the frieze and architrave, which is 4 br. and 6 in. long, 2 -br. wide and 6 in. thick, 29 hundredweight., duc. 20. - -And for the capitals made of metal, which are 8, 5 inches in. square -and 2 in. thick, at the price of 15 ducats each, will come to...... -duc. 122. - -And for 8 columns of 2 br. 7 in., 4 1/2 in. thick, 20 hundredweight -duc. 20. - -And for 8 bases which are 5 1/2 in. square and 2 in. high 5 hund'.. -duc. 5. - -And for the slab of the tombstone 4 br. io in. long, 2 br. 4 1/2 in. -wide 36 hundredweight....... duc. 36. - -And for 8 pedestal feet each 8 br. long and 6 1/2 in. wide and 6 1/2 -in. thick, 20 hundredweight come to... duc. 20. - -And for the cornice below which is 4 br. and 10 in. long, and 2 br. -and 5 in. wide, and 4 in. thick, 32 hund'.. duc. 32. - -And for the stone of which the figure of the deceased is to be made -which is 3 br. and 8 in. long, and 1 br. and 6 in. wide, and 9 in. -thick, 30 hund'.. duc. 30. - -And for the stone on which the figure lies which is 3 br. and 4 in. -long and 1 br. and 2 in., wide and 4 1/2 in. thick duc. 16. - -And for the squares of marble placed between the pedestals which are -8 and are 9 br. long and 9 in. wide, and 3 in. thick, 8 -hundredweight . . . duc. 8. in all. . duc. 389. - -[33]Cost of the work in marble[35]. - -Round the base on which the horse stands there are 8 figures at 25 -ducats each ............ duc. 200. - -And on the same base there are 8 festoons with some other ornaments, -and of these there are 4 at the price of 15 ducats each, and 4 at -the price of 8 ducats each ....... duc. 92. - -And for squaring the stones duc. 6. - -Again, for the large cornice which goes below the base on which the -horse stands, which is 13 br. and 6 in., at 2 due. per br. ...... -duc. 27. - -And for 12 br. of frieze at 5 due. per br. ........... duc. 60. - -And for 12 br. of architrave at 1 1/2 duc. per br. ....... duc. 18. - -And for 3 rosettes which will be the soffit of the monument, at 20 -ducats each .......... duc. 60. - -And for 8 fluted columns at 8 ducats each ......... duc. 64. - -And for 8 bases at 1 ducat each, duc. 8. - -And for 8 pedestals, of which 4 are at 10 duc. each, which go above -the angles; and 4 at 6 duc. each .. duc. 64. - -And for squaring and carving the moulding of the pedestals at 2 duc. -each, and there are 8 .... duc. 16. - -And for 6 square blocks with figures and trophies, at 25 duc. each -.. duc. 150. - -And for carving the moulding of the stone under the figure of the -deceased .......... duc. 40. - -For the statue of the deceased, to do it well .......... duc. 100. - -For 6 harpies with candelabra, at 25 ducats each ......... duc. 150. - -For squaring the stone on which the statue lies, and carving the -moulding ............ duc. 20. - -in all .. duc. 1075. - -The sum total of every thing added together amount to ...... duc. -3046. - -726. - -MINT AT ROME. - -It can also be made without a spring. But the screw above must -always be joined to the part of the movable sheath: [Margin note: -The mint of Rome.] [Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI. This passage is taken -from a note book which can be proved to have been used in Rome.] - -All coins which do not have the rim complete, are not to be accepted -as good; and to secure the perfection of their rim it is requisite -that, in the first place, all the coins should be a perfect circle; -and to do this a coin must before all be made perfect in weight, and -size, and thickness. Therefore have several plates of metal made of -the same size and thickness, all drawn through the same gauge so as -to come out in strips. And out of [24] these strips you will stamp -the coins, quite round, as sieves are made for sorting chestnuts -[27]; and these coins can then be stamped in the way indicated -above; &c. - -[31] The hollow of the die must be uniformly wider than the lower, -but imperceptibly [35]. - -This cuts the coins perfectly round and of the exact thickness, and -weight; and saves the man who cuts and weighs, and the man who makes -the coins round. Hence it passes only through the hands of the -gauger and of the stamper, and the coins are very superior. -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVI No. 2. The text of lines 31-35 stands -parallel 1. 24-27. - -Farther evidence of Leonardo's occupations and engagements at Rome -under Pope Leo X. may be gathered from some rough copies of letters -which will be found in this volume. Hitherto nothing has been known -of his work in Rome beyond some doubtful, and perhaps mythical, -statements in Vasari.] - -727. - -POWDER FOR MEDALS. - -The incombustible growth of soot on wicks reduced to powder, burnt -tin and all the metals, alum, isinglass, smoke from a brass forge, -each ingredient to be moistened, with aqua vitae or malmsey or -strong malt vinegar, white wine or distilled extract of turpentine, -or oil; but there should be little moisture, and cast in moulds. -[Margin note: On the coining of medals (727. 728).] [Footnote: The -meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.] - -728. - -OF TAKING CASTS OF MEDALS. - -A paste of emery mixed with aqua vitae, or iron filings with -vinegar, or ashes of walnut leaves, or ashes of straw very finely -powdered. - -[Footnote: The meaning of _scagliuolo_ in this passage is doubtful.] - -The diameter is given in the lead enclosed; it is beaten with a -hammer and several times extended; the lead is folded and kept -wrapped up in parchment so that the powder may not be spilt; then -melt the lead, and the powder will be on the top of the melted lead, -which must then be rubbed between two plates of steel till it is -thoroughly pulverised; then wash it with aqua fortis, and the -blackness of the iron will be dissolved leaving the powder clean. - -Emery in large grains may be broken by putting it on a cloth many -times doubled, and hit it sideways with the hammer, when it will -break up; then mix it little by little and it can be founded with -ease; but if you hold it on the anvil you will never break it, when -it is large. - -Any one who grinds smalt should do it on plates of tempered steel -with a cone shaped grinder; then put it in aqua fortis, which melts -away the steel that may have been worked up and mixed with the -smalt, and which makes it black; it then remains purified and clean; -and if you grind it on porphyry the porphyry will work up and mix -with the smalt and spoil it, and aqua fortis will never remove it -because it cannot dissolve the porphyry. - -If you want a fine blue colour dissolve the smalt made with tartar, -and then remove the salt. - -Vitrified brass makes a fine red. - -729. - -STUCCO. - -Place stucco over the prominence of the..... which may be composed -of Venus and Mercury, and lay it well over that prominence of the -thickness of the side of a knife, made with the ruler and cover this -with the bell of a still, and you will have again the moisture with -which you applied the paste. The rest you may dry [Margin note: On -stucco (729. 730).] [Footnote: In this passage a few words have been -written in a sort of cipher--that is to say backwards; as in l. 3 -_erenev_ for _Venere_, l. 4 _oirucrem_ for Mercurio, l. 12 _il -orreve co ecarob_ for _il everro (?) co borace_. The meaning of the -word before _"di giesso"_ in l. 1 is unknown; and the sense, in -which _sagoma_ is used here and in other passages is obscure.-- -_Venere_ and _Mercurio_ may mean 'marble' and 'lime', of which -stucco is composed. - -12. The meaning of _orreve_ is unknown.] - -well; afterwards fire it, and beat it or burnish it with a good -burnisher, and make it thick towards the side. - -STUCCO. - -Powder ... with borax and water to a paste, and make stucco of it, -and then heat it so that it may dry, and then varnish it, with fire, -so that it shines well. - -730. - -STUCCO FOR MOULDING. - -Take of butter 6 parts, of wax 2 parts, and as much fine flour as -when put with these 2 things melted, will make them as firm as wax -or modelling clay. - -GLUE. - -Take mastic, distilled turpentine and white lead. - -On bronze casting generally (731-740). - -731. - -TO CAST. - -Tartar burnt and powdered with plaster and cast cause the plaster to -hold together when it is mixed up again; and then it will dissolve -in water. - -732. - -TO CAST BRONZE IN PLASTER. - -Take to every 2 cups of plaster 1 of ox-horns burnt, mix them -together and make your cast with it. - -733. - -When you want to take a cast in wax, burn the scum with a candle, -and the cast will come out without bubbles. - -734. - -2 ounces of plaster to a pound of metal;-- walnut, which makes it -like the curve. - -[Footnote: The second part of this is quite obscure.] - -735. - -[Dried earth 16 pounds, 100 pounds of metal wet clay 20,--of wet -100,-half,- which increases 4 Ibs. of water,--1 of wax, 1 Ib. of -metal, a little less,-the scrapings of linen with earth, measure for -measure.] [Footnote: The translation is given literally, but the -meaning is quite obscure.] - -736. - -Such as the mould is, so will the cast be. - -737. - -HOW CASTS OUGHT TO BE POLISHED. - -Make a bunch of iron wire as thick as thread, and scrub them with -[this and] water; hold a bowl underneath that it may not make a mud -below. - -HOW TO REMOVE THE ROUGH EDGES FROM BRONZE. - -Make an iron rod, after the manner of a large chisel, and with this -rub over those seams on the bronze which remain on the casts of the -guns, and which are caused by the joins in the mould; but make the -tool heavy enough, and let the strokes be long and broad. - -TO FACILITATE MELTING. - -First alloy part of the metal in the crucible, then put it in the -furnace, and this being in a molten state will assist in beginning -to melt the copper. - -TO PREVENT THE COPPER COOLING IN THE FURNACE. - -When the copper cools in the furnace, be ready, as soon as you -perceive it, to cut it with a long stick while it is still in a -paste; or if it is quite cold cut it as lead is cut with broad and -large chisels. - -IF YOU HAVE TO MAKE A LARGE CAST. - -If you have to make a cast of a hundred thousand pounds do it with -two furnaces and with 2000 pounds in each, or as much as 3000 pounds -at most. - -738. - -HOW TO PROCEED TO BREAK A LARGE MASS OF BRONZE. - -If you want to break up a large mass of bronze, first suspend it, -and then make round it a wall on the four sides, like a trough of -bricks, and make a great fire therein. When it is quite red hot give -it a blow with a heavy weight raised above it, and with great force. - -739. - -TO COMBINE LEAD WITH OTHER METAL. - -If you wish for economy in combining lead with the metal in order to -lessen the amount of tin which is necessary in the metal, first -alloy the lead with the tin and then add the molten copper. - -How TO MELT [METAL] IN A FURNACE. - -The furnace should be between four well founded pillars. - -OF THE THICKNESS OF THE COATING. - -The coating should not be more than two fingers thick, it should be -laid on in four thicknesses over fine clay and then well fixed, and -it should be fired only on the inside and then carefully covered -with ashes and cow's dung. - -OF THE THICKNESS OF THE GUN. - -The gun being made to carry 600 Ibs. of ball and more, by this rule -you will take the measure of the diameter of the ball and divide it -into 6 parts and one of these parts will be its thickness at the -muzzle; but at the breech it must always be half. And if the ball is -to be 700 lbs., 1/7th of the diameter of the ball must be its -thickness in front; and if the ball is to be 800, the eighth of its -diameter in front; and if 900, 1/8th and 1/2 [3/16], and if 1000, -1/9th. - -OF THE LENGTH OF THE BODY OF THE GUN. - -If you want it to throw a ball of stone, make the length of the gun -to be 6, or as much as 7 diameters of the ball; and if the ball is -to be of iron make it as much as 12 balls, and if the ball is to be -of lead, make it as much as 18 balls. I mean when the gun is to have -the mouth fitted to receive 600 lbs. of stone ball, and more. - -OF THE THICKNESS OF SMALL GUNS. - -The thickness at the muzzle of small guns should be from a half to -one third of the diameter of the ball, and the length from 30 to 36 -balls. - -740. - -OF LUTING THE FURNACE WITHIN. - -The furnace must be luted before you put the metal in it, with earth -from Valenza, and over that with ashes. - -[Footnote 1. 2.: _Terra di Valenza_.--Valenza is north of -Alessandria on the Po.] - -OF RESTORING THE METAL WHEN IT IS BECOMING COOL. - -When you see that the bronze is congealing take some willow-wood cut -in small chips and make up the fire with it. - -THE CAUSE OF ITS CURDLING. - -I say that the cause of this congealing often proceeds from too much -fire, or from ill-dried wood. - -TO KNOW THE CONDITION OF THE FIRE. - -You may know when the fire is good and fit for your purpose by a -clear flame, and if you see the tips of the flames dull and ending -in much smoke do not trust it, and particularly when the flux metal -is almost fluid. - -OF ALLOYING THE METAL. - -Metal for guns must invariably be made with 6 or even 8 per cent, -that is 6 of tin to one hundred of copper, for the less you put in, -the stronger will the gun be. - -WHEN THE TIN SHOULD BE ADDED TO THE COPPER. - -The tin should be put in with the copper when the copper is reduced -to a fluid. - -HOW TO HASTEN THE MELTING. - -You can hasten the melting when 2/3ds of the copper is fluid; you -can then, with a stick of chestnut-wood, repeatedly stir what of -copper remains entire amidst what is melted. - -_Introductory Observations on the Architectural Designs (XII), and -Writings on Architecture (XIII)._ - -_Until now very little has been known regarding Leonardo's labours -in the domain of Architecture. No building is known to have been -planned and executed by him, though by some contemporary writers -incidental allusion is made to his occupying himself with -architecture, and his famous letter to Lodovico il Moro,--which has -long been a well-known document,--in which he offers his service as -an architect to that prince, tends to confirm the belief that he was -something more than an amateur of the art. This hypothesis has -lately been confirmed by the publication of certain documents, -preserved at Milan, showing that Leonardo was not only employed in -preparing plans but that he took an active part, with much credit, -as member of a commission on public buildings; his name remains -linked with the history of the building of the Cathedral at Pavia -and that of the Cathedral at Milan._ - -_Leonardo's writings on Architecture are dispersed among a large -number of MSS., and it would be scarcely possible to master their -contents without the opportunity of arranging, sorting and comparing -the whole mass of materials, so as to have some comprehensive idea -of the whole. The sketches, when isolated and considered by -themselves, might appear to be of but little value; it is not till -we understand their general purport, from comparing them with each -other, that we can form any just estimate of their true worth._ - -_Leonardo seems to have had a project for writing a complete and -separate treatise on Architecture, such as his predecessors and -contemporaries had composed--Leon Battista Alberti, Filarete, -Francesco di Giorgio and perhaps also Bramante. But, on the other -hand, it cannot be denied that possibly no such scheme was connected -with the isolated notes and researches, treating on special -questions, which are given in this work; that he was merely working -at problems in which, for some reason or other he took a special -interest._ - -_A great number of important buildings were constructed in Lombardy -during the period between 1472 and 1499, and among them there are -several by unknown architects, of so high an artistic merit, that it -is certainly not improbable that either Bramante or Leonardo da -Vinci may have been, directly or indirectly, concerned in their -erection._ - -_Having been engaged, for now nearly twenty years, in a thorough -study of Bramante's life and labours, I have taken a particular -interest in detecting the distinguishing marks of his style as -compared with Leonardo's. In 1869 I made researches about the -architectural drawings of the latter in the Codex Atlanticus at -Milan, for the purpose of finding out, if possible the original -plans and sketches of the churches of Santa Maria delle Grazie at -Milan, and of the Cathedral at Pavia, which buildings have been -supposed to be the work both of Bramante and of Leonardo. Since 1876 -I have repeatedly examined Leonardo's architectural studies in the -collection of his manuscripts in the Institut de France, and some of -these I have already given to the public in my work on_ "Les Projets -Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome", _P1. 43. In 1879 -I had the opportunity of examining the manuscript in the Palazzo -Trivulzio at Milan, and in 1880 Dr Richter showed me in London the -manuscripts in the possession of Lord Ashburnham, and those in the -British Museum. I have thus had opportunities of seeing most of -Leonardo's architectural drawings in the original, but of the -manuscripts tliemselves I have deciphered only the notes which -accompany the sketches. It is to Dr Richter's exertions that we owe -the collected texts on Architecture which are now published, and -while he has undertaken to be responsible for the correct reading of -the original texts, he has also made it his task to extract the -whole of the materials from the various MSS. It has been my task to -arrange and elucidate the texts under the heads which have been -adopted in this work. MS. B. at Paris and the Codex Atlanticus at -Milan are the chief sources of our knowledge of Leonardo as an -architect, and I have recently subjected these to a thorough -re-investigation expressly with a view to this work._ - -_A complete reproduction of all Leonardo's architectural sketches -has not, indeed, been possible, but as far as the necessarily -restricted limits of the work have allowed, the utmost completeness -has been aimed at, and no efforts have been spared to include every -thing that can contribute to a knowledge of Leonardo's style. It -would have been very interesting, if it had been possible, to give -some general account at least of Leonardo's work and studies in -engineering, fortification, canal-making and the like, and it is -only on mature reflection that we have reluctantly abandoned this -idea. Leonardo's occupations in these departments have by no means -so close a relation to literary work, in the strict sense of the -word as we are fairly justified in attributing to his numerous notes -on Architecture._ - -_Leonardo's architectural studies fall naturally under two heads:_ - -_I. Those drawings and sketches, often accompanied by short remarks -and explanations, which may be regarded as designs for buildings or -monuments intended to be built. With these there are occasionally -explanatory texts._ - -_II. Theoretical investigations and treatises. A special interest -attaches to these because they discuss a variety of questions which -are of practical importance to this day. Leonardo's theory as to the -origin and progress of cracks in buildings is perhaps to be -considered as unique in its way in the literature of Architecture._ - -_HENRY DE GEYMULLER_ - -_XII._ - -_Architectural Designs._ - -_I. Plans for towns._ - -_A. Sketches for laying out a new town with a double system of high- -level and low-level road-ways._ - -_Pl. LXXVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 15b). A general view of a town, with the -roads outside it sloping up to the high-level ways within._ - -_Pl. LXXVII, No. 3 (MS. B, 16b. see No. 741; and MS. B. 15b, see No. -742) gives a partial view of the town, with its streets and houses, -with explanatory references._ - -_Pl. LXXVII, No. 2 (MS. B, 15b; see No. 743). View of a double -staircaise with two opposite flights of steps._ - -_Pl. LXXVIII, Nos. 2 and 3 (MS. B, 37a). Sketches illustrating the -connection of the two levels of roads by means of steps. The lower -galleries are lighted by openings in the upper roadway._ - -_B. Notes on removing houses (MS. Br. M., 270b, see No. 744)._ - -741. - -The roads _m_ are 6 braccia higher than the roads _p s_, and each -road must be 20 braccia wide and have 1/2 braccio slope from the -sides towards the middle; and in the middle let there be at every -braccio an opening, one braccio long and one finger wide, where the -rain water may run off into hollows made on the same level as _p s_. -And on each side at the extremity of the width of the said road let -there be an arcade, 6 braccia broad, on columns; and understand that -he who would go through the whole place by the high level streets -can use them for this purpose, and he who would go by the low level -can do the same. By the high streets no vehicles and similar objects -should circulate, but they are exclusively for the use of gentlemen. -The carts and burdens for the use and convenience of the inhabitants -have to go by the low ones. One house must turn its back to the -other, leaving the lower streets between them. Provisions, such as -wood, wine and such things are carried in by the doors _n_, and -privies, stables and other fetid matter must be emptied away -underground. From one arch to the next - -742. - -must be 300 braccia, each street receiving its light through the -openings of the upper streets, and at each arch must be a winding -stair on a circular plan because the corners of square ones are -always fouled; they must be wide, and at the first vault there must -be a door entering into public privies and the said stairs lead from -the upper to the lower streets and the high level streets begin -outside the city gates and slope up till at these gates they have -attained the height of 6 braccia. Let such a city be built near the -sea or a large river in order that the dirt of the city may be -carried off by the water. - -743. - -The construction of the stairs: The stairs _c d_ go down to _f g_, -and in the same way _f g_ goes down to _h k_. - -744. - -ON MOVING HOUSES. - -Let the houses be moved and arranged in order; and this will be done -with facility because such houses are at first made in pieces on the -open places, and can then be fitted together with their timbers in -the site where they are to be permanent. - -[9] Let the men of the country [or the village] partly inhabit the -new houses when the court is absent [12]. - -[Footnote: On the same page we find notes referring to Romolontino -and Villafranca with a sketch-map of the course of the "Sodro" and -the "(Lo)cra" (both are given in the text farther on). There can -hardly be a doubt that the last sentence of the passage given above, -refers to the court of Francis I. King of France.--L.9-13 are -written inside the larger sketch, which, in the original, is on the -right hand side of the page by the side of lines 1-8. The three -smaller sketches are below. J. P. R.] - -_II. Plans for canals and streets in a town. - -Pl. LXXIX, 1. and 2, (MS. B, 37b, see No. 745, and MS. B. 36a, see -No. 746). A Plan for streets and canals inside a town, by which the -cellars of the houses are made accessible in boats. - -The third text given under No. 747 refers to works executed by -Leonardo in France._ - -745. - -The front _a m_ will give light to the rooms; _a e_ will be 6 -braccia--_a b_ 8 braccia --_b e_ 30 braccia, in order that the rooms -under the porticoes may be lighted; _c d f_ is the place where the -boats come to the houses to be unloaded. In order to render this -arrangement practicable, and in order that the inundation of the -rivers may not penetrate into the cellars, it is necessary to chose -an appropriate situation, such as a spot near a river which can be -diverted into canals in which the level of the water will not vary -either by inundations or drought. The construction is shown below; -and make choice of a fine river, which the rains do not render -muddy, such as the Ticino, the Adda and many others. [Footnote 12: -_Tesino, Adda e molti altri, i.e._ rivers coming from the mountains -and flowing through lakes.] The construction to oblige the waters to -keep constantly at the same level will be a sort of dock, as shown -below, situated at the entrance of the town; or better still, some -way within, in order that the enemy may not destroy it [14]. - -[Footnote: L. 1-4 are on the left hand side and within the sketch -given on Pl. LXXIX, No. I. Then follows after line 14, the drawing -of a sluicegate--_conca_--of which the use is explained in the text -below it. On the page 38a, which comes next in the original MS. is -the sketch of an oval plan of a town over which is written "_modo di -canali per la citta_" and through the longer axis of it "_canale -magior_" is written with "_Tesino_" on the prolongation of the -canal. J. P. R.] - -746. - -Let the width of the streets be equal to the average height of the -houses. - -747. - -The main underground channel does not receive turbid water, but that -water runs in the ditches outside the town with four mills at the -entrance and four at the outlet; and this may be done by damming the -water above Romorantin. - -[11]There should be fountains made in each piazza[13]. - -[Footnote: In the original this text comes immediately after the -passage given as No. 744. The remainder of the writing on the same -page refers to the construction of canals and is given later, in the -"Topographical Notes". - -Lines 1-11 are written to the right of the plan lines 11-13 -underneath it. J. P. R.] - -[Footnote 10: _Romolontino_ is Romorantin, South of Orleans in -France.] - -_III. Castles and Villas. - -A. Castles. - -Pl. LXXX, No. 1 (P. V. fol. 39b; No. d'ordre 2282). The fortified -place here represented is said by Vallardi to be the_ "castello" _at -Milan, but without any satisfactory reason. The high tower behind -the_ "rivellino" _ravelin--seems to be intended as a watch-tower. - -Pl. LXXX, No. 2 (MS. B, 23b). A similarly constructed tower probably -intended for the same use. - -Pl. LXXX, No. 3 (MS. B). Sketches for corner towers with steps for a -citadel. - -Pl. LXXX, No. 4 (W. XVI). A cupola crowning a corner tower; an -interesting example of decorative fortification. In this -reproduction of the original pen and ink drawing it appears -reversed. - -B. Projects for Palaces. - -Pl. LXXXI, No. 2 (MS. C. A, 75b; 221a, see No. 748). Project for a -royal residence at Amboise in France. - -Pl. LXXXII, No. 1 (C. A 308a; 939a). A plan for a somewhat extensive -residence, and various details; but there is no text to elucidate -it; in courts are written the three names: - -Sam cosi giova - _(St. Mark)_ _(Cosmo)_ _(John)_, -arch mo nino - -C. Plans for small castles or Villas. - -The three following sketches greatly resemble each other. Pl. -LXXXII, No. 2 (MS. K3 36b; see No. 749)._ - -_Pl. LXXXII, No. 3 (MS. B 60a; See No. 750). - -Pl. LXXXIII (W. XVII). The text on this sheet refers to Cyprus (see -Topographical Notes No. 1103), but seems to have no direct -connection with the sketches inserted between. - -Pl. LXXXVIII, Nos. 6 and 7 (MS. B, 12a; see No. 751). A section of a -circular pavilion with the plan of a similar building by the side of -it. These two drawings have a special historical interest because -the text written below mentions the Duke and Duchess of Milan. - -The sketch of a villa on a terrace at the end of a garden occurs in -C. A. 150; and in C. A. 77b; 225b is another sketch of a villa -somewhat resembling the_ Belvedere _of Pope Innocent VIII, at Rome. -In C. A. 62b; 193b there is a Loggia. - -Pl. LXXXII, No. 4 (C. A. 387a; 1198a) is a tower-shaped_ Loggia -_above a fountain. The machinery is very ingeniously screened from -view._ - -748. - -The Palace of the prince must have a piazza in front of it. - -Houses intended for dancing or any kind of jumping or any other -movements with a multitude of people, must be on the ground- floor; -for I have already witnessed the destruction of some, causing death -to many persons, and above all let every wall, be it ever so thin, -rest on the ground or on arches with a good foundation. - -Let the mezzanines of the dwellings be divided by walls made of very -thin bricks, and without wood on account of fire. - -Let all the privies have ventilation [by shafts] in the thickness of -the walls, so as to exhale by the roofs. - -The mezzanines should be vaulted, and the vaults will be stronger in -proportion as they are of small size. - -The ties of oak must be enclosed in the walls in order to be -protected from fire. - -[Footnote: The remarks accompanying the plan reproduced on Pl. -LXXXI, No. 2 are as follows: Above, to the left: "_in_ a _angholo -stia la guardia de la sstalla_" (in the angle _a_ may be the keeper -of the stable). Below are the words "_strada dabosa_" (road to -Amboise), parallel with this "_fossa br 40_" (the moat 40 braccia) -fixing the width of the moat. In the large court surrounded by a -portico "_in terre No.--Largha br.80 e lugha br 120_." To the right -of the castle is a large basin for aquatic sports with the words -"_Giostre colle nave cioe li giostra li stieno sopra le na_" -(Jousting in boats that is the men are to be in boats). J. P. R.] - -The privies must be numerous and going one into the other in order -that the stench may not penetrate into the dwellings., and all their -doors must shut off themselves with counterpoises. - -The main division of the facade of this palace is into two portions; -that is to say the width of the court-yard must be half the whole -facade; the 2nd ... - -749. - -30 braccia wide on each side; the lower entrance leads into a hall -10 braccia wide and 30 braccia long with 4 recesses each with a -chimney. - -[Footnote: On each side of the castle, Pl. LXXXII. No. 2 there are -drawings of details, to the left "_Camino_" a chimney, to the right -the central lantern, sketched in red "_8 lati_" _i.e._ an octagon.] - -750. - -The firststorey [or terrace] must be entirely solid. - -751. - -The pavilion in the garden of the Duchess of Milan. - -The plan of the pavilion which is in the middle of the labyrinth of -the Duke of Milan. - -[Footnote: This passage was first published by AMORETTI in _Memorie -Storiche_ Cap. X: Una sua opera da riportarsi a quest' anno fu il -bagno fatto per la duchessa Beatrice nel parco o giardino del -Castello. Lionardo non solo ne disegno il piccolo edifizio a foggia -di padiglione, nel cod. segnato Q. 3, dandone anche separatamente la -pianta; ma sotto vi scrisse: Padiglione del giardino della duchessa; -e sotto la pianta: Fondamento del padiglione ch'e nel mezzo del -labirinto del duca di Milano; nessuna data e presso il padiglione, -disegnato nella pagina 12, ma poco sopra fra molti circoli -intrecciati vedesi = 10 Luglio 1492 = e nella pagina 2 presso ad -alcuni disegni di legumi qualcheduno ha letto Settembre 1482 in vece -di 1492, come dovea scriverevi, e probabilmente scrisse Lionardo. - -The original text however hardly bears the interpretation put upon -it by AMORETTI. He is mistaken as to the mark on the MS. as well as -in his statements as to the date, for the MS. in question has no -date; the date he gives occurs, on the contrary, in another -note-book. Finally, it appears to me quite an open question whether -Leonardo was the architect who carried out the construction of the -dome-like Pavilion here shown in section, or of the ground plan of -the Pavilion drawn by the side of it. Must we, in fact, suppose that -"_il duca di Milano_" here mentioned was, as has been generally -assumed, Ludovico il Moro? He did not hold this title from the -Emperor before 1494; till that date he was only called _Governatore_ -and Leonardo in speaking of him, mentions him generally as "_il -Moro_" even after 1494. On January 18, 1491, he married Beatrice -d'Este the daughter of Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara. She died on the -2nd January 1497, and for the reasons I have given it seems -improbable that it should be this princess who is here spoken of as -the "_Duchessa di Milano_". From the style of the handwriting it -appears to me to be beyond all doubt that the MS. B, from which this -passage is taken, is older than the dated MSS. of 1492 and 1493. In -that case the Duke of Milan here mentioned would be Gian Galeazzo -(1469-1494) and the Duchess would be his wife Isabella of Aragon, to -whom he was married on the second February 1489. J. P. R.] - -752. - -The earth that is dug out from the cellars must be raised on one -side so high as to make a terrace garden as high as the level of the -hall; but between the earth of the terrace and the wall of the -house, leave an interval in order that the damp may not spoil the -principal walls. - -_IV. Ecclesiastical Architecture. - -A. General Observations._ - -753. - -A building should always be detached on all sides so that its form -may be seen. - -[Footnote: The original text is reproduced on Pl. XCII, No. 1 to the -left hand at the bottom.] - -754. - -Here there cannot and ought not to be any _campanile_; on the -contrary it must stand apart like that of the Cathedral and of San -Giovanni at Florence, and of the Cathedral at Pisa, where the -campanile is quite detached as well as the dome. Thus each can -display its own perfection. If however you wish to join it to the -church, make the lantern serve for the campanile as in the church at -Chiaravalle. - -[Footnote: This text is written by the side of the plan given on Pl. -XCI. No. 2.] - -[Footnote 12: The Abbey of Chiaravalle, a few miles from Milan, has -a central tower on the intersection of the cross in the style of -that of the Certosa of Pavia, but the style is mediaeval (A. D. -1330). Leonardo seems here to mean, that in a building, in which the -circular form is strongly conspicuous, the campanile must either be -separated, or rise from the centre of the building and therefore -take the form of a lantern.] - -755. - -It never looks well to see the roofs of a church; they should rather -be flat and the water should run off by gutters made in the frieze. - -[Footnote: This text is to the left of the domed church reproduced -on Pl. LXXXVII, No. 2.] - -_B. The theory of Dome Architecture. - -This subject has been more extensively treated by Leonardo in -drawings than in writing. Still we may fairly assume that it was his -purpose, ultimately to embody the results of his investigation in a_ -"Trattato delle Cupole." _The amount of materials is remarkably -extensive. MS. B is particularly rich in plans and elevations of -churches with one or more domes--from the simplest form to the most -complicated that can be imagined. Considering the evident connexion -between a great number of these sketches, as well as the -impossibility of seeing in them designs or preparatory sketches for -any building intended to be erected, the conclusion is obvious that -they were not designed for any particular monument, but were -theoretical and ideal researches, made in order to obtain a clear -understanding of the laws which must govern the construction of a -great central dome, with smaller ones grouped round it; and with or -without the addition of spires, so that each of these parts by -itself and in its juxtaposition to the other parts should produce -the grandest possible effect. - -In these sketches Leonardo seems to have exhausted every imaginable -combination. [Footnote 1: In MS. B, 32b (see Pl. C III, No. 2) we -find eight geometrical patterns, each drawn in a square; and in MS. -C.A., fol. 87 to 98 form a whole series of patterns done with the -same intention.] The results of some of these problems are perhaps -not quite satisfactory; still they cannot be considered to give -evidence of a want of taste or of any other defect in Leonardo s -architectural capacity. They were no doubt intended exclusively for -his own instruction, and, before all, as it seems, to illustrate the -features or consequences resulting from a given principle._ - -_I have already, in another place,_ [Footnote 1: Les Projets -Primitifs pour la Basilique de St. Pierre de Rome, par Bramante, -Raphael etc.,Vol. I, p. 2.] _pointed out the law of construction for -buildings crowned by a large dome: namely, that such a dome, to -produce the greatest effect possible, should rise either from the -centre of a Greek cross, or from the centre of a structure of which -the plan has some symmetrical affinity to a circle, this circle -being at the same time the centre of the whole plan of the building. - -Leonardo's sketches show that he was fully aware, as was to be -expected, of this truth. Few of them exhibit the form of a Latin -cross, and when this is met with, it generally gives evidence of the -determination to assign as prominent a part as possible to the dome -in the general effect of the building. - -While it is evident, on the one hand, that the greater number of -these domes had no particular purpose, not being designed for -execution, on the other hand several reasons may be found for -Leonardo's perseverance in his studies of the subject. - -Besides the theoretical interest of the question for Leonardo and -his_ Trattato _and besides the taste for domes prevailing at that -time, it seems likely that the intended erection of some building of -the first importance like the Duomos of Pavia and Como, the church -of Sta. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and the construction of a Dome -or central Tower_ (Tiburio) _on the cathedral of Milan, may have -stimulated Leonardo to undertake a general and thorough -investigation of the subject; whilst Leonardo's intercourse with -Bramante for ten years or more, can hardly have remained without -influence in this matter. In fact now that some of this great -Architect's studies for S. Peter's at Rome have at last become -known, he must be considered henceforth as the greatest master of -Dome-Architecture that ever existed. His influence, direct or -indirect even on a genius like Leonardo seems the more likely, since -Leonardo's sketches reveal a style most similar to that of Bramante, -whose name indeed, occurs twice in Leonardo's manuscript notes. It -must not be forgotten that Leonardo was a Florentine; the -characteristic form of the two principal domes of Florence, Sta. -Maria del Fiore and the Battisterio, constantly appear as leading -features in his sketches. - -The church of San Lorenzo at Milan, was at that time still intact. -The dome is to this day one of the most wonderful cupolas ever -constructed, and with its two smaller domes might well attract the -attention and study of a never resting genius such as Leonardo. A -whole class of these sketches betray in fact the direct influence of -the church of S. Lorenzo, and this also seems to have suggested the -plan of Bramante's dome of St. Peter's at Rome. - -In the following pages the various sketches for the construction of -domes have been classified and discussed from a general point of -view. On two sheets: Pl. LXXXIV (C.A. 354b; 118a) and Pl. LXXXV, -Nos. 1-11 (Ash. II, 6b) we see various dissimilar types, grouped -together; thus these two sheets may be regarded as a sort of -nomenclature of the different types, on which we shall now have to -treat._ - -_1. Churches formed on the plan of a Greek cross. - -Group I. - -Domes rising from a circular base. - -The simplest type of central building is a circular edifice. - -Pl. LXXXIV, No. 9. Plan of a circular building surrounded by a -colonnade. - -Pl. LXXXIV, No. 8. Elevation of the former, with a conical roof. - -Pl. XC. No. 5. A dodecagon, as most nearly approaching the circle. - -Pl. LXXXVI, No. 1, 2, 3. Four round chapels are added at the -extremities of the two principal axes;--compare this plan with fig. -1 on p. 44 and fig. 3 on p. 47 (W. P. 5b) where the outer wall is -octagonal. - -Group II. - -Domes rising from a square base. - -The plan is a square surrounded by a colonnade, and the dome seems -to be octagonal. - -Pl. LXXXIV. The square plan below the circular building No. 8, and -its elevation to the left, above the plan: here the ground-plan is -square, the upper storey octagonal. A further development of this -type is shown in two sketches C. A. 3a (not reproduced here), and in - -Pl. LXXXVI, No. 5 (which possibly belongs to No. 7 on Pl. LXXXIV). - -Pl, LXXXV, No. 4, and p. 45, Fig. 3, a Greek cross, repeated p. 45, -Fig. 3, is another development of the square central plan. - -The remainder of these studies show two different systems; in the -first the dome rises from a square plan,--in the second from an -octagonal base._ - -_Group III. - -Domes rising from a square base and four pillars. [Footnote 1: The -ancient chapel San Satiro, via del Falcone, Milan, is a specimen of -this type.]_ - -a) First type. _A Dome resting on four pillars in the centre of a -square edifice, with an apse in the middle, of each of the four -sides. We have eleven variations of this type. - -aa) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3. - -bb) Pl. LXXX, No. 5. - -cc) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 2, 3, 5. - -dd) Pl. LXXXIV, No. 1 and 4 beneath. - -ee) Pl. LXXXV, Nos. 1, 7, 10, 11._ - -b) Second type. _This consists in adding aisles to the whole plan of -the first type; columns are placed between the apses and the aisles; -the plan thus obtained is very nearly identical with that of S. -Lorenzo at Milan. - -Fig. 1 on p. 56. (MS. B, 75a) shows the result of this treatment -adapted to a peculiar purpose about which we shall have to say a few -words later on. - -Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows the same plan but with the addition of a short -nave. This plan seems to have been suggested by the general -arrangement of S. Sepolcro at Milan. - -MS. B. 57b (see the sketch reproduced on p.51). By adding towers in -the four outer angles to the last named plan, we obtain a plan which -bears the general features of Bramante's plans for S. Peter's at -Rome. [Footnote 2: See_ Les projets primitifs _etc., Pl. 9-12.] (See -p. 51 Fig. 1.) - -Group IV. - -Domes rising from an octagonal base. - -This system, developed according to two different schemes, has given -rise to two classes with many varieties. - -In a) On each side of the octagon chapels of equal form are added. - -In b) The chapels are dissimilar; those which terminate the -principal axes being different in form from those which are added on -the diagonal sides of the octagon. - -a. First Class. - -The Chapel_ "degli Angeli," _at Florence, built only to a height of -about 20 feet by Brunellesco, may be considered as the prototype of -this group; and, indeed it probably suggested it. The fact that we -see in MS. B. 11b (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) by the side of Brunellesco's -plan for the Basilica of Sto. Spirito at Florence, a plan almost -identical with that of the_ Capella degli Angeli, _confirms this -supposition. Only two small differences, or we may say improvements, -have been introduced by Leonardo. Firstly the back of the chapels -contains a third niche, and each angle of the Octagon a folded -pilaster like those in Bramante's_ Sagrestia di S. M. presso San -Satiro _at Milan, instead of an interval between the two pilasters -as seen in the Battistero at Florence and in the Sacristy of Sto. -Spirito in the same town and also in the above named chapel by -Brunellesco. - -The first set of sketches which come under consideration have at -first sight the appearance of mere geometrical studies. They seem to -have been suggested by the plan given on page 44 Fig. 2 (MS. B, 55a) -in the centre of which is written_ "Santa Maria in perticha da -Pavia", _at the place marked A on the reproduction. - -a) (MS. B, 34b, page 44 Fig. 3). In the middle of each side a column -is added, and in the axes of the intercolumnar spaces a second row -of columns forms an aisle round the octagon. These are placed at the -intersection of a system of semicircles, of which the sixteen -columns on the sides of the octagon are the centres. - -b) The preceding diagram is completed and becomes more monumental in -style in the sketch next to it (MS. B, 35a, see p. 45 Fig. 1). An -outer aisle is added by circles, having for radius the distance -between the columns in the middle sides of the octagon. - -c) (MS. B. 96b, see p. 45 Fig. 2). Octagon with an aisle round it; -the angles of both are formed by columns. The outer sides are formed -by 8 niches forming chapels. The exterior is likewise octagonal, -with the angles corresponding to the centre of each of the interior -chapels. - -Pl. XCII, No. 2 (MS. B. 96b). Detail and modification of the -preceding plan--half columns against piers--an arrangement by which -the chapels of the aisle have the same width of opening as the inner -arches between the half columns. Underneath this sketch the -following note occurs:_ questo vole - avere 12 facce - co 12 -tabernaculi - come - _a_ - _b_. _(This will have twelve sides with -twelve tabernacles as_ a b._) In the remaining sketches of this -class the octagon is not formed by columns at the angles. - -The simplest type shows a niche in the middle of each side and is -repeated on several sheets, viz: MS. B 3; MS. C.A. 354b (see Pl. -LXXXIV, No. 11) and MS. Ash II 6b; (see Pl. LXXXV, No. 9 and the -elevations No. 8; Pl. XCII, No. 3; MS. B. 4b [not reproduced here] -and Pl. LXXXIV, No. 2)._ - -_Pl. XCII, 3 (MS. B, 56b) corresponds to a plan like the one in MS. -B 35a, in which the niches would be visible outside or, as in the -following sketch, with the addition of a niche in the middle of each -chapel. - -Pl. XC, No. 6. The niches themselves are surrounded by smaller -niches (see also No. 1 on the same plate). - -Octagon expanded on each side. - -A. by a square chapel: - -MS. B. 34b (not reproduced here). - -B. by a square with 3 niches: - -MS. B. 11b (see Pl. XCIV, No. 3). - -C. by octagonal chapels: - -a) MS. B, 21a; Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 4. - -b) No. 2 on the same plate. Underneath there is the remark:_ -"quest'e come le 8 cappele ano a essere facte" _(this is how the -eight chapels are to be executed). - -c) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 5. Elevation to the plans on the same sheet, it -is accompanied by the note:_ "ciasscuno de' 9 tiburi no'uole - -passare l'alteza - di - 2 - quadri" _(neither of the 9 domes must -exceed the height of two squares). - -d) Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 1. Inside of the same octagon. MS. B, 30a, and -34b; these are three repetitions of parts of the same plan with very -slight variations. - -D. by a circular chapel: - -MS. B, 18a (see Fig. 1 on page 47) gives the plan of this -arrangement in which the exterior is square on the ground floor with -only four of the chapels projecting, as is explained in the next -sketch. - -Pl. LXXXIX, MS. B, 17b. Elevation to the preceding plan sketched on -the opposite side of the sheet, and also marked A. It is accompanied -by the following remark, indicating the theoretical character of -these studies:_ questo - edifitio - anchora - starebbe - bene -affarlo dalla linja - _a_ - _b_ - _c_ - _d_ - insu. _("This edifice -would also produce a good effect if only the part above the lines_ a -b, c d, _were executed"). - -Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11. The exterior has the form of an octagon, but the -chapels project partly beyond it. On the left side of the sketch -they appear larger than on the right side. - -Pl. XC, No. 1, (MS. B, 25b); Repetition of Pl. LXXXIV, No. 11. - -Pl. XC, No. 2. Elevation to the plan No. 1, and also to No. 6 of the -same sheet._ - -_E. By chapels formed by four niches: - -Pl. LXXXIV, No. 7 (the circular plan on the left below) shows this -arrangement in which the central dome has become circular inside and -might therefore be classed after this group. [Footnote 1: This plan -and some others of this class remind us of the plan of the Mausoleum -of Augustus as it is represented for instance by Durand. See_ Cab. -des Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Topographie de Rome, V, -6, 82._] - -The sketch on the right hand side gives most likely the elevation -for the last named plan. - -F. By chapels of still richer combinations, which necessitate an -octagon of larger dimensions: - -Pl. XCI, No. 2 (MS. Ash. 11. 8b) [Footnote 2: The note accompanying -this plan is given under No. 754.]; on this plan the chapels -themselves appear to be central buildings formed like the first type -of the third group. Pl. LXXXVIII, No. 3. - -Pl. XCI, No. 2 above; the exterior of the preceding figure, -particularly interesting on account of the alternation of apses and -niches, the latter containing statues of a gigantic size, in -proportion to the dimension of the niches. - -b. Second Class. - -Composite plans of this class are generally obtained by combining -two types of the first class--the one worked out on the principal -axes, the other on the diagonal ones. - -MS. B. 22 shows an elementary combination, without any additions on -the diagonal axes, but with the dimensions of the squares on the two -principal axes exceeding those of the sides of the octagon. - -In the drawing W. P. 5b (see page 44 Fig. 1) the exterior only of -the edifice is octagonal, the interior being formed by a circular -colonnade; round chapels are placed against the four sides of the -principal axes. - -The elevation, drawn on the same sheet (see page 47 Fig. 3), shows -the whole arrangement which is closely related with the one on Pl. -LXXXVI No. 1, 2. - -MS. B. 21a shows: - -a) four sides with rectangular chapels crowned by pediments Pl. -LXXXVII No. 3 (plan and elevation); - -b) four sides with square chapels crowned by octagonal domes. Pl. -LXXXVII No. 4; the plan underneath. - -MS. B. 18a shows a variation obtained by replacing the round chapels -in the principal axes of the sketch MS. B. l8a by square ones, with -an apse. Leonardo repeated both ideas for better comparison side by -side, see page 47. Fig. 2. - -Pl. LXXXIX (MS. B. 17b). Elevation for the preceding figure. The -comparison of the drawing marked M with the plan on page 47 Fig. 2, -bearing the same mark, and of the elevation on Pl. LXXXIX below -(marked A) with the corresponding plan on page 47 is highly -instructive, as illustrating the spirit in which Leonardo pursued -these studies. - -Pl. LXXXIV No. 12 shows the design Pl. LXXXVII No. 3 combined with -apses, with the addition of round chapels on the diagonal sides. - -Pl. LXXXIV No. 13 is a variation of the preceding sketch. - -Pl. XC No. 3. MS. B. 25b. The round chapels of the preceding sketch -are replaced by octagonal chapels, above which rise campaniles. - -Pl. XC No. 4 is the elevation for the preceding plan. - -Pl. XCII No. 1. (MS. B. 39b.); the plan below. On the principal as -well as on the diagonal axes are diagonal chapels, but the latter -are separated from the dome by semicircular recesses. The -communication between these eight chapels forms a square aisle round -the central dome. - -Above this figure is the elevation, showing four campaniles on the -angles. [Footnote 1: The note accompanying this drawing is -reproduced under No. 753.] - -Pl. LXXXIV No. 3. On the principal axes are square chapels with -three niches; on the diagonals octagonal chapels with niches. Cod. -Atl. 340b gives a somewhat similar arrangement. - -MS. B. 30. The principal development is thrown on the diagonal axes -by square chapels with three niches; on the principal axes are inner -recesses communicating with outer ones. - -The plan Pl. XCIII No. 2 (MS. B. 22) differs from this only in so -far as the outer semicircles have become circular chapels, -projecting from the external square as apses; one of them serves as -the entrance by a semicircular portico. - -The elevation is drawn on the left side of the plan. - -MS. B. 19. A further development of MS. B. 18, by employing for the -four principal chapels the type Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, as we have -already seen in Pl. XCI No. 2; the exterior presents two varieties. - -a) The outer contour follows the inner. [Footnote 2: These chapels -are here sketched in two different sizes; it is the smaller type -which is thus formed.] - -b) It is semicircular. - -Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 (MS. B. 18b) Elevation to the first variation MS. -B. 19. If we were not certain that this sketch was by Leonardo, we -might feel tempted to take it as a study by Bramante for St. Peter's -at Rome. [Footnote 3: See_ Les projets primitifs Pl. 43._]_ - -_MS. P. V. 39b. In the principal axes the chapels of MS. B. 19, and -semicircular niches on the diagonals. The exterior of the whole -edifice is also an octagon, concealing the form of the interior -chapels, but with its angles on their axes. - -Group V. - -Suggested by San Lorenzo at Milan. - -In MS. C. A. 266 IIb, 8l2b there is a plan almost identical with -that of San Lorenzo. The diagonal sides of the irregular octagon are -not indicated. - -If it could be proved that the arches which, in the actual church, -exist on these sides in the first story, were added in 1574 by -Martimo Bassi, then this plan and the following section would be -still nearer the original state of San Lorenzo than at present. A -reproduction of this slightly sketched plan has not been possible. -It may however be understood from Pl. LXXXVIII No. 3, by suppressing -the four pillars corresponding to the apses. - -Pl. LXXXVII No. 1 shows the section in elevation corresponding with -the above-named plan. The recessed chapels are decorated with large -shells in the halfdomes like the arrangement in San Lorenzo, but -with proportions like those of Bramante's Sacristy of Santa Maria -presso S. Satiro. - -MS. C. A. 266; a sheet containing three views of exteriors of Domes. -On the same sheet there is a plan similar to the one above-named but -with uninterrupted aisles and with the addition of round chapels in -the axes (compare Pl. XCVII No. 3 and page 44 Fig. 1), perhaps a -reminiscence of the two chapels annexed to San Lorenzo.--Leonardo -has here sketched the way of transforming this plan into a Latin -cross by means of a nave with side aisles. - -Pl. XCI No. 1. Plan showing a type deprived of aisles and comprised -in a square building which is surrounded by a portico. It is -accompanied by the following text:_ - -756. - -This edifice is inhabited [accessible] below and above, like San -Sepolcro, and it is the same above as below, except that the upper -story has the dome _c d_; and the [Footnote: The church of San -Sepolcro at Milan, founded in 1030 and repeatedly rebuilt after the -middle of the XVIth century, still stands over the crypt of the -original structure.] lower has the dome _a b_, and when you enter -into the crypt, you descend 10 steps, and when you mount into the -upper you ascend 20 steps, which, with 1/3 braccio for each, make 10 -braccia, and this is the height between one floor of the church and -the other. - -_Above the plan on the same sheet is a view of the exterior. By the -aid of these two figures and the description, sections of the -edifice may easily be reconstructed. But the section drawn on the -left side of the building seems not to be in keeping with the same -plan, notwithstanding the explanatory note written underneath it: -"dentro il difitio di sopra" (interior of the edifice -above)[Footnote 1: _The small inner dome corresponds to_ a b _on the -plan--it rises from the lower church into the upper-- above, and -larger, rises the dome_ c d. _The aisles above and below thus -correspond_ (e di sopra come di sotto, salvoche etc.). _The only -difference is, that in the section Leonardo has not taken the -trouble to make the form octagonal, but has merely sketched circular -lines in perspective._ J. P. R._]. - -_Before leaving this group, it is well to remark that the germ of it -seems already indicated by the diagonal lines in the plans Pl. LXXXV -No. 11 and No. 7. We shall find another application of the same type -to the Latin cross in Pl. XCVII No. 3. - -_2. Churches formed on the plan of a Latin cross. - -We find among Leonardo's studies several sketches for churches on -the plan of the Latin cross; we shall begin by describing them, and -shall add a few observations. - -A. Studies after existing Monuments. - -Pl. XCIV No. 2. (MS. B. 11b.) Plan of Santo Spirito at Florence, a -basilica built after the designs of Brunellesco.--Leonardo has added -the indication of a portico in front, either his own invention or -the reproduction of a now lost design. - -Pl. XCV No. 2. Plan accompanied by the words: "A_ e santo sepolcro -di milano di sopra"(A _is the upper church of S. Sepolcro at Milan); -although since Leonardo's time considerably spoilt, it is still the -same in plan. - -The second plan with its note: "B_ e la sua parte socto tera" (B _is -its subterranean part [the crypt]) still corresponds with the -present state of this part of the church as I have ascertained by -visiting the crypt with this plan. Excepting the addition of a few -insignificant walls, the state of this interesting part of the -church still conforms to Leonardo's sketch; but in the Vestibolo the -two columns near the entrance of the winding stairs are absent. - -B. Designs or Studies. - -PL. XCV No. 1. Plan of a church evidently suggested by that of San -Sepolcro at Milan. The central part has been added to on the -principle of the second type of Group III. Leonardo has placed the_ -"coro" _(choir) in the centre._ - -_Pl. XCVI No. 2. In the plan the dome, as regards its interior, -belongs to the First Class of Group IV, and may be grouped with the -one in MS. B. 35a. The nave seems to be a development of the type -represented in Pl. XCV No. 2, B. by adding towers and two lateral -porticos[Footnote 1: Already published in Les projets primitifs Pl. -XLIII.]. - -On the left is a view of the exterior of the preceding plan. It is -accompanied by the following note:_ - -757. - -This building is inhabited below and above; the way up is by the -campaniles, and in going up one has to use the platform, where the -drums of the four domes are, and this platform has a parapet in -front, and none of these domes communicate with the church, but they -are quite separate. - -_Pl. XCVI No. 1 (MS. C. A. 16b; 65a). Perspective view of a church -seen from behind; this recalls the Duomo at Florence, but with two -campaniles[Footnote 2: Already published in the Saggio Pl. IX.]. - -Pl. XCVII No. 3 (MS. B. 52a). The central part is a development of -S. Lorenzo at Milan, such as was executed at the Duomo of Pavia. -There is sufficient analogy between the building actually executed -and this sketch to suggest a direct connection between them. -Leonardo accompanied Francesco di Giorgio[Footnote 3: See MALASPINA, -il Duomo di Pavia. Documents.] when the latter was consulted on June -21st, 1490 as to this church; the fact that the only word -accompanying the plan is:_ "sagrestia", _seems to confirm our -supposition, for the sacristies were added only in 1492, i. e. four -years after the beginning of the Cathedral, which at that time was -most likely still sufficiently unfinished to be capable of receiving -the form of the present sketch. - -Pl. XCVII No. 2 shows the exterior of this design. Below is the -note:_ edifitio al proposito del fodameto figurato di socto -_(edifice proper for the ground plan figured below). - -Here we may also mention the plan of a Latin cross drawn in MS. C. -A. fol. 266 (see p. 50). - -Pl. XCIV No. 1 (MS. L. 15b). External side view of Brunellesco's -Florentine basilica San Lorenzo, seen from the North. - -Pl. XCIV No. 4 (V. A. V, 1). Principal front of a nave, most likely -of a church on the plan of a Latin cross. We notice here not only -the principal features which were employed afterwards in Alberti's -front of S. Maria Novella, but even details of a more advanced -style, such as we are accustomed to meet with only after the year -1520. - -In the background of Leonardo's unfinished picture of St. Jerome -(Vatican Gallery) a somewhat similar church front is indicated (see -the accompanying sketch). - -[Illustration with caption: The view of the front of a temple, -apparently a dome in the centre of four corinthian porticos bearing -pediments (published by Amoretti Tav. II. B as being by Leonardo), -is taken from a drawing, now at the Ambrosian Gallery. We cannot -consider this to be by the hand of the master.]_ - -_C. Studies for a form of a Church most proper for preaching. - -The problem as to what form of church might answer the requirements -of acoustics seems to have engaged Leonardo's very particular -attention. The designation of_ "teatro" _given to some of these -sketches, clearly shows which plan seemed to him most favourable for -hearing the preacher's voice. - -Pl. XCVII, No. 1 (MS. B, 52). Rectangular edifice divided into three -naves with an apse on either side, terminated by a semicircular -theatre with rising seats, as in antique buildings. The pulpit is in -the centre. Leonardo has written on the left side of the sketch_: -"teatro da predicare" _(Theatre for preaching). - -MS. B, 55a (see page 56, Fig. 1). A domed church after the type of -Pl. XCV, No. 1, shows four theatres occupying the apses and facing -the square_ "coro" _(choir), which is in the centre between the four -pillars of the dome.[Footnote 1: The note_ teatro de predicar, _on -the right side is, I believe, in the handwriting of Pompeo Leoni. J. -P. R.] The rising arrangement of the seats is shown in the sketch -above. At the place marked_ B _Leonardo wrote_ teatri per uldire -messa _(rows of seats to hear mass), at_ T teatri,_ and at_ C coro -_(choir). - -In MS. C.A. 260, are slight sketches of two plans for rectangular -choirs and two elevations of the altar and pulpit which seem to be -in connection with these plans. - -In MS. Ash II, 8a (see p. 56 and 57. Fig. 2 and 3)._ "Locho dove si -predica" _(Place for preaching). A most singular plan for a -building. The interior is a portion of a sphere, the centre of which -is the summit of a column destined to serve as the preacher's -pulpit. The inside is somewhat like a modern theatre, whilst the -exterior and the galleries and stairs recall the ancient -amphitheatres. - -[Illustration with caption: Page 57, Fig. 4. A plan accompanying the -two preceding drawings. If this gives the complete form Leonardo -intended for the edifice, it would have comprised only about two -thirds of the circle. Leonardo wrote in the centre_ "fondamento", _a -word he often employed for plans, and on the left side of the view -of the exterior:_ locho dove si predicha _(a place for preaching -in)._] - -_D. Design for a Mausoleum. - -Pl. XCVIII (P. V., 182._ No. d'ordre 2386). In the midst of a hilly -landscape rises an artificial mountain in the form of a gigantic -cone, crowned by an imposing temple. At two thirds of the height a -terrace is cut out with six doorways forming entrances to galleries, -each leading to three sepulchral halls, so constructed as to contain -about five hundred funeral urns, disposed in the customary antique -style. From two opposite sides steps ascend to the terrace in a -single flight and beyond it to the temple above. A large circular -opening, like that in the Pantheon, is in the dome above what may be -the altar, or perhaps the central monument on the level of the -terrace below. - -The section of a gallery given in the sketch to the right below -shows the roof to be constructed on the principle of superimposed -horizontal layers, projecting one beyond the other, and each -furnished with a sort of heel, which appears to be undercut, so as -to give the appearance of a beam from within. Granite alone would be -adequate to the dimensions here given to the key stone, as the -thickness of the layers can hardly be considered to be less than a -foot. In taking this as the basis of our calculation for the -dimensions of the whole construction, the width of the chamber would -be about 25 feet but, judging from the number of urns it -contains--and there is no reason to suppose that these urns were -larger than usual--it would seem to be no more than about 8 or 10 -feet. - -The construction of the vaults resembles those in the galleries of -some etruscan tumuli, for instance the Regulini Galeassi tomb at -Cervetri (lately discovered) and also that of the chamber and -passages of the pyramid of Cheops and of the treasury of Atreus at -Mycenae. - -The upper cone displays not only analogies with the monuments -mentioned in the note, but also with Etruscan tumuli, such as the -Cocumella tomb at Vulci, and the Regulini Galeassi tomb_[Footnote 1: -_See_ FERSGUSON, _Handbook of Architecture, I,_ 291.]. _The whole -scheme is one of the most magnificent in the history of -Architecture. - -It would be difficult to decide as to whether any monument he had -seen suggested this idea to Leonardo, but it is worth while to -enquire, if any monument, or group of monuments of an earlier date -may be supposed to have done so._[Footnote 2: _There are, in -Algiers, two Monuments, commonly called_ "Le Madracen" _and_ "Le -tombeau de la Chretienne," _which somewhat resemble Leonardo's -design. They are known to have served as the Mausolea of the Kings -of Mauritania. Pomponius Mela, the geographer of the time of the -Emperor Claudius, describes them as having been_ "Monumentum commune -regiae gentis." _See_ Le Madracen, Rapport fait par M. le Grand -Rabbin AB. CAHEN, Constantine 1873--Memoire sur les fouilles -executees au Madras'en .. par le Colonel BRUNON, Constantine -l873.--Deux Mausolees Africains, le Madracen et le tombeau de la -Chretienne par M. J. DE LAURIERE, Tours l874.--Le tombeau de la -Chretienne, Mausolee des rois Mauritaniens par M. BERBRUGGER, Alger -1867.--_I am indebted to M. LE BLANC, of the Institut, and M. LUD, -LALANNE, Bibliothecaire of the Institut for having first pointed out -to me the resemblance between these monuments; while M. ANT. HERON -DE VlLLEFOSSE of the Louvre was kind enough to place the -abovementioned rare works at my disposal. Leonardo's observations on -the coast of Africa are given later in this work. The Herodium near -Bethlehem in Palestine_ (Jebel el Fureidis, _the Frank Mountain) -was, according to the latest researches, constructed on a very -similar plan. See_ Der Frankenberg, von Baurath C. SCHICK in -Jerusalem, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins, _Leipzag_ -1880, _Vol. III, pages_ 88-99 _and Plates IV and V._ J. P. R.] - -_E. Studies for the Central Tower, or Tiburio of Milan Cathedral. - -Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Fabbricceria del Duomo -had to settle on the choice of a model for the crowning and central -part of this vast building. We learn from a notice published by G. -L. Calvi [Footnote: G. L. CALVI, Notizie sulla vita e sulle opere -dei principali architetti scultori e pittori che fiorirono in -Milano, Part III, 20. See also: H. DE GEYMULLER, Les projets -primitifs etc. I, 37 and 116-119.--The Fabbricceria of the Duomo has -lately begun the publication of the archives, which may possibly -tell us more about the part taken by Leonardo, than has hitherto -been known.] that among the artists who presented models in the year -1488 were: Bramante, Pietro da Gorgonzola, Luca Paperio (Fancelli), -and Leonardo da Vinci.-- - -Several sketches by Leonardo refer to this important project: - -Pl. XCIX, No. 2 (MS. S. K. III, No. 36a) a small plan of the whole -edifice.--The projecting chapels in the middle of the transept are -wanting here. The nave appears to be shortened and seems to be -approached by an inner "vestibolo".-- - -Pl. C, No. 2 (Tr. 21). Plan of the octagon tower, giving the -disposition of the buttresses; starting from the eight pillars -adjoining the four principal piers and intended to support the eight -angles of the Tiburio. These buttresses correspond exactly with -those described by Bramante as existing in the model presented by -Omodeo. [Footnote: Bramante's opinion was first published by G. -MONGERl, Arch. stor. Lomb. V, fasc. 3 and afterwards by me in the -publication mentioned in the preceding note.] - -Pl. C, 3 (MS. Tr. 16). Two plans showing different arrangements of -the buttresses, which seem to be formed partly by the intersection -of a system of pointed arches such as that seen in ** - -Pl. C, No. 5 (MS. B, 27a) destined to give a broader base to the -drum. The text underneath is given under No. 788. - -MS. B, 3--three slight sketches of plans in connexion with the -preceding ones._ - -_Pl. XCIX, No.1 (MS. Tr. 15) contains several small sketches of -sections and exterior views of the Dome; some of them show -buttress-walls shaped as inverted arches. Respecting these Leonardo -notes:_ - -758. - -L'arco rivescio e migliore per fare spalla che l'ordinario, perche -il rovescio trova sotto se muro resistete alla sua debolezza, e -l'ordinario no trova nel suo debole se non aria - -The inverted arch is better for giving a shoulder than the ordinary -one, because the former finds below it a wall resisting its -weakness, whilst the latter finds in its weak part nothing but air. - -[Footnote: _Three slight sketches of sections on the same -leaf--above those reproduced here--are more closely connected with -the large drawing in the centre of Pl. C, No. 4 (M.S, Tr. 41) which -shows a section of a very elevated dome, with double vaults, -connected by ribs and buttresses ingeniously disposed, so as to -bring the weight of the lantern to bear on the base of the dome. - -A sketch underneath it shows a round pillar on which is indicated -which part of its summit is to bear the weight: "il pilastro sara -charicho in . a . b." (The column will bear the weight at a b.) -Another note is above on the right side:_ Larcho regiera tanto sotto -asse chome di sopra se _(The arch supports as much below it [i. e. a -hanging weight] as above it). - -Pl. C, No. 1 (C. A. 303a). Larger sketch of half section of the -Dome, with a very complicated system of arches, and a double vault. -Each stone is shaped so as to be knit or dovetailed to its -neighbours. Thus the inside of the Dome cannot be seen from below. - -MS. C. A. 303b. A repetition of the preceding sketch with very -slight modifications._] - -[Figs. 1. and Fig. 2. two sketeches of the dome] - -MS. Tr. 9 (see Fig. 1 and 2). Section of the Dome with reverted -buttresses between the windows, above which iron anchors or chains -seem to be intended. Below is the sketch of the outside._ - -_PI. XCIX, No. 3 (C. A., 262a) four sketches of the exterior of the -Dome. - -C. A. 12. Section, showing the points of rupture of a gothic vault, -in evident connection with the sketches described above. - -It deserves to be noticed how easily and apparently without effort, -Leonardo manages to combine gothic details and structure with the -more modern shape of the Dome. - -The following notes are on the same leaf,_ oni cosa poderosa, _and_ -oni cosa poderosa desidera de(scendere); _farther below, several -multiplications most likely intended to calculate the weight of some -parts of the Dome, thus 16 x 47 = 720; 720 x 800 = 176000, next to -which is written:_ peso del pilastro di 9 teste _(weight of the -pillar 9 diameters high). - -Below:_ 176000 x 8 = 1408000; _and below:_ - -Semjlio e se ce 80 (?) il peso del tiburio _(six millions six -hundred (?) 80 the weight of the Dome). - -Bossi hazarded the theory that Leonardo might have been the -architect who built the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, but there -is no evidence to support this, either in documents or in the -materials supplied by Leonardos manuscripts and drawings. The sketch -given at the side shows the arrangement of the second and third -socle on the apses of the choir of that church; and it is remarkable -that those sketches, in MS. S. K. M. II2, 2a and Ib, occur with the -passage given in Volume I as No. 665 and 666 referring to the -composition of the Last Supper in the Refectory of that church._] - -_F. The Project for lifting up the Battistero of Florence and -setting it on a basement._ - -_Among the very few details Vasari gives as to the architectural -studies of Leonardo, we read: "And among these models and designs -there was one by way of which he showed several times to many -ingenious citizens who then governed Florence, his readiness to lift -up without ruining it, the church of San Giovanni in Florence (the -Battistero, opposite the Duomo) in order to place under it the -missing basement with steps; he supported his assertions with -reasons so persuasive, that while he spoke the undertaking seemed -feasable, although every one of his hearers, when he had departed, -could see by himself the impossibility of so vast an undertaking."_ - -[Footnote: _This latter statement of Vasari's must be considered to -be exaggerated. I may refer here to some data given by_ LIBRI, -Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie (II, 216, 217): "On a -cru dans ces derniers temps faire un miracle en mecanique en -effectuant ce transport, et cependant des l'annee 1455, Gaspard Nadi -et Aristote de Fioravantio avaient transporte, a une distance -considerable, la tour de la Magione de Bologne, avec ses fondements, -qui avait presque quatre-vingts pieds de haut. Le continuateur de la -chronique de Pugliola dit que le trajet fut de 35 pieds et que -durant le transport auquel le chroniqueur affirme avoir assiste, il -arriva un accident grave qui fit pencher de trois pieds la tour -pendant qu'elle etait suspendue, mais que cet accident fut -promptement repare (Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital. Tom. XVIII, col. -717, 718). Alidosi a rapporte une note ou Nadi rend compte de ce -transport avec une rare simplicite. D'apres cette note, on voit que -les operations de ce genre n'etaient pas nouvelles. Celle-ci ne -couta que 150 livres (monnaie d'alors) y compris le cadeau que le -Legat fit aux deux mecaniciens. Dans la meme annee, Aristote -redressa le clocher de Cento, qui penchait de plus de cinq pieds -(Alidosi, instruttione p. 188-- Muratori, Scriptores rer. ital., -tom. XXIII, col. 888.--Bossii, chronica Mediol., 1492, in-fol. ad -ann. 1455). On ne concoit pas comment les historiens des beaux-arts -ont pu negliger de tels hommes." J. P. R.] - -_In the MS. C. A. fol. 293, there are two sketches which possibly -might have a bearing on this bold enterprise. We find there a plan -of a circular or polygonal edifice surrounded by semicircular arches -in an oblique position. These may be taken for the foundation of the -steps and of the new platform. In the perspective elevation the same -edifice, forming a polygon, is shown as lifted up and resting on a -circle of inverted arches which rest on an other circle of arches in -the ordinary position, but so placed that the inverted arches above -rest on the spandrels of the lower range._ - -_What seems to confirm the supposition that the lifting up of a -building is here in question, is the indication of engines for -winding up, such as jacks, and a rack and wheel. As the lifting -apparatus represented on this sheet does not seem particularly -applicable to an undertaking of such magnitude, we may consider it -to be a first sketch or scheme for the engines to be used._ - -_G. Description of an unknown Temple._ - -759. - -Twelve flights of steps led up to the great temple, which was eight -hundred braccia in circumference and built on an octagonal plan. At -the eight corners were eight large plinths, one braccia and a half -high, and three wide, and six long at the bottom, with an angle in -the middle; on these were eight great pillars, standing on the -plinths as a foundation, and twenty four braccia high. And on the -top of these were eight capitals three braccia long and six wide, -above which were the architrave frieze and cornice, four braccia and -a half high, and this was carried on in a straight line from one -pillar to the next and so, continuing for eight hundred braccia, -surrounded the whole temple, from pillar to pillar. To support this -entablature there were ten large columns of the same height as the -pillars, three braccia thick above their bases which were one -braccia and a half high. - -The ascent to this temple was by twelve flights of steps, and the -temple was on the twelfth, of an octagonal form, and at each angle -rose a large pillar; and between the pillars were placed ten columns -of the same height as the pillars, rising at once from the pavement -to a height of twenty eight braccia and a half; and at this height -the architrave, frieze and cornice were placed which surrounded the -temple having a length of eight hundred braccia. At the same height, -and within the temple at the same level, and all round the centre of -the temple at a distance of 24 braccia farther in, are pillars -corresponding to the eight pillars in the angles, and columns -corresponding to those placed in the outer spaces. These rise to the -same height as the former ones, and over these the continuous -architrave returns towards the outer row of pillars and columns. - -[Footnote: Either this description is incomplete, or, as seems to me -highly probable, it refers to some ruin. The enormous dimensions -forbid our supposing this to be any temple in Italy or Greece. Syria -was the native land of colossal octagonal buildings, in the early -centuries A. D. The Temple of Baalbek, and others are even larger -than that here described. J. P. R.] - -_V. Palace architecture. - -But a small number of Leonardo's drawings refer to the architecture -of palaces, and our knowledge is small as to what style Leonardo -might have adopted for such buildings. - -Pl. CII No. 1 (W. XVIII). A small portion of a facade of a palace -in two stories, somewhat resembling Alberti's Palazzo -Rucellai.--Compare with this Bramante's painted front of the Casa -Silvestri, and a painting by Montorfano in San Pietro in Gessate at -Milan, third chapel on the left hand side and also with Bramante's -palaces at Rome. The pilasters with arabesques, the rustica between -them, and the figures over the window may be painted or in -sgraffito. The original is drawn in red chalk. - -Pl. LXXXI No. 1 (MS. Tr. 42). Sketch of a palace with battlements -and decorations, most likely graffiti; the details remind us of -those in the Castello at Vigevano._ [Footnote 1: _Count GIULIO -PORRO, in his valuable contribution to the_ Archivio Storico -Lombardo, Anno VIII, Fasc. IV (31 Dec. 1881): Leonardo da Vinci, -Libro di Annotazioni e Memorie, _refers to this in the following -note:_ "Alla pag. 41 vi e uno schizzo di volta ed accanto scrisse: -'il pilastro sara charicho in su 6' e potrebbe darsi che si -riferisse alla cupola della chiesa delle Grazie tanto piu che a -pag. 42 vi e un disegno che rassomiglia assai al basamento che oggi -si vede nella parte esterna del coro di quella chiesa." _This may -however be doubted. The drawing, here referred to, on page 41 of the -same manuscript, is reproduced on Pl. C No. 4 and described on page -61 as being a study for the cupola of the Duomo of Milan._ J. P. R.] - -_MS. Mz. 0", contains a design for a palace or house with a loggia -in the middle of the first story, over which rises an attic with a -Pediment reproduced on page 67. The details drawn close by on the -left seem to indicate an arrangement of coupled columns against the -wall of a first story. - -Pl. LXXXV No. 14 (MS. S. K. M. Ill 79a) contains a very slight -sketch in red chalk, which most probably is intended to represent -the facade of a palace. Inside is the short note 7 he 7 (7 and 7)._ - -_MS. J2 8a (see pages 68 Fig. 1 and 2) contains a view of an unknown -palace. Its plan is indicated at the side._ - -_In MS. Br. M. 126a(see Fig. 3 on page 68) there is a sketch of a -house, on which Leonardo notes; casa con tre terrazi (house with -three terraces)._ - -_Pl. CX, No. 4 (MS. L. 36b) represents the front of a fortified -building drawn at Cesena in 1502 (see No. 1040)._ - -_Here we may also mention the singular building in the allegorical -composition represented on Pl. LVIII in Vol. I. In front of it -appears the head of a sphinx or of a dragon which seems to be -carrying the palace away._ - -_The following texts refer to the construction of palaces and other -buildings destined for private use:_ - -760. - -In the courtyard the walls must be half the height of its width, -that is if the court be 40 braccia, the house must be 20 high as -regards the walls of the said courtyard; and this courtyard must be -half as wide as the whole front. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CI, no. 1, and compare the dimensions here given, -with No. 748 lines 26-29; and the drawing belonging to it Pl. LXXXI, -no. 2.] - -On the dispositions of a stable. - -761. - -FOR MAKING A CLEAN STABLE. - -The manner in which one must arrange a stable. You must first divide -its width in 3 parts, its depth matters not; and let these 3 -divisions be equal and 6 braccia broad for each part and 10 high, -and the middle part shall be for the use of the stablemasters; the 2 -side ones for the horses, each of which must be 6 braccia in width -and 6 in length, and be half a braccio higher at the head than -behind. Let the manger be at 2 braccia from the ground, to the -bottom of the rack, 3 braccia, and the top of it 4 braccia. Now, in -order to attain to what I promise, that is to make this place, -contrary to the general custom, clean and neat: as to the upper part -of the stable, i. e. where the hay is, that part must have at its -outer end a window 6 braccia high and 6 broad, through which by -simple means the hay is brought up to the loft, as is shown by the -machine _E_; and let this be erected in a place 6 braccia wide, and -as long as the stable, as seen at _k p_. The other two parts, which -are on either side of this, are again divided; those nearest to the -hay-loft are 4 braccia, _p s_, and only for the use and circulation -of the servants belonging to the stable; the other two which reach -to the outer walls are 2 braccia, as seen at _s k_, and these are -made for the purpose of giving hay to the mangers, by means of -funnels, narrow at the top and wide over the manger, in order that -the hay should not choke them. They must be well plastered and clean -and are represented at 4 _f s_. As to the giving the horses water, -the troughs must be of stone and above them [cisterns of] water. The -mangers may be opened as boxes are uncovered by raising the lids. -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXVIII, No.1.] - -Decorations for feasts. - -762. - -THE WAY TO CONSTRUCT A FRAME-WORK FOR DECORATING BUILDINGS. - -The way in which the poles ought to be placed for tying bunches of -juniper on to them. These poles must lie close to the framework of -the vaulting and tie the bunches on with osier withes, so as to clip -them even afterwards with shears. - -Let the distance from one circle to another be half a braccia; and -the juniper [sprigs] must lie top downwards, beginning from below. - -Round this column tie four poles to which willows about as thick as -a finger must be nailed and then begin from the bottom and work -upwards with bunches of juniper sprigs, the tops downwards, that is -upside down. [Footnote: See Pl. CII, No. 3. The words here given as -the title line, lines 1--4, are the last in the original MS.--Lines -5--16 are written under fig. 4.] - -763. - -The water should be allowed to fall from the whole circle _a b_. -[Footnote: Other drawings of fountains are given on Pl. CI (W. XX); -the original is a pen and ink drawing on blue paper; on Pl. CIII -(MS. B.) and Pl. LXXXII.] - -_VI. Studies of architectural details._ - -_Several of Leonardo's drawings of architectural details prove that, -like other great masters of that period, he had devoted his -attention to the study of the proportion of such details. As every -organic being in nature has its law of construction and growth, -these masters endeavoured, each in his way, to discover and prove a -law of proportion in architecture. The following notes in Leonardo's -manuscripts refer to this subject._ - -_MS. S. K. M. Ill, 47b (see Fig. 1). A diagram, indicating the rules -as given by Vitruvius and by Leon Battista Alberti for the -proportions of the Attic base of a column._ - -_MS. S. K. M. Ill 55a (see Fig. 2). Diagram showing the same rules._ - -764. - -B toro superiore . . . . . toro superiore -2B nestroli . . . . . . astragali quadre -3B orbiculo . . . . . . . . troclea -4B nestroli . . . . . . astragali quadre -5B toro iferiore . . . . . . toro iferiore -6B latastro . . . . . . . . plintho - -[Footnote: No explanation can be offered of the meaning of the -letter B, which precedes each name. It may be meant for _basa_ -(base). Perhaps it refers to some author on architecture or an -architect (Bramante?) who employed the designations, thus marked for -the mouldings. 3. _troclea._ Philander: _Trochlea sive trochalia aut -rechanum._ 6. _Laterculus_ or _latastrum_ is the Latin name for -_Plinthus_ (pi lambda Xiv) but Vitruvius adopted this Greek name -and "latastro" seems to have been little in use. It is to be found -besides the text given above, as far as I am aware, only two -drawings of the Uffizi Collection, where in one instance, it -indicates the _abacus_ of a Doric capital.] - -765. - -STEPS OF URRBINO. - -The plinth must be as broad as the thickness of the wall against -which the plinth is built. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3. The hasty -sketch on the right hand side illustrates the unsatisfactory effect -produced when the plinth is narrower than the wall.] - -766. - -The ancient architects ...... beginning with the Egyptians (?) who, -as Diodorus Siculus writes, were the first to build and construct -large cities and castles, public and private buildings of fine form, -large and well proportioned ..... - -The column, which has its thickness at the third part .... The one -which would be thinnest in the middle, would break ...; the one -which is of equal thickness and of equal strength, is better for the -edifice. The second best as to the usefulness will be the one whose -greatest thickness is where it joins with the base. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CIII, No. 3, where the sketches belonging to -lines 10--16 are reproduced, but reversed. The sketch of columns, -here reproduced by a wood cut, stands in the original close to lines -5--8.] - -The capital must be formed in this way. Divide its thickness at the -top into 8; at the foot make it 5/7, and let it be 5/7 high and you -will have a square; afterwards divide the height into 8 parts as you -did for the column, and then take 1/8 for the echinus and another -eighth for the thickness of the abacus on the top of the capital. -The horns of the abacus of the capital have to project beyond the -greatest width of the bell 2/7, i. e. sevenths of the top of the -bell, so 1/7 falls to the projection of each horn. The truncated -part of the horns must be as broad as it is high. I leave the rest, -that is the ornaments, to the taste of the sculptors. But to return -to the columns and in order to prove the reason of their strength or -weakness according to their shape, I say that when the lines -starting from the summit of the column and ending at its base and -their direction and length ..., their distance apart or width may be -equal; I say that this column ... - -767. - -The cylinder of a body columnar in shape and its two opposite ends -are two circles enclosed between parallel lines, and through the -centre of the cylinder is a straight line, ending at the centre of -these circles, and called by the ancients the axis. - -[Footnote: Leonardo wrote these lines on the margin of a page of the -Trattato di Francesco di Giorgio, where there are several drawings -of columns, as well as a head drawn in profile inside an outline -sketch of a capital.] - -768. - -_a b_ is 1/3 of _n m_; _m o_ is 1/6 of _r o_. The ovolo projects 1/6 -of _r o_; _s_ 7 1/5 of _r o_, _a b_ is divided into 9 1/2; the -abacus is 3/9 the ovolo 4/9, the bead-moulding and the fillet 2/9 -and 1/2. - -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXV, No. 16. In the original the drawing and -writing are both in red chalk.] - -_Pl. LXXXV No. 6 (MS. Ash. II 6b) contains a small sketch of a -capital with the following note, written in three lines:_ I chorni -del capitelo deono essere la quarta parte d'uno quadro _(The horns -of a capital must measure the fourth part of a square)._ - -_MS. S. K. M. III 72b contains two sketches of ornamentations of -windows._ - -_In MS. C. A. 308a; 938a (see Pl. LXXXII No. 1) there are several -sketches of columns. One of the two columns on the right is similar -to those employed by Bramante at the Canonica di S. Ambrogio. The -same columns appear in the sketch underneath the plan of a castle. -There they appear coupled, and in two stories one above the other. -The archivolls which seem to spring out of the columns, are shaped -like twisted cords, meant perhaps to be twisted branches. The walls -between the columns seem to be formed out of blocks of wood, the -pedestals are ornamented with a reticulated pattern. From all this -we may suppose that Leonardo here had in mind either some festive -decoration, or perhaps a pavilion for some hunting place or park. -The sketch of columns marked "35" gives an example of columns shaped -like candelabra, a form often employed at that time, particularly in -Milan, and the surrounding districts for instance in the Cortile di -Casa Castiglione now Silvestre, in the cathedral of Como, at Porta -della Rana &c._ - -769. - -CONCERNING ARCHITRAVES OF ONE OR SEVERAL PIECES. - -An architrave of several pieces is stronger than that of one single -piece, if those pieces are placed with their length in the direction -of the centre of the world. This is proved because stones have their -grain or fibre generated in the contrary direction i. e. in the -direction of the opposite horizons of the hemisphere, and this is -contrary to fibres of the plants which have ... - -[Footnote: The text is incomplete in the original.] - -_The Proportions of the stories of a building are indicated by a -sketch in MS. S. K. M. II2 11b (see Pl. LXXXV No. 15). The measures -are written on the left side, as follows: br 1 1/2--6 3/4--br -1/12--2 br--9 e 1/2--1 1/2--br 5--o 9--o 3 [br=braccia; o=oncie]. - -Pl. LXXXV No. 13 (MS. B. 62a) and Pl. XCIII No. 1. (MS. B. 15a) give -a few examples of arches supported on piers._ - -_XIII. - -Theoretical writings on Architecture. - -Leonardo's original writings on the theory of Architecture have come -down to us only in a fragmentary state; still, there seems to be no -doubt that he himself did not complete them. It would seem that -Leonardo entertained the idea of writing a large and connected book -on Architecture; and it is quite evident that the materials we -possess, which can be proved to have been written at different -periods, were noted down with a more or less definite aim and -purpose. They might all be collected under the one title: "Studies -on the Strength of Materials". Among them the investigations on the -subject of fissures in walls are particularly thorough, and very -fully reported; these passages are also especially interesting, -because Leonardo was certainly the first writer on architecture who -ever treated the subject at all. Here, as in all other cases -Leonardo carefully avoids all abstract argument. His data are not -derived from the principles of algebra, but from the laws of -mechanics, and his method throughout is strictly experimental. - -Though the conclusions drawn from his investigations may not have -that precision which we are accustomed to find in Leonardo's -scientific labours, their interest is not lessened. They prove at -any rate his deep sagacity and wonderfully clear mind. No one -perhaps, who has studied these questions since Leonardo, has -combined with a scientific mind anything like the artistic delicacy -of perception which gives interest and lucidity to his observations. - -I do not assert that the arrangement here adopted for the passages -in question is that originally intended by Leonardo; but their -distribution into five groups was suggested by the titles, or -headings, which Leonardo himself prefixed to most of these notes. -Some of the longer sections perhaps should not, to be in strict -agreement with this division, have been reproduced in their entirety -in the place where they occur. But the comparatively small amount of -the materials we possess will render them, even so, sufficiently -intelligible to the reader; it did not therefore seem necessary or -desirable to subdivide the passages merely for the sake of strict -classification._ - -_The small number of chapters given under the fifth class, treating -on the centre of gravity in roof-beams, bears no proportion to the -number of drawings and studies which refer to the same subject. Only -a small selection of these are reproduced in this work since the -majority have no explanatory text._ - -I. - -ON FISSURES IN WALLS. - -770. - -First write the treatise on the causes of the giving way of walls -and then, separately, treat of the remedies. - -Parallel fissures constantly occur in buildings which are erected on -a hill side, when the hill is composed of stratified rocks with an -oblique stratification, because water and other moisture often -penetrates these oblique seams carrying in greasy and slippery soil; -and as the strata are not continuous down to the bottom of the -valley, the rocks slide in the direction of the slope, and the -motion does not cease till they have reached the bottom of the -valley, carrying with them, as though in a boat, that portion of the -building which is separated by them from the rest. The remedy for -this is always to build thick piers under the wall which is -slipping, with arches from one to another, and with a good scarp and -let the piers have a firm foundation in the strata so that they may -not break away from them. - -In order to find the solid part of these strata, it is necessary to -make a shaft at the foot of the wall of great depth through the -strata; and in this shaft, on the side from which the hill slopes, -smooth and flatten a space one palm wide from the top to the bottom; -and after some time this smooth portion made on the side of the -shaft, will show plainly which part of the hill is moving. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CIV.] - -771. - -The cracks in walls will never be parallel unless the part of the -wall that separates from the remainder does not slip down. - -WHAT IS THE LAW BY WHICH BUILDINGS HAVE STABILITY. - -The stability of buildings is the result of the contrary law to the -two former cases. That is to say that the walls must be all built up -equally, and by degrees, to equal heights all round the building, -and the whole thickness at once, whatever kind of walls they may be. -And although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one it will -not necessarily give way under the added weight day by day and thus, -[16] although a thin wall dries more quickly than a thick one, it -will not give way under the weight which the latter may acquire from -day to day. Because if double the amount of it dries in one day, one -of double the thickness will dry in two days or thereabouts; thus -the small addition of weight will be balanced by the smaller -difference of time [18]. - -The adversary says that _a_ which projects, slips down. - -And here the adversary says that _r_ slips and not _c_. - -HOW TO PROGNOSTICATE THE CAUSES OF CRACKS IN ANY SORT OF WALL. - -The part of the wall which does not slip is that in which the -obliquity projects and overhangs the portion which has parted from -it and slipped down. - -ON THE SITUATION OF FOUNDATIONS AND IN WHAT PLACES THEY ARE A CAUSE -OF RUIN. - -When the crevice in the wall is wider at the top than at the bottom, -it is a manifest sign, that the cause of the fissure in the wall is -remote from the perpendicular line through the crevice. - -[Footnote: Lines 1-5 refer to Pl. CV, No. 2. Line 9 _alle due -anteciedete_, see on the same page. - -Lines 16-18. The translation of this is doubtful, and the meaning in -any case very obscure. - -Lines 19-23 are on the right hand margin close to the two sketches -on Pl. CII, No. 3.] - -772. - -OF CRACKS IN WALLS, WHICH ARE WIDE AT THE BOTTOM AND NARROW AT THE -TOP AND OF THEIR CAUSES. - -That wall which does not dry uniformly in an equal time, always -cracks. - -A wall though of equal thickness will not dry with equal quickness -if it is not everywhere in contact with the same medium. Thus, if -one side of a wall were in contact with a damp slope and the other -were in contact with the air, then this latter side would remain of -the same size as before; that side which dries in the air will -shrink or diminish and the side which is kept damp will not dry. And -the dry portion will break away readily from the damp portion -because the damp part not shrinking in the same proportion does not -cohere and follow the movement of the part which dries continuously. - -OF ARCHED CRACKS, WIDE AT THE TOP, AND NARROW BELOW. - -Arched cracks, wide at the top and narrow below are found in -walled-up doors, which shrink more in their height than in their -breadth, and in proportion as their height is greater than their -width, and as the joints of the mortar are more numerous in the -height than in the width. - -The crack diminishes less in _r o_ than in _m n_, in proportion as -there is less material between _r_ and _o_ than between _n_ and _m_. - -Any crack made in a concave wall is wide below and narrow at the -top; and this originates, as is here shown at _b c d_, in the side -figure. - -1. That which gets wet increases in proportion to the moisture it -imbibes. - -2. And a wet object shrinks, while drying, in proportion to the -amount of moisture which evaporates from it. - -[Footnote: The text of this passage is reproduced in facsimile on -Pl. CVI to the left. L. 36-40 are written inside the sketch No. 2. -L. 41-46 are partly written over the sketch No. 3 to which they -refer.] - -773. - -OF THE CAUSES OF FISSURES IN [THE WALLS OF] PUBLIC AND PRIVATE -BUILDINGS. - -The walls give way in cracks, some of which are more or less -vertical and others are oblique. The cracks which are in a vertical -direction are caused by the joining of new walls, with old walls, -whether straight or with indentations fitting on to those of the old -wall; for, as these indentations cannot bear the too great weight of -the wall added on to them, it is inevitable that they should break, -and give way to the settling of the new wall, which will shrink one -braccia in every ten, more or less, according to the greater or -smaller quantity of mortar used between the stones of the masonry, -and whether this mortar is more or less liquid. And observe, that -the walls should always be built first and then faced with the -stones intended to face them. For, if you do not proceed thus, since -the wall settles more than the stone facing, the projections left on -the sides of the wall must inevitably give way; because the stones -used for facing the wall being larger than those over which they are -laid, they will necessarily have less mortar laid between the -joints, and consequently they settle less; and this cannot happen if -the facing is added after the wall is dry. - -_a b_ the new wall, _c_ the old wall, which has already settled; and -the part _a b_ settles afterwards, although _a_, being founded on -_c_, the old wall, cannot possibly break, having a stable foundation -on the old wall. But only the remainder _b_ of the new wall will -break away, because it is built from top to bottom of the building; -and the remainder of the new wall will overhang the gap above the -wall that has sunk. - -774. - -A new tower founded partly on old masonry. - -775. - -OF STONES WHICH DISJOIN THEMSELVES FROM THEIR MORTAR. - -Stones laid in regular courses from bottom to top and built up with -an equal quantity of mortar settle equally throughout, when the -moisture that made the mortar soft evaporates. - -By what is said above it is proved that the small extent of the new -wall between _A_ and _n_ will settle but little, in proportion to -the extent of the same wall between _c_ and _d_. The proportion will -in fact be that of the thinness of the mortar in relation to the -number of courses or to the quantity of mortar laid between the -stones above the different levels of the old wall. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CV, No. 1. The top of the tower is wanting in -this reproduction, and with it the letter _n_ which, in the -original, stands above the letter _A_ over the top of the tower, -while _c_ stands perpendicularly over _d_.] - -776. - -This wall will break under the arch _e f_, because the seven whole -square bricks are not sufficient to sustain the spring of the arch -placed on them. And these seven bricks will give way in their middle -exactly as appears in _a b_. The reason is, that the brick _a_ has -above it only the weight _a k_, whilst the last brick under the arch -has above it the weight _c d x a_. - -_c d_ seems to press on the arch towards the abutment at the point -_p_ but the weight _p o_ opposes resistence to it, whence the whole -pressure is transmitted to the root of the arch. Therefore the foot -of the arch acts like 7 6, which is more than double of _x z_. - -II. - -ON FISSURES IN NICHES. - -777. - -ON FISSURES IN NICHES. - -An arch constructed on a semicircle and bearing weights on the two -opposite thirds of its curve will give way at five points of the -curve. To prove this let the weights be at _n m_ which will break -the arch _a_, _b_, _f_. I say that, by the foregoing, as the -extremities _c_ and _a_ are equally pressed upon by the thrust _n_, -it follows, by the 5th, that the arch will give way at the point -which is furthest from the two forces acting on them and that is the -middle _e_. The same is to be understood of the opposite curve, _d g -b_; hence the weights _n m_ must sink, but they cannot sink by the -7th, without coming closer together, and they cannot come together -unless the extremities of the arch between them come closer, and if -these draw together the crown of the arch must break; and thus the -arch will give way in two places as was at first said &c. - -I ask, given a weight at _a_ what counteracts it in the direction -_n_ _f_ and by what weight must the weight at _f_ be counteracted. - -778. - -ON THE SHRINKING OF DAMP BODIES OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS AND WIDTH. - -The window _a_ is the cause of the crack at _b_; and this crack is -increased by the pressure of _n_ and _m_ which sink or penetrate -into the soil in which foundations are built more than the lighter -portion at _b_. Besides, the old foundation under _b_ has already -settled, and this the piers _n_ and _m_ have not yet done. Hence the -part _b_ does not settle down perpendicularly; on the contrary, it -is thrown outwards obliquely, and it cannot on the contrary be -thrown inwards, because a portion like this, separated from the main -wall, is larger outside than inside and the main wall, where it is -broken, is of the same shape and is also larger outside than inside; -therefore, if this separate portion were to fall inwards the larger -would have to pass through the smaller--which is impossible. Hence -it is evident that the portion of the semicircular wall when -disunited from the main wall will be thrust outwards, and not -inwards as the adversary says. - -When a dome or a half-dome is crushed from above by an excess of -weight the vault will give way, forming a crack which diminishes -towards the top and is wide below, narrow on the inner side and wide -outside; as is the case with the outer husk of a pomegranate, -divided into many parts lengthwise; for the more it is pressed in -the direction of its length, that part of the joints will open most, -which is most distant from the cause of the pressure; and for that -reason the arches of the vaults of any apse should never be more -loaded than the arches of the principal building. Because that which -weighs most, presses most on the parts below, and they sink into the -foundations; but this cannot happen to lighter structures like the -said apses. - -[Footnote: The figure on Pl. CV, No. 4 belongs to the first -paragraph of this passage, lines 1-14; fig. 5 is sketched by the -side of lines l5--and following. The sketch below of a pomegranate -refers to line 22. The drawing fig. 6 is, in the original, over line -37 and fig. 7 over line 54.] - -Which of these two cubes will shrink the more uniformly: the cube -_A_ resting on the pavement, or the cube _b_ suspended in the air, -when both cubes are equal in weight and bulk, and of clay mixed with -equal quantities of water? - -The cube placed on the pavement diminishes more in height than in -breadth, which the cube above, hanging in the air, cannot do. Thus -it is proved. The cube shown above is better shown here below. - -The final result of the two cylinders of damp clay that is _a_ and -_b_ will be the pyramidal figures below _c_ and _d_. This is proved -thus: The cylinder _a_ resting on block of stone being made of clay -mixed with a great deal of water will sink by its weight, which -presses on its base, and in proportion as it settles and spreads all -the parts will be somewhat nearer to the base because that is -charged with the whole weight. - -III. - -ON THE NATURE OF THE ARCH. - -779. - -WHAT IS AN ARCH? - -The arch is nothing else than a force originated by two weaknesses, -for the arch in buildings is composed of two segments of a circle, -each of which being very weak in itself tends to fall; but as each -opposes this tendency in the other, the two weaknesses combine to -form one strength. - -OF THE KIND OF PRESSURE IN ARCHES. - -As the arch is a composite force it remains in equilibrium because -the thrust is equal from both sides; and if one of the segments -weighs more than the other the stability is lost, because the -greater pressure will outweigh the lesser. - -OF DISTRIBUTING THE PRESSURE ABOVE AN ARCH. - -Next to giving the segments of the circle equal weight it is -necessary to load them equally, or you will fall into the same -defect as before. - -WHERE AN ARCH BREAKS. - -An arch breaks at the part which lies below half way from the -centre. - -SECOND RUPTURE OF THE ARCH. - -If the excess of weight be placed in the middle of the arch at the -point _a_, that weight tends to fall towards _b_, and the arch -breaks at 2/3 of its height at _c e_; and _g e_ is as many times -stronger than _e a_, as _m o_ goes into _m n_. - -ON ANOTHER CAUSE OF RUIN. - -The arch will likewise give way under a transversal thrust, for when -the charge is not thrown directly on the foot of the arch, the arch -lasts but a short time. - -780. - -ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH. - -The way to give stability to the arch is to fill the spandrils with -good masonry up to the level of its summit. - -ON THE LOADING OF ROUND ARCHES. - -ON THE PROPER MANNER OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH. - -ON THE EVIL EFFECTS OF LOADING THE POINTED ARCH DIRECTLY ABOVE ITS -CROWN. - -ON THE DAMAGE DONE TO THE POINTED ARCH BY THROWING THE PRESSURE ON -THE FLANKS. - -An arch of small curve is safe in itself, but if it be heavily -charged, it is necessary to strengthen the flanks well. An arch of a -very large curve is weak in itself, and stronger if it be charged, -and will do little harm to its abutments, and its places of giving -way are _o p_. - -[Footnote: Inside the large figure on the righi is the note: _Da -pesare la forza dell' archo_.] - -781. - -ON THE REMEDY FOR EARTHQUAKES. - -The arch which throws its pressure perpendicularly on the abutments -will fulfil its function whatever be its direction, upside down, -sideways or upright. - -The arch will not break if the chord of the outer arch does not -touch the inner arch. This is manifest by experience, because -whenever the chord _a o n_ of the outer arch _n r a_ approaches the -inner arch _x b y_ the arch will be weak, and it will be weaker in -proportion as the inner arch passes beyond that chord. When an arch -is loaded only on one side the thrust will press on the top of the -other side and be transmitted to the spring of the arch on that -side; and it will break at a point half way between its two -extremes, where it is farthest from the chord. - -782. - -A continuous body which has been forcibly bent into an arch, thrusts -in the direction of the straight line, which it tends to recover. - -783. - -In an arch judiciously weighted the thrust is oblique, so that the -triangle _c n b_ has no weight upon it. - -784. - -I here ask what weight will be needed to counterpoise and resist the -tendency of each of these arches to give way? - -[Footnote: The two lower sketches are taken from the MS. S. K. M. -III, 10a; they have there no explanatory text.] - -785. - -ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ARCH IN ARCHITECTURE. - -The stability of the arch built by an architect resides in the tie -and in the flanks. - -ON THE POSITION OF THE TIE IN THE ABOVE NAMED ARCH. - -The position of the tie is of the same importance at the beginning -of the arch and at the top of the perpendicular pier on which it -rests. This is proved by the 2nd "of supports" which says: that part -of a support has least resistance which is farthest from its solid -attachment; hence, as the top of the pier is farthest from the -middle of its true foundation and the same being the case at the -opposite extremities of the arch which are the points farthest from -the middle, which is really its [upper] attachment, we have -concluded that the tie _a b_ requires to be in such a position as -that its opposite ends are between the four above-mentioned -extremes. - -The adversary says that this arch must be more than half a circle, -and that then it will not need a tie, because then the ends will not -thrust outwards but inwards, as is seen in the excess at _a c_, _b -d_. To this it must be answered that this would be a very poor -device, for three reasons. The first refers to the strength of the -arch, since it is proved that the circular parallel being composed -of two semicircles will only break where these semicircles cross -each other, as is seen in the figure _n m;_ besides this it follows -that there is a wider space between the extremes of the semicircle -than between the plane of the walls; the third reason is that the -weight placed to counterbalance the strength of the arch diminishes -in proportion as the piers of the arch are wider than the space -between the piers. Fourthly in proportion as the parts at _c a b d_ -turn outwards, the piers are weaker to support the arch above them. -The 5th is that all the material and weight of the arch which are in -excess of the semicircle are useless and indeed mischievous; and -here it is to be noted that the weight placed above the arch will be -more likely to break the arch at _a b_, where the curve of the -excess begins that is added to the semicircle, than if the pier were -straight up to its junction with the semicircle [spring of the -arch]. - -AN ARCH LOADED OVER THE CROWN WILL GIVE WAY AT THE LEFT HAND AND -RIGHT HAND QUARTERS. - -This is proved by the 7th of this which says: The opposite ends of -the support are equally pressed upon by the weight suspended to -them; hence the weight shown at _f_ is felt at _b c_, that is half -at each extremity; and by the third which says: in a support of -equal strength [throughout] that portion will give way soonest which -is farthest from its attachment; whence it follows that _d_ being -equally distant from _f, e_ ..... - -If the centering of the arch does not settle as the arch settles, -the mortar, as it dries, will shrink and detach itself from the -bricks between which it was laid to keep them together; and as it -thus leaves them disjoined the vault will remain loosely built, and -the rains will soon destroy it. - -786. - -ON THE STRENGTH AND NATURE OF ARCHES, AND WHERE THEY ARE STRONG OR -WEAK; AND THE SAME AS TO COLUMNS. - -That part of the arch which is nearer to the horizontal offers least -resistance to the weight placed on it. - -When the triangle _a z n_, by settling, drives backwards the 2/3 of -each 1/2 circle that is _a s_ and in the same way _z m_, the reason -is that _a_ is perpendicularly over _b_ and so likewise _z_ is above -_f_. - -Either half of an arch, if overweighted, will break at 2/3 of its -height, the point which corresponds to the perpendicular line above -the middle of its bases, as is seen at _a b_; and this happens -because the weight tends to fall past the point _r_.--And if, -against its nature it should tend to fall towards the point _s_ the -arch _n s_ would break precisely in its middle. If the arch _n s_ -were of a single piece of timber, if the weight placed at _n_ should -tend to fall in the line _n m_, the arch would break in the middle -of the arch _e m_, otherwise it will break at one third from the top -at the point a because from _a_ to _n_ the arch is nearer to the -horizontal than from _a_ to _o_ and from _o_ to _s_, in proportion -as _p t_ is greater than _t n_, _a o_ will be stronger than _a n_ -and likewise in proportion as _s o_ is stronger than _o a_, _r p_ -will be greater than _p t_. - -The arch which is doubled to four times of its thickness will bear -four times the weight that the single arch could carry, and more in -proportion as the diameter of its thickness goes a smaller number of -times into its length. That is to say that if the thickness of the -single arch goes ten times into its length, the thickness of the -doubled arch will go five times into its length. Hence as the -thickness of the double arch goes only half as many times into its -length as that of the single arch does, it is reasonable that it -should carry half as much more weight as it would have to carry if -it were in direct proportion to the single arch. Hence as this -double arch has 4 times the thickness of the single arch, it would -seem that it ought to bear 4 times the weight; but by the above rule -it is shown that it will bear exactly 8 times as much. - -THAT PIER, WHICH is CHARGED MOST UNEQUALLY, WILL SOONEST GIVE WAY. - -The column _c b_, being charged with an equal weight, [on each side] -will be most durable, and the other two outward columns require on -the part outside of their centre as much pressure as there is inside -of their centre, that is, from the centre of the column, towards the -middle of the arch. - -Arches which depend on chains for their support will not be very -durable. - -THAT ARCH WILL BE OF LONGER DURATION WHICH HAS A GOOD ABUTMENT -OPPOSED TO ITS THRUST. - -The arch itself tends to fall. If the arch be 30 braccia and the -interval between the walls which carry it be 20, we know that 30 -cannot pass through the 20 unless 20 becomes likewise 30. Hence the -arch being crushed by the excess of weight, and the walls offering -insufficient resistance, part, and afford room between them, for the -fall of the arch. - -But if you do not wish to strengthen the arch with an iron tie you -must give it such abutments as can resist the thrust; and you can do -this thus: fill up the spandrels _m n_ with stones, and direct the -lines of the joints between them to the centre of the circle of the -arch, and the reason why this makes the arch durable is this. We -know very well that if the arch is loaded with an excess of weight -above its quarter as _a b_, the wall _f g_ will be thrust outwards -because the arch would yield in that direction; if the other quarter -_b c_ were loaded, the wall _f g_ would be thrust inwards, if it -were not for the line of stones _x y_ which resists this. - -787. - -PLAN. - -Here it is shown how the arches made in the side of the octagon -thrust the piers of the angles outwards, as is shown by the line _h -c_ and by the line _t d_ which thrust out the pier _m_; that is they -tend to force it away from the centre of such an octagon. - -788. - -An Experiment to show that a weight placed on an arch does not -discharge itself entirely on its columns; on the contrary the -greater the weight placed on the arches, the less the arch transmits -the weight to the columns. The experiment is the following. Let a -man be placed on a steel yard in the middle of the shaft of a well, -then let him spread out his hands and feet between the walls of the -well, and you will see him weigh much less on the steel yard; give -him a weight on the shoulders, you will see by experiment, that the -greater the weight you give him the greater effort he will make in -spreading his arms and legs, and in pressing against the wall and -the less weight will be thrown on the steel yard. - -IV. - -ON FOUNDATIONS, THE NATURE OF THE GROUND AND SUPPORTS. - -789. - -The first and most important thing is stability. - -As to the foundations of the component parts of temples and other -public buildings, the depths of the foundations must bear the same -proportions to each other as the weight of material which is to be -placed upon them. - -Every part of the depth of earth in a given space is composed of -layers, and each layer is composed of heavier or lighter materials, -the lowest being the heaviest. And this can be proved, because these -layers have been formed by the sediment from water carried down to -the sea, by the current of rivers which flow into it. The heaviest -part of this sediment was that which was first thrown down, and so -on by degrees; and this is the action of water when it becomes -stagnant, having first brought down the mud whence it first flowed. -And such layers of soil are seen in the banks of rivers, where their -constant flow has cut through them and divided one slope from the -other to a great depth; where in gravelly strata the waters have run -off, the materials have, in consequence, dried and been converted -into hard stone, and this happened most in what was the finest mud; -whence we conclude that every portion of the surface of the earth -was once at the centre of the earth, and _vice_versa_ &c. - -790. - -The heaviest part of the foundations of buildings settles most, and -leaves the lighter part above it separated from it. - -And the soil which is most pressed, if it be porous yields most. - -You should always make the foundations project equally beyond the -weight of the walls and piers, as shown at _m a b_. If you do as -many do, that is to say if you make a foundation of equal width from -the bottom up to the surface of the ground, and charge it above with -unequal weights, as shown at _b e_ and at _e o_, at the part of the -foundation at _b e_, the pier of the angle will weigh most and -thrust its foundation downwards, which the wall at _e o_ will not -do; since it does not cover the whole of its foundation, and -therefore thrusts less heavily and settles less. Hence, the pier _b -e_ in settling cracks and parts from the wall _e o_. This may be -seen in most buildings which are cracked round the piers. - -791. - -The window _a_ is well placed under the window _c_, and the window -_b_ is badly placed under the pier _d_, because this latter is -without support and foundation; mind therefore never to make a break -under the piers between the windows. - -792. - -OF THE SUPPORTS. - -A pillar of which the thickness is increased will gain more than its -due strength, in direct proportion to what its loses in relative -height. - -EXAMPLE. - -If a pillar should be nine times as high as it is broad--that is to -say, if it is one braccio thick, according to rule it should be nine -braccia high--then, if you place 100 such pillars together in a mass -this will be ten braccia broad and 9 high; and if the first pillar -could carry 10000 pounds the second being only about as high as it -is wide, and thus lacking 8 parts of its proper length, it, that is -to say, each pillar thus united, will bear eight times more than -when disconnected; that is to say, that if at first it would carry -ten thousand pounds, it would now carry 90 thousand. - -V. - -ON THE RESISTANCE OF BEAMS. - -793. - -That angle will offer the greatest resistance which is most acute, -and the most obtuse will be the weakest. - -[Footnote: The three smaller sketches accompany the text in the -original, but the larger one is not directly connected with it. It -is to be found on fol. 89a of the same Manuscript and there we read -in a note, written underneath, _coverchio della perdicha del -castello_ (roof of the flagstaff of the castle),--Compare also Pl. -XCIII, No. 1.] - -794. - -If the beams and the weight _o_ are 100 pounds, how much weight will -be wanted at _ae_ to resist such a weight, that it may not fall -down? - -795. - -ON THE LENGTH OF BEAMS. - -That beam which is more than 20 times as long as its greatest -thickness will be of brief duration and will break in half; and -remember, that the part built into the wall should be steeped in hot -pitch and filleted with oak boards likewise so steeped. Each beam -must pass through its walls and be secured beyond the walls with -sufficient chaining, because in consequence of earthquakes the beams -are often seen to come out of the walls and bring down the walls and -floors; whilst if they are chained they will hold the walls strongly -together and the walls will hold the floors. Again I remind you -never to put plaster over timber. Since by expansion and shrinking -of the timber produced by damp and dryness such floors often crack, -and once cracked their divisions gradually produce dust and an ugly -effect. Again remember not to lay a floor on beams supported on -arches; for, in time the floor which is made on beams settles -somewhat in the middle while that part of the floor which rests on -the arches remains in its place; hence, floors laid over two kinds -of supports look, in time, as if they were made in hills [Footnote: -19 M. RAVAISSON, in his edition of MS. A gives a very different -rendering of this passage translating it thus: _Les planchers qui -sont soutenus par deux differentes natures de supports paraissent -avec le temps faits en voute a cholli_.] - -Remarks on the style of Leonardo's architecture. - -A few remarks may here be added on the style of Leonardo's -architectural studies. However incomplete, however small in scale, -they allow us to establish a certain number of facts and -probabilities, well worthy of consideration. - -When Leonardo began his studies the great name of Brunellesco was -still the inspiration of all Florence, and we cannot doubt that -Leonardo was open to it, since we find among his sketches the plan -of the church of Santo Spirito[Footnote 1: See Pl. XCIV, No. 2. Then -only in course of erection after the designs of Brunellesco, though -he was already dead; finished in 1481.] and a lateral view of San -Lorenzo (Pl. XCIV No. 1), a plan almost identical with the chapel -Degli Angeli, only begun by him (Pl. XCIV, No. 3) while among -Leonardo's designs for domes several clearly betray the influence of -Brunellesco's Cupola and the lantern of Santa Maria del -Fiore[Footnote 2: A small sketch of the tower of the Palazzo della -Signoria (MS. C.A. 309) proves that he also studied mediaeval -monuments.] - -The beginning of the second period of modern Italian architecture -falls during the first twenty years of Leonardo's life. However the -new impetus given by Leon Battista Alberti either was not generally -understood by his contemporaries, or those who appreciated it, had -no opportunity of showing that they did so. It was only when taken -up by Bramante and developed by him to the highest rank of modern -architecture that this new influence was generally felt. Now the -peculiar feature of Leonardo's sketches is that, like the works of -Bramante, they appear to be the development and continuation of -Alberti's. - -_But a question here occurs which is difficult to answer. Did -Leonardo, till he quitted Florence, follow the direction given by -the dominant school of Brunellesco, which would then have given rise -to his "First manner", or had he, even before he left Florence, felt -Alberti's influence--either through his works (Palazzo Ruccellai, -and the front of Santa Maria Novella) or through personal -intercourse? Or was it not till he went to Milan that Alberti's work -began to impress him through Bramante, who probably had known -Alberti at Mantua about 1470 and who not only carried out Alberti's -views and ideas, but, by his designs for St. Peter's at Rome, proved -himself the greatest of modern architects. When Leonardo went to -Milan Bramante had already been living there for many years. One of -his earliest works in Milan was the church of Santa Maria presso San -Satiro, Via del Falcone[Footnote 1: Evidence of this I intend to -give later on in a Life of Bramante, which I have in preparation.]. - -Now we find among Leonardos studies of Cupolas on Plates LXXXIV and -LXXXV and in Pl. LXXX several sketches which seem to me to have been -suggested by Bramante's dome of this church. - -The MSS. B and Ash. II contain the plans of S. Sepolcro, the -pavilion in the garden of the duke of Milan, and two churches, -evidently inspired by the church of San Lorenzo at Milan. - -MS. B. contains besides two notes relating to Pavia, one of them a -design for the sacristy of the Cathedral at Pavia, which cannot be -supposed to be dated later than 1492, and it has probably some -relation to Leonardo's call to Pavia June 21, 1490[Footnote 2: The -sketch of the plan of Brunellesco's church of Santo Spirito at -Florence, which occurs in the same Manuscript, may have been done -from memory.]. These and other considerations justify us in -concluding, that Leonardo made his studies of cupolas at Milan, -probably between the years 1487 and 1492 in anticipation of the -erection of one of the grandest churches of Italy, the Cathedral of -Pavia. This may explain the decidedly Lombardo-Bramantesque tendency -in the style of these studies, among which only a few remind us of -the forms of the cupolas of S. Maria del Fiore and of the Baptistery -of Florence. Thus, although when compared with Bramante's work, -several of these sketches plainly reveal that master's influence, we -find, among the sketches of domes, some, which show already -Bramante's classic style, of which the Tempietto of San Pietro in -Montorio, his first building executed at Rome, is the foremost -example[Footnote 3: It may be mentioned here, that in 1494 Bramante -made a similar design for the lantern of the Cupola of the Church of -Santa Maria delle Grazie.]. - -On Plate LXXXIV is a sketch of the plan of a similar circular -building; and the Mausoleum on Pl. XCVIII, no less than one of the -pedestals for the statue of Francesco Sforza (Pl. LXV), is of the -same type. - -The drawings Pl. LXXXIV No. 2, Pl. LXXXVI No. 1 and 2 and the ground -flour ("flour" sic but should be "floor" ?) of the building in the -drawing Pl. XCI No. 2, with the interesting decoration by gigantic -statues in large niches, are also, I believe, more in the style -Bramante adopted at Rome, than in the Lombard style. Are we to -conclude from this that Leonardo on his part influenced Bramante in -the sense of simplifying his style and rendering it more congenial -to antique art? The answer to this important question seems at first -difficult to give, for we are here in presence of Bramante, the -greatest of modern architects, and with Leonardo, the man comparable -with no other. We have no knowledge of any buildings erected by -Leonardo, and unless we admit personal intercourse--which seems -probable, but of which there is no proof--, it would be difficult to -understand how Leonardo could have affected Bramante's style. The -converse is more easily to be admitted, since Bramante, as we have -proved elsewhere, drew and built simultaneously in different -manners, and though in Lombardy there is no building by him in his -classic style, the use of brick for building, in that part of Italy, -may easily account for it._ - -_Bramante's name is incidentally mentioned in Leonardo's manuscripts -in two passages (Nos. 1414 and 1448). On each occasion it is only a -slight passing allusion, and the nature of the context gives us no -due information as to any close connection between the two artists._ - -_It might be supposed, on the ground of Leonardo's relations with -the East given in sections XVII and XXI of this volume, that some -evidence of oriental influence might be detected in his -architectural drawings. I do not however think that any such traces -can be pointed out with certainty unless perhaps the drawing for a -Mausoleum, Pl. XC VIII._ - -_Among several studies for the construction of cupolas above a Greek -cross there are some in which the forms are decidedly monotonous. -These, it is clear, were not designed as models of taste; they must -be regarded as the results of certain investigations into the laws -of proportion, harmony and contrast._ - -_The designs for churches, on the plan of a Latin cross are -evidently intended to depart as little as possible from the form of -a Greek cross; and they also show a preference for a nave surrounded -with outer porticos._ - -_The architectural forms preferred by Leonardo are pilasters coupled -(Pl. LXXXII No. 1; or grouped (Pl. LXXX No. 5 and XCIV No. 4), often -combined with niches. We often meet with orders superposed, one in -each story, or two small orders on one story, in combination with -one great order (Pl. XCVI No. 2)._ - -The drum (tamburo) of these cupolas is generally octagonal, as in -the cathedral of Florence, and with similar round windows in its -sides. In Pl. LXXXVII No. 2 it is circular like the model actually -carried out by Michael Angelo at St. Peter's. - -The cupola itself is either hidden under a pyramidal roof, as in the -Baptistery of Florence, San Lorenzo of Milan and most of the Lombard -churches (Pl. XCI No. 1 and Pl. XCII No. 1); but it more generally -suggests the curve of Sta Maria del Fiore (Pl. LXXXVIII No. 5; Pl. -XC No. 2; Pl. LXXXIX, M; Pl XC No. 4, Pl. XCVI No. 2). In other -cases (Pl. LXXX No. 4; Pl. LXXXIX; Pl. XC No. 2) it shows the sides -of the octagon crowned by semicircular pediments, as in -Brunellesco's lantern of the Cathedral and in the model for the -Cathedral of Pavia. - -Finally, in some sketches the cupola is either semicircular, or as -in Pl. LXXXVII No. 2, shows the beautiful line, adopted sixty years -later by Michael Angelo for the existing dome of St. Peter's. - -It is worth noticing that for all these domes Leonardo is not -satisfied to decorate the exterior merely with ascending ribs or -mouldings, but employs also a system of horizontal parallels to -complete the architectural system. Not the least interesting are the -designs for the tiburio (cupola) of the Milan Cathedral. They show -some of the forms, just mentioned, adapted to the peculiar gothic -style of that monument. - -The few examples of interiors of churches recall the style employed -in Lombardy by Bramante, for instance in S. Maria di Canepanuova at -Pavia, or by Dolcebuono in the Monastero Maggiore at Milan (see Pl. -CI No. 1 [C. A. 181b; 546b]; Pl. LXXXIV No. 10). - -The few indications concerning palaces seem to prove that Leonardo -followed Alberti's example of decorating the walls with pilasters -and a flat rustica, either in stone or by graffitti (Pl. CII No. 1 -and Pl. LXXXV No. 14). - -By pointing out the analogies between Leonardo's architecture and -that of other masters we in no way pretend to depreciate his -individual and original inventive power. These are at all events -beyond dispute. The project for the Mausoleum (Pl. XCVIII) would -alone suffice to rank him among the greatest architects who ever -lived. The peculiar shape of the tower (Pl. LXXX), of the churches -for preaching (Pl. XCVII No. 1 and pages 56 and 57, Fig. 1-4), his -curious plan for a city with high and low level streets (Pl. LXXVII -and LXXVIII No. 2 and No. 3), his Loggia with fountains (Pl. LXXXII -No. 4) reveal an originality, a power and facility of invention for -almost any given problem, which are quite wonderful. - -_In addition to all these qualities he propably stood alone in his -day in one department of architectural study,--his investigations, -namely, as to the resistance of vaults, foundations, walls and -arches._ - -_As an application of these studies the plan of a semicircular vault -(Pl. CIII No. 2) may be mentioned here, disposed so as to produce no -thrust on the columns on which it rests:_ volta i botte e non -ispignie ifori le colone. _Above the geometrical patterns on the -same sheet, close to a circle inscribed in a square is the note:_ la -ragio d'una volta cioe il terzo del diamitro della sua ... del -tedesco in domo. - -_There are few data by which to judge of Leonardo's style in the -treatment of detail. On Pl. LXXXV No. 10 and Pl. CIII No. 3, we find -some details of pillars; on Pl. CI No. 3 slender pillars designed -for a fountain and on Pl. CIII No. 1 MS. B, is a pen and ink drawing -of a vase which also seems intended for a fountain. Three handles -seem to have been intended to connect the upper parts with the base. -There can be no doubt that Leonardo, like Bramante, but unlike -Michael Angelo, brought infinite delicacy of motive and execution to -bear on the details of his work._ - -_XIV._ - -_Anatomy, Zoology and Physiology._ - -_Leonardo's eminent place in the history of medicine, as a pioneer -in the sciences of Anatomy and Physiology, will never be appreciated -till it is possible to publish the mass of manuscripts in which he -largely treated of these two branches of learning. In the present -work I must necessarily limit myself to giving the reader a general -view of these labours, by publishing his introductory notes to the -various books on anatomical subjects. I have added some extracts, -and such observations as are scattered incidentally through these -treatises, as serving to throw a light on Leonardo's scientific -attitude, besides having an interest for a wider circle than that of -specialists only._ - -_VASARI expressly mentions Leonardo's anatomical studies, having had -occasion to examine the manuscript books which refer to them. -According to him Leonardo studied Anatomy in the companionship of -Marc Antonio della Torre_ "aiutato e scambievolmente -aiutando."_--This learned Anatomist taught the science in the -universities first of Padua and then of Pavia, and at Pavia he and -Leonardo may have worked and studied together. We have no clue to -any exact dates, but in the year 1506 Marc Antonio della Torre seems -to have not yet left Padua. He was scarcely thirty years old when he -died in 1512, and his writings on anatomy have not only never been -published, but no manuscript copy of them is known to exist._ - -_This is not the place to enlarge on the connection between Leonardo -and Marc Antonio della Torre. I may however observe that I have not -been able to discover in Leonardo's manuscripts on anatomy any -mention of his younger contemporary. The few quotations which occur -from writers on medicine--either of antiquity or of the middle ages -are printed in Section XXII. Here and there in the manuscripts -mention is made of an anonymous "adversary"_ (avversario) _whose -views are opposed and refuted by Leonardo, but there is no ground -for supposing that Marc Antonio della Torre should have been this -"adversary"._ - -_Only a very small selection from the mass of anatomical drawings -left by Leonardo have been published here in facsimile, but to form -any adequate idea of their scientific merit they should be compared -with the coarse and inadequate figures given in the published books -of the early part of the XVI. century. - -William Hunter, the great surgeon--a competent judge--who had an -opportunity in the time of George III. of seeing the originals in -the King's Library, has thus recorded his opinion: "I expected to -see little more than such designs in Anatomy as might be useful to a -painter in his own profession. But I saw, and indeed with -astonishment, that Leonardo had been a general and deep student. -When I consider what pains he has taken upon every part of the body, -the superiority of his universal genius, his particular excellence -in mechanics and hydraulics, and the attention with which such a man -would examine and see objects which he has to draw, I am fully -persuaded that Leonardo was the best Anatomist, at that time, in the -world ... Leonardo was certainly the first man, we know of, who -introduced the practice of making anatomical drawings" (Two -introductory letters. London 1784, pages 37 and 39). - -The illustrious German Naturalist Johan Friedrich Blumenback -esteemed them no less highly; he was one of the privileged few who, -after Hunter, had the chance of seeing these Manuscripts. He writes: -_Der Scharfblick dieses grossen Forschers und Darstellers der Natur -hat schon auf Dinge geachtet, die noch Jahrhunderte nachher -unbemerkt geblieben sind_" (see _Blumenbach's medicinische -Bibliothek_, Vol. 3, St. 4, 1795. page 728). - -These opinions were founded on the drawings alone. Up to the present -day hardly anything has been made known of the text, and, for the -reasons I have given, it is my intention to reproduce here no more -than a selection of extracts which I have made from the originals at -Windsor Castle and elsewhere. In the Bibliography of the -Manuscripts, at the end of this volume a short review is given of -the valuable contents of these Anatomical note books which are at -present almost all in the possession of her Majesty the Queen of -England. It is, I believe, possible to assign the date with -approximate accuracy to almost all the fragments, and I am thus led -to conclude that the greater part of Leonardo's anatomical -investigations were carried out after the death of della Torre. - -Merely in reading the introductory notes to his various books on -Anatomy which are here printed it is impossible to resist the -impression that the Master's anatomical studies bear to a very great -extent the stamp of originality and independent thought. - -I. - -ANATOMY. - -796. - -A general introduction - -I wish to work miracles;--it may be that I shall possess less than -other men of more peaceful lives, or than those who want to grow -rich in a day. I may live for a long time in great poverty, as -always happens, and to all eternity will happen, to alchemists, the -would-be creators of gold and silver, and to engineers who would -have dead water stir itself into life and perpetual motion, and to -those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter. - -[Footnote 23: The following seems to be directed against students of -painting and young artists rather than against medical men and -anatomists.] - -And you, who say that it would be better to watch an anatomist at -work than to see these drawings, you would be right, if it were -possible to observe all the things which are demonstrated in such -drawings in a single figure, in which you, with all your cleverness, -will not see nor obtain knowledge of more than some few veins, to -obtain a true and perfect knowledge of which I have dissected more -than ten human bodies, destroying all the other members, and -removing the very minutest particles of the flesh by which these -veins are surrounded, without causing them to bleed, excepting the -insensible bleeding of the capillary veins; and as one single body -would not last so long, since it was necessary to proceed with -several bodies by degrees, until I came to an end and had a complete -knowledge; this I repeated twice, to learn the differences [59]. - -[Footnote: Lines 1-59 and 60-89 are written in two parallel columns. -When we here find Leonardo putting himself in the same category as -the Alchemists and Necromancers, whom he elsewhere mocks at so -bitterly, it is evidently meant ironically. In the same way -Leonardo, in the introduction to the Books on Perspective sets -himself with transparent satire on a level with other writers on the -subject.] - -And if you should have a love for such things you might be prevented -by loathing, and if that did not prevent you, you might be deterred -by the fear of living in the night hours in the company of those -corpses, quartered and flayed and horrible to see. And if this did -not prevent you, perhaps you might not be able to draw so well as is -necessary for such a demonstration; or, if you had the skill in -drawing, it might not be combined with knowledge of perspective; and -if it were so, you might not understand the methods of geometrical -demonstration and the method of the calculation of forces and of the -strength of the muscles; patience also may be wanting, so that you -lack perseverance. As to whether all these things were found in me -or not [Footnote 84: Leonardo frequently, and perhaps habitually, -wrote in note books of a very small size and only moderately thick; -in most of those which have been preserved undivided, each contains -less than fifty leaves. Thus a considerable number of such volumes -must have gone to make up a volume of the bulk of the '_Codex -Atlanticus_' which now contains nearly 1200 detached leaves. In the -passage under consideration, which was evidently written at a late -period of his life, Leonardo speaks of his Manuscript note-books as -numbering 12O; but we should hardly be justified in concluding from -this passage that the greater part of his Manuscripts were now -missing (see _Prolegomena_, Vol. I, pp. 5-7).], the hundred and -twenty books composed by me will give verdict Yes or No. In these I -have been hindered neither by avarice nor negligence, but simply by -want of time. Farewell [89]. - -Plans and suggestions for the arrangement of materials (797-802). - -797. - -OF THE ORDER OF THE BOOK. - -This work must begin with the conception of man, and describe the -nature of the womb and how the foetus lives in it, up to what stage -it resides there, and in what way it quickens into life and feeds. -Also its growth and what interval there is between one stage of -growth and another. What it is that forces it out from the body of -the mother, and for what reasons it sometimes comes out of the -mother's womb before the due time. - -Then I will describe which are the members, which, after the boy is -born, grow more than the others, and determine the proportions of a -boy of one year. - -Then describe the fully grown man and woman, with their proportions, -and the nature of their complexions, colour, and physiognomy. - -Then how they are composed of veins, tendons, muscles and bones. -This I shall do at the end of the book. Then, in four drawings, -represent four universal conditions of men. That is, Mirth, with -various acts of laughter, and describe the cause of laughter. -Weeping in various aspects with its causes. Contention, with various -acts of killing; flight, fear, ferocity, boldness, murder and every -thing pertaining to such cases. Then represent Labour, with pulling, -thrusting, carrying, stopping, supporting and such like things. - -Further I would describe attitudes and movements. Then perspective, -concerning the functions and effects of the eye; and of -hearing--here I will speak of music--, and treat of the other -senses. - -And then describe the nature of the senses. - -This mechanism of man we will demonstrate in ... figures; of which -the three first will show the ramification of the bones; that is: -first one to show their height and position and shape: the second -will be seen in profile and will show the depth of the whole and of -the parts, and their position. The third figure will be a -demonstration of the bones of the backparts. Then I will make three -other figures from the same point of view, with the bones sawn -across, in which will be shown their thickness and hollowness. Three -other figures of the bones complete, and of the nerves which rise -from the nape of the neck, and in what limbs they ramify. And three -others of the bones and veins, and where they ramify. Then three -figures with the muscles and three with the skin, and their proper -proportions; and three of woman, to illustrate the womb and the -menstrual veins which go to the breasts. - -[Footnote: The meaning of the word _nervo_ varies in different -passages, being sometimes used for _muscolo_ (muscle).] - -798. - -THE ORDER OF THE BOOK. - -This depicting of mine of the human body will be as clear to you as -if you had the natural man before you; and the reason is that if you -wish thoroughly to know the parts of man, anatomically, you--or your -eye--require to see it from different aspects, considering it from -below and from above and from its sides, turning it about and -seeking the origin of each member; and in this way the natural -anatomy is sufficient for your comprehension. But you must -understand that this amount of knowledge will not continue to -satisfy you; seeing the very great confusion that must result from -the combination of tissues, with veins, arteries, nerves, sinews, -muscles, bones, and blood which, of itself, tinges every part the -same colour. And the veins, which discharge this blood, are not -discerned by reason of their smallness. Moreover integrity of the -tissues, in the process of the investigating the parts within them, -is inevitably destroyed, and their transparent substance being -tinged with blood does not allow you to recognise the parts covered -by them, from the similarity of their blood-stained hue; and you -cannot know everything of the one without confusing and destroying -the other. Hence, some further anatomy drawings become necessary. Of -which you want three to give full knowledge of the veins and -arteries, everything else being destroyed with the greatest care. -And three others to display the tissues; and three for the sinews -and muscles and ligaments; and three for the bones and cartilages; -and three for the anatomy of the bones, which have to be sawn to -show which are hollow and which are not, which have marrow and which -are spongy, and which are thick from the outside inwards, and which -are thin. And some are extremely thin in some parts and thick in -others, and in some parts hollow or filled up with bone, or full of -marrow, or spongy. And all these conditions are sometimes found in -one and the same bone, and in some bones none of them. And three you -must have for the woman, in which there is much that is mysterious -by reason of the womb and the foetus. Therefore by my drawings every -part will be known to you, and all by means of demonstrations from -three different points of view of each part; for when you have seen -a limb from the front, with any muscles, sinews, or veins which take -their rise from the opposite side, the same limb will be shown to -you in a side view or from behind, exactly as if you had that same -limb in your hand and were turning it from side to side until you -had acquired a full comprehension of all you wished to know. In the -same way there will be put before you three or four demonstrations -of each limb, from various points of view, so that you will be left -with a true and complete knowledge of all you wish to learn of the -human figure[Footnote 35: Compare Pl. CVII. The original drawing at -Windsor is 28 1/2 X 19 1/2 centimetres. The upper figures are -slightly washed with Indian ink. On the back of this drawing is the -text No. 1140.]. - -Thus, in twelve entire figures, you will have set before you the -cosmography of this lesser world on the same plan as, before me, was -adopted by Ptolemy in his cosmography; and so I will afterwards -divide them into limbs as he divided the whole world into provinces; -then I will speak of the function of each part in every direction, -putting before your eyes a description of the whole form and -substance of man, as regards his movements from place to place, by -means of his different parts. And thus, if it please our great -Author, I may demonstrate the nature of men, and their customs in -the way I describe his figure. - -And remember that the anatomy of the nerves will not give the -position of their ramifications, nor show you which muscles they -branch into, by means of bodies dissected in running water or in -lime water; though indeed their origin and starting point may be -seen without such water as well as with it. But their ramifications, -when under running water, cling and unite--just like flat or hemp -carded for spinning--all into a skein, in a way which makes it -impossible to trace in which muscles or by what ramification the -nerves are distributed among those muscles. - -799. - -THE ARRANGEMENT OF ANATOMY - -First draw the bones, let us say, of the arm, and put in the motor -muscle from the shoulder to the elbow with all its lines. Then -proceed in the same way from the elbow to the wrist. Then from the -wrist to the hand and from the hand to the fingers. - -And in the arm you will put the motors of the fingers which open, -and these you will show separately in their demonstration. In the -second demonstration you will clothe these muscles with the -secondary motors of the fingers and so proceed by degrees to avoid -confusion. But first lay on the bones those muscles which lie close -to the said bones, without confusion of other muscles; and with -these you may put the nerves and veins which supply their -nourishment, after having first drawn the tree of veins and nerves -over the simple bones. - -800. - -Begin the anatomy at the head and finish at the sole of the foot. - -801. - -3 men complete, 3 with bones and nerves, 3 with the bones only. Here -we have 12 demonstrations of entire figures. - -802. - -When you have finished building up the man, you will make the statue -with all its superficial measurements. - -[Footnote: _Cresciere l'omo_. The meaning of this expression appears -to be different here and in the passage C.A. 157a, 468a (see No. -526, Note 1. 2). Here it can hardly mean anything else than -modelling, since the sculptor forms the figure by degrees, by adding -wet clay and the figure consequently increases or grows. _Tu farai -la statua_ would then mean, you must work out the figure in marble. -If this interpretation is the correct one, this passage would have -no right to find a place in the series on anatomical studies. I may -say that it was originally inserted in this connection under the -impression that _di cresciere_ should be read _descrivere_.] - -Plans for the representation of muscles by drawings (803-809). - -803. - -You must show all the motions of the bones with their joints to -follow the demonstration of the first three figures of the bones, -and this should be done in the first book. - -804. - -Remember that to be certain of the point of origin of any muscle, -you must pull the sinew from which the muscle springs in such a way -as to see that muscle move, and where it is attached to the -ligaments of the bones. - -NOTE. - -You will never get any thing but confusion in demonstrating the -muscles and their positions, origin, and termination, unless you -first make a demonstration of thin muscles after the manner of linen -threads; and thus you can represent them, one over another as nature -has placed them; and thus, too, you can name them according to the -limb they serve; for instance the motor of the point of the great -toe, of its middle bone, of its first bone, &c. And when you have -the knowledge you will draw, by the side of this, the true form and -size and position of each muscle. But remember to give the threads -which explain the situation of the muscles in the position which -corresponds to the central line of each muscle; and so these threads -will demonstrate the form of the leg and their distance in a plain -and clear manner. - -I have removed the skin from a man who was so shrunk by illness that -the muscles were worn down and remained in a state like thin -membrane, in such a way that the sinews instead of merging in -muscles ended in wide membrane; and where the bones were covered by -the skin they had very little over their natural size. - -[Footnote: The photograph No. 41 of Grosvenor Gallery Publications: -a drawing of the muscles of the foot, includes a complete facsimile -of the text of this passage.] - -805. - -Which nerve causes the motion of the eye so that the motion of one -eye moves the other? - -Of frowning the brows, of raising the brows, of lowering the -brows,--of closing the eyes, of opening the eyes,--of raising the -nostrils, of opening the lips, with the teeth shut, of pouting with -the lips, of smiling, of astonishment.-- - -Describe the beginning of man when it is caused in the womb and why -an eight months child does not live. What sneezing is. What yawning -is. Falling sickness, spasms, paralysis, shivering with cold, -sweating, fatigue, hunger, sleepiness, thirst, lust. - -Of the nerve which is the cause of movement from the shoulder to the -elbow, of the movement from the elbow to the hand, from the joint of -the hand to the springing of the fingers. From the springing of the -fingers to the middle joints, and from the middle joints to the -last. - -Of the nerve which causes the movement of the thigh, and from the -knee to the foot, and from the joint of the foot to the toes, and -then to the middle of the toes and of the rotary motion of the leg. - -806. - -ANATOMY. - -Which nerves or sinews of the hand are those which close and part -the fingers and toes latteraly? - -807. - -Remove by degrees all the parts of the front of a man in making your -dissection, till you come to the bones. Description of the parts of -the bust and of their motions. - -808. - -Give the anatomy of the leg up to the hip, in all views and in every -action and in every state; veins, arteries, nerves, sinews and -muscles, skin and bones; then the bones in sections to show the -thickness of the bones. - -[Footnote: A straightened leg in profile is sketched by the side of -this text.] - -On corpulency and leanness (809-811). - -809. - -Make the rule and give the measurement of each muscle, and give the -reasons of all their functions, and in which way they work and what -makes them work &c. - -[4] First draw the spine of the back; then clothe it by degrees, one -after the other, with each of its muscles and put in the nerves and -arteries and veins to each muscle by itself; and besides these note -the vertebrae to which they are attached; which of the intestines -come in contact with them; and which bones and other organs &c. - -The most prominent parts of lean people are most prominent in the -muscular, and equally so in fat persons. But concerning the -difference in the forms of the muscles in fat persons as compared -with muscular persons, it shall be described below. - -[Footnote: The two drawings given on Pl. CVIII no. 1 come between -lines 3 and 4. A good and very early copy of this drawing without -the written text exists in the collection of drawings belonging to -Christ's College Oxford, where it is attributed to Leonardo.] - -810. - -Describe which muscles disappear in growing fat, and which become -visible in growing lean. - -And observe that that part which on the surface of a fat person is -most concave, when he grows lean becomes more prominent. - -Where the muscles separate one from another you must give profiles -and where they coalesce ... - -811. - -OF THE HUMAN FIGURE. - -Which is the part in man, which, as he grows fatter, never gains -flesh? - -Or what part which as a man grows lean never falls away with a too -perceptible diminution? And among the parts which grow fat which is -that which grows fattest? - -Among those which grow lean which is that which grows leanest? - -In very strong men which are the muscles which are thickest and most -prominent? - -In your anatomy you must represent all the stages of the limbs from -man's creation to his death, and then till the death of the bone; -and which part of him is first decayed and which is preserved the -longest. - -And in the same way of extreme leanness and extreme fatness. - -The divisions of the head (812. 813). - -812. - -ANATOMY. - -There are eleven elementary tissues:-- Cartilage, bones, nerves, -veins, arteries, fascia, ligament and sinews, skin, muscle and fat. - -OF THE HEAD. - -The divisions of the head are 10, viz. 5 external and 5 internal, -the external are the hair, skin, muscle, fascia and the skull; the -internal are the dura mater, the pia mater, [which enclose] the -brain. The pia mater and the dura mater come again underneath and -enclose the brain; then the rete mirabile, and the occipital bone, -which supports the brain from which the nerves spring. - -813. - -_a_. hair - -_n_. skin - -_c_. muscle - -_m_. fascia - -_o_. skull _i.e._ bone - -_b_. dura mater - -_d_. pia mater - -_f_. brain - -_r_. pia mater, below - -_t_. dura mater - -_l_. rete mirablile - -_s_. the occipitul bone. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 3.] - -Physiological problems (814. 815). - -814. - -Of the cause of breathing, of the cause of the motion of the heart, -of the cause of vomiting, of the cause of the descent of food from -the stomach, of the cause of emptying the intestines. - -Of the cause of the movement of the superfluous matter through the -intestines. - -Of the cause of swallowing, of the cause of coughing, of the cause -of yawning, of the cause of sneezing, of the cause of limbs getting -asleep. - -Of the cause of losing sensibility in any limb. - -Of the cause of tickling. - -Of the cause of lust and other appetites of the body, of the cause -of urine and also of all the natural excretions of the body. - -[Footnote: By the side of this text stands the pen and ink drawing -reproduced on Pl. CVIII, No. 4; a skull with indications of the -veins in the fleshy covering.] - -815. - -The tears come from the heart and not from the brain. - -Define all the parts, of which the body is composed, beginning with -the skin with its outer cuticle which is often chapped by the -influence of the sun. - -II. - -ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. - -The divisions of the animal kingdom (816. 817). - -816. - -_Man_. The description of man, which includes that of such creatures -as are of almost the same species, as Apes, Monkeys and the like, -which are many, - -_The Lion_ and its kindred, as Panthers. [Footnote 3: _Leonza_--wild -cat? "_Secondo alcuni, lo stesso che Leonessa; e secondo altri con -piu certezza, lo stesso che Pantera_" FANFANI, _Vocabolario_ page -858.] Wildcats (?) Tigers, Leopards, Wolfs, Lynxes, Spanish cats, -common cats and the like. - -_The Horse_ and its kindred, as Mule, Ass and the like, with incisor -teeth above and below. - -_The Bull_ and its allies with horns and without upper incisors as -the Buffalo, Stag Fallow Deer, Wild Goat, Swine, Goat, wild Goats -Muskdeers, Chamois, Giraffe. - -817. - -Describe the various forms of the intestines of the human species, -of apes and such like. Then, in what way the leonine species differ, -and then the bovine, and finally birds; and arrange this description -after the manner of a disquisition. - -Miscellaneous notes on the study of Zoology (818-821). - -818. - -Procure the placenta of a calf when it is born and observe the form -of the cotyledons, if their cotyledons are male or female. - -819. - -Describe the tongue of the woodpecker and the jaw of the crocodile. - -820. - -Of the flight of the 4th kind of butterflies that consume winged -ants. Of the three principal positions of the wings of birds in -downward flight. - -[Footnote: A passing allusion is all I can here permit myself to -Leonardo's elaborate researches into the flight of birds. Compare -the observations on this subject in the Introduction to section -XVIII and in the Bibliography of Manuscripts at the end of the -work.] - -821. - -Of the way in which the tail of a fish acts in propelling the fish; -as in the eel, snake and leech. - -[Footnote: A sketch of a fish, swimming upwards is in the original, -inserted above this text.--Compare No. 1114.] - -Comparative study of the structure of bones and of the action of -muscles (822-826). - -822. - -OF THE PALM OF THE HAND. - -Then I will discourse of the hands of each animal to show in what -they vary; as in the bear, which has the ligatures of the sinews of -the toes joined above the instep. - -823. - -A second demonstration inserted between anatomy and [the treatise -on] the living being. - -You will represent here for a comparison, the legs of a frog, which -have a great resemblance to the legs of man, both in the bones and -in the muscles. Then, in continuation, the hind legs of the hare, -which are very muscular, with strong active muscles, because they -are not encumbered with fat. - -[Footnote: This text is written by the side of a drawing in black -chalk of a nude male figure, but there is no connection between the -sketch and the text.] - -824. - -Here I make a note to demonstrate the difference there is between -man and the horse and in the same way with other animals. And first -I will begin with the bones, and then will go on to all the muscles -which spring from the bones without tendons and end in them in the -same way, and then go on to those which start with a single tendon -at one end. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CVIII, No. 2.] - -825. - -Note on the bendings of joints and in what way the flesh grows upon -them in their flexions or extensions; and of this most important -study write a separate treatise: in the description of the movements -of animals with four feet; among which is man, who likewise in his -infancy crawls on all fours. - -826. - -OF THE WAY OF WALKING IN MAN. - -The walking of man is always after the universal manner of walking -in animals with 4 legs, inasmuch as just as they move their feet -crosswise after the manner of a horse in trotting, so man moves his -4 limbs crosswise; that is, if he puts forward his right foot in -walking he puts forward, with it, his left arm and vice versa, -invariably. - -III. - -PHYSIOLOGY. - -Comparative study of the organs of sense in men and animals. - -827. - -I have found that in the composition of the human body as compared -with the bodies of animals the organs of sense are duller and -coarser. Thus it is composed of less ingenious instruments, and of -spaces less capacious for receiving the faculties of sense. I have -seen in the Lion tribe that the sense of smell is connected with -part of the substance of the brain which comes down the nostrils, -which form a spacious receptacle for the sense of smell, which -enters by a great number of cartilaginous vesicles with several -passages leading up to where the brain, as before said, comes down. - -The eyes in the Lion tribe have a large part of the head for their -sockets and the optic nerves communicate at once with the brain; but -the contrary is to be seen in man, for the sockets of the eyes are -but a small part of the head, and the optic nerves are very fine and -long and weak, and by the weakness of their action we see by day but -badly at night, while these animals can see as well at night as by -day. The proof that they can see is that they prowl for prey at -night and sleep by day, as nocturnal birds do also. - -Advantages in the structure of the eye in certain animals (828-831). - -828. - -Every object we see will appear larger at midnight than at midday, -and larger in the morning than at midday. - -This happens because the pupil of the eye is much smaller at midday -than at any other time. - -In proportion as the eye or the pupil of the owl is larger in -proportion to the animal than that of man, so much the more light -can it see at night than man can; hence at midday it can see nothing -if its pupil does not diminish; and, in the same way, at night -things look larger to it than by day. - -829. - -OF THE EYES IN ANIMALS. - -The eyes of all animals have their pupils adapted to dilate and -diminish of their own accord in proportion to the greater or less -light of the sun or other luminary. But in birds the variation is -much greater; and particularly in nocturnal birds, such as horned -owls, and in the eyes of one species of owl; in these the pupil -dilates in such away as to occupy nearly the whole eye, or -diminishes to the size of a grain of millet, and always preserves -the circular form. But in the Lion tribe, as panthers, pards, -ounces, tigers, lynxes, Spanish cats and other similar animals the -pupil diminishes from the perfect circle to the figure of a pointed -oval such as is shown in the margin. But man having a weaker sight -than any other animal is less hurt by a very strong light and his -pupil increases but little in dark places; but in the eyes of these -nocturnal animals, the horned owl--a bird which is the largest of -all nocturnal birds--the power of vision increases so much that in -the faintest nocturnal light (which we call darkness) it sees with -much more distinctness than we do in the splendour of noon day, at -which time these birds remain hidden in dark holes; or if indeed -they are compelled to come out into the open air lighted up by the -sun, they contract their pupils so much that their power of sight -diminishes together with the quantity of light admitted. - -Study the anatomy of various eyes and see which are the muscles -which open and close the said pupils of the eyes of animals. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 24, lines 8 and fol.] - -830. - -_a b n_ is the membrane which closes the eye from below, upwards, -with an opaque film, _c n b_ encloses the eye in front and behind -with a transparent membrane. - -It closes from below, upwards, because it [the eye] comes downwards. - -When the eye of a bird closes with its two lids, the first to close -is the nictitating membrane which closes from the lacrymal duct over -to the outer corner of the eye; and the outer lid closes from below -upwards, and these two intersecting motions begin first from the -lacrymatory duct, because we have already seen that in front and -below birds are protected and use only the upper portion of the eye -from fear of birds of prey which come down from above and behind; -and they uncover first the membrane from the outer corner, because -if the enemy comes from behind, they have the power of escaping to -the front; and again the muscle called the nictitating membrane is -transparent, because, if the eye had not such a screen, they could -not keep it open against the wind which strikes against the eye in -the rush of their rapid flight. And the pupil of the eye dilates and -contracts as it sees a less or greater light, that is to say intense -brilliancy. - -831. - -If at night your eye is placed between the light and the eye of a -cat, it will see the eye look like fire. - -Remarks on the organs of speech - -(832. 833). - -832. - -_a e i o u -ba be bi bo bu -ca ce ci co cu -da de di do du -fa fe fi fo fu -ga ge gi go gu -la le li lo lu -ma me mi mo mu -na ne ni no nu -pa pe pi po pu -qa qe qi qo qu -ra re ri ro ru -sa se si so su -ta te ti to tu_ - -The tongue is found to have 24 muscles which correspond to the six -muscles which compose the portion of the tongue which moves in the -mouth. - -And when _a o u_ are spoken with a clear and rapid pronunciation, it -is necessary, in order to pronounce continuously, without any pause -between, that the opening of the lips should close by degrees; that -is, they are wide apart in saying _a_, closer in saying _o_, and -much closer still to pronounce _u_. - -It may be shown how all the vowels are pronounced with the farthest -portion of the false palate which is above the epiglottis. - -833. - -If you draw in breath by the nose and send it out by the mouth you -will hear the sound made by the division that is the membrane in -[Footnote 5: The text here breaks off.]... - -On the conditions of sight (834. 835). - -834. - -OF THE NATURE OF SIGHT. - -I say that sight is exercised by all animals, by the medium of -light; and if any one adduces, as against this, the sight of -nocturnal animals, I must say that this in the same way is subject -to the very same natural laws. For it will easily be understood that -the senses which receive the images of things do not project from -themselves any visual virtue [Footnote 4: Compare No. 68.]. On the -contrary the atmospheric medium which exists between the object and -the sense incorporates in itself the figure of things, and by its -contact with the sense transmits the object to it. If the -object--whether by sound or by odour--presents its spiritual force -to the ear or the nose, then light is not required and does not act. -The forms of objects do not send their images into the air if they -are not illuminated [8]; and the eye being thus constituted cannot -receive that from the air, which the air does not possess, although -it touches its surface. If you choose to say that there are many -animals that prey at night, I answer that when the little light -which suffices the nature of their eyes is wanting, they direct -themselves by their strong sense of hearing and of smell, which are -not impeded by the darkness, and in which they are very far superior -to man. If you make a cat leap, by daylight, among a quantity of -jars and crocks you will see them remain unbroken, but if you do the -same at night, many will be broken. Night birds do not fly about -unless the moon shines full or in part; rather do they feed between -sun-down and the total darkness of the night. - -[Footnote 8: See No. 58-67.] - -No body can be apprehended without light and shade, and light and -shade are caused by light. - -835. - -WHY MEN ADVANCED IN AGE SEE BETTER AT A DISTANCE. - -Sight is better from a distance than near in those men who are -advancing in age, because the same object transmits a smaller -impression of itself to the eye when it is distant than when it is -near. - -The seat of the common sense. - -836. - -The Common Sense, is that which judges of things offered to it by -the other senses. The ancient speculators have concluded that that -part of man which constitutes his judgment is caused by a central -organ to which the other five senses refer everything by means of -impressibility; and to this centre they have given the name Common -Sense. And they say that this Sense is situated in the centre of the -head between Sensation and Memory. And this name of Common Sense is -given to it solely because it is the common judge of all the other -five senses _i.e._ Seeing, Hearing, Touch, Taste and Smell. This -Common Sense is acted upon by means of Sensation which is placed as -a medium between it and the senses. Sensation is acted upon by means -of the images of things presented to it by the external instruments, -that is to say the senses which are the medium between external -things and Sensation. In the same way the senses are acted upon by -objects. Surrounding things transmit their images to the senses and -the senses transfer them to the Sensation. Sensation sends them to -the Common Sense, and by it they are stamped upon the memory and are -there more or less retained according to the importance or force of -the impression. That sense is most rapid in its function which is -nearest to the sensitive medium and the eye, being the highest is -the chief of the others. Of this then only we will speak, and the -others we will leave in order not to make our matter too long. -Experience tells us that the eye apprehends ten different natures of -things, that is: Light and Darkness, one being the cause of the -perception of the nine others, and the other its absence:-- Colour -and substance, form and place, distance and nearness, motion and -stillness [Footnote 15: Compare No. 23.]. - -On the origin of the soul. - -837. - -Though human ingenuity may make various inventions which, by the -help of various machines answering the same end, it will never -devise any inventions more beautiful, nor more simple, nor more to -the purpose than Nature does; because in her inventions nothing is -wanting, and nothing is superfluous, and she needs no counterpoise -when she makes limbs proper for motion in the bodies of animals. But -she puts into them the soul of the body, which forms them that is -the soul of the mother which first constructs in the womb the form -of the man and in due time awakens the soul that is to inhabit it. -And this at first lies dormant and under the tutelage of the soul of -the mother, who nourishes and vivifies it by the umbilical vein, -with all its spiritual parts, and this happens because this -umbilicus is joined to the placenta and the cotyledons, by which the -child is attached to the mother. And these are the reason why a -wish, a strong craving or a fright or any other mental suffering in -the mother, has more influence on the child than on the mother; for -there are many cases when the child loses its life from them, &c. - -This discourse is not in its place here, but will be wanted for the -one on the composition of animated bodies--and the rest of the -definition of the soul I leave to the imaginations of friars, those -fathers of the people who know all secrets by inspiration. - -[Footnote 57: _lettere incoronate_. By this term Leonardo probably -understands not the Bible only, but the works of the early Fathers, -and all the books recognised as sacred by the Roman Church.] I leave -alone the sacred books; for they are supreme truth. - -On the relations of the soul to the organs of sense. - -838. - -HOW THE FIVE SENSES ARE THE MINISTERS OF THE SOUL. - -The soul seems to reside in the judgment, and the judgment would -seem to be seated in that part where all the senses meet; and this -is called the Common Sense and is not all-pervading throughout the -body, as many have thought. Rather is it entirely in one part. -Because, if it were all-pervading and the same in every part, there -would have been no need to make the instruments of the senses meet -in one centre and in one single spot; on the contrary it would have -sufficed that the eye should fulfil the function of its sensation on -its surface only, and not transmit the image of the things seen, to -the sense, by means of the optic nerves, so that the soul--for the -reason given above-- may perceive it in the surface of the eye. In -the same way as to the sense of hearing, it would have sufficed if -the voice had merely sounded in the porous cavity of the indurated -portion of the temporal bone which lies within the ear, without -making any farther transit from this bone to the common sense, where -the voice confers with and discourses to the common judgment. The -sense of smell, again, is compelled by necessity to refer itself to -that same judgment. Feeling passes through the perforated cords and -is conveyed to this common sense. These cords diverge with infinite -ramifications into the skin which encloses the members of the body -and the viscera. The perforated cords convey volition and sensation -to the subordinate limbs. These cords and the nerves direct the -motions of the muscles and sinews, between which they are placed; -these obey, and this obedience takes effect by reducing their -thickness; for in swelling, their length is reduced, and the nerves -shrink which are interwoven among the particles of the limbs; being -extended to the tips of the fingers, they transmit to the sense the -object which they touch. - -The nerves with their muscles obey the tendons as soldiers obey the -officers, and the tendons obey the Common [central] Sense as the -officers obey the general. [27] Thus the joint of the bones obeys -the nerve, and the nerve the muscle, and the muscle the tendon and -the tendon the Common Sense. And the Common Sense is the seat of the -soul [28], and memory is its ammunition, and the impressibility is -its referendary since the sense waits on the soul and not the soul -on the sense. And where the sense that ministers to the soul is not -at the service of the soul, all the functions of that sense are also -wanting in that man's life, as is seen in those born mute and blind. - -[Footnote: The peculiar use of the words _nervo_, _muscolo_, -_corda_, _senso comune_, which are here literally rendered by nerve, -muscle cord or tendon and Common Sense may be understood from lines -27 and 28.] - -On involuntary muscular action. - -839. - -HOW THE NERVES SOMETIMES ACT OF THEMSELVES WITHOUT ANY COMMANDS FROM -THE OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL. - -This is most plainly seen; for you will see palsied and shivering -persons move, and their trembling limbs, as their head and hands, -quake without leave from their soul and their soul with all its -power cannot prevent their members from trembling. The same thing -happens in falling sickness, or in parts that have been cut off, as -in the tails of lizards. The idea or imagination is the helm and -guiding-rein of the senses, because the thing conceived of moves the -sense. Pre-imagining, is imagining the things that are to be. -Post-imagining, is imagining the things that are past. - -Miscellaneous physiological observations (840-842). - -840. - -There are four Powers: memory and intellect, desire and -covetousness. The two first are mental and the others sensual. The -three senses: sight, hearing and smell cannot well be prevented; -touch and taste not at all. Smell is connected with taste in dogs -and other gluttonous animals. - -841. - -I reveal to men the origin of the first, or perhaps second cause of -their existence. - -842. - -Lust is the cause of generation. - -Appetite is the support of life. Fear or timidity is the -prolongation of life and preservation of its instruments. - -The laws of nutrition and the support of life (843-848). - -843. - -HOW THE BODY OF ANIMALS IS CONSTANTLY DYING AND BEING RENEWED. - -The body of any thing whatever that takes nourishment constantly -dies and is constantly renewed; because nourishment can only enter -into places where the former nourishment has expired, and if it has -expired it no longer has life. And if you do not supply nourishment -equal to the nourishment which is gone, life will fail in vigour, -and if you take away this nourishment, the life is entirely -destroyed. But if you restore as much is destroyed day by day, then -as much of the life is renewed as is consumed, just as the flame of -the candle is fed by the nourishment afforded by the liquid of this -candle, which flame continually with a rapid supply restores to it -from below as much as is consumed in dying above: and from a -brilliant light is converted in dying into murky smoke; and this -death is continuous, as the smoke is continuous; and the continuance -of the smoke is equal to the continuance of the nourishment, and in -the same instant all the flame is dead and all regenerated, -simultaneously with the movement of its own nourishment. - -844. - -King of the animals--as thou hast described him--I should rather say -king of the beasts, thou being the greatest--because thou hast -spared slaying them, in order that they may give thee their children -for the benefit of the gullet, of which thou hast attempted to make -a sepulchre for all animals; and I would say still more, if it were -allowed me to speak the entire truth [5]. But we do not go outside -human matters in telling of one supreme wickedness, which does not -happen among the animals of the earth, inasmuch as among them are -found none who eat their own kind, unless through want of sense (few -indeed among them, and those being mothers, as with men, albeit they -be not many in number); and this happens only among the rapacious -animals, as with the leonine species, and leopards, panthers lynxes, -cats and the like, who sometimes eat their children; but thou, -besides thy children devourest father, mother, brothers and friends; -nor is this enough for thee, but thou goest to the chase on the -islands of others, taking other men and these half-naked, the ... -and the ... thou fattenest, and chasest them down thy own -throat[18]; now does not nature produce enough simples, for thee to -satisfy thyself? and if thou art not content with simples, canst -thou not by the mixture of them make infinite compounds, as Platina -wrote[Footnote 21: _Come scrisse il Platina_ (Bartolomeo Sacchi, a -famous humanist). The Italian edition of his treatise _De arte -coquinaria_, was published under the title _De la honestra -voluptate, e valetudine, Venezia_ 1487.], and other authors on -feeding? - -[Footnote: We are led to believe that Leonardo himself was a -vegetarian from the following interesting passage in the first of -Andrea Corsali's letters to Giuliano de'Medici: _Alcuni gentili -chiamati Guzzarati non si cibano di cosa, alcuna che tenga sangue, -ne fra essi loro consentono che si noccia ad alcuna cosa animata, -come il nostro Leonardo da Vinci_. - -5-18. Amerigo Vespucci, with whom Leonardo was personally -acquainted, writes in his second letter to Pietro Soderini, about -the inhabitants of the Canary Islands after having stayed there in -1503: "_Hanno una scelerata liberta di viuere; ... si cibano di -carne humana, di maniera che il padre magia il figliuolo, et -all'incontro il figliuolo il padre secondo che a caso e per sorte -auiene. Io viddi un certo huomo sceleratissimo che si vantaua, et si -teneua a non piccola gloria di hauer mangiato piu di trecento -huomini. Viddi anche vna certa citta, nella quale io dimorai forse -ventisette giorni, doue le carni humane, hauendole salate, eran -appicate alli traui, si come noi alli traui di cucina_ _appicchiamo -le carni di cinghali secche al sole o al fumo, et massimamente -salsiccie, et altre simil cose: anzi si marauigliauano gradem ete -che noi non magiaissimo della carne de nemici, le quali dicono -muouere appetito, et essere di marauiglioso sapore, et le lodano -come cibi soaui et delicati (Lettere due di Amerigo Vespucci -Fiorentino drizzate al magnifico Pietro Soderini, Gonfaloniere della -eccelsa Republica di Firenze_; various editions).] - -845. - -Our life is made by the death of others. - -In dead matter insensible life remains, which, reunited to the -stomachs of living beings, resumes life, both sensual and -intellectual. - -846. - -Here nature appears with many animals to have been rather a cruel -stepmother than a mother, and with others not a stepmother, but a -most tender mother. - -847. - -Man and animals are really the passage and the conduit of food, the -sepulchre of animals and resting place of the dead, one causing the -death of the other, making themselves the covering for the -corruption of other dead [bodies]. - -On the circulation of the blood (848-850). - -848. - -Death in old men, when not from fever, is caused by the veins which -go from the spleen to the valve of the liver, and which thicken so -much in the walls that they become closed up and leave no passage -for the blood that nourishes it. - -[6]The incessant current of the blood through the veins makes these -veins thicken and become callous, so that at last they close up and -prevent the passage of the blood. - -849. - -The waters return with constant motion from the lowest depths of the -sea to the utmost height of the mountains, not obeying the nature of -heavier bodies; and in this they resemble the blood of animated -beings which always moves from the sea of the heart and flows -towards the top of the head; and here it may burst a vein, as may be -seen when a vein bursts in the nose; all the blood rises from below -to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes out from the -burst vein in the earth, it obeys the law of other bodies that are -heavier than the air since it always seeks low places. - -[Footnote: From this passage it is quite plain that Leonardo had not -merely a general suspicion of the circulation of the blood but a -very clear conception of it. Leonardo's studies on the muscles of -the heart are to be found in the MS. W. An. III. but no information -about them has hitherto been made public. The limits of my plan in -this work exclude all purely anatomical writings, therefore only a -very brief excerpt from this note book can be given here. WILLIAM -HARVEY (born 1578 and Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge from 1615) -is always considered to have been the discoverer of the circulation -of the blood. He studied medicine at Padua in 1598, and in 1628 -brought out his memorable and important work: _De motu cordis et -sanguinis_.] - -850. - -That the blood which returns when the heart opens again is not the -same as that which closes the valves of the heart. - -Some notes on medicine (851-855). - -851. - -Make them give you the definition and remedies for the case ... and -you will see that men are selected to be doctors for diseases they -do not know. - -852. - -A remedy for scratches taught me by the Herald to the King of -France. 4 ounces of virgin wax, 4 ounces of colophony, 2 ounces of -incense. Keep each thing separate; and melt the wax, and then put in -the incense and then the colophony, make a mixture of it and put it -on the sore place. - -853. - -Medicine is the restoration of discordant elements; sickness is the -discord of the elements infused into the living body. - -854. - -Those who are annoyed by sickness at sea should drink extract of -wormwood. - -855. - -To keep in health, this rule is wise: Eat only when you want and -relish food. Chew thoroughly that it may do you good. Have it well -cooked, unspiced and undisguised. He who takes medicine is ill -advised. - -[Footnote: This appears to be a sketch for a poem.] - -856. - -I teach you to preserve your health; and in this you will succed -better in proportion as you shun physicians, because their medicines -are the work of alchemists. - -[Footnote: This passage is written on the back of the drawing Pl. -CVIII. Compare also No. 1184.] - -_XV_. - -_Astronomy_. - -_Ever since the publication by Venturi in_ 1797 _and Libri in_ 1840 -_of some few passages of Leonardo's astronomical notes, scientific -astronomers have frequently expressed the opinion, that they must -have been based on very important discoveries, and that the great -painter also deserved a conspicuous place in the history of this -science. In the passages here printed, a connected view is given of -his astronomical studies as they lie scattered through the -manuscripts, which have come down to us. Unlike his other purely -scientific labours, Leonardo devotes here a good deal of attention -to the opinions of the ancients, though he does not follow the -practice universal in his day of relying on them as authorities; he -only quotes them, as we shall see, in order to refute their -arguments. His researches throughout have the stamp of independent -thought. There is nothing in these writings to lead us to suppose -that they were merely an epitome of the general learning common to -the astronomers of the period. As early as in the XIVth century -there were chairs of astronomy in the universities of Padua and -Bologna, but so late as during the entire XVIth century Astronomy -and Astrology were still closely allied._ - -_It is impossible now to decide whether Leonardo, when living in -Florence, became acquainted in his youth with the doctrines of Paolo -Toscanelli the great astronomer and mathematician (died_ 1482_), of -whose influence and teaching but little is now known, beyond the -fact that he advised and encouraged Columbus to carry out his -project of sailing round the world. His name is nowhere mentioned by -Leonardo, and from the dates of the manuscripts from which the texts -on astronomy are taken, it seems highly probable that Leonardo -devoted his attention to astronomical studies less in his youth than -in his later years. It was evidently his purpose to treat of -Astronomy in a connected form and in a separate work (see the -beginning of Nos._ 866 _and_ 892_; compare also No._ 1167_). It is -quite in accordance with his general scientific thoroughness that he -should propose to write a special treatise on Optics as an -introduction to Astronomy (see Nos._ 867 _and_ 877_). Some of the -chapters belonging to this Section bear the title "Prospettiva" -_(see Nos._ 869 _and_ 870_), this being the term universally applied -at the time to Optics as well as Perspective (see Vol. I, p._ 10, -_note to No._ 13, _l._ 10_)_. - -_At the beginning of the XVIth century the Ptolemaic theory of the -universe was still universally accepted as the true one, and -Leonardo conceives of the earth as fixed, with the moon and sun -revolving round it, as they are represented in the diagram to No._ -897. _He does not go into any theory of the motions of the planets; -with regard to these and the fixed stars he only investigates the -phenomena of their luminosity. The spherical form of the earth he -takes for granted as an axiom from the first, and he anticipates -Newton by pointing out the universality of Gravitation not merely in -the earth, but even in the moon. Although his acute research into -the nature of the moon's light and the spots on the moon did not -bring to light many results of lasting importance beyond making it -evident that they were a refutation of the errors of his -contemporaries, they contain various explanations of facts which -modern science need not modify in any essential point, and -discoveries which history has hitherto assigned to a very much later -date_. - -_The ingenious theory by which he tries to explain the nature of -what is known as earth shine, the reflection of the sun's rays by -the earth towards the moon, saying that it is a peculiar refraction, -originating in the innumerable curved surfaces of the waves of the -sea may be regarded as absurd; but it must not be forgotten that he -had no means of detecting the fundamental error on which he based -it, namely: the assumption that the moon was at a relatively short -distance from the earth. So long as the motion of the earth round -the sun remained unknown, it was of course impossible to form any -estimate of the moon's distance from the earth by a calculation of -its parallax_. - -_Before the discovery of the telescope accurate astronomical -observations were only possible to a very limited extent. It would -appear however from certain passages in the notes here printed for -the first time, that Leonardo was in a position to study the spots -in the moon more closely than he could have done with the unaided -eye. So far as can be gathered from the mysterious language in which -the description of his instrument is wrapped, he made use of -magnifying glasses; these do not however seem to have been -constructed like a telescope--telescopes were first made about_ -1600. _As LIBRI pointed out_ (Histoire des Sciences mathematiques -III, 101) _Fracastoro of Verona_ (1473-1553) _succeeded in -magnifying the moon's face by an arrangement of lenses (compare No._ -910, _note), and this gives probability to Leonardo's invention at a -not much earlier date._ - -I. - -THE EARTH AS A PLANET. - -The earth's place in the universe (857. 858). - -857. - -The equator, the line of the horizon, the ecliptic, the meridian: - -These lines are those which in all their parts are equidistant from -the centre of the globe. - -858. - -The earth is not in the centre of the Sun's orbit nor at the centre -of the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements, and -united with them. And any one standing on the moon, when it and the -sun are both beneath us, would see this our earth and the element of -water upon it just as we see the moon, and the earth would light it -as it lights us. - -The fundamental laws of the solar system (859-864). - -859. - -Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical -motion, and the grand-child of spiritual motion, and the mother and -origin of gravity. Gravity is limited to the elements of water and -earth; but this force is unlimited, and by it infinite worlds might -be moved if instruments could be made by which the force could be -generated. - -Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance are the -four external powers on which all actions of mortals depend. - -Force has its origin in spiritual motion; and this motion, flowing -through the limbs of sentient animals, enlarges their muscles. Being -enlarged by this current the muscles are shrunk in length and -contract the tendons which are connected with them, and this is the -cause of the force of the limbs in man. - -The quality and quantity of the force of a man are able to give -birth to other forces, which will be proportionally greater as the -motions produced by them last longer. - -[Footnote: Only part of this passage belongs, strictly speaking, to -this section. The principle laid down in the second paragraph is -more directly connected with the notes given in the preceding -section on Physiology.] - -860. - -Why does not the weight _o_ remain in its place? It does not remain -because it has no resistance. Where will it move to? It will move -towards the centre [of gravity]. And why by no other line? Because a -weight which has no support falls by the shortest road to the lowest -point which is the centre of the world. And why does the weight know -how to find it by so short a line? Because it is not independant and -does not move about in various directions. - -[Footnote: This text and the sketch belonging to it, are reproduced -on Pl. CXXI.] - -861. - -Let the earth turn on which side it may the surface of the waters -will never move from its spherical form, but will always remain -equidistant from the centre of the globe. - -Granting that the earth might be removed from the centre of the -globe, what would happen to the water? - -It would remain in a sphere round that centre equally thick, but the -sphere would have a smaller diameter than when it enclosed the -earth. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 896, lines 48-64; and No. 936.] - -862. - -Supposing the earth at our antipodes which supports the ocean were -to rise and stand uncovered, far out of the sea, but remaining -almost level, by what means afterwards, in the course of time, would -mountains and vallies be formed? - -And the rocks with their various strata? - -863. - -Each man is always in the middle of the surface of the earth and -under the zenith of his own hemisphere, and over the centre of the -earth. - -864. - -Mem.: That I must first show the distance of the sun from the earth; -and, by means of a ray passing through a small hole into a dark -chamber, detect its real size; and besides this, by means of the -aqueous sphere calculate the size of the globe ... - -Here it will be shown, that when the sun is in the meridian of our -hemisphere [Footnote 10: _Antipodi orientali cogli occidentali_. The -word _Antipodes_ does not here bear its literal sense, but--as we -may infer from the simultaneous reference to inhabitants of the -North and South-- is used as meaning men living at a distance of 90 -degrees from the zenith of the rational horizon of each observer.], -the antipodes to the East and to the West, alike, and at the same -time, see the sun mirrored in their waters; and the same is equally -true of the arctic and antarctic poles, if indeed they are -inhabited. - -How to prove that the earth is a planet (865-867). - -865. - -That the earth is a star. - -866. - -In your discourse you must prove that the earth is a star much like -the moon, and the glory of our universe; and then you must treat of -the size of various stars, according to the authors. - -867. - -THE METHOD OF PROVING THAT THE EARTH IS A STAR. - -First describe the eye; then show how the twinkling of a star is -really in the eye and why one star should twinkle more than another, -and how the rays from the stars originate in the eye; and add, that -if the twinkling of the stars were really in the stars --as it seems -to be--that this twinkling appears to be an extension as great as -the diameter of the body of the star; therefore, the star being -larger than the earth, this motion effected in an instant would be a -rapid doubling of the size of the star. Then prove that the surface -of the air where it lies contiguous to fire, and the surface of the -fire where it ends are those into which the solar rays penetrate, -and transmit the images of the heavenly bodies, large when they -rise, and small, when they are on the meridian. Let _a_ be the earth -and _n d m_ the surface of the air in contact with the sphere of -fire; _h f g_ is the orbit of the moon or, if you please, of the -sun; then I say that when the sun appears on the horizon _g_, its -rays are seen passing through the surface of the air at a slanting -angle, that is _o m_; this is not the case at _d k_. And so it -passes through a greater mass of air; all of _e m_ is a denser -atmosphere. - -868. - -Beyond the sun and us there is darkness and so the air appears blue. - -[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 301.] - -869. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -It is possible to find means by which the eye shall not see remote -objects as much diminished as in natural perspective, which -diminishes them by reason of the convexity of the eye which -necessarily intersects, at its surface, the pyramid of every image -conveyed to the eye at a right angle on its spherical surface. But -by the method I here teach in the margin [9] these pyramids are -intersected at right angles close to the surface of the pupil. The -convex pupil of the eye can take in the whole of our hemisphere, -while this will show only a single star; but where many small stars -transmit their images to the surface of the pupil those stars are -extremely small; here only one star is seen but it will be large. -And so the moon will be seen larger and its spots of a more defined -form [Footnote 20 and fol.: Telescopes were not in use till a century -later. Compare No. 910 and page 136.]. You must place close to the -eye a glass filled with the water of which mention is made in number -4 of Book 113 "On natural substances" [Footnote 23: _libro_ 113. -This is perhaps the number of a book in some library catalogue. But -it may refer, on the other hand, to one of the 120 Books mentioned -in No. 796. l. 84.]; for this water makes objects which are enclosed -in balls of crystalline glass appear free from the glass. - -OF THE EYE. - -Among the smaller objects presented to the pupil of the eye, that -which is closest to it, will be least appreciable to the eye. And at -the same time, the experiments here made with the power of sight, -show that it is not reduced to speck if the &c. [32][Footnote 32: -Compare with this the passage in Vol. I, No. 52, written about -twenty years earlier.]. - -Read in the margin. - -[34]Those objects are seen largest which come to the eye at the -largest angles. - -But the images of the objects conveyed to the pupil of the eye are -distributed to the pupil exactly as they are distributed in the air: -and the proof of this is in what follows; that when we look at the -starry sky, without gazing more fixedly at one star than another, -the sky appears all strewn with stars; and their proportions to the -eye are the same as in the sky and likewise the spaces between them -[61]. - -[Footnote: 9. 32. _in margine:_ lines 34-61 are, in the original, -written on the margin and above them is the diagram to which -Leonardo seems to refer here.] - -870. - -PERSPECTIVE. - -Among objects moved from the eye at equal distance, that undergoes -least diminution which at first was most remote. - -When various objects are removed at equal distances farther from -their original position, that which was at first the farthest from -the eye will diminish least. And the proportion of the diminution -will be in proportion to the relative distance of the objects from -the eye before they were removed. - -That is to say in the object _t_ and the object _e_ the proportion -of their distances from the eye _a_ is quintuple. I remove each from -its place and set it farther from the eye by one of the 5 parts into -which the proposition is divided. Hence it happens that the nearest -to the eye has doubled the distance and according to the last -proposition but one of this, is diminished by the half of its whole -size; and the body _e_, by the same motion, is diminished 1/5 of its -whole size. Therefore, by that same last proposition but one, that -which is said in this last proposition is true; and this I say of -the motions of the celestial bodies which are more distant by 3500 -miles when setting than when overhead, and yet do not increase or -diminish in any sensible degree. - -871. - -_a b_ is the aperture through which the sun passes, and if you could -measure the size of the solar rays at _n m_, you could accurately -trace the real lines of the convergence of the solar rays, the -mirror being at _a b_, and then show the reflected rays at equal -angles to _n m_; but, as you want to have them at _n m_, take them -at the. inner side of the aperture at cd, where they maybe measured -at the spot where the solar rays fall. Then place your mirror at the -distance _a b_, making the rays _d b_, _c a_ fall and then be -reflected at equal angles towards _c d_; and this is the best -method, but you must use this mirror always in the same month, and -the same day, and hour and instant, and this will be better than at -no fixed time because when the sun is at a certain distance it -produces a certain pyramid of rays. - -872. - -_a_, the side of the body in light and shade _b_, faces the whole -portion of the hemisphere bed _e f_, and does not face any part of -the darkness of the earth. And the same occurs at the point _o_; -therefore the space a _o_ is throughout of one and the same -brightness, and s faces only four degrees of the hemisphere _d e f g -h_, and also the whole of the earth _s h_, which will render it -darker; and how much must be demonstrated by calculation. [Footnote: -This passage, which has perhaps a doubtful right to its place in -this connection, stands in the Manuscript between those given in -Vol. I as No. 117 and No. 427.] - -873. - -THE REASON OF THE INCREASED SIZE OF THE SUN IN THE WEST. - -Some mathematicians explain that the sun looks larger as it sets, -because the eye always sees it through a denser atmosphere, alleging -that objects seen through mist or through water appear larger. To -these I reply: No; because objects seen through a mist are similar -in colour to those at a distance; but not being similarly diminished -they appear larger. Again, nothing increases in size in smooth -water; and the proof of this may be seen by throwing a light on a -board placed half under water. But the reason why the sun looks -larger is that every luminous body appears larger in proportion as -it is more remote. [Footnote: Lines 5 and 6 are thus rendered by M. -RAVAISSON in his edition of MS. A. "_De meme, aucune chose ne croit -dans l'eau plane, et tu en feras l'experience_ en calquant un ais -sous l'eau."--Compare the diagrams in Vol. I, p. 114.] - -On the luminosity of the Earth in the universal space (874-878). - -874. - -In my book I propose to show, how the ocean and the other seas must, -by means of the sun, make our world shine with the appearance of a -moon, and to the remoter worlds it looks like a star; and this I -shall prove. - -Show, first that every light at a distance from the eye throws out -rays which appear to increase the size of the luminous body; and -from this it follows that 2 ...[Footnote 10: Here the text breaks -off; lines 11 and fol. are written in the margin.]. - -[11]The moon is cold and moist. Water is cold and moist. Thus our -seas must appear to the moon as the moon does to us. - -875. - -The waves in water magnify the image of an object reflected in it. - -Let _a_ be the sun, and _n m_ the ruffled water, _b_ the image of -the sun when the water is smooth. Let _f_ be the eye which sees the -image in all the waves included within the base of the triangle _c e -f_. Now the sun reflected in the unruffled surface occupied the -space _c d_, while in the ruffled surface it covers all the watery -space _c e_ (as is proved in the 4th of my "Perspective") [Footnote -9: _Nel quarto della mia prospettiva_. If this reference is to the -diagrams accompanying the text--as is usual with Leonardo--and not -to some particular work, the largest of the diagrams here given must -be meant. It is the lowest and actually the fifth, but he would have -called it the fourth, for the text here given is preceded on the -same page of the manuscript by a passage on whirlpools, with the -diagram belonging to it also reproduced here. The words _della mia -prospettiva_ may therefore indicate that the diagram to the -preceding chapter treating on a heterogeneal subject is to be -excluded. It is a further difficulty that this diagram belongs -properly to lines 9-10 and not to the preceding sentence. The -reflection of the sun in water is also discussed in the Theoretical -part of the Book on Painting; see Vol. I, No. 206, 207.] and it will -cover more of the water in proportion as the reflected image is -remote from the eye [10]. - -[Footnote: In the original sketch, inside the circle in the first -diagram, is written _Sole_ (sun), and to the right of it _luna_ -(moon). Thus either of these heavenly bodies may be supposed to fill -that space. Within the lower circle is written _simulacro_ (image). -In the two next diagrams at the spot here marked _L_ the word _Luna_ -is written, and in the last _sole_ is written in the top circle at -_a_.] - -The image of the sun will be more brightly shown in small waves than -in large ones--and this is because the reflections or images of the -sun are more numerous in the small waves than in large ones, and the -more numerous reflections of its radiance give a larger light than -the fewer. - -Waves which intersect like the scales of a fir cone reflect the -image of the sun with the greatest splendour; and this is the case -because the images are as many as the ridges of the waves on which -the sun shines, and the shadows between these waves are small and -not very dark; and the radiance of so many reflections together -becomes united in the image which is transmitted to the eye, so that -these shadows are imperceptible. - -That reflection of the sun will cover most space on the surface of -the water which is most remote from the eye which sees it. - -Let _a_ be the sun, _p q_ the reflection of the sun; _a b_ is the -surface of the water, in which the sun is mirrored, and _r_ the eye -which sees this reflection on the surface of the water occupying the -space _o m_. _c_ is the eye at a greater distance from the surface -of the water and also from the reflection; hence this reflection -covers a larger space of water, by the distance between _n_ and _o_. - -876. - -It is impossible that the side of a spherical mirror, illuminated by -the sun, should reflect its radiance unless this mirror were -undulating or filled with bubbles. - -You see here the sun which lights up the moon, a spherical mirror, -and all of its surface, which faces the sun is rendered radiant. - -Whence it may be concluded that what shines in the moon is water -like that of our seas, and in waves as that is; and that portion -which does not shine consists of islands and terra firma. - -This diagram, of several spherical bodies interposed between the eye -and the sun, is given to show that, just as the reflection of the -sun is seen in each of these bodies, in the same way that image may -be seen in each curve of the waves of the sea; and as in these many -spheres many reflections of the sun are seen, so in many waves there -are many images, each of which at a great distance is much magnified -to the eye. And, as this happens with each wave, the spaces -interposed between the waves are concealed; and, for this reason, it -looks as though the many suns mirrored in the many waves were but -one continuous sun; and the shadows,, mixed up with the luminous -images, render this radiance less brilliant than that of the sun -mirrored in these waves. - -[Footnote: In the original, at letter _A_ in the diagram "_Sole_" -(the sun) is written, and at _o_ "_occhio_" (the eye).] - -877. - -This will have before it the treatise on light and shade. - -The edges in the moon will be most strongly lighted and reflect most -light, because, there, nothing will be visible but the tops of the -waves of the water [Footnote 5: I have thought it unnecessary to -reproduce the detailed explanation of the theory of reflection on -waves contained in the passage which follows this.]. - -878. - -The sun will appear larger in moving water or on waves than in still -water; an example is the light reflected on the strings of a -monochord. - -II. - -THE SUN. - -The question of the true and of the apparent size of the sun -(879-884). - -879. - -IN PRAISE OF THE SUN. - -If you look at the stars, cutting off the rays (as may be done by -looking through a very small hole made with the extreme point of a -very fine needle, placed so as almost to touch the eye), you will -see those stars so minute that it would seem as though nothing could -be smaller; it is in fact their great distance which is the reason -of their diminution, for many of them are very many times larger -than the star which is the earth with water. Now reflect what this -our star must look like at such a distance, and then consider how -many stars might be added--both in longitude and latitude--between -those stars which are scattered over the darkened sky. But I cannot -forbear to condemn many of the ancients, who said that the sun was -no larger than it appears; among these was Epicurus, and I believe -that he founded his reason on the effects of a light placed in our -atmosphere equidistant from the centre of the earth. Any one looking -at it never sees it diminished in size at whatever distance; and the -rea- - -[Footnote 879-882: What Leonardo says of Epicurus-- who according to -LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, and MADLER, _Geschichte der -Himmelskunde_, did not devote much attention to the study of -celestial phenomena--, he probably derived from Book X of Diogenes -Laertius, whose _Vitae Philosophorum_ was not printed in Greek till -1533, but the Latin translation appeared in 1475.] - -880. - -sons of its size and power I shall reserve for Book 4. But I wonder -greatly that Socrates - -[Footnote 2: _Socrates;_ I have little light to throw on this -reference. Plato's Socrates himself declares on more than one -occasion that in his youth he had turned his mind to the study of -celestial phenomena (METEWPA) but not in his later years (see G. C. -LEWIS, _The Astronomy of the ancients_, page 109; MADLER, -_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, page 41). Here and there in Plato's -writings we find incidental notes on the sun and other heavenly -bodies. Leonardo may very well have known of these, since the Latin -version by Ficinus was printed as early as 1491; indeed an undated -edition exists which may very likely have appeared between 1480--90. - -There is but one passage in Plato, Epinomis (p. 983) where he speaks -of the physical properties of the sun and says that it is larger -than the earth. - -Aristotle who goes very fully into the subject says the same. A -complete edition of Aristotele's works was first printed in Venice -1495-98, but a Latin version of the Books _De Coelo et Mundo_ and -_De Physica_ had been printed in Venice as early as in 1483 (H. -MULLER-STRUBING).] - -should have depreciated that solar body, saying that it was of the -nature of incandescent stone, and the one who opposed him as to that -error was not far wrong. But I only wish I had words to serve me to -blame those who are fain to extol the worship of men more than that -of the sun; for in the whole universe there is nowhere to be seen a -body of greater magnitude and power than the sun. Its light gives -light to all the celestial bodies which are distributed throughout -the universe; and from it descends all vital force, for the heat -that is in living beings comes from the soul [vital spark]; and -there is no other centre of heat and light in the universe as will -be shown in Book 4; and certainly those who have chosen to worship -men as gods--as Jove, Saturn, Mars and the like--have fallen into -the gravest error, seeing that even if a man were as large as our -earth, he would look no bigger than a little star which appears but -as a speck in the universe; and seeing again that these men are -mortal, and putrid and corrupt in their sepulchres. - -Marcellus [Footnote 23: I have no means of identifying _Marcello_ -who is named in the margin. It may be Nonius Marcellus, an obscure -Roman Grammarian of uncertain date (between the IInd and Vth -centuries A. C.) the author of the treatise _De compendiosa doctrina -per litteras ad filium_ in which he treats _de rebus omnibus et -quibusdam aliis_. This was much read in the middle ages. The _editto -princeps_ is dated 1470 (H. MULLER-STRUBING).] and many others -praise the sun. - -881. - -Epicurus perhaps saw the shadows cast by columns on the walls in -front of them equal in diameter to the columns from which the -shadows were cast; and the breadth of the shadows being parallel -from beginning to end, he thought he might infer that the sun also -was directly opposite to this parallel and that consequently its -breadth was not greater than that of the column; not perceiving that -the diminution in the shadow was insensibly slight by reason of the -remoteness of the sun. If the sun were smaller than the earth, the -stars on a great portion of our hemisphere would have no light, -which is evidence against Epicurus who says the sun is only as large -as it appears. - -[Footnote: In the original the writing is across the diagram.] - -882. - -Epicurus says the sun is the size it looks. Hence as it looks about -a foot across we must consider that to be its size; it would follow -that when the moon eclipses the sun, the sun ought not to appear the -larger, as it does. Then, the moon being smaller than the sun, the -moon must be less than a foot, and consequently when our world -eclipses the moon, it must be less than a foot by a finger's -breadth; inasmuch as if the sun is a foot across, and our earth -casts a conical shadow on the moon, it is inevitable that the -luminous cause of the cone of shadow must be larger than the opaque -body which casts the cone of shadow. - -883. - -To measure how many times the diameter of the sun will go into its -course in 24 hours. - -Make a circle and place it to face the south, after the manner of a -sundial, and place a rod in the middle in such a way as that its -length points to the centre of this circle, and mark the shadow cast -in the sunshine by this rod on the circumference of the circle, and -this shadow will be--let us say-- as broad as from _a_ to _n_. Now -measure how many times this shadow will go into this circumference -of a circle, and that will give you the number of times that the -solar body will go into its orbit in 24 hours. Thus you may see -whether Epicurus was [right in] saying that the sun was only as -large as it looked; for, as the apparent diameter of the sun is -about a foot, and as that sun would go a thousand times into the -length of its course in 24 hours, it would have gone a thousand -feet, that is 300 braccia, which is the sixth of a mile. Whence it -would follow that the course of the sun during the day would be the -sixth part of a mile and that this venerable snail, the sun will -have travelled 25 braccia an hour. - -884. - -Posidonius composed books on the size of the sun. [Footnote: -Poseidonius of Apamea, commonly called the Rhodian, because he -taught in Rhodes, was a Stoic philosopher, a contemporary and friend -of Cicero's, and the author of numerous works on natural science, -among them. - -Strabo quotes no doubt from one of his works, when he says that -Poseidonius explained how it was that the sun looked larger when it -was rising or setting than during the rest of its course (III, p. -135). Kleomedes, a later Greek Naturalist also mentions this -observation of Poseidonius' without naming the title of his work; -however, as Kleomedes' Cyclia Theorica was not printed till 1535, -Leonardo must have derived his quotation from Strabo. He probably -wrote this note in 1508, and as the original Greek was first printed -in Venice in 1516, we must suppose him to quote here from the -translation by Guarinus Veronensis, which was printed as early as -1471, also at Venice (H. MULLER-STRUBING).] - -Of the nature of Sunlight. - -885. - -OF THE PROOF THAT THE SUN IS HOT BY NATURE AND NOT BY VIRTUE. - -Of the nature of Sunlight. - -That the heat of the sun resides in its nature and not in its virtue -[or mode of action] is abundantly proved by the radiance of the -solar body on which the human eye cannot dwell and besides this no -less manifestly by the rays reflected from a concave mirror, -which--when they strike the eye with such splendour that the eye -cannot bear them--have a brilliancy equal to the sun in its own -place. And that this is true I prove by the fact that if the mirror -has its concavity formed exactly as is requisite for the collecting -and reflecting of these rays, no created being could endure the -heat that strikes from the reflected rays of such a mirror. And if -you argue that the mirror itself is cold and yet send forth hot -rays, I should reply that those rays come really from the sun and -that it is the ray of the concave mirror after having passed through -the window. - -Considerations as to the size of the sun (886-891). - -886. - -The sun does not move. [Footnote: This sentence occurs incidentally -among mathematical notes, and is written in unusually large -letters.] - -887. - -PROOF THAT THE NEARER YOU ARE TO THE SOURCE OF THE SOLAR RAYS, THE -LARGER WILL THE REFLECTION OF THE SUN FROM THE SEA APPEAR TO YOU. - -[Footnote: Lines 4 and fol. Compare Vol. I, Nos. 130, 131.] If it is -from the centre that the sun employs its radiance to intensify the -power of its whole mass, it is evident that the farther its rays -extend, the more widely they will be divided; and this being so, -you, whose eye is near the water that mirrors the sun, see but a -small portion of the rays of the sun strike the surface of the -water, and reflecting the form of the sun. But if you were near to -the sun--as would be the case when the sun is on the meridian and -the sea to the westward--you would see the sun, mirrored in the sea, -of a very great size; because, as you are nearer to the sun, your -eye taking in the rays nearer to the point of radiation takes more -of them in, and a great splendour is the result. And in this way it -can be proved that the moon must have seas which reflect the sun, -and that the parts which do not shine are land. - -888. - -Take the measure of the sun at the solstice in mid-June. - -889. - -WHY THE SUN APPEARS LARGER WHEN SETTING THAN AT NOON, WHEN IT IS -NEAR TO US. - -Every object seen through a curved medium seems to be of larger size -than it is. - -[Footnote: At A is written _sole_ (the sun), at B _terra_ (the -earth).] - -890. - -Because the eye is small it can only see the image of the sun as of -a small size. If the eye were as large as the sun it would see the -image of the sun in water of the same size as the real body of the -sun, so long as the water is smooth. - -891. - -A METHOD OF SEEING THE SUN ECLIPSED WITHOUT PAIN TO THE EYE. - -Take a piece of paper and pierce holes in it with a needle, and look -at the sun through these holes. - -III. - -THE MOON. - -On the luminousity of the moon (892-901). - -892. - -OF THE MOON. - -As I propose to treat of the nature of the moon, it is necessary -that first I should describe the perspective of mirrors, whether -plane, concave or convex; and first what is meant by a luminous ray, -and how it is refracted by various kinds of media; then, when a -reflected ray is most powerful, whether when the angle of incidence -is acute, right, or obtuse, or from a convex, a plane, or a concave -surface; or from an opaque or a transparent body. Besides this, how -it is that the solar rays which fall on the waves of the sea, are -seen by the eye of the same width at the angle nearest to the eye, -as at the highest line of the waves on the horizon; but -notwithstanding this the solar rays reflected from the waves of the -sea assume the pyramidal form and consequently, at each degree of -distance increase proportionally in size, although to our sight, -they appear as parallel. - -1st. Nothing that has very little weight is opaque. - -2dly. Nothing that is excessively weighty can remain beneath that -which is heavier. - -3dly. As to whether the moon is situated in the centre of its -elements or not. - -And, if it has no proper place of its own, like the earth, in the -midst of its elements, why does it not fall to the centre of our -elements? [Footnote 26: The problem here propounded by Leonardo was -not satisfactorily answered till Newton in 1682 formulated the law -of universal attraction and gravitation. Compare No. 902, lines -5-15.] - -And, if the moon is not in the centre of its own elements and yet -does not fall, it must then be lighter than any other element. - -And, if the moon is lighter than the other elements why is it opaque -and not transparent? - -When objects of various sizes, being placed at various distances, -look of equal size, there must be the same relative proportion in -the distances as in the magnitudes of the objects. - -[Footnote: In the diagram Leonardo wrote _sole_ at the place marked -_A_.] - -893. - -OF THE MOON AND WHETHER IT IS POLISHED AND SPHERICAL. - -The image of the sun in the moon is powerfully luminous, and is only -on a small portion of its surface. And the proof may be seen by -taking a ball of burnished gold and placing it in the dark with a -light at some distance from it; and then, although it will -illuminate about half of the ball, the eye will perceive its -reflection only in a small part of its surface, and all the rest of -the surface reflects the darkness which surrounds it; so that it is -only in that spot that the image of the light is seen, and all the -rest remains invisible, the eye being at a distance from the ball. -The same thing would happen on the surface of the moon if it were -polished, lustrous and opaque, like all bodies with a reflecting -surface. - -Show how, if you were standing on the moon or on a star, our earth -would seem to reflect the sun as the moon does. - -And show that the image of the sun in the sea cannot appear one and -undivided, as it appears in a perfectly plane mirror. - -894. - -How shadows are lost at great distances, as is shown by the shadow -side of the moon which is never seen. [Footnote: Compare also Vol. -I, Nos. 175-179.] - -895. - -Either the moon has intrinsic luminosity or not. If it has, why does -it not shine without the aid of the sun? But if it has not any light -in itself it must of necessity be a spherical mirror; and if it is a -mirror, is it not proved in Perspective that the image of a luminous -object will never be equal to the extent of surface of the -reflecting body that it illuminates? And if it be thus [Footnote 13: -At A, in the diagram, Leonardo wrote "_sole_" (the sun), and at B -"_luna o noi terra_" (the moon or our earth). Compare also the text -of No. 876.], as is here shown at _r s_ in the figure, whence comes -so great an extent of radiance as that of the full moon as we see -it, at the fifteenth day of the moon? - -896. - -OF THE MOON. - -The moon has no light in itself; but so much of it as faces the sun -is illuminated, and of that illumined portion we see so much as -faces the earth. And the moon's night receives just as much light as -is lent it by our waters as they reflect the image of the sun, which -is mirrored in all those waters which are on the side towards the -sun. The outside or surface of the waters forming the seas of the -moon and of the seas of our globe is always ruffled little or much, -or more or less--and this roughness causes an extension of the -numberless images of the sun which are repeated in the ridges and -hollows, the sides and fronts of the innumerable waves; that is to -say in as many different spots on each wave as our eyes find -different positions to view them from. This could not happen, if the -aqueous sphere which covers a great part of the moon were uniformly -spherical, for then the images of the sun would be one to each -spectator, and its reflections would be separate and independent and -its radiance would always appear circular; as is plainly to be seen -in the gilt balls placed on the tops of high buildings. But if those -gilt balls were rugged or composed of several little balls, like -mulberries, which are a black fruit composed of minute round -globules, then each portion of these little balls, when seen in the -sun, would display to the eye the lustre resulting from the -reflection of the sun, and thus, in one and the same body many tiny -suns would be seen; and these often combine at a long distance and -appear as one. The lustre of the new moon is brighter and stronger, -than when the moon is full; and the reason of this is that the angle -of incidence is more obtuse in the new than in the full moon, in -which the angles [of incidence and reflection] are highly acute. The -waves of the moon therefore mirror the sun in the hollows of the -waves as well as on the ridges, and the sides remain in shadow. But -at the sides of the moon the hollows of the waves do not catch the -sunlight, but only their crests; and thus the images are fewer and -more mixed up with the shadows in the hollows; and this -intermingling of the shaded and illuminated spots comes to the eye -with a mitigated splendour, so that the edges will be darker, -because the curves of the sides of the waves are insufficient to -reflect to the eye the rays that fall upon them. Now the new moon -naturally reflects the solar rays more directly towards the eye from -the crests of the waves than from any other part, as is shown by the -form of the moon, whose rays a strike the waves _b_ and are -reflected in the line _b d_, the eye being situated at _d_. This -cannot happen at the full moon, when the solar rays, being in the -west, fall on the extreme waters of the moon to the East from _n_ to -_m_, and are not reflected to the eye in the West, but are thrown -back eastwards, with but slight deflection from the straight course -of the solar ray; and thus the angle of incidence is very wide -indeed. - -The moon is an opaque and solid body and if, on the contrary, it -were transparent, it would not receive the light of the sun. - -The yellow or yolk of an egg remains in the middle of the albumen, -without moving on either side; now it is either lighter or heavier -than this albumen, or equal to it; if it is lighter, it ought to -rise above all the albumen and stop in contact with the shell of the -egg; and if it is heavier, it ought to sink, and if it is equal, it -might just as well be at one of the ends, as in the middle or below -[54]. - -[Footnote 48-64: Compare No. 861.] - -The innumerable images of the solar rays reflected from the -innumerable waves of the sea, as they fall upon those waves, are -what cause us to see the very broad and continuous radiance on the -surface of the sea. - -897. - -That the sun could not be mirrored in the body of the moon, which is -a convex mirror, in such a way as that so much of its surface as is -illuminated by the sun, should reflect the sun unless the moon had a -surface adapted to reflect it--in waves and ridges, like the surface -of the sea when its surface is moved by the wind. - -[Footnote: In the original diagrams _sole_ is written at the place -marked _A; luna_ at _C,_ and _terra_ at the two spots marked _B_.] - -The waves in water multiply the image of the object reflected in it. - -These waves reflect light, each by its own line, as the surface of -the fir cone does [Footnote 14: See the diagram p. 145.] - -These are 2 figures one different from the other; one with -undulating water and the other with smooth water. - -It is impossible that at any distance the image of the sun cast on -the surface of a spherical body should occupy the half of the -sphere. - -Here you must prove that the earth produces all the same effects -with regard to the moon, as the moon with regard to the earth. - -The moon, with its reflected light, does not shine like the sun, -because the light of the moon is not a continuous reflection of that -of the sun on its whole surface, but only on the crests and hollows -of the waves of its waters; and thus the sun being confusedly -reflected, from the admixture of the shadows that lie between the -lustrous waves, its light is not pure and clear as the sun is. - -[Footnote 38: This refers to the small diagram placed between _B_ -and _B_.--]. The earth between the moon on the fifteenth day and the -sun. [Footnote 39: See the diagram below the one referred to in the -preceding note.] Here the sun is in the East and the moon on the -fifteenth day in the West. [Footnote 40.41: Refers to the diagram -below the others.] The moon on the fifteenth [day] between the earth -and the sun. [41]Here it is the moon which has the sun to the West -and the earth to the East. - -898. - -WHAT SORT OF THING THE MOON IS. - -The moon is not of itself luminous, but is highly fitted to -assimilate the character of light after the manner of a mirror, or -of water, or of any other reflecting body; and it grows larger in -the East and in the West, like the sun and the other planets. And -the reason is that every luminous body looks larger in proportion as -it is remote. It is easy to understand that every planet and star is -farther from us when in the West than when it is overhead, by about -3500 miles, as is proved on the margin [Footnote 7: refers to the -first diagram.--A = _sole_ (the sun), B = _terra_ (the earth), C = -_luna_ (the moon).], and if you see the sun or moon mirrored in the -water near to you, it looks to you of the same size in the water as -in the sky. But if you recede to the distance of a mile, it will -look 100 times larger; and if you see the sun reflected in the sea -at sunset, its image would look to you more than 10 miles long; -because that reflected image extends over more than 10 miles of sea. -And if you could stand where the moon is, the sun would look to you, -as if it were reflected from all the sea that it illuminates by day; -and the land amid the water would appear just like the dark spots -that are on the moon, which, when looked at from our earth, appears -to men the same as our earth would appear to any men who might dwell -in the moon. - -[Footnote: This text has already been published by LIBRI: _Histoire -des Sciences,_ III, pp. 224, 225.] - -OF THE NATURE OF THE MOON. - -When the moon is entirely lighted up to our sight, we see its full -daylight; and at that time, owing to the reflection of the solar -rays which fall on it and are thrown off towards us, its ocean casts -off less moisture towards us; and the less light it gives the more -injurious it is. - -899. - -OF THE MOON. - -I say that as the moon has no light in itself and yet is luminous, -it is inevitable but that its light is caused by some other body. - -900. - -OF THE MOON. - -All my opponent's arguments to say that there is no water in the -moon. [Footnote: The objections are very minutely noted down in the -manuscript, but they hardly seem to have a place here.] - -901. - -Answer to Maestro Andrea da Imola, who said that the solar rays -reflected from a convex mirror are mingled and lost at a short -distance; whereby it is altogether denied that the luminous side of -the moon is of the nature of a mirror, and that consequently the -light is not produced by the innumerable multitude of the waves of -that sea, which I declared to be the portion of the moon which is -illuminated by the solar rays. - -Let _o p_ be the body of the sun, _c n s_ the moon, and _b_ the eye -which, above the base _c n_ of the cathetus _c n m_, sees the body -of the sun reflected at equal angles _c n_; and the same again on -moving the eye from _b_ to _a_. [Footnote: The large diagram on the -margin of page 161 belongs to this chapter.] - -Explanation of the lumen cinereum in the moon. - -902. - -OF THE MOON. - -No solid body is less heavy than the atmosphere. - -[Footnote: 1. On the margin are the words _tola romantina, -tola--ferro stagnato_ (tinned iron); _romantina_ is some special -kind of sheet-iron no longer known by that name.] - -Having proved that the part of the moon that shines consists of -water, which mirrors the body of the sun and reflects the radiance -it receives from it; and that, if these waters were devoid of waves, -it would appear small, but of a radiance almost like the sun; --[5] -It must now be shown whether the moon is a heavy or a light body: -for, if it were a heavy body--admitting that at every grade of -distance from the earth greater levity must prevail, so that water -is lighter than the earth, and air than water, and fire than air and -so on successively--it would seem that if the moon had density as it -really has, it would have weight, and having weight, that it could -not be sustained in the space where it is, and consequently that it -would fall towards the centre of the universe and become united to -the earth; or if not the moon itself, at least its waters would fall -away and be lost from it, and descend towards the centre, leaving -the moon without any and so devoid of lustre. But as this does not -happen, as might in reason be expected, it is a manifest sign that -the moon is surrounded by its own elements: that is to say water, -air and fire; and thus is, of itself and by itself, suspended in -that part of space, as our earth with its element is in this part of -space; and that heavy bodies act in the midst of its elements just -as other heavy bodies do in ours [Footnote 15: This passage would -certainly seem to establish Leonardo's claim to be regarded as the -original discoverer of the cause of the ashy colour of the new moon -(_lumen cinereum_). His observations however, having hitherto -remained unknown to astronomers, Moestlin and Kepler have been -credited with the discoveries which they made independently a -century later. - -Some disconnected notes treat of the same subject in MS. C. A. 239b; -718b and 719b; "_Perche la luna cinta della parte alluminata dal -sole in ponente, tra maggior splendore in mezzo a tal cerchio, che -quando essa eclissava il sole. Questo accade perche nell' eclissare -il sole ella ombrava il nostro oceano, il qual caso non accade -essendo in ponente, quando il sole alluma esso oceano_." The editors -of the "_Saggio_" who first published this passage (page 12) add -another short one about the seasons in the moon which I confess not -to have seen in the original manuscript: "_La luna ha ogni mese un -verno e una state, e ha maggiori freddi e maggiori caldi, e i suoi -equinozii son piu freddi de' nostri._"] - -When the eye is in the East and sees the moon in the West near to -the setting sun, it sees it with its shaded portion surrounded by -luminous portions; and the lateral and upper portion of this light -is derived from the sun, and the lower portion from the ocean in the -West, which receives the solar rays and reflects them on the lower -waters of the moon, and indeed affords the part of the moon that is -in shadow as much radiance as the moon gives the earth at midnight. -Therefore it is not totally dark, and hence some have believed that -the moon must in parts have a light of its own besides that which is -given it by the sun; and this light is due, as has been said, to the -above- mentioned cause,--that our seas are illuminated by the sun. - -Again, it might be said that the circle of radiance shown by the -moon when it and the sun are both in the West is wholly borrowed -from the sun, when it, and the sun, and the eye are situated as is -shown above. - -[Footnote 23. 24: The larger of the two diagrams reproduced above -stands between these two lines, and the smaller one is sketched in -the margin. At the spot marked _A_ Leonardo wrote _corpo solare_ -(solar body) in the larger diagram and _Sole_ (sun) in the smaller -one. At _C luna_ (moon) is written and at _B terra_ (the earth).] - -Some might say that the air surrounding the moon as an element, -catches the light of the sun as our atmosphere does, and that it is -this which completes the luminous circle on the body of the moon. - -Some have thought that the moon has a light of its own, but this -opinion is false, because they have founded it on that dim light -seen between the hornes of the new moon, which looks dark where it -is close to the bright part, while against the darkness of the -background it looks so light that many have taken it to be a ring of -new radiance completing the circle where the tips of the horns -illuminated by the sun cease to shine [Footnote 34: See Pl. CVIII, -No. 5.]. And this difference of background arises from the fact that -the portion of that background which is conterminous with the bright -part of the moon, by comparison with that brightness looks darker -than it is; while at the upper part, where a portion of the luminous -circle is to be seen of uniform width, the result is that the moon, -being brighter there than the medium or background on which it is -seen by comparison with that darkness it looks more luminous at that -edge than it is. And that brightness at such a time itself is -derived from our ocean and other inland-seas. These are, at that -time, illuminated by the sun which is already setting in such a way -as that the sea then fulfils the same function to the dark side of -the moon as the moon at its fifteenth day does to us when the sun is -set. And the small amount of light which the dark side of the moon -receives bears the same proportion to the light of that side which -is illuminated, as that... [Footnote 42: Here the text breaks off; -lines 43-52 are written on the margin.]. - -If you want to see how much brighter the shaded portion of the moon -is than the background on which it is seen, conceal the luminous -portion of the moon with your hand or with some other more distant -object. - -On the spots in the moon (903-907). - -903. - -THE SPOTS ON THE MOON. - -Some have said that vapours rise from the moon, after the manner of -clouds and are interposed between the moon and our eyes. But, if -this were the case, these spots would never be permanent, either as -to position or form; and, seeing the moon from various aspects, even -if these spots did not move they would change in form, as objects do -which are seen from different sides. - -904. - -OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON. - -Others say that the moon is composed of more or less transparent -parts; as though one part were something like alabaster and others -like crystal or glass. It would follow from this that the sun -casting its rays on the less transparent portions, the light would -remain on the surface, and so the denser part would be illuminated, -and the transparent portions would display the shadow of their -darker depths; and this is their account of the structure and nature -of the moon. And this opinion has found favour with many -philosophers, and particularly with Aristotle, and yet it is a false -view--for, in the various phases and frequent changes of the moon -and sun to our eyes, we should see these spots vary, at one time -looking dark and at another light: they would be dark when the sun -is in the West and the moon in the middle of the sky; for then the -transparent hollows would be in shadow as far as the tops of the -edges of those transparent hollows, because the sun could not then -fling his rays into the mouth of the hollows, which however, at full -moon, would be seen in bright light, at which time the moon is in -the East and faces the sun in the West; then the sun would -illuminate even the lowest depths of these transparent places and -thus, as there would be no shadows cast, the moon at these times -would not show us the spots in question; and so it would be, now -more and now less, according to the changes in the position of the -sun to the moon, and of the moon to our eyes, as I have said above. - -905. - -OF THE SPOTS ON THE MOON. - -It has been asserted, that the spots on the moon result from the -moon being of varying thinness or density; but if this were so, when -there is an eclipse of the moon the solar rays would pierce through -the portions which were thin as is alleged [Footnote 3-5: _Eclissi_. -This word, as it seems to me, here means eclipses of the sun; and -the sense of the passage, as I understand it, is that by the -foregoing hypothesis the moon, when it comes between the sun and the -earth must appear as if pierced,--we may say like a sieve.]. But as -we do not see this effect the opinion must be false. - -Others say that the surface of the moon is smooth and polished and -that, like a mirror, it reflects in itself the image of our earth. -This view is also false, inasmuch as the land, where it is not -covered with water, presents various aspects and forms. Hence when -the moon is in the East it would reflect different spots from those -it would show when it is above us or in the West; now the spots on -the moon, as they are seen at full moon, never vary in the course of -its motion over our hemisphere. A second reason is that an object -reflected in a convex body takes up but a small portion of that -body, as is proved in perspective [Footnote 18: _come e provato_. -This alludes to the accompanying diagram.]. The third reason is that -when the moon is full, it only faces half the hemisphere of the -illuminated earth, on which only the ocean and other waters reflect -bright light, while the land makes spots on that brightness; thus -half of our earth would be seen girt round with the brightness of -the sea lighted up by the sun, and in the moon this reflection would -be the smallest part of that moon. Fourthly, a radiant body cannot -be reflected from another equally radiant; therefore the sea, since -it borrows its brightness from the sun,--as the moon does--, could -not cause the earth to be reflected in it, nor indeed could the body -of the sun be seen reflected in it, nor indeed any star opposite to -it. - -906. - -If you keep the details of the spots of the moon under observation -you will often find great variation in them, and this I myself have -proved by drawing them. And this is caused by the clouds that rise -from the waters in the moon, which come between the sun and those -waters, and by their shadow deprive these waters of the sun's rays. -Thus those waters remain dark, not being able to reflect the solar -body. - -907. - -How the spots on the moon must have varied from what they formerly -were, by reason of the course of its waters. - -On the moon's halo. - -908. - -OF HALOS ROUND THE MOON. - -I have found, that the circles which at night seem to surround the -moon, of various sizes, and degrees of density are caused by various -gradations in the densities of the vapours which exist at different -altitudes between the moon and our eyes. And of these halos the -largest and least red is caused by the lowest of these vapours; the -second, smaller one, is higher up, and looks redder because it is -seen through two vapours. And so on, as they are higher they will -appear smaller and redder, because, between the eye and them, there -is thicker vapour. Whence it is proved that where they are seen to -be reddest, the vapours are most dense. - -On instruments for observing the moon (909. 910). - -909. - -If you want to prove why the moon appears larger than it is, when it -reaches the horizon; take a lens which is highly convex on one -surface and concave on the opposite, and place the concave side next -the eye, and look at the object beyond the convex surface; by this -means you will have produced an exact imitation of the atmosphere -included beneath the sphere of fire and outside that of water; for -this atmosphere is concave on the side next the earth, and convex -towards the fire. - -910. - -Construct glasses to see the moon magnified. - -[Footnote: See the Introduction, p. 136, Fracastoro says in his work -Homocentres: "_Per dua specilla ocularla si quis perspiciat, alteri -altero superposito, majora multo et propinquiora videbit -omnia.--Quin imo quaedam specilla ocularia fiunt tantae densitatis, -ut si per ea quis aut lunam, aut aliud siderum spectet, adeo -propinqua illa iudicet, ut ne turres ipsas excedant_" (sect. II c. 8 -and sect. III, c. 23).] - -I. -THE STARS. -On the light of the stars (911-913). -911. -The stars are visible by night and not by day, because we are -eneath the dense atmosphere, which is full of innumerable -articles of moisture, each of which independently, when the -ays of the sun fall upon it, reflects a radiance, and so these -umberless bright particles conceal the stars; and if it were not -or this atmosphere the sky would always display the stars against -ts darkness. -[Footnote: See No. 296, which also refers to starlight.] -912. -Whether the stars have their light from the sun or in themselves. -Some say that they shine of themselves, alledging that if Venus -nd Mercury had not a light of their own, when they come between -ur eye and the sun they would darken so much of the sun as they -ould cover from our eye. But this is false, for it is proved that - dark object against a luminous body is enveloped and entirely -oncealed by the lateral rays of the rest of that luminous body -nd so remains invisible. As may be seen when the sun is seen -hrough the boughs of trees bare of their leaves, at some distance -he branches do not conceal any portion of the sun from our eye. -he same thing happens with the above mentioned planets which, -hough they have no light of their own, do not--as has been said-- -onceal any part of the sun from our eye -[18]. - -SECOND ARGUMENT. - -Some say that the stars appear most brilliant at night in proportion -as they are higher up; and that if they had no light of their own, -the shadow of the earth which comes between them and the sun, would -darken them, since they would not face nor be faced by the solar -body. But those persons have not considered that the conical shadow -of the earth cannot reach many of the stars; and even as to those it -does reach, the cone is so much diminished that it covers very -little of the star's mass, and all the rest is illuminated by the -sun. - -Footnote: From this and other remarks (see No. 902) it is clear -hat Leonardo was familiar with the phenomena of Irradiation.] - -13. - -Why the planets appear larger in the East than they do overhead, -whereas the contrary should be the case, as they are 3500 miles -nearer to us when in mid sky than when on the horizon. - -All the degrees of the elements, through which the images of the -celestial bodies pass to reach the eye, are equal curves and the -angles by which the central line of those images passes through -them, are unequal angles [Footnote 13: _inequali_, here and -elsewhere does not mean unequal in the sense of not being equal to -each other, but angles which are not right angles.]; and the -distance is greater, as is shown by the excess of _a b_ beyond _a -d_; and the enlargement of these celestial bodies on the horizon is -shown by the 9th of the 7th. - -Observations on the stars. - -914. - -To see the real nature of the planets open the covering and note at -the base [Footnote 4: _basa_. This probably alludes to some -instrument, perhaps the Camera obscura.] one single planet, and the -reflected movement of this base will show the nature of the said -planet; but arrange that the base may face only one at the time. - -On history of astronomy. - -915. - -Cicero says in [his book] De Divinatione that Astrology has been -practised five hundred seventy thousand years before the Trojan war. - -57000. - -[Footnote: The statement that CICERO, _De Divin._ ascribes the -discovery of astrology to a period 57000 years before the Trojan war -I believe to be quite erroneous. According to ERNESTI, _Clavis -Ciceroniana,_ CH. G. SCHULZ (_Lexic. Cicer._) and the edition of _De -Divin._ by GIESE the word Astrologia occurs only twice in CICERO: -_De Divin. II_, 42. _Ad Chaldaeorum monstra veniamus, de quibus -Eudoxus, Platonis auditor, in astrologia judicio doctissimorum -hominum facile princeps, sic opinatur (id quod scriptum reliquit): -Chaldaeis in praedictione et in notatione cujusque vitae ex natali -die minime esse credendum._" He then quotes the condemnatory verdict -of other philosophers as to the teaching of the Chaldaeans but says -nothing as to the antiquity and origin of astronomy. CICERO further -notes _De oratore_ I, 16 that Aratus was "_ignarus astrologiae_" but -that is all. So far as I know the word occurs nowhere else in -CICERO; and the word _Astronomia_ he does not seem to have used at -all. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)] - -Of time and its divisions (916-918). - -916. - -Although time is included in the class of Continuous Quantities, -being indivisible and immaterial, it does not come entirely under -the head of Geometry, which represents its divisions by means of -figures and bodies of infinite variety, such as are seen to be -continuous in their visible and material properties. But only with -its first principles does it agree, that is with the Point and the -Line; the point may be compared to an instant of time, and the line -may be likened to the length of a certain quantity of time, and just -as a line begins and terminates in a point, so such a space of time. -begins and terminates in an instant. And whereas a line is -infinitely divisible, the divisibility of a space of time is of the -same nature; and as the divisions of the line may bear a certain -proportion to each other, so may the divisions of time. - -[Footnote: This passage is repeated word for word on page 190b of -the same manuscript and this is accounted for by the text in Vol. I, -No. 4. Compare also No. 1216.] - -917. - -Describe the nature of Time as distinguished from the Geometrical -definitions. - -918. - -Divide an hour into 3000 parts, and this you can do with a clock by -making the pendulum lighter or heavier. - -_XVI. - -Physical Geography. - -Leonardo's researches as to the structure of the earth and sea were -made at a time, when the extended voyages of the Spaniards and -Portuguese had also excited a special interest in geographical -questions in Italy, and particularly in Tuscany. Still, it need -scarcely surprise us to find that in deeper questions, as to the -structure of the globe, the primitive state of the earth's surface, -and the like, he was far in advance of his time. - -The number of passages which treat of such matters is relatively -considerable; like almost all Leonardo's scientific notes they deal -partly with theoretical and partly with practical questions. Some of -his theoretical views of the motion of water were collected in a -copied manuscript volume by an early transcriber, but without any -acknowledgment of the source whence they were derived. This copy is -now in the Library of the Barberini palace at Rome and was published -under the title: "De moto e misura dell'acqua," by FRANCESCO -CARDINALI, Bologna_ 1828. _In this work the texts are arranged under -the following titles:_ Libr. I. Della spera dell'acqua; Libr. II. -Del moto dell'acqua; Libr. III. Dell'onda dell'acqua; Libr. IV. Dei -retrosi d'acqua; Libr. V. Dell'acqua cadente; Libr. VI. Delle -rotture fatte dall'acqua; Libr. VII Delle cose portate dall'acqua; -Libr. VIII. Dell'oncia dell'acqua e delle canne; Libr. IX. De molini -e d'altri ordigni d'acqua. - -_The large number of isolated observations scattered through the -manuscripts, accounts for our so frequently finding notes of new -schemes for the arrangement of those relating to water and its -motions, particularly in the Codex Atlanticus: I have printed -several of these plans as an introduction to the Physical Geography, -and I have actually arranged the texts in accordance with the clue -afforded by one of them which is undoubtedly one of the latest notes -referring to the subject (No._ 920_). The text given as No._ 930 -_which is also taken from a late note-book of Leonardo's, served as -a basis for the arrangement of the first of the seven books--or -sections--, bearing the title: Of the Nature of Water_ (Dell'acque -in se). - -_As I have not made it any part of this undertaking to print the -passages which refer to purely physical principles, it has also been -necessary to exclude those practical researches which, in accordance -with indications given in_ 920, _ought to come in as Books_ 13, 14 -_and_ 15. _I can only incidentally mention here that Leonardo--as it -seems to me, especially in his youth--devoted a great deal of -attention to the construction of mills. This is proved by a number -of drawings of very careful and minute execution, which are to be -found in the Codex Atlanticus. Nor was it possible to include his -considerations on the regulation of rivers, the making of canals and -so forth (No._ 920, _Books_ 10, 11 _and_ 12_); but those passages in -which the structure of a canal is directly connected with notices of -particular places will be found duly inserted under section XVII -(Topographical notes). In Vol. I, No._ 5 _the text refers to -canal-making in general._ - -_On one point only can the collection of passages included under the -general heading of Physical Geography claim to be complete. When -comparing and sorting the materials for this work I took particular -care not to exclude or omit any text in which a geographical name -was mentioned even incidentally, since in all such researches the -chief interest, as it appeared to me, attached to the question -whether these acute observations on the various local -characteristics of mountains, rivers or seas, had been made by -Leonardo himself, and on the spot. It is self-evident that the few -general and somewhat superficial observations on the Rhine and the -Danube, on England and Flanders, must have been obtained from maps -or from some informants, and in the case of Flanders Leonardo -himself acknowledges this (see No._ 1008_). But that most of the -other and more exact observations were made, on the spot, by -Leonardo himself, may be safely assumed from their method and the -style in which he writes of them; and we should bear it in mind that -in all investigations, of whatever kind, experience is always spoken -of as the only basis on which he relies. Incidentally, as in No._ -984, _he thinks it necessary to allude to the total absence of all -recorded observations._ - -I. - -INTRODUCTION. - -Schemes for the arrangement of the materials (919-928). - -919. - -These books contain in the beginning: Of the nature of water itself -in its motions; the others treat of the effects of its currents, -which change the world in its centre and its shape. - -920. - -DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK. - -Book 1 of water in itself. - -Book 2 of the sea. - -Book 3 of subterranean rivers. - -Book 4 of rivers. - -Book 5 of the nature of the abyss. - -Book 6 of the obstacles. - -Book 7 of gravels. - -Book 8 of the surface of water. - -Book 9 of the things placed therein. - -Book 10 of the repairing of rivers. - -Book 11 of conduits. - -Book 12 of canals. - -Book 13 of machines turned by water. - -Book 14 of raising water. - -Book 15 of matters worn away by water. - -921. - -First you shall make a book treating of places occupied by fresh -waters, and the second by salt waters, and the third, how by the -disappearance of these, our parts of the world were made lighter and -in consequence more remote from the centre of the world. - -922. - -First write of all water, in each of its motions; then describe all -its bottoms and their various materials, always referring to the -propositions concerning the said waters; and let the order be good, -for otherwise the work will be confused. - -Describe all the forms taken by water from its greatest to its -smallest wave, and their causes. - -923. - -Book 9, of accidental risings of water. - -924. - -THE ORDER OF THE BOOK. - -Place at the beginning what a river can effect. - -925. - -A book of driving back armies by the force of a flood made by -releasing waters. - -A book showing how the waters safely bring down timber cut in the -mountains. - -A book of boats driven against the impetus of rivers. - -A book of raising large bridges higher. Simply by the swelling of -the waters. - -A book of guarding against the impetus of rivers so that towns may -not be damaged by them. - -926. - -A book of the ordering of rivers so as to preserve their banks. - -A book of the mountains, which would stand forth and become land, if -our hemisphere were to be uncovered by the water. - -A book of the earth carried down by the waters to fill up the great -abyss of the seas. - -A book of the ways in which a tempest may of itself clear out filled -up sea-ports. - -A book of the shores of rivers and of their permanency. - -A book of how to deal with rivers, so that they may keep their -bottom scoured by their own flow near the cities they pass. - -A book of how to make or to repair the foundations for bridges over -the rivers. - -A book of the repairs which ought to be made in walls and banks of -rivers where the water strikes them. - -A book of the formation of hills of sand or gravel at great depths -in water. - -927. - -Water gives the first impetus to its motion. - -A book of the levelling of waters by various means, - -A book of diverting rivers from places where they do mischief. - -A book of guiding rivers which occupy too much ground. - -A book of parting rivers into several branches and making them -fordable. - -A book of the waters which with various currents pass through seas. - -A book of deepening the beds of rivers by means of currents of -water. - -A book of controlling rivers so that the little beginnings of -mischief, caused by them, may not increase. - -A book of the various movements of waters passing through channels -of different forms. - -A book of preventing small rivers from diverting the larger one into -which their waters run. - -A book of the lowest level which can be found in the current of the -surface of rivers. - -A book of the origin of rivers which flow from the high tops of -mountains. - -A book of the various motions of waters in their rivers. - -928. - -[1] Of inequality in the concavity of a ship. [Footnote 1: The first -line of this passage was added subsequently, evidently as a -correction of the following line.] - -[1] A book of the inequality in the curve of the sides of ships. - -[1] A book of the inequality in the position of the tiller. - -[1] A book of the inequality in the keel of ships. - -[2] A book of various forms of apertures by which water flows out. - -[3] A book of water contained in vessels with air, and of its -movements. - -[4] A book of the motion of water through a syphon. [Footnote 7: -_cicognole_, see No. 966, 11, 17.] - -[5] A book of the meetings and union of waters coming from different -directions. - -[6] A book of the various forms of the banks through which rivers -pass. - -[7] A book of the various forms of shoals formed under the sluices -of rivers. - -[8] A book of the windings and meanderings of the currents of -rivers. - -[9] A book of the various places whence the waters of rivers are -derived. - -[10] A book of the configuration of the shores of rivers and of -their permanency. - -[11] A book of the perpendicular fall of water on various objects. - -[12] Abook of the course of water when it is impeded in various -places. - -[12] A book of the various forms of the obstacles which impede the -course of waters. - -[13] A book of the concavity and globosity formed round various -objects at the bottom. - -[14] Abook of conducting navigable canals above or beneath the -rivers which intersect them. - -[15] A book of the soils which absorb water in canals and of -repairing them. - -[16] Abook of creating currents for rivers, which quit their beds, -[and] for rivers choked with soil. - -General introduction. - -929. - -THE BEGINNING OF THE TREATISE ON WATER. - -By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and -certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is -composed of earth, water, air and fire, his body resembles that of -the earth; and as man has in him bones the supports and framework of -his flesh, the world has its rocks the supports of the earth; as man -has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in -breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which -likewise rises and falls every six hours, as if the world breathed; -as in that pool of blood veins have their origin, which ramify all -over the human body, so likewise the ocean sea fills the body of the -earth with infinite springs of water. The body of the earth lacks -sinews and this is, because the sinews are made expressely for -movements and, the world being perpetually stable, no movement takes -place, and no movement taking place, muscles are not necessary. ---But in all other points they are much alike. - -I. - -OF THE NATURE OF WATER. - -The arrangement of Book I. - -930. - -THE ORDER OF THE FIRST BOOK ON WATER. - -Define first what is meant by height and depth; also how the -elements are situated one inside another. Then, what is meant by -solid weight and by liquid weight; but first what weight and -lightness are in themselves. Then describe why water moves, and why -its motion ceases; then why it becomes slower or more rapid; besides -this, how it always falls, being in contact with the air but lower -than the air. And how water rises in the air by means of the heat of -the sun, and then falls again in rain; again, why water springs -forth from the tops of mountains; and if the water of any spring -higher than the ocean can pour forth water higher than the surface -of that ocean. And how all the water that returns to the ocean is -higher than the sphere of waters. And how the waters of the -equatorial seas are higher than the waters of the North, and higher -beneath the body of the sun than in any part of the equatorial -circle; for experiment shows that under the heat of a burning brand -the water near the brand boils, and the water surrounding this -ebullition always sinks with a circular eddy. And how the waters of -the North are lower than the other seas, and more so as they become -colder, until they are converted into ice. - -Definitions (931. 932). - -931. - -OF WHAT IS WATER. - -Among the four elements water is the second both in weight and in -instability. - -932. - -THE BEGINNING OF THE BOOK ON WATER. - -Sea is the name given to that water which is wide and deep, in which -the waters have not much motion. - -[Footnote: Only the beginning of this passage is here given, the -remainder consists of definitions which have no direct bearing on -the subject.] - -Of the surface of the water in relation to the globe (933-936). - -933. - -The centres of the sphere of water are two, one universal and common -to all water, the other particular. The universal one is that which -is common to all waters not in motion, which exist in great -quantities. As canals, ditches, ponds, fountains, wells, dead -rivers, lakes, stagnant pools and seas, which, although they are at -various levels, have each in itself the limits of their superficies -equally distant from the centre of the earth, such as lakes placed -at the tops of high mountains; as the lake near Pietra Pana and the -lake of the Sybil near Norcia; and all the lakes that give rise to -great rivers, as the Ticino from Lago Maggiore, the Adda from the -lake of Como, the Mincio from the lake of Garda, the Rhine from the -lakes of Constance and of Chur, and from the lake of Lucerne, like -the Tigris which passes through Asia Minor carrying with it the -waters of three lakes, one above the other at different heights of -which the highest is Munace, the middle one Pallas, and the lowest -Triton; the Nile again flows from three very high lakes in Ethiopia. - -[Footnote 5: _Pietra Pana_, a mountain near Florence. If for Norcia, -we may read Norchia, the remains of the Etruscan city near Viterbo, -there can be no doubt that by '_Lago della Sibilla_'--a name not -known elsewhere, so far as I can learn--Leonardo meant _Lago di -Vico_ (Lacus Ciminus, Aen. 7).] - -934. - -OF THE CENTRE OF THE OCEAN. - -The centre of the sphere of waters is the true centre of the globe -of our world, which is composed of water and earth, having the shape -of a sphere. But, if you want to find the centre of the element of -the earth, this is placed at a point equidistant from the surface of -the ocean, and not equidistant from the surface of the earth; for it -is evident that this globe of earth has nowhere any perfect -rotundity, excepting in places where the sea is, or marshes or other -still waters. And every part of the earth that rises above the water -is farther from the centre. - -935. - -OF THE SEA WHICH CHANGES THE WEIGHT OF THE EARTH. - -The shells, oysters, and other similar animals, which originate in -sea-mud, bear witness to the changes of the earth round the centre -of our elements. This is proved thus: Great rivers always run -turbid, being coloured by the earth, which is stirred by the -friction of their waters at the bottom and on their shores; and this -wearing disturbs the face of the strata made by the layers of -shells, which lie on the surface of the marine mud, and which were -produced there when the salt waters covered them; and these strata -were covered over again from time to time, with mud of various -thickness, or carried down to the sea by the rivers and floods of -more or less extent; and thus these layers of mud became raised to -such a height, that they came up from the bottom to the air. At the -present time these bottoms are so high that they form hills or high -mountains, and the rivers, which wear away the sides of these -mountains, uncover the strata of these shells, and thus the softened -side of the earth continually rises and the antipodes sink closer to -the centre of the earth, and the ancient bottoms of the seas have -become mountain ridges. - -936. - -Let the earth make whatever changes it may in its weight, the -surface of the sphere of waters can never vary in its equal distance -from the centre of the world. - -Of the proportion of the mass of water to that of the earth (937. -938). - -937. - -WHETHER THE EARTH IS LESS THAN THE WATER. - -Some assert that it is true that the earth, which is not covered by -water is much less than that covered by water. But considering the -size of 7000 miles in diameter which is that of this earth, we may -conclude the water to be of small depth. - -938. - -OF THE EARTH. - -The great elevations of the peaks of the mountains above the sphere -of the water may have resulted from this that: a very large portion -of the earth which was filled with water that is to say the vast -cavern inside the earth may have fallen in a vast part of its vault -towards the centre of the earth, being pierced by means of the -course of the springs which continually wear away the place where -they pass. - -Sinking in of countries like the Dead Sea in Syria, that is Sodom -and Gomorrah. - -It is of necessity that there should be more water than land, and -the visible portion of the sea does not show this; so that there -must be a great deal of water inside the earth, besides that which -rises into the lower air and which flows through rivers and springs. - -[Footnote: The small sketch below on the left, is placed in the -original close to the text referring to the Dead Sea.] - -The theory of Plato. - -939. - -THE FIGURES OF THE ELEMENTS. - -Of the figures of the elements; and first as against those who deny -the opinions of Plato, and who say that if the elements include one -another in the forms attributed to them by Plato they would cause a -vacuum one within the other. I say it is not true, and I here prove -it, but first I desire to propound some conclusions. It is not -necessary that the elements which include each other should be of -corresponding magnitude in all the parts, of that which includes and -of that which is included. We see that the sphere of the waters -varies conspicuously in mass from the surface to the bottom, and -that, far from investing the earth when that was in the form of a -cube that is of 8 angles as Plato will have it, that it invests the -earth which has innumerable angles of rock covered by the water and -various prominences and concavities, and yet no vacuum is generated -between the earth and water; again, the air invests the sphere of -waters together with the mountains and valleys, which rise above -that sphere, and no vacuum remains between the earth and the air, so -that any one who says a vacuum is generated, speaks foolishly. - -But to Plato I would reply that the surface of the figures which -according to him the elements would have, could not exist. - -That the flow of rivers proves the slope of the land. - -940. - -PROVES HOW THE EARTH IS NOT GLOBULAR AND NOT BEING GLOBULAR CANNOT -HAVE A COMMON CENTRE. - -We see the Nile come from Southern regions and traverse various -provinces, running towards the North for a distance of 3000 miles -and flow into the Mediterranean by the shores of Egypt; and if we -will give to this a fall of ten braccia a mile, as is usually -allowed to the course of rivers in general, we shall find that the -Nile must have its mouth ten miles lower than its source. Again, we -see the Rhine, the Rhone and the Danube starting from the German -parts, almost the centre of Europe, and having a course one to the -East, the other to the North, and the last to Southern seas. And if -you consider all this you will see that the plains of Europe in -their aggregate are much higher than the high peaks of the maritime -mountains; think then how much their tops must be above the sea -shores. - -Theory of the elevation of water within the mountains. - -941. - -OF THE HEAT THAT IS IN THE WORLD. - -Where there is life there is heat, and where vital heat is, there is -movement of vapour. This is proved, inasmuch as we see that the -element of fire by its heat always draws to itself damp vapours and -thick mists as opaque clouds, which it raises from seas as well as -lakes and rivers and damp valleys; and these being drawn by degrees -as far as the cold region, the first portion stops, because heat and -moisture cannot exist with cold and dryness; and where the first -portion stops the rest settle, and thus one portion after another -being added, thick and dark clouds are formed. They are often wafted -about and borne by the winds from one region to another, where by -their density they become so heavy that they fall in thick rain; and -if the heat of the sun is added to the power of the element of fire, -the clouds are drawn up higher still and find a greater degree of -cold, in which they form ice and fall in storms of hail. Now the -same heat which holds up so great a weight of water as is seen to -rain from the clouds, draws them from below upwards, from the foot -of the mountains, and leads and holds them within the summits of the -mountains, and these, finding some fissure, issue continuously and -cause rivers. - -The relative height of the surface of the sea to that of the land -(942-945). - -942. - -OF THE SEA, WHICH TO MANY FOOLS APPEARS TO BE HIGHER THAN THE EARTH -WHICH FORMS ITS SHORE. - -_b d_ is a plain through which a river flows to the sea; this plain -ends at the sea, and since in fact the dry land that is uncovered is -not perfectly level--for, if it were, the river would have no -motion--as the river does move, this place is a slope rather than a -plain; hence this plain _d b_ so ends where the sphere of water -begins that if it were extended in a continuous line to _b a_ it -would go down beneath the sea, whence it follows that the sea _a c -b_ looks higher than the dry land. - -Obviously no portions of dry land left uncovered by water can ever -be lower than the surface of the watery sphere. - -943. - -OF CERTAIN PERSONS WHO SAY THE WATERS WERE HIGHER THAN THE DRY LAND. - -Certainly I wonder not a little at the common opinion which is -contrary to truth, but held by the universal consent of the judgment -of men. And this is that all are agreed that the surface of the sea -is higher than the highest peaks of the mountains; and they allege -many vain and childish reasons, against which I will allege only one -simple and short reason; We see plainly that if we could remove the -shores of the sea, it would invest the whole earth and make it a -perfect sphere. Now, consider how much earth would be carried away -to enable the waves of the sea to cover the world; therefore that -which would be carried away must be higher than the sea-shore. - -944. - -THE OPINION OF SOME PERSONS WHO SAY THAT THE WATER OF SOME SEAS IS -HIGHER THAN THE HIGHEST SUMMITS OF MOUNTAINS; AND NEVERTHELESS THE -WATER WAS FORCED UP TO THESE SUMMITS. - -Water would not move from place to place if it were not that it -seeks the lowest level and by a natural consequence it never can -return to a height like that of the place where it first on issuing -from the mountain came to light. And that portion of the sea which, -in your vain imagining, you say was so high that it flowed over the -summits of the high mountains, for so many centuries would be -swallowed up and poured out again through the issue from these -mountains. You can well imagine that all the time that Tigris and -Euphrates - -945. - -have flowed from the summits of the mountains of Armenia, it must be -believed that all the water of the ocean has passed very many times -through these mouths. And do you not believe that the Nile must have -sent more water into the sea than at present exists of all the -element of water? Undoubtedly, yes. And if all this water had fallen -away from this body of the earth, this terrestrial machine would -long since have been without water. Whence we may conclude that the -water goes from the rivers to the sea, and from the sea to the -rivers, thus constantly circulating and returning, and that all the -sea and the rivers have passed through the mouth of the Nile an -infinite number of times [Footnote: _Moti Armeni, Ermini_ in the -original, in M. RAVAISSON'S transcript _"monti ernini [le loro -ruine?]"_. He renders this _"Le Tigre et l'Euphrate se sont deverses -par les sommets des montagnes [avec leurs eaux destructives?] on -pent cro're" &c. Leonardo always writes _Ermini, Erminia_, for -_Armeni, Armenia_ (Arabic: _Irminiah_). M. RAVAISSON also deviates -from the original in his translation of the following passage: "_Or -tu ne crois pas que le Nil ait mis plus d'eau dans la mer qu'il n'y -en a a present dans tout l'element de l'eau. Il est certain que si -cette eau etait tombee_" &c.] - -II. - -ON THE OCEAN. - -Refutation of Pliny's theory as to the saltness of the sea (946. -947). - -946. - -WHY WATER IS SALT. - -Pliny says in his second book, chapter 103, that the water of the -sea is salt because the heat of the sun dries up the moisture and -drinks it up; and this gives to the wide stretching sea the savour -of salt. But this cannot be admitted, because if the saltness of the -sea were caused by the heat of the sun, there can be no doubt that -lakes, pools and marshes would be so much the more salt, as their -waters have less motion and are of less depth; but experience shows -us, on the contrary, that these lakes have their waters quite free -from salt. Again it is stated by Pliny in the same chapter that this -saltness might originate, because all the sweet and subtle portions -which the heat attracts easily being taken away, the more bitter and -coarser part will remain, and thus the water on the surface is -fresher than at the bottom [Footnote 22: Compare No. 948.]; but this -is contradicted by the same reason given above, which is, that the -same thing would happen in marshes and other waters, which are dried -up by the heat. Again, it has been said that the saltness of the sea -is the sweat of the earth; to this it may be answered that all the -springs of water which penetrate through the earth, would then be -salt. But the conclusion is, that the saltness of the sea must -proceed from the many springs of water which, as they penetrate into -the earth, find mines of salt and these they dissolve in part, and -carry with them to the ocean and the other seas, whence the clouds, -the begetters of rivers, never carry it up. And the sea would be -salter in our times than ever it was at any time; and if the -adversary were to say that in infinite time the sea would dry up or -congeal into salt, to this I answer that this salt is restored to -the earth by the setting free of that part of the earth which rises -out of the sea with the salt it has acquired, and the rivers return -it to the earth under the sea. - -[Footnote: See PLINY, Hist. Nat. II, CIII [C]. _Itaque Solis ardore -siccatur liquor: et hoc esse masculum sidus accepimus, torrens -cuncta sorbensque._ (cp. CIV.) _Sic mari late patenti saporem -incoqui salis, aut quia exhausto inde dulci tenuique, quod facillime -trahat vis ignea, omne asperius crassiusque linquatur: ideo summa -aequorum aqua dulciorem profundam; hanc esse veriorem causam, quam -quod mare terrae sudor sit aeternus: aut quia plurimum ex arido -misceatur illi vapore: aut quia terrae natura sicut medicatas aquas -inficiat_ ... (cp. CV): _altissimum mare XV. stadiorum Fabianus -tradit. Alii n Ponto coadverso Coraxorum gentis (vocant B Ponti) -trecentis fere a continenti stadiis immensam altitudinem maris -tradunt, vadis nunquam repertis._ (cp. CVI [CIII]) _Mirabilius id -faciunt aquae dulces, juxta mare, ut fistulis emicantes. Nam nec -aquarum natura a miraculis cessat. Dulces mari invehuntur, leviores -haud dubie. Ideo et marinae, quarum natura gravior, magis invecta -sustinent. Quaedam vero et dulces inter se supermeant alias._] - -947. - -For the third and last reason we will say that salt is in all -created things; and this we learn from water passed over the ashes -and cinders of burnt things; and the urine of every animal, and the -superfluities issuing from their bodies, and the earth into which -all things are converted by corruption. - -But,--to put it better,--given that the world is everlasting, it -must be admitted that its population will also be eternal; hence the -human species has eternally been and would be consumers of salt; and -if all the mass of the earth were to be turned into salt, it would -not suffice for all human food [Footnote 27: That is, on the -supposition that salt, once consumed, disappears for ever.]; whence -we are forced to admit, either that the species of salt must be -everlasting like the world, or that it dies and is born again like -the men who devour it. But as experience teaches us that it does not -die, as is evident by fire, which does not consume it, and by water -which becomes salt in proportion to the quantity dissolved in -it,--and when it is evaporated the salt always remains in the -original quantity--it must pass through the bodies of men either in -the urine or the sweat or other excretions where it is found again; -and as much salt is thus got rid of as is carried every year into -towns; therefore salt is dug in places where there is urine.-- Sea -hogs and sea winds are salt. - -We will say that the rains which penetrate the earth are what is -under the foundations of cities with their inhabitants, and are what -restore through the internal passages of the earth the saltness -taken from the sea; and that the change in the place of the sea, -which has been over all the mountains, caused it to be left there in -the mines found in those mountains, &c. - -The characteristics of sea water (948. 949). - -948. - -The waters of the salt sea are fresh at the greatest depths. - -949. - -THAT THE OCEAN DOES NOT PENETRATE UNDER THE EARTH. - -The ocean does not penetrate under the earth, and this we learn from -the many and various springs of fresh water which, in many parts of -the ocean make their way up from the bottom to the surface. The same -thing is farther proved by wells dug beyond the distance of a mile -from the said ocean, which fill with fresh water; and this happens -because the fresh water is lighter than salt water and consequently -more penetrating. - -Which weighs most, water when frozen or when not frozen? - -FRESH WATER PENETRATES MORE AGAINST SALT WATER THAN SALT WATER -AGAINST FRESH WATER. - -That fresh water penetrates more against salt water, than salt water -against fresh is proved by a thin cloth dry and old, hanging with -the two opposite ends equally low in the two different waters, the -surfaces of which are at an equal level; and it will then be seen -how much higher the fresh water will rise in this piece of linen -than the salt; by so much is the fresh lighter than the salt. - -On the formation of Gulfs (950. 951). - -950. - -All inland seas and the gulfs of those seas, are made by rivers -which flow into the sea. - -951. - -HERE THE REASON IS GIVEN OF THE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY THE WATERS IN -THE ABOVE MENTIONED PLACE. - -All the lakes and all the gulfs of the sea and all inland seas are -due to rivers which distribute their waters into them, and from -impediments in their downfall into the Mediterranean --which divides -Africa from Europe and Europe from Asia by means of the Nile and the -Don which pour their waters into it. It is asked what impediment is -great enough to stop the course of the waters which do not reach the -ocean. - -On the encroachments of the sea on the land and vice versa -(952-954). - -952. - -OF WAVES. - -A wave of the sea always breaks in front of its base, and that -portion of the crest will then be lowest which before was highest. - -[Footnote: The page of FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO'S _Trattato_, on which -Leonardo has written this remark, contains some notes on the -construction of dams, harbours &c.] - -953. - -That the shores of the sea constantly acquire more soil towards the -middle of the sea; that the rocks and promontories of the sea are -constantly being ruined and worn away; that the Mediterranean seas -will in time discover their bottom to the air, and all that will be -left will be the channel of the greatest river that enters it; and -this will run to the ocean and pour its waters into that with those -of all the rivers that are its tributaries. - -954. - -How the river Po, in a short time might dry up the Adriatic sea in -the same way as it has dried up a large part of Lombardy. - -The ebb and flow of the tide (955-960). - -955. - -Where there is a larger quantity of water, there is a greater flow -and ebb, but the contrary in narrow waters. - -Look whether the sea is at its greatest flow when the moon is half -way over our hemisphere [on the meridian]. - -956. - -Whether the flow and ebb are caused by the moon or the sun, or are -the breathing of this terrestrial machine. That the flow and ebb are -different in different countries and seas. - -[Footnote: 1. Allusion may here be made to the mythological -explanation of the ebb and flow given in the Edda. Utgardloki says -to Thor (Gylfaginning 48): "When thou wert drinking out of the horn, -and it seemed to thee that it was slow in emptying a wonder befell, -which I should not have believed possible: the other end of the horn -lay in the sea, which thou sawest not; but when thou shalt go to the -sea, thou shalt see how much thou hast drunk out of it. And that men -now call the ebb tide." - -Several passages in various manuscripts treat of the ebb and flow. -In collecting them I have been guided by the rule only to transcribe -those which named some particular spot.] - -957. - -Book 9 of the meeting of rivers and their flow and ebb. The cause is -the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of Gibraltar. -And again it is caused by whirlpools. - -958. - -OF THE FLOW AND EBB. - -All seas have their flow and ebb in the same period, but they seem -to vary because the days do not begin at the same time throughout -the universe; in such wise as that when it is midday in our -hemisphere, it is midnight in the opposite hemisphere; and at the -Eastern boundary of the two hemispheres the night begins which -follows on the day, and at the Western boundary of these hemispheres -begins the day, which follows the night from the opposite side. -Hence it is to be inferred that the above mentioned swelling and -diminution in the height of the seas, although they take place in -one and the same space of time, are seen to vary from the above -mentioned causes. The waters are then withdrawn into the fissures -which start from the depths of the sea and which ramify inside the -body of the earth, corresponding to the sources of rivers, which are -constantly taking from the bottom of the sea the water which has -flowed into it. A sea of water is incessantly being drawn off from -the surface of the sea. And if you should think that the moon, -rising at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean sea must there begin -to attract to herself the waters of the sea, it would follow that we -must at once see the effect of it at the Eastern end of that sea. -Again, as the Mediterranean sea is about the eighth part of the -circumference of the aqueous sphere, being 3000 miles long, while -the flow and ebb only occur 4 times in 24 hours, these results would -not agree with the time of 24 hours, unless this Mediterranean sea -were six thousand miles in length; because if such a superabundance -of water had to pass through the straits of Gibraltar in running -behind the moon, the rush of the water through that strait would be -so great, and would rise to such a height, that beyond the straits -it would for many miles rush so violently into the ocean as to cause -floods and tremendous seething, so that it would be impossible to -pass through. This agitated ocean would afterwards return the waters -it had received with equal fury to the place they had come from, so -that no one ever could pass through those straits. Now experience -shows that at every hour they are passed in safety, but when the -wind sets in the same direction as the current, the strong ebb -increases [Footnote 23: In attempting to get out of the -Mediterranean, vessels are sometimes detained for a considerable -time; not merely by the causes mentioned by Leonardo but by the -constant current flowing eastwards through the middle of the straits -of Gibraltar.]. The sea does not raise the water that has issued -from the straits, but it checks them and this retards the tide; then -it makes up with furious haste for the time it has lost until the -end of the ebb movement. - -959. - -That the flow and ebb are not general; for on the shore at Genoa -there is none, at Venice two braccia, between England and Flanders -18 braccia. That in the straits of Sicily the current is very strong -because all the waters from the rivers that flow into the Adriatic -pass there. - -[Footnote: A few more recent data may be given here to facilitate -comparison. In the Adriatic the tide rises 2 and 1/2 feet, at -Terracina 1 1/4. In the English channel between Calais and Kent it -rises from 18 to 20 feet. In the straits of Messina it rises no more -than 2 1/2 feet, and that only in stormy weather, but the current is -all the stronger. When Leonardo accounts for this by the southward -flow of all the Italian rivers along the coasts, the explanation is -at least based on a correct observation; namely that a steady -current flows southwards along the coast of Calabria and another -northwards, along the shores of Sicily; he seems to infer, from the -direction of the fust, that the tide in the Adriatic is caused by -it.] - -960. - -In the West, near to Flanders, the sea rises and decreases every 6 -hours about 20 braccia, and 22 when the moon is in its favour; but -20 braccia is the general rule, and this rule, as it is evident, -cannot have the moon for its cause. This variation in the increase -and decrease of the sea every 6 hours may arise from the damming up -of the waters, which are poured into the Mediterranean by the -quantity of rivers from Africa, Asia and Europe, which flow into -that sea, and the waters which are given to it by those rivers; it -pours them to the ocean through the straits of Gibraltar, between -Abila and Calpe [Footnote 5: _Abila_, Lat. _Abyla_, Gr. , now -Sierra _Ximiera_ near Ceuta; _Calpe_, Lat. _Calpe_. Gr., now -Gibraltar. Leonardo here uses the ancient names of the rocks, which -were known as the Pillars of Hercules.]. That ocean extends to the -island of England and others farther North, and it becomes dammed up -and kept high in various gulfs. These, being seas of which the -surface is remote from the centre of the earth, have acquired a -weight, which as it is greater than the force of the incoming waters -which cause it, gives this water an impetus in the contrary -direction to that in which it came and it is borne back to meet the -waters coming out of the straits; and this it does most against the -straits of Gibraltar; these, so long as this goes on, remain dammed -up and all the water which is poured out meanwhile by the -aforementioned rivers, is pent up [in the Mediterranean]; and this -might be assigned as the cause of its flow and ebb, as is shown in -the 21st of the 4th of my theory. - -III. - -SUBTERRANEAN WATER COURSES. - -Theory of the circulation of the waters (961. 962). - -961. - -Very large rivers flow under ground. - -962. - -This is meant to represent the earth cut through in the middle, -showing the depths of the sea and of the earth; the waters start -from the bottom of the seas, and ramifying through the earth they -rise to the summits of the mountains, flowing back by the rivers and -returning to the sea. - -Observations in support of the hypothesis (963-969). - -963. - -The waters circulate with constant motion from the utmost depths of -the sea to the highest summits of the mountains, not obeying the -nature of heavy matter; and in this case it acts as does the blood -of animals which is always moving from the sea of the heart and -flows to the top of their heads; and here it is that veins burst--as -one may see when a vein bursts in the nose, that all the blood from -below rises to the level of the burst vein. When the water rushes -out of a burst vein in the earth it obeys the nature of other things -heavier than the air, whence it always seeks the lowest places. [7] -These waters traverse the body of the earth with infinite -ramifications. - -[Footnote: The greater part of this passage has been given as No. -849 in the section on Anatomy.] - -964. - -The same cause which stirs the humours in every species of animal -body and by which every injury is repaired, also moves the waters -from the utmost depth of the sea to the greatest heights. - -965. - -It is the property of water that it constitutes the vital human of -this arid earth; and the cause which moves it through its ramified -veins, against the natural course of heavy matters, is the same -property which moves the humours in every species of animal body. -But that which crowns our wonder in contemplating it is, that it -rises from the utmost depths of the sea to the highest tops of the -mountains, and flowing from the opened veins returns to the low -seas; then once more, and with extreme swiftness, it mounts again -and returns by the same descent, thus rising from the inside to the -outside, and going round from the lowest to the highest, from whence -it rushes down in a natural course. Thus by these two movements -combined in a constant circulation, it travels through the veins of -the earth. - -966. - -WHETHER WATER RISES FROM THE SEA TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS. - -The water of the ocean cannot make its way from the bases to the -tops of the mountains which bound it, but only so much rises as the -dryness of the mountain attracts. And if, on the contrary, the rain, -which penetrates from the summit of the mountain to the base, which -is the boundary of the sea, descends and softens the slope opposite -to the said mountain and constantly draws the water, like a syphon -[Footnote 11: Cicognola, Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.] which -pours through its longest side, it must be this which draws up the -water of the sea; thus if _s n_ were the surface of the sea, and the -rain descends from the top of the mountain _a_ to _n_ on one side, -and on the other sides it descends from _a_ to _m_, without a doubt -this would occur after the manner of distilling through felt, or as -happens through the tubes called syphons [Footnote 17: Cicognola, -Syphon. See Vol. I, Pl. XXIV, No. 1.]. And at all times the water -which has softened the mountain, by the great rain which runs down -the two opposite sides, would constantly attract the rain _a n_, on -its longest side together with the water from the sea, if that side -of the mountain _a m_ were longer than the other _a n_; but this -cannot be, because no part of the earth which is not submerged by -the ocean can be lower than that ocean. - -967. - -OF SPRINGS OF WATER ON THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS. - -It is quite evident that the whole surface of the ocean--when there -is no storm--is at an equal distance from the centre of the earth, -and that the tops of the mountains are farther from this centre in -proportion as they rise above the surface of that sea; therefore if -the body of the earth were not like that of man, it would be -impossible that the waters of the sea--being so much lower than the -mountains--could by their nature rise up to the summits of these -mountains. Hence it is to be believed that the same cause which -keeps the blood at the top of the head in man keeps the water at the -summits of the mountains. - -[Footnote: This conception of the rising of the blood, which has -given rise to the comparison, was recognised as erroneous by -Leonardo himself at a later period. It must be remembered that the -MS. A, from which these passages are taken, was written about twenty -years earlier than the MS. Leic. (Nos. 963 and 849) and twenty-five -years before the MS. W. An. IV. - -There is, in the original a sketch with No. 968 which is not -reproduced. It represents a hill of the same shape as that shown at -No. 982. There are veins, or branched streams, on the side of the -hill, like those on the skull Pl. CVIII, No. 4] - -968. - -IN CONFIRMATION OF WHY THE WATER GOES TO THE TOPS OF MOUNTAINS. - -I say that just as the natural heat of the blood in the veins keeps -it in the head of man,--for when the man is dead the cold blood -sinks to the lower parts--and when the sun is hot on the head of a -man the blood increases and rises so much, with other humours, that -by pressure in the veins pains in the head are often caused; in the -same way veins ramify through the body of the earth, and by the -natural heat which is distributed throughout the containing body, -the water is raised through the veins to the tops of mountains. And -this water, which passes through a closed conduit inside the body of -the mountain like a dead thing, cannot come forth from its low place -unless it is warmed by the vital heat of the spring time. Again, the -heat of the element of fire and, by day, the heat of the sun, have -power to draw forth the moisture of the low parts of the mountains -and to draw them up, in the same way as it draws the clouds and -collects their moisture from the bed of the sea. - -969. - -That many springs of salt water are found at great distances from -the sea; this might happen because such springs pass through some -mine of salt, like that in Hungary where salt is hewn out of vast -caverns, just as stone is hewn. - -[Footnote: The great mine of Wieliczka in Galicia, out of which a -million cwt. of rock-salt are annually dug out, extends for 3000 -metres from West to East, and 1150 metres from North to South.] - -IV. - -OF RIVERS. - -On the way in which the sources of rivers are fed. - -970. - -OF THE ORIGIN OF RIVERS. - -The body of the earth, like the bodies of animals, is intersected -with ramifications of waters which are all in connection and are -constituted to give nutriment and life to the earth and to its -creatures. These come from the depth of the sea and, after many -revolutions, have to return to it by the rivers created by the -bursting of these springs; and if you chose to say that the rains of -the winter or the melting of the snows in summer were the cause of -the birth of rivers, I could mention the rivers which originate in -the torrid countries of Africa, where it never rains--and still less -snows--because the intense heat always melts into air all the clouds -which are borne thither by the winds. And if you chose to say that -such rivers, as increase in July and August, come from the snows -which melt in May and June from the sun's approach to the snows on -the mountains of Scythia [Footnote 9: Scythia means here, as in -Ancient Geography, the whole of the Northern part of Asia as far as -India.], and that such meltings come down into certain valleys and -form lakes, into which they enter by springs and subterranean caves -to issue forth again at the sources of the Nile, this is false; -because Scythia is lower than the sources of the Nile, and, besides, -Scythia is only 400 miles from the Black sea and the sources of the -Nile are 3000 miles distant from the sea of Egypt into which its -waters flow. - -The tide in estuaries. - -971. - -Book 9, of the meeting of rivers and of their ebb and flow. The -cause is the same in the sea, where it is caused by the straits of -Gibraltar; and again it is caused by whirlpools. - -[3] If two rivers meet together to form a straight line, and then -below two right angles take their course together, the flow and ebb -will happen now in one river and now in the other above their -confluence, and principally if the outlet for their united volume is -no swifter than when they were separate. Here occur 4 instances. - -[Footnote: The first two lines of this passage have already been -given as No. 957. In the margin, near line 3 of this passage, the -text given as No. 919 is written.] - -On the alterations, caused in the courses of rivers by their -confluence (972-974). - -972. - -When a smaller river pours its waters into a larger one, and that -larger one flows from the opposite direction, the course of the -smaller river will bend up against the approach of the larger river; -and this happens because, when the larger river fills up all its bed -with water, it makes an eddy in front of the mouth of the other -river, and so carries the water poured in by the smaller river with -its own. When the smaller river pours its waters into the larger -one, which runs across the current at the mouth of the smaller -river, its waters will bend with the downward movement of the larger -river. [Footnote: In the original sketches the word _Arno_ is -written at the spot here marked _A_, at _R. Rifredi_, and at _M. -Mugnone_.] - -973. - -When the fulness of rivers is diminished, then the acute angles -formed at the junction of their branches become shorter at the sides -and wider at the point; like the current _a n_ and the current _d -n_, which unite in _n_ when the river is at its greatest fulness. I -say, that when it is in this condition if, before the fullest time, -_d n_ was lower than _a n_, at the time of fulness _d n_ will be -full of sand and mud. When the water _d n_ falls, it will carry away -the mud and remain with a lower bottom, and the channel _a n_ -finding itself the higher, will fling its waters into the lower, _d -n_, and will wash away all the point of the sand-spit _b n c_, and -thus the angle _a c d_ will remain larger than the angle _a n d_ and -the sides shorter, as I said before. - -[Footnote: Above the first sketch we find, in the original, this -note: "_Sopra il pote rubaconte alla torricella_"; and by the -second, which represents a pier of a bridge, "_Sotto l'ospedal del -ceppo._"] - -974. - -WATER. - -OF THE MOVEMENT OF A SUDDEN RUSH MADE BY A RIVER IN ITS BED -PREVIOUSLY DRY. - -In proportion as the current of the water given forth by the -draining of the lake is slow or rapid in the dry river bed, so will -this river be wider or narrower, or shallower or deeper in one place -than another, according to this proposition: the flow and ebb of the -sea which enters the Mediterranean from the ocean, and of the rivers -which meet and struggle with it, will raise their waters more or -less in proportion as the sea is wider or narrower. - -[Footnote: In the margin is a sketch of a river which winds so as to -form islands.] - -Whirlpools. - -975. - -Whirlpools, that is to say caverns; that is to say places left by -precipitated waters. - -On the alterations in the channels of rivers. - -976. - -OF THE VIBRATION OF THE EARTH. - -The subterranean channels of waters, like those which exist between -the air and the earth, are those which unceasingly wear away and -deepen the beds of their currents. - -The origin of the sand in rivers (977. 978). - -977. - -A river that flows from mountains deposits a great quantity of large -stones in its bed, which still have some of their angles and sides, -and in the course of its flow it carries down smaller stones with -the angles more worn; that is to say the large stones become -smaller. And farther on it deposits coarse gravel and then smaller, -and as it proceeds this becomes coarse sand and then finer, and -going on thus the water, turbid with sand and gravel, joins the sea; -and the sand settles on the sea-shores, being cast up by the salt -waves; and there results the sand of so fine a nature as to seem -almost like water, and it will not stop on the shores of the sea but -returns by reason of its lightness, because it was originally formed -of rotten leaves and other very light things. Still, being -almost--as was said--of the nature of water itself, it afterwards, -when the weather is calm, settles and becomes solid at the bottom of -the sea, where by its fineness it becomes compact and by its -smoothness resists the waves which glide over it; and in this shells -are found; and this is white earth, fit for pottery. - -978. - -All the torrents of water flowing from the mountains to the sea -carry with them the stones from the hills to the sea, and by the -influx of the sea-water towards the mountains; these stones were -thrown back towards the mountains, and as the waters rose and -retired, the stones were tossed about by it and in rolling, their -angles hit together; then as the parts, which least resisted the -blows, were worn off, the stones ceased to be angular and became -round in form, as may be seen on the banks of the Elsa. And those -remained larger which were less removed from their native spot; and -they became smaller, the farther they were carried from that place, -so that in the process they were converted into small pebbles and -then into sand and at last into mud. After the sea had receded from -the mountains the brine left by the sea with other humours of the -earth made a concretion of these pebbles and this sand, so that the -pebbles were converted into rock and the sand into tufa. And of this -we see an example in the Adda where it issues from the mountains of -Como and in the Ticino, the Adige and the Oglio coming from the -German Alps, and in the Arno at Monte Albano [Footnote 13: At the -foot of _Monte Albano_ lies Vinci, the birth place of Leonardo. -Opposite, on the other bank of the Arno, is _Monte Lupo_.], near -Monte Lupo and Capraia where the rocks, which are very large, are -all of conglomerated pebbles of various kinds and colours. - -V. - -ON MOUNTAINS. - -The formation of mountains (979-983). - -979. - -Mountains are made by the currents of rivers. - -Mountains are destroyed by the currents of rivers. - -[Footnote: Compare 789.] - -980. - -That the Northern bases of some Alps are not yet petrified. And this -is plainly to be seen where the rivers, which cut through them, flow -towards the North; where they cut through the strata in the living -stone in the higher parts of the mountains; and, where they join the -plains, these strata are all of potter's clay; as is to be seen in -the valley of Lamona where the river Lamona, as it issues from the -Appenines, does these things on its banks. - -That the rivers have all cut and divided the mountains of the great -Alps one from the other. This is visible in the order of the -stratified rocks, because from the summits of the banks, down to the -river the correspondence of the strata in the rocks is visible on -either side of the river. That the stratified stones of the -mountains are all layers of clay, deposited one above the other by -the various floods of the rivers. That the different size of the -strata is caused by the difference in the floods--that is to say -greater or lesser floods. - -981. - -The summits of mountains for a long time rise constantly. - -The opposite sides of the mountains always approach each other -below; the depths of the valleys which are above the sphere of the -waters are in the course of time constantly getting nearer to the -centre of the world. - -In an equal period, the valleys sink much more than the mountains -rise. - -The bases of the mountains always come closer together. - -In proportion as the valleys become deeper, the more quickly are -their sides worn away. - -982. - -In every concavity at the summit of the mountains we shall always -find the divisions of the strata in the rocks. - -983. - -OF THE SEA WHICH ENCIRCLES THE EARTH. - -I find that of old, the state of the earth was that its plains were -all covered up and hidden by salt water. [Footnote: This passage has -already been published by Dr. M. JORDAN: _Das Malerbuch des L. da -Vinci, Leipzig_ 1873, p. 86. However, his reading of the text -differs from mine.] - -The authorities for the study of the structure of the earth. - -984. - -Since things are much more ancient than letters, it is no marvel if, -in our day, no records exist of these seas having covered so many -countries; and if, moreover, some records had existed, war and -conflagrations, the deluge of waters, the changes of languages and -of laws have consumed every thing ancient. But sufficient for us is -the testimony of things created in the salt waters, and found again -in high mountains far from the seas. - -VI. - -GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. - -985. - -In this work you have first to prove that the shells at a thousand -braccia of elevation were not carried there by the deluge, because -they are seen to be all at one level, and many mountains are seen to -be above that level; and to inquire whether the deluge was caused by -rain or by the swelling of the sea; and then you must show how, -neither by rain nor by swelling of the rivers, nor by the overflow -of this sea, could the shells--being heavy objects--be floated up -the mountains by the sea, nor have carried there by the rivers -against the course of their waters. - -Doubts about the deluge. - -986. - -A DOUBTFUL POINT. - -Here a doubt arises, and that is: whether the deluge, which happened -at the time of Noah, was universal or not. And it would seem not, -for the reasons now to be given: We have it in the Bible that this -deluge lasted 40 days and 40 nights of incessant and universal rain, -and that this rain rose to ten cubits above the highest mountains in -the world. And if it had been that the rain was universal, it would -have covered our globe which is spherical in form. And this -spherical surface is equally distant in every part, from the centre -of its sphere; hence the sphere of the waters being under the same -conditions, it is impossible that the water upon it should move, -because water, in itself, does not move unless it falls; therefore -how could the waters of such a deluge depart, if it is proved that -it has no motion? and if it departed how could it move unless it -went upwards? Here, then, natural reasons are wanting; hence to -remove this doubt it is necessary to call in a miracle to aid us, or -else to say that all this water was evaporated by the heat of the -sun. - -[Footnote: The passages, here given from the MS. Leic., have -hitherto remained unknown. Some preliminary notes on the subject are -to be found in MS. F 8oa and 8ob; but as compared with the fuller -treatment here given, they are, it seems to me, of secondary -interest. They contain nothing that is not repeated here more -clearly and fully. LIBRI, _Histoire des Sciences mathematiques III_, -pages 218--221, has printed the text of F 80a and 80b, therefore it -seemed desirable to give my reasons for not inserting it in this -work.] - -That marine shells could not go up the mountains. - -987. - -OF THE DELUGE AND OF MARINE SHELLS. - -If you were to say that the shells which are to be seen within the -confines of Italy now, in our days, far from the sea and at such -heights, had been brought there by the deluge which left them there, -I should answer that if you believe that this deluge rose 7 cubits -above the highest mountains-- as he who measured it has -written--these shells, which always live near the sea-shore, should -have been left on the mountains; and not such a little way from the -foot of the mountains; nor all at one level, nor in layers upon -layers. And if you were to say that these shells are desirous of -remaining near to the margin of the sea, and that, as it rose in -height, the shells quitted their first home, and followed the -increase of the waters up to their highest level; to this I answer, -that the cockle is an animal of not more rapid movement than the -snail is out of water, or even somewhat slower; because it does not -swim, on the contrary it makes a furrow in the sand by means of its -sides, and in this furrow it will travel each day from 3 to 4 -braccia; therefore this creature, with so slow a motion, could not -have travelled from the Adriatic sea as far as Monferrato in -Lombardy [Footnote: _Monferrato di Lombardia_. The range of hills of -Monferrato is in Piedmont, and Casale di Monferrato belonged, in -Leonardo's time, to the Marchese di Mantova.], which is 250 miles -distance, in 40 days; which he has said who took account of the -time. And if you say that the waves carried them there, by their -gravity they could not move, excepting at the bottom. And if you -will not grant me this, confess at least that they would have to -stay at the summits of the highest mountains, in the lakes which are -enclosed among the mountains, like the lakes of Lario, or of Como -and il Maggiore [Footnote: _Lago di Lario._ Lacus Larius was the -name given by the Romans to the lake of Como. It is evident that it -is here a slip of the pen since the the words in the MS. are: _"Come -Lago di Lario o'l Magare e di Como,"_ In the MS. after line 16 we -come upon a digression treating of the weight of water; this has -here been omitted. It is 11 lines long.] and of Fiesole, and of -Perugia, and others. - -And if you should say that the shells were carried by the waves, -being empty and dead, I say that where the dead went they were not -far removed from the living; for in these mountains living ones are -found, which are recognisable by the shells being in pairs; and they -are in a layer where there are no dead ones; and a little higher up -they are found, where they were thrown by the waves, all the dead -ones with their shells separated, near to where the rivers fell into -the sea, to a great depth; like the Arno which fell from the -Gonfolina near to Monte Lupo [Footnote: _Monte Lupo_, compare 970, -13; it is between Empoli and Florence.], where it left a deposit of -gravel which may still be seen, and which has agglomerated; and of -stones of various districts, natures, and colours and hardness, -making one single conglomerate. And a little beyond the sandstone -conglomerate a tufa has been formed, where it turned towards Castel -Florentino; farther on, the mud was deposited in which the shells -lived, and which rose in layers according to the levels at which the -turbid Arno flowed into that sea. And from time to time the bottom -of the sea was raised, depositing these shells in layers, as may be -seen in the cutting at Colle Gonzoli, laid open by the Arno which is -wearing away the base of it; in which cutting the said layers of -shells are very plainly to be seen in clay of a bluish colour, and -various marine objects are found there. And if the earth of our -hemisphere is indeed raised by so much higher than it used to be, it -must have become by so much lighter by the waters which it lost -through the rift between Gibraltar and Ceuta; and all the more the -higher it rose, because the weight of the waters which were thus -lost would be added to the earth in the other hemisphere. And if the -shells had been carried by the muddy deluge they would have been -mixed up, and separated from each other amidst the mud, and not in -regular steps and layers-- as we see them now in our time. - -The marine shells were not produced away from the sea. - -988. - -As to those who say that shells existed for a long time and were -born at a distance from the sea, from the nature of the place and of -the cycles, which can influence a place to produce such -creatures--to them it may be answered: such an influence could not -place the animals all on one line, except those of the same sort and -age; and not the old with the young, nor some with an operculum and -others without their operculum, nor some broken and others whole, -nor some filled with sea-sand and large and small fragments of other -shells inside the whole shells which remained open; nor the claws of -crabs without the rest of their bodies; nor the shells of other -species stuck on to them like animals which have moved about on -them; since the traces of their track still remain, on the outside, -after the manner of worms in the wood which they ate into. Nor would -there be found among them the bones and teeth of fish which some -call arrows and others serpents' tongues, nor would so many -[Footnote: I. Scilla argued against this hypothesis, which was still -accepted in his days; see: _La vana Speculazione, Napoli_ 1670.] -portions of various animals be found all together if they had not -been thrown on the sea shore. And the deluge cannot have carried -them there, because things that are heavier than water do not float -on the water. But these things could not be at so great a height if -they had not been carried there by the water, such a thing being -impossible from their weight. In places where the valleys have not -been filled with salt sea water shells are never to be seen; as is -plainly visible in the great valley of the Arno above Gonfolina; a -rock formerly united to Monte Albano, in the form of a very high -bank which kept the river pent up, in such a way that before it -could flow into the sea, which was afterwards at its foot, it formed -two great lakes; of which the first was where we now see the city of -Florence together with Prato and Pistoia, and Monte Albano. It -followed the rest of its bank as far as where Serravalle now stands. ->From the Val d'Arno upwards, as far as Arezzo, another lake was -formed, which discharged its waters into the former lake. It was -closed at about the spot where now we see Girone, and occupied the -whole of that valley above for a distance of 40 miles in length. -This valley received on its bottom all the soil brought down by the -turbid waters. And this is still to be seen at the foot of Prato -Magno; it there lies very high where the rivers have not worn it -away. Across this land are to be seen the deep cuts of the rivers -that have passed there, falling from the great mountain of Prato -Magno; in these cuts there are no vestiges of any shells or of -marine soil. This lake was joined with that of Perugia [Footnote: -See PI. CXIII.] - -A great quantity of shells are to be seen where the rivers flow into -the sea, because on such shores the waters are not so salt owing to -the admixture of the fresh water, which is poured into it. Evidence -of this is to be seen where, of old, the Appenines poured their -rivers into the Adriatic sea; for there in most places great -quantities of shells are to be found, among the mountains, together -with bluish marine clay; and all the rocks which are torn off in -such places are full of shells. The same may be observed to have -been done by the Arno when it fell from the rock of Gonfolina into -the sea, which was not so very far below; for at that time it was -higher than the top of San Miniato al Tedesco, since at the highest -summit of this the shores may be seen full of shells and oysters -within its flanks. The shells did not extend towards Val di Nievole, -because the fresh waters of the Arno did not extend so far. - -That the shells were not carried away from the sea by the deluge, -because the waters which came from the earth although they drew the -sea towards the earth, were those which struck its depths; because -the water which goes down from the earth, has a stronger current -than that of the sea, and in consequence is more powerful, and it -enters beneath the sea water and stirs the depths and carries with -it all sorts of movable objects which are to be found in the earth, -such as the above-mentioned shells and other similar things. And in -proportion as the water which comes from the land is muddier than -sea water it is stronger and heavier than this; therefore I see no -way of getting the said shells so far in land, unless they had been -born there. If you were to tell me that the river Loire [Footnote: -Leonardo has written Era instead of Loera or Loira--perhaps under -the mistaken idea that _Lo_ was an article.],which traverses France -covers when the sea rises more than eighty miles of country, because -it is a district of vast plains, and the sea rises about 20 braccia, -and shells are found in this plain at the distance of 80 miles from -the sea; here I answer that the flow and ebb in our Mediterranean -Sea does not vary so much; for at Genoa it does not rise at all, and -at Venice but little, and very little in Africa; and where it varies -little it covers but little of the country. - -The course of the water of a river always rises higher in a place -where the current is impeded; it behaves as it does where it is -reduced in width to pass under the arches of a bridge. - -Further researches (989-991). - -989. - -A CONFUTATION OF THOSE WHO SAY THAT SHELLS MAY HAVE BEEN CARRIED TO -A DISTANCE OF MANY DAYS' JOURNEY FROM THE SEA BY THE DELUGE, WHICH -WAS SO HIGH AS TO BE ABOVE THOSE HEIGHTS. - -I say that the deluge could not carry objects, native to the sea, up -to the mountains, unless the sea had already increased so as to -create inundations as high up as those places; and this increase -could not have occurred because it would cause a vacuum; and if you -were to say that the air would rush in there, we have already -concluded that what is heavy cannot remain above what is light, -whence of necessity we must conclude that this deluge was caused by -rain water, so that all these waters ran to the sea, and the sea did -not run up the mountains; and as they ran to the sea, they thrust -the shells from the shore of the sea and did not draw them to wards -themselves. And if you were then to say that the sea, raised by the -rain water, had carried these shells to such a height, we have -already said that things heavier than water cannot rise upon it, but -remain at the bottom of it, and do not move unless by the impact of -the waves. And if you were to say that the waves had carried them to -such high spots, we have proved that the waves in a great depth move -in a contrary direction at the bottom to the motion at the top, and -this is shown by the turbidity of the sea from the earth washed down -near its shores. Anything which is lighter than the water moves with -the waves, and is left on the highest level of the highest margin of -the waves. Anything which is heavier than the water moves, suspended -in it, between the surface and the bottom; and from these two -conclusions, which will be amply proved in their place, we infer -that the waves of the surface cannot convey shells, since they are -heavier than water. - -If the deluge had to carry shells three hundred and four hundred -miles from the sea, it would have carried them mixed with various -other natural objects heaped together; and we see at such distances -oysters all together, and sea-snails, and cuttlefish, and all the -other shells which congregate together, all to be found together and -dead; and the solitary shells are found wide apart from each other, -as we may see them on sea-shores every day. And if we find oysters -of very large shells joined together and among them very many which -still have the covering attached, indicating that they were left -here by the sea, and still living when the strait of Gibraltar was -cut through; there are to be seen, in the mountains of Parma and -Piacenza, a multitude of shells and corals, full of holes, and still -sticking to the rocks there. When I was making the great horse for -Milan, a large sack full was brought to me in my workshop by certain -peasants; these were found in that place and among them were many -preserved in their first freshness. - -Under ground, and under the foundations of buildings, timbers are -found of wrought beams and already black. Such were found in my time -in those diggings at Castel Fiorentino. And these had been in that -deep place before the sand carried by the Arno into the sea, then -covering the plain, had heen raised to such a height; and before the -plains of Casentino had been so much lowered, by the earth being -constantly carried down from them. - -[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.] - -And if you were to say that these shells were created, and were -continually being created in such places by the nature of the spot, -and of the heavens which might have some influence there, such an -opinion cannot exist in a brain of much reason; because here are the -years of their growth, numbered on their shells, and there are large -and small ones to be seen which could not have grown without food, -and could not have fed without motion--and here they could not move -[Footnote: These lines are written in the margin.] - -990. - -That in the drifts, among one and another, there are still to be -found the traces of the worms which crawled upon them when they were -not yet dry. And all marine clays still contain shells, and the -shells are petrified together with the clay. From their firmness and -unity some persons will have it that these animals were carried up -to places remote from the sea by the deluge. Another sect of -ignorant persons declare that Nature or Heaven created them in these -places by celestial influences, as if in these places we did not -also find the bones of fishes which have taken a long time to grow; -and as if, we could not count, in the shells of cockles and snails, -the years and months of their life, as we do in the horns of bulls -and oxen, and in the branches of plants that have never been cut in -any part. Besides, having proved by these signs the length of their -lives, it is evident, and it must be admitted, that these animals -could not live without moving to fetch their food; and we find in -them no instrument for penetrating the earth or the rock where we -find them enclosed. But how could we find in a large snail shell the -fragments and portions of many other sorts of shells, of various -sorts, if they had not been thrown there, when dead, by the waves of -the sea like the other light objects which it throws on the earth? -Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between layer and -layer of stone, if this had not formerly been covered on the shore -by a layer of earth thrown up by the sea, and which was afterwards -petrified? And if the deluge before mentioned had carried them to -these parts of the sea, you might find these shells at the boundary -of one drift but not at the boundary between many drifts. We must -also account for the winters of the years during which the sea -multiplied the drifts of sand and mud brought down by the -neighbouring rivers, by washing down the shores; and if you chose to -say that there were several deluges to produce these rifts and the -shells among them, you would also have to affirm that such a deluge -took place every year. Again, among the fragments of these shells, -it must be presumed that in those places there were sea coasts, -where all the shells were thrown up, broken, and divided, and never -in pairs, since they are found alive in the sea, with two valves, -each serving as a lid to the other; and in the drifts of rivers and -on the shores of the sea they are found in fragments. And within the -limits of the separate strata of rocks they are found, few in number -and in pairs like those which were left by the sea, buried alive in -the mud, which subsequently dried up and, in time, was petrified. - -991. - -And if you choose to say that it was the deluge which carried these -shells away from the sea for hundreds of miles, this cannot have -happened, since that deluge was caused by rain; because rain -naturally forces the rivers to rush towards the sea with all the -things they carry with them, and not to bear the dead things of the -sea shores to the mountains. And if you choose to say that the -deluge afterwards rose with its waters above the mountains, the -movement of the sea must have been so sluggish in its rise against -the currents of the rivers, that it could not have carried, floating -upon it, things heavier than itself; and even if it had supported -them, in its receding it would have left them strewn about, in -various spots. But how are we to account for the corals which are -found every day towards Monte Ferrato in Lombardy, with the holes of -the worms in them, sticking to rocks left uncovered by the currents -of rivers? These rocks are all covered with stocks and families of -oysters, which as we know, never move, but always remain with one of -their halves stuck to a rock, and the other they open to feed -themselves on the animalcules that swim in the water, which, hoping -to find good feeding ground, become the food of these shells. We do -not find that the sand mixed with seaweed has been petrified, -because the weed which was mingled with it has shrunk away, and this -the Po shows us every day in the debris of its banks. - -Other problems (992-994). - -992. - -Why do we find the bones of great fishes and oysters and corals and -various other shells and sea-snails on the high summits of mountains -by the sea, just as we find them in low seas? - -993. - -You now have to prove that the shells cannot have originated if not -in salt water, almost all being of that sort; and that the shells in -Lombardy are at four levels, and thus it is everywhere, having been -made at various times. And they all occur in valleys that open -towards the seas. - -994. - ->From the two lines of shells we are forced to say that the earth -indignantly submerged under the sea and so the first layer was made; -and then the deluge made the second. - -[Footnote: This note is in the early writing of about 1470--1480. On -the same sheet are the passages No. 1217 and 1219. Compare also No. -1339. All the foregoing chapters are from Manuscripts of about 1510. -This explains the want of connection and the contradiction between -this and the foregoing texts.] - -VII. - -ON THE ATMOSPHERE. - -Constituents of the atmosphere. - -995. - -That the brightness of the air is occasioned by the water which has -dissolved itself in it into imperceptible molecules. These, being -lighted by the sun from the opposite side, reflect the brightness -which is visible in the air; and the azure which is seen in it is -caused by the darkness that is hidden beyond the air. [Footnote: -Compare Vol. I, No. 300.] - -On the motion of air (996--999). - -996. - -That the return eddies of wind at the mouth of certain valleys -strike upon the waters and scoop them out in a great hollow, whirl -the water into the air in the form of a column, and of the colour of -a cloud. And I saw this thing happen on a sand bank in the Arno, -where the sand was hollowed out to a greater depth than the stature -of a man; and with it the gravel was whirled round and flung about -for a great space; it appeared in the air in the form of a great -bell-tower; and the top spread like the branches of a pine tree, and -then it bent at the contact of the direct wind, which passed over -from the mountains. - -997. - -The element of fire acts upon a wave of air in the same way as the -air does on water, or as water does on a mass of sand --that is -earth; and their motions are in the same proportions as those of the -motors acting upon them. - -998. - -OF MOTION. - -I ask whether the true motion of the clouds can be known by the -motion of their shadows; and in like manner of the motion of the -sun. - -999. - -To know better the direction of the winds. [Footnote: In connection -with this text I may here mention a hygrometer, drawn and probably -invented by Leonardo. A facsimile of this is given in Vol. I, p. 297 -with the note: _'Modi di pesare l'arie eddi sapere quando s'a -arrompere il tepo'_ (Mode of weighing the air and of knowing when -the weather will change); by the sponge _"Spugnea"_ is written.] - -The globe an organism. - -1000. - -Nothing originates in a spot where there is no sentient, vegetable -and rational life; feathers grow upon birds and are changed every -year; hairs grow upon animals and are changed every year, excepting -some parts, like the hairs of the beard in lions, cats and their -like. The grass grows in the fields, and the leaves on the trees, -and every year they are, in great part, renewed. So that we might -say that the earth has a spirit of growth; that its flesh is the -soil, its bones the arrangement and connection of the rocks of which -the mountains are composed, its cartilage the tufa, and its blood -the springs of water. The pool of blood which lies round the heart -is the ocean, and its breathing, and the increase and decrease of -the blood in the pulses, is represented in the earth by the flow and -ebb of the sea; and the heat of the spirit of the world is the fire -which pervades the earth, and the seat of the vegetative soul is in -the fires, which in many parts of the earth find vent in baths and -mines of sulphur, and in volcanoes, as at Mount Aetna in Sicily, and -in many other places. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 929.] - -_XVII._ - -_Topographical Notes._ - -_A large part of the texts published in this section might perhaps -have found their proper place in connection with the foregoing -chapters on Physical Geography. But these observations on Physical -Geography, of whatever kind they may be, as soon as they are -localised acquire a special interest and importance and particularly -as bearing on the question whether Leonardo himself made the -observations recorded at the places mentioned or merely noted the -statements from hearsay. In a few instances he himself tells us that -he writes at second hand. In some cases again, although the style -and expressions used make it seem highly probable that he has -derived his information from others-- though, as it seems to me, -these cases are not very numerous--we find, on the other hand, among -these topographical notes a great number of observations, about -which it is extremely difficult to form a decided opinion. Of what -the Master's life and travels may have been throughout his -sixty-seven years of life we know comparatively little; for a long -course of time, and particularly from about 1482 to 1486, we do not -even know with certainty that he was living in Italy. Thus, from a -biographical point of view a very great interest attaches to some of -the topographical notes, and for this reason it seemed that it would -add to their value to arrange them in a group by themselves. -Leonardo's intimate knowledge with places, some of which were -certainly remote from his native home, are of importance as -contributing to decide the still open question as to the extent of -Leonardo's travels. We shall find in these notes a confirmation of -the view, that the MSS. in which the Topographical Notes occur are -in only a very few instances such diaries as may have been in use -during a journey. These notes are mostly found in the MSS. books of -his later and quieter years, and it is certainly remarkable that -Leonardo is very reticent as to the authorities from whom he quotes -his facts and observations: For instance, as to the Straits of -Gibraltar, the Nile, the Taurus Mountains and the Tigris and -Euphrates. Is it likely that he, who declared that in all scientific -research, his own experience should be the foundation of his -statements (see XIX Philosophy No. 987--991,) should here have made -an exception to this rule without mentioning it?_ - -_As for instance in the discussion as to the equilibrium of the mass -of water in the Mediterranean Sea--a subject which, it may be -observed, had at that time attracted the interest and study of -hardly any other observer. The acute remarks, in Nos. 985--993, on -the presence of shells at the tops of mountains, suffice to -prove--as it seems to me--that it was not in his nature to allow -himself to be betrayed into wide generalisations, extending beyond -the limits of his own investigations, even by such brilliant results -of personal study._ - -_Most of these Topographical Notes, though suggesting very careful -and thorough research, do not however, as has been said, afford -necessarily indisputable evidence that that research was Leonardo's -own. But it must be granted that in more than one instance -probability is in favour of this idea._ - -_Among the passages which treat somewhat fully of the topography of -Eastern places by far the most interesting is a description of the -Taurus Mountains; but as this text is written in the style of a -formal report and, in the original, is associated with certain -letters which give us the history of its origin, I have thought it -best not to sever it from that connection. It will be found under -No. XXI (Letters)._ - -_That Florence, and its neighbourhood, where Leonardo spent his -early years, should be nowhere mentioned except in connection with -the projects for canals, which occupied his attention for some short -time during the first ten years of the XVIth century, need not -surprise us. The various passages relating to the construction of -canals in Tuscany, which are put together at the beginning, are -immediately followed by those which deal with schemes for canals in -Lombardy; and after these come notes on the city and vicinity of -Milan as well as on the lakes of North Italy._ - -_The notes on some towns of Central Italy which Leonardo visited in -1502, when in the service of Cesare Borgia, are reproduced here in -the same order as in the note book used during these travels (MS. -L., Institut de France). These notes have but little interest in -themselves excepting as suggesting his itinerary. The maps of the -districts drawn by Leonardo at the time are more valuable (see No. -1054 note). The names on these maps are not written from right to -left, but in the usual manner, and we are permitted to infer that -they were made in obedience to some command, possibly for the use of -Cesare Borgia himself; the fact that they remained nevertheless in -Leonardo's hands is not surprising when we remember the sudden -political changes and warlike events of the period. There can be no -doubt that these maps, which are here published for the first time, -are original in the strictest sense of the word, that is to say -drawn from observations of the places themselves; this is proved by -the fact--among others--that we find among his manuscripts not only -the finished maps themselves but the rough sketches and studies for -them. And it would perhaps be difficult to point out among the -abundant contributions to geographical knowledge published during -the XVIth century, any maps at all approaching these in accuracy and -finish._ - -_The interesting map of the world, so far as it was then known, -which is among the Leonardo MSS. at Windsor (published in the_ -'Archaeologia' _Vol. XI) cannot be attributed to the Master, as the -Marchese Girolamo d'Adda has sufficiently proved; it has not -therefore been reproduced here._ - -_Such of Leonardo's observations on places in Italy as were made -before or after his official travels as military engineer to Cesare -Borgia, have been arranged in alphabetical order, under Nos. -1034-1054. The most interesting are those which relate to the Alps -and the Appenines, Nos. 1057-1068._ - -_Most of the passages in which France is mentioned have hitherto -remained unknown, as well as those which treat of the countries -bordering on the Mediterranean, which come at the end of this -section. Though these may be regarded as of a more questionable -importance in their bearing on the biography of the Master than -those which mention places in France, it must be allowed that they -are interesting as showing the prominent place which the countries -of the East held in his geographical studies. He never once alludes -to the discovery of America._ - -I. - -ITALY. - -Canals in connection with the Arno (1001-1008). - -1001. - -CANAL OF FLORENCE. - -Sluices should be made in the valley of la Chiana at Arezzo, so that -when, in the summer, the Arno lacks water, the canal may not remain -dry: and let this canal be 20 braccia wide at the bottom, and at the -top 30, and 2 braccia deep, or 4, so that two of these braccia may -flow to the mills and the meadows, which will benefit the country; -and Prato, Pistoia and Pisa, as well as Florence, will gain two -hundred thousand ducats a year, and will lend a hand and money to -this useful work; and the Lucchese the same, for the lake of Sesto -will be navigable; I shall direct it to Prato and Pistoia, and cut -through Serravalle and make an issue into the lake; for there will -be no need of locks or supports, which are not lasting and so will -always be giving trouble in working at them and keeping them up. - -And know that in digging this canal where it is 4 braccia deep, it -will cost 4 dinari the square braccio; for twice the depth 6 dinari, -if you are making 4 braccia [Footnote: This passage is illustrated -by a slightly sketched map, on which these places are indicated from -West to East: Pisa, Luccha, Lago, Seravalle, Pistoja, Prato, -Firenze.] and there are but 2 banks; that is to say one from the -bottom of the trench to the surface of the edges of it, and the -other from these edges to the top of the ridge of earth which will -be raised on the margin of the bank. And if this bank were of double -the depth only the first bank will be increased, that is 4 braccia -increased by half the first cost; that is to say that if at first 4 -dinari were paid for 2 banks, for 3 it would come to 6, at 2 dinari -the bank, if the trench measured 16 braccia at the bottom; again, if -the trench were 16 braccia wide and 4 deep, coming to 4 lire for the -work, 4 Milan dinari the square braccio; a trench which was 32 -braccia at the bottom would come to 8 dinari the square braccio. - -1002. - ->From the wall of the Arno at [the gate of] la Giustizia to the bank -of the Arno at Sardigna where the walls are, to the mills, is 7400 -braccia, that is 2 miles and 1400 braccia and beyond the Arno is -5500 braccia. - -[Footnote: 2. _Giustizia_. By this the Porta della Giustizia seems -to be meant; from the XVth to the XVIth centuries it was also -commonly known as Porta Guelfa, Porta San Francesco del Renaio, -Porta Nuova, and Porta Reale. It was close to the Arno opposite to -the Porta San Niccolo, which still exists.] - -1003. - -By guiding the Arno above and below a treasure will be found in each -acre of ground by whomsoever will. - -1004. - -The wall of the old houses runs towards the gate of San Nicolo. - -[Footnote: By the side of this text there is an indistinct sketch, -resembling that given under No.973. On the bank is written the word -_Casace_. There then follows in the original a passage of 12 lines -in which the consequences of the windings of the river are -discussed. A larger but equally hasty diagram on the same page -represents the shores of the Arno inside Florence as in two parallel -lines. Four horizontal lines indicate the bridges. By the side these -measures are stated in figures: I. (at the Ponte alla Carraja): -_230--largho br. 12 e 2 di spoda e 14 di pile e a 4 pilastri;_ 2. -(at the Ponte S. Trinita); _l88--largho br. 15 e 2 di spode he 28 -di pilastri for delle spode e pilastri so 2;_ 3. (at the Ponte -vecchio); _pote lung br. 152 e largo;_ 4. (at the Ponte alle -Grazie): _290 ellargo 12 e 2 di spode e 6 di pili._ - -There is, in MS. W. L. 2l2b, a sketched plan of Florence, with the -following names of gates: -_Nicholo--Saminiato--Giorgo--Ghanolini--Porta San Fredian ---Prato--Faenza--Ghallo--Pinti--Giustitia_.] - -1005. - -The ruined wall is 640 braccia; 130 is the wall remaining with the -mill; 300 braccia were broken in 4 years by Bisarno. - -1006. - -They do not know why the Arno will never remain in a channel. It is -because the rivers which flow into it deposit earth where they -enter, and wear it away on the opposite side, bending the river in -that direction. The Arno flows for 6 miles between la Caprona and -Leghorn; and for 12 through the marshes, which extend 32 miles, and -16 from La Caprona up the river, which makes 48; by the Arno from -Florence beyond 16 miles; to Vico 16 miles, and the canal is 5; from -Florence to Fucechio it is 40 miles by the river Arno. - -56 miles by the Arno from Florence to Vico; by the Pistoia canal it -is 44 miles. Thus it is 12 miles shorter by the canal than by the -Arno. - -[Footnote: This passage is written by the side of a map washed in -Indian ink, of the course of the Arno; it is evidently a sketch for -a completer map. - -These investigations may possibly be connected with the following -documents. _Francesco Guiducci alla Balia di Firenze. Dal Campo -contro Pisa_ 24 _Luglio_ 1503 (_Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Lettere -alla Balia_; published by J. GAYE, _Carteggio inedito d'Artisti, -Firenze_ 1840, _Tom. II_, p. 62): _Ex Castris, Franciscus -Ghuiduccius,_ 24. _Jul._ 1503. _Appresso fu qui hieri con una di V. -Signoria Alexandro degli Albizi insieme con Leonardo da Vinci et -certi altri, et veduto el disegno insieme con el ghovernatore, doppo -molte discussioni et dubii conclusesi che l'opera fussi molto al -proposito, o si veramente Arno volgersi qui, o restarvi con un -canale, che almeno vieterebbe che le colline da nemici non -potrebbono essere offese; come tucto referiranno loro a bocha V. S._ - -And, _Archivio di Stato, Firenze, Libro d'Entrata e Uscita di cassa -de' Magnifici Signori di luglio e agosto_ - -1503 _a_ 51 _T.: Andata di Leonardo al Campo sotto Pisa. Spese -extraordinarie dieno dare a di XXVI di luglio L. LVI sol. XII per -loro a Giovanni Piffero; e sono per tanti, asegnia avere spexi in -vetture di sei chavalli a spese di vitto per andare chon Lionardo da -Vinci a livellare Arno in quello di Pisa per levallo del lilo suo._ -(Published by MILANESI, _Archivio Storico Italiano, Serie III, Tom. -XVI._} VASARI asserts: _(Leonardo) fu il primo ancora, che -giovanetto discorresse sopra il fiume d'Arno per metterlo in canale -da Pisa a Fiorenza_ (ed. SANSONI, IV, 20). - -The passage above is in some degree illustrated by the map on Pl. -CXII, where the course of the Arno westward from Empoli is shown.] - -1007. - -The eddy made by the Mensola, when the Arno is low and the Mensola -full. - -[Footnote: _Mensola_ is a mountain stream which falls into the Arno -about a mile and a half above Florence. - -A=Arno, I=Isola, M=Mvgone, P=Pesa, N=Mesola.] - -1008. - -That the river which is to be turned from one place to another must -be coaxed and not treated roughly or with violence; and to do this a -sort of floodgate should be made in the river, and then lower down -one in front of it and in like manner a third, fourth and fifth, so -that the river may discharge itself into the channel given to it, or -that by this means it may be diverted from the place it has damaged, -as was done in Flanders--as I was told by Niccolo di Forsore. - -How to protect and repair the banks washed by the water, as below -the island of Cocomeri. - -Ponte Rubaconte (Fig. 1); below [the palaces] Bisticci and Canigiani -(Fig. 2). Above the flood gate of la Giustizia (Fig. 3); _a b_ is a -sand bank opposite the end of the island of the Cocomeri in the -middle of the Arno (Fig. 4). [Footnote: The course of the river Arno -is also discussed in Nos. 987 and 988.] - -Canals in the Milanese (1009-1013). - -1009. - -The canal of San Cristofano at Milan made May 3rd 1509. [Footnote: -This observation is written above a washed pen and ink drawing which -has been published as Tav. VI in the _,,Saggio."_ The editors of -that work explain the drawing as _"uno Studio di bocche per -estrazione d'acqua."_] - -1010. - -OF THE CANAL OF MARTESANA. - -By making the canal of Martesana the water of the Adda is greatly -diminished by its distribution over many districts for the -irrigation of the fields. A remedy for this would be to make several -little channels, since the water drunk up by the earth is of no more -use to any one, nor mischief neither, because it is taken from no -one; and by making these channels the water which before was lost -returns again and is once more serviceable and useful to men. - -[Footnote: _"el navilio di Martagano"_ is also mentioned in a note -written in red chalk, MS. H2 17a Leonardo has, as it seems, little -to do with Lodovico il Moro's scheme to render this canal navigable. -The canal had been made in 1460 by Bertonino da Novara. Il Moro -issued his degree in 1493, but Leonardo's notes about this canal -were, with the exception of one (No. 1343), written about sixteen -years later.] - -1011. - -No canal which is fed by a river can be permanent if the river -whence it originates is not wholly closed up, like the canal of -Martesana which is fed by the Ticino. - -1012. - ->From the beginning of the canal to the mill. - ->From the beginning of the canal of Brivio to the mill of Travaglia -is 2794 trabochi, that is 11176 braccia, which is more than 3 miles -and two thirds; and here the canal is 57 braccia higher than the -surface of the water of the Adda, giving a fall of two inches in -every hundred trabochi; and at that spot we propose to take the -opening of our canal. - -[Footnote: The following are written on the sketches: At the place -marked _N: navilio da dacquiue_ (canal of running water); at _M: -molin del Travaglia_ (Mill of Travaglia); at _R: rochetta ssanta -maria_ (small rock of Santa Maria); at _A: Adda;_ at _L: Lagho di -Lecho ringorgato alli 3 corni in Adda,--Concha perpetua_ (lake of -Lecco overflowing at Tre Corni, in Adda,-- a permanent sluice). Near -the second sketch, referring to the sluice near _Q: qui la chatena -ttalie d'u peso_ (here the chain is in one piece). At _M_ in the -lower sketch: _mol del travaglia, nel cavare la concha il tereno -ara chotrapero co cassa d'acqua._ (Mill of Travaglia, in digging -out the sluice the soil will have as a counterpoise a vessel of -water).] - -1013. - -If it be not reported there that this is to be a public canal, it -will be necessary to pay for the land; [Footnote 3: _il re_. Louis -XII or Francis I of France. It is hardly possible to doubt that the -canals here spoken of were intended to be in the Milanese. Compare -with this passage the rough copy of a letter by Leonardo, to the -_"Presidente dell' Ufficio regolatore dell' acqua"_ on No. 1350. See -also the note to No. 745, 1. 12.] and the king will pay it by -remitting the taxes for a year. - -Estimates and preparatory studies for canals (1014. 1015). - -1014. - -CANAL. - -The canal which may be 16 braccia wide at the bottom and 20 at the -top, we may say is on the average 18 braccia wide, and if it is 4 -braccia deep, at 4 dinari the square braccia; it will only cost 900 -ducats, to excavate by the mile, if the square braccio is calculated -in ordinary braccia; but if the braccia are those used in measuring -land, of which every 4 are equal to 4 1/2 and if by the mile we -understand three thousand ordinary braccia; turned into land -braccia, these 3000 braccia will lack 1/4; there remain 2250 -braccia, which at 4 dinari the braccio will amount to 675 ducats a -mile. At 3 dinari the square braccio, the mile will amount to 506 -1/4 ducats so that the excavation of 30 miles of the canal will -amount to 15187 1/2 ducats. - -1015. - -To make the great canal, first make the smaller one and conduct into -it the waters which by a wheel will help to fill the great one. - -Notes on buildings in Milan (1016-1019) - -1016. - -Indicate the centre of Milan. - -Moforte--porta resa--porta nova--strada nova--navilio--porta -cumana--barco--porta giovia--porta vercellina--porta sco -Anbrogio--porta Tesinese--torre dell' Imperatore-- porta -Lodovica--acqua. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CIX. The original sketch is here reduced to about -half its size. The gates of the town are here named, beginning at -the right hand and following the curved line. In the bird's eye view -of Milan below, the cathedral is plainly recognisable in the middle; -to the right is the tower of San Gottardo. The square, above the -number 9147, is the Lazzaretto, which was begun in 1488. On the left -the group of buildings of the _'Castello'_ will be noticed. On the -sketched Plan of Florence (see No. 1004 note) Leonardo has written -on the margin the following names of gates of Milan: Vercellina ---Ticinese--Ludovica--Romana--Orientale-- -Nova--Beatrice--Cumana--Compare too No. 1448, 11. 5, 12.] - -1017. - -The moat of Milan. - -Canal 2 braccia wide. - -The castle with the moats full. - -The filling of the moats of the Castle of Milan. - -1018. - -THE BATH. - -To heat the water for the stove of the Duchess take four parts of -cold water to three parts of hot water. - -[Footnote: _Duchessa di Milano_, Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico -il Moro to whom she was married, in 1491. She died in June 1497.] - -1019. - -In the Cathedral at the pulley of the nail of the cross. - -Item. - -To place the mass _v r_ in the... - -[Footnote: On this passage AMORETTI remarks _(Memorie Storiche_ -chap. IX): _Nell'anno stesso lo veggiamo formare un congegno di -carucole e di corde, con cui trasportare in piu venerabile e piu -sicuro luogo, cioe nell'ultima arcata della nave di mezzo della -metropolitana, la sacra reliquia del Santo Chiodo, che ivi ancor si -venera. Al fol. 15 del codice segnato Q. R. in 16, egli ci ha -lasciata di tal congegno una doppia figura, cioe una di quattro -carucole, e una di tre colle rispettive corde, soggiugnandovi: in -Domo alla carucola del Chiodo della Croce._ - -AMORETTI'S views as to the mark on the MS, and the date when it was -written are, it may be observed, wholly unfounded. The MS. L, in -which it occurs, is of the year 1502, and it is very unlikely that -Leonardo was in Milan at that time; this however would not prevent -the remark, which is somewhat obscure, from applying to the -Cathedral at Milan.] - -1020. - -OF THE FORCE OF THE VACUUM FORMED IN A MOMENT. - -I saw, at Milan, a thunderbolt fall on the tower della Credenza on -its Northern side, and it descended with a slow motion down that -side, and then at once parted from that tower and carried with it -and tore away from that wall a space of 3 braccia wide and two deep; -and this wall was 4 braccia thick and was built of thin and small -old bricks; and this was dragged out by the vacuum which the flame -of the thunderbolt had caused, &c. - -[Footnote: With reference to buildings at Milan see also Nos. 751 -and 756, and Pl. XCV, No. 2 (explained on p. 52), Pl. C (explained -on pages 60-62). See also pages 25, 39 and 40.] - -Remarks on natural phenomena in and near Milan (1021. 1022). - -1021. - -I have already been to see a great variety (of atmospheric effects). -And lately over Milan towards Lago Maggiore I saw a cloud in the -form of an immense mountain full of rifts of glowing light, because -the rays of the sun, which was already close to the horizon and red, -tinged the cloud with its own hue. And this cloud attracted to it -all the little clouds that were near while the large one did not -move from its place; thus it retained on its summit the reflection -of the sunlight till an hour and a half after sunset, so immensely -large was it; and about two hours after sunset such a violent wind -arose, that it was really tremendous and unheard of. - -[Footnote: _di arie_ is wanting in the original but may safely be -inserted in the context, as the formation of clouds is under -discussion before this text.] - -1022. - -On the 10th day of December at 9 o'clock a. m. fire was set to the -place. - -On the l8th day of December 1511 at 9 o'clock a. m. this second fire -was kindled by the Swiss at Milan at the place called DCXC. -[Footnote: With these two texts, (l. 1--2 and l. 3--5 are in the -original side by side) there are sketches of smoke wreaths in red -chalk.] - -Note on Pavia. - -1023. - -The chimneys of the castle of Pavia have 6 rows of openings and from -each to the other is one braccio. - -[Footnote: Other notes relating to Pavia occur on p. 43 and p. 53 -(Pl. XCVIII, No. 3). Compare No. 1448, 26.] - -Notes on the Sforzesca near Vigevano (1024-1028). - -1024. - -On the 2nd day of February 1494. At Sforzesca I drew twenty five -steps, 2/3 braccia to each, and 8 braccia wide. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 2. The rest of the notes on this page -refer to the motion of water. On the lower sketch we read: 4 _br._ -(four braccia) and _giara_ (for _ghiaja_, sand, gravel).] - -1025. - -The vineyards of Vigevano on the 20th day of March 1494. - -[Footnote: On one side there is an effaced sketch in red chalk.] - -1026. - -To lock up a butteris at Vigevano. - -1027. - -Again if the lowest part of the bank which lies across the current -of the waters is made in deep and wide steps, after the manner of -stairs, the waters which, in their course usually fall -perpendicularly from the top of such a place to the bottom, and wear -away the foundations of this bank can no longer descend with a blow -of too great a force; and I find the example of this in the stairs -down which the water falls in the fields at Sforzesca at Vigevano -over which the running water falls for a height of 50 braccia. - -1028. - -Stair of Vigevano below La Sforzesca, 130 steps, 1/4 braccio high -and 1/2 braccio wide, down which the water falls, so as not to wear -away anything at the end of its fall; by these steps so much soil -has come down that it has dried up a pool; that is to say it has -filled it up and a pool of great depth has been turned into meadows. - -Notes on the North Italian lake. (1029-1033) - -1029. - -In many places there are streams of water which swell for six hours -and ebb for six hours; and I, for my part, have seen one above the -lake of Como called Fonte Pliniana, which increases and ebbs, as I -have said, in such a way as to turn the stones of two mills; and -when it fails it falls so low that it is like looking at water in a -deep pit. - -[Footnote: The fountain is known by this name to this day: it is -near Torno, on the Eastern shore of Como. The waters still rise and -fall with the flow and ebb of the tide as Pliny described it (Epist. -IV, 30; Hist. Nat. II, 206).] - -1030. - -LAKE OF COMO. VALLEY OF CHIAVENNA. - -Above the lake of Como towards Germany is the valley of Chiavenna -where the river Mera flows into this lake. Here are barren and very -high mountains, with huge rocks. Among these mountains are to be -found the water-birds called gulls. Here grow fir trees, larches and -pines. Deer, wildgoats, chamois, and terrible bears. It is -impossible to climb them without using hands and feet. The peasants -go there at the time of the snows with great snares to make the -bears fall down these rocks. These mountains which very closely -approach each other are parted by the river. They are to the right -and left for the distance of 20 miles throughout of the same nature. ->From mile to mile there are good inns. Above on the said river there -are waterfalls of 400 braccia in height, which are fine to see; and -there is good living at 4 soldi the reckoning. This river brings -down a great deal of timber. - -VAL SASINA. - -Val Sasina runs down towards Italy; this is almost the same form and -character. There grow here many _mappello_ and there are great ruins -and falls of water [Footnote 14: The meaning of _mappello_ is -unknown.]. - -VALLEY OF INTROZZO. - -This valley produces a great quantity of firs, pines and larches; -and from here Ambrogio Fereri has his timber brought down; at the -head of the Valtellina are the mountains of Bormio, terrible and -always covered with snow; marmots (?) are found there. - -BELLAGGIO. - -Opposite the castle Bellaggio there is the river Latte, which falls -from a height of more than 100 braccia from the source whence it -springs, perpendicularly, into the lake with an inconceivable roar -and noise. This spring flows only in August and September. - -VALTELLINA. - -Valtellina, as it is called, is a valley enclosed in high and -terrible mountains; it produces much strong wine, and there is so -much cattle that the natives conclude that more milk than wine grows -there. This is the valley through which the Adda passes, which first -runs more than 40 miles through Germany; this river breeds the fish -_temolo_ which live on silver, of which much is to be found in its -sands. In this country every one can sell bread and wine, and the -wine is worth at most one soldo the bottle and a pound of veal one -soldo, and salt ten dinari and butter the same and their pound is 30 -ounces, and eggs are one soldo the lot. - -1031. - -At BORMIO. - -At Bormio are the baths;--About eight miles above Como is the -Pliniana, which increases and ebbs every six hours, and its swell -supplies water for two mills; and its ebbing makes the spring dry -up; two miles higher up there is Nesso, a place where a river falls -with great violence into a vast rift in the mountain. These -excursions are to be made in the month of May. And the largest bare -rocks that are to be found in this part of the country are the -mountains of Mandello near to those of Lecco, and of Gravidona -towards Bellinzona, 30 miles from Lecco, and those of the valley of -Chiavenna; but the greatest of all is that of Mandello, which has at -its base an opening towards the lake, which goes down 200 steps, and -there at all times is ice and wind. - -IN VAL SASINA. - -In Val Sasina, between Vimognio and Introbbio, to the right hand, -going in by the road to Lecco, is the river Troggia which falls from -a very high rock, and as it falls it goes underground and the river -ends there. 3 miles farther we find the buildings of the mines of -copper and silver near a place called Pra' Santo Pietro, and mines -of iron and curious things. La Grigna is the highest mountain there -is in this part, and it is quite bare. - -[Footnote: 1030 and 1031. From the character of the handwriting we -may conclude that these observations were made in Leonardo's youth; -and I should infer from their contents, that they were notes made in -anticipation of a visit to the places here described, and derived -from some person (unknown to us) who had given him an account of -them.] - -1032. - -The lake of Pusiano flows into the lake of Segrino [Footnote 3: The -statement about the lake Segrino is incorrect; it is situated in the -Valle Assina, above the lake of Pusiano.] and of Annone and of Sala. -The lake of Annone is 22 braccia higher at the surface of its water -than the surface of the water of the lake of Lecco, and the lake of -Pusiano is 20 braccia higher than the lake of Annone, which added to -the afore said 22 braccia make 42 braccia and this is the greatest -height of the surface of the lake of Pusiano above the surface of -the lake of Lecco. - -[Footnote: This text has in the original a slight sketch to -illustrate it.] - -1033. - -At Santa Maria in the Valley of Ravagnate [Footnote 2: _Ravagnate_ -(Leonardo writes _Ravagna_) in the Brianza is between Oggiono and -Brivio, South of the lake of Como. M. Ravaisson avails himself of -this note to prove his hypothesis that Leonardo paid two visits to -France. See Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1881 pag. 528: - -_Au recto du meme feuillet, on lit encore une note relative a une -vallee "nemonti brigatia"; il me semble qu'il s'agit bien des monts -de Briancon, le Brigantio des anciens. Briancon est sur la route de -Lyon en Italie. Ce fut par le mont Viso que passerent, en aout 1515, -les troupes francaises qui allaient remporter la victoire de -Marignan. - -Leonard de Vinci, ingenieur de Francois Ier, comme il l'avait ete de -Louis XII, aurait-il ete pour quelque chose dans le plan du celebre -passage des Alpes, qui eut lieu en aout 1515, et a la suite duquel -on le vit accompagner partout le chevaleresque vainqueur? Auraitil -ete appele par le jeune roi, de Rome ou l'artiste etait alors, des -son avenement au trone?_] in the mountains of Brianza are the rods -of chestnuts of 9 braccia and one out of an average of 100 will be -14 braccia. - -At Varallo di Ponbia near to Sesto on the Ticino the quinces are -white, large and hard. - -[Footnote 5: Varallo di Ponbia, about ten miles South of Arona is -distinct from Varallo the chief town in the Val di Sesia.] - -Notes on places in Central Italy, visited in 1502 (1034-1054). - -1034. - -Pigeon-house at Urbino, the 30th day of July 1502. [Footnote: An -indistinct sketch is introduced with this text, in the original, in -which the word _Scolatoro_ (conduit) is written.] - -1035. - -Made by the sea at Piombino. [Footnote: Below the sketch there are -eleven lines of text referring to the motion of waves.] - -1036. - -Acquapendente is near Orvieto. [Footnote: _Acquapendente_ is about -10 miles West of Orvieto, and is to the right in the map on Pl. -CXIII, near the lake of Bolsena.] - -1037. - -The rock of Cesena. [Footnote: See Pl. XCIV No. 1, the lower sketch. -The explanation of the upper sketch is given on p. 29.] - -1038. - -Siena, _a b_ 4 braccia, _a c_ 10 braccia. Steps at [the castle of] -Urbino. [Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 3; compare also No. 765.] - -1039. - -The bell of Siena, that is the manner of its movement, and the place -of the attachment of the clapper. [Footnote: The text is accompanied -by an indistinct sketch.] - -1040. - -On St. Mary's day in the middle of August, at Cesena, 1502. -[Footnote: See Pl. CX, No. 4.] - -1041. - -Stairs of the [palace of the] Count of Urbino,--rough. [Footnote: -The text is accompanied by a slight sketch.] - -1042. - -At the fair of San Lorenzo at Cesena. 1502. - -1043. - -Windows at Cesena. [Footnote: There are four more lines of text -which refer to a slightly sketched diagram.] - -1044. - -At Porto Cesenatico, on the 6th of September 1502 at 9 o'clock a. m. - -The way in which bastions ought to project beyond the walls of the -towers to defend the outer talus; so that they may not be taken by -artillery. - -[Footnote: An indistinct sketch, accompanies this passage.] - -1045. - -The rock of the harbour of Cesena is four points towards the South -West from Cesena. - -1046. - -In Romagna, the realm of all stupidity, vehicles with four wheels -are used, of which O the two in front are small and two high ones -are behind; an arrangement which is very unfavourable to the motion, -because on the fore wheels more weight is laid than on those behind, -as I showed in the first of the 5th on "Elements". - -1047. - -Thus grapes are carried at Cesena. The number of the diggers of the -ditches is [arranged] pyramidically. [Footnote: A sketch, -representing a hook to which two bunches of grapes are hanging, -refers to these first two lines. Cesena is mentioned again Fol. 82a: -_Carro da Cesena_ (a cart from Cesena).] - -1048. - -There might be a harmony of the different falls of water as you saw -them at the fountain of Rimini on the 8th day of August, 1502. - -1049. - -The fortress at Urbino. [Footnote: 1049. In the original the text is -written inside the sketch in the place here marked _n_.] - -1050. - -Imola, as regards Bologna, is five points from the West, towards the -North West, at a distance of 20 miles. - -Castel San Piero is seen from Imola at four points from the West -towards the North West, at a distance of 7 miles. - -Faenza stands with regard to Imola between East and South East at a -distance of ten miles. Forli stands with regard to Faenza between -South East and East at a distance of 20 miles from Imola and ten -from Faenza. - -Forlimpopoli lies in the same direction at 25 miles from Imola. - -Bertinoro, as regards Imola, is five points from the East to wards -the South East, at 27 miles. - -1051. - -Imola as regards Bologna is five points from the West towards the -North West at a distance of 20 miles. - -Castel San Pietro lies exactly North West of Imola, at a distance of -7 miles. - -Faenza, as regards Imola lies exactly half way between the East and -South East at a distance of 10 miles; and Forli lies in the same -direction from Imola at a distance of 20 miles; and Forlimpopolo -lies in the same direction from Forli at a distance of 25 miles. - -Bertinoro is seen from Imola two points from the East towards the -South East at a distance of 27 miles. - -[Footnote: Leonardo inserted this passage on the margin of the -circular plan, in water colour, of Imola--see Pl. CXI No. 1.--In the -original the fields surrounding the town are light green; the moat, -which surrounds the fortifications and the windings of the river -Santerno, are light blue. The parts, which have come out blackish -close to the river are yellow ochre in the original. The dark groups -of houses inside the town are red. At the four points of the compass -drawn in the middle of the town Leonardo has written (from right to -left): _Mezzodi_ (South) at the top; to the left _Scirocho_ (South -east), _levante_ (East), _Greco_ (North East), _Septantrione_ -(North), _Maesstro_ (North West), _ponente_ (West) _Libecco_ (South -West). The arch in which the plan is drawn is, in the original, 42 -centimetres across. - -At the beginning of October 1502 Cesare Borgia was shut up in Imola -by a sudden revolt of the Condottieri, and it was some weeks before -he could release himself from this state of siege (see Gregorovius, -_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, Vol. VII, Book XIII, 5, -5). - -Besides this incident Imola plays no important part in the history -of the time. I therefore think myself fully justified in connecting -this map, which is at Windsor, with the siege of 1502 and with -Leonardo's engagements in the service of Cesare Borgia, because a -comparison of these texts, Nos. 1050 and 1051, raise, I believe, the -hypothesis to a certainty.] - -1052. - ->From Bonconventi to Casa Nova are 10 miles, from Casa Nova to Chiusi -9 miles, from Chiusi to Perugia, from, Perugia to Santa Maria degli -Angeli, and then to Fuligno. [Footnote: Most of the places here -described lie within the district shown in the maps on Pl. CXIII.] - -1053. - -On the first of August 1502, the library at Pesaro. - -1054. - -OF PAINTING. - -On the tops and sides of hills foreshorten the shape of the ground -and its divisions, but give its proper shape to what is turned -towards you. [Footnote: This passage evidently refers to the making -of maps, such as Pl. CXII, CXIII, and CXIV. There is no mention of -such works, it is true, excepting in this one passage of MS. L. But -this can scarcely be taken as evidence against my view that Leonardo -busied himself very extensively at that time in the construction of -maps; and all the less since the foregoing chapters clearly prove -that at a time so full of events Leonardo would only now and then -commit his observations to paper, in the MS. L. - -By the side of this text we find, in the original, a very indistinct -sketch, perhaps a plan of a position. Instead of this drawing I have -here inserted a much clearer sketch of a position from the same MS., -L. 82b and 83a. They are the only drawings of landscape, it may be -noted, which occur at all in that MS.] - -Alessandria in Piedmont (1055. 1056). - -1055. - -At Candia in Lombardy, near Alessandria della Paglia, in making a -well for Messer Gualtieri [Footnote 2: Messer Gualtieri, the same -probably as is mentioned in Nos. 672 and 1344.] of Candia, the -skeleton of a very large boat was found about 10 braccia -underground; and as the timber was black and fine, it seemed good to -the said Messer Gualtieri to have the mouth of the well lengthened -in such a way as that the ends of the boat should be uncovered. - -1056. - -At Alessandria della Paglia in Lombardy there are no stones for -making lime of, but such as are mixed up with an infinite variety of -things native to the sea, which is now more than 200 miles away. - -The Alps (1057-1062). - -1057. - -At Monbracco, above Saluzzo,--a mile above the Certosa, at the foot -of Monte Viso, there is a quarry of flakey stone, which is as white -as Carrara marble, without a spot, and as hard as porphyry or even -harder; of which my worthy gossip, Master Benedetto the sculptor, -has promised to give me a small slab, for the colours, the second -day of January 1511. - -[Footnote: Saluzzo at the foot of the Alps South of Turin.] - -[Footnote 9. 10.: _Maestro Benedetto scultore_; probably some native -of Northern Italy acquainted with the place here described. Hardly -the Florentine sculptor Benedetto da Majano. Amoretti had published -this passage, and M. Ravaisson who gave a French translation of it -in the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (1881, pag. 528), remarks as -follows: _Le maitre sculpteur que Leonard appelle son "compare" ne -serait-il pas Benedetto da Majano, un de ceux qui jugerent avec lui -de la place a donner au David de Michel-Ange, et de qui le Louvre a -acquis recemment un buste d'apres Philippe Strozzi?_ To this it may -be objected that Benedetto da Majano had already lain in his grave -fourteen years, in the year 1511, when he is supposed to have given -the promise to Leonardo. The colours may have been given to the -sculptor Benedetto and the stone may have been in payment for them. ->From the description of the stone here given we may conclude that it -is repeated from hearsay of the sculptor's account of it. I do not -understand how, from this observation, it is possible to conclude -that Leonardo was on the spot.] - -1058. - -That there are springs which suddenly break forth in earthquakes or -other convulsions and suddenly fail; and this happened in a mountain -in Savoy where certain forests sank in and left a very deep gap, and -about four miles from here the earth opened itself like a gulf in -the mountain, and threw out a sudden and immense flood of water -which scoured the whole of a little valley of the tilled soil, -vineyards and houses, and did the greatest mischief, wherever it -overflowed. - -1059. - -The river Arve, a quarter of a mile from Geneva in Savoy, where the -fair is held on midsummerday in the village of Saint Gervais. - -[Footnote: An indistinct sketch is to be seen by the text.] - -1060. - -And this may be seen, as I saw it, by any one going up Monbroso -[Footnote: I have vainly enquired of every available authority for a -solution of the mystery as to what mountain is intended by the name -Monboso (Comp. Vol. I Nos. 300 and 301). It seems most obvious to -refer it to Monte Rosa. ROSA derived from the Keltic ROS which -survives in Breton and in Gaelic, meaning, in its first sense, a -mountain spur, but which also--like HORN--means a very high peak; -thus Monte Rosa would mean literally the High Peak.], a peak of the -Alps which divide France from Italy. The base of this mountain gives -birth to the 4 rivers which flow in four different directions -through the whole of Europe. And no mountain has its base at so -great a height as this, which lifts itself above almost all the -clouds; and snow seldom falls there, but only hail in the summer, -when the clouds are highest. And this hail lies [unmelted] there, so -that if it were not for the absorption of the rising and falling -clouds, which does not happen more than twice in an age, an enormous -mass of ice would be piled up there by the layers of hail, and in -the middle of July I found it very considerable; and I saw the sky -above me quite dark, and the sun as it fell on the mountain was far -brighter here than in the plains below, because a smaller extent of -atmosphere lay between the summit of the mountain and the sun. -[Footnote 6: _in una eta._ This is perhaps a slip of the pen on -Leonardo's part and should be read _estate_ (summer).] - -Leic. 9b] - -1061. - -In the mountains of Verona the red marble is found all mixed with -cockle shells turned into stone; some of them have been filled at -the mouth with the cement which is the substance of the stone; and -in some parts they have remained separate from the mass of the rock -which enclosed them, because the outer covering of the shell had -interposed and had not allowed them to unite with it; while in other -places this cement had petrified those which were old and almost -stripped the outer skin. - -1062. - -Bridge of Goertz-Wilbach (?). - -[Footnote: There is a slight sketch with this text, Leonardo seems -to have intended to suggest, with a few pen-strokes, the course of -the Isonzo and of the Wipbach in the vicinity of Gorizia (Goerz). He -himself says in another place that he had been in Friuli (see No. -1077 1. 19).] - -The Appenins (1063-1068). - -1063. - -That part of the earth which was lightest remained farthest from the -centre of the world; and that part of the earth became the lightest -over which the greatest quantity of water flowed. And therefore that -part became lightest where the greatest number of rivers flow; like -the Alps which divide Germany and France from Italy; whence issue -the Rhone flowing Southwards, and the Rhine to the North. The Danube -or Tanoia towards the North East, and the Po to the East, with -innumerable rivers which join them, and which always run turbid with -the soil carried by them to the sea. - -The shores of the sea are constantly moving towards the middle of -the sea and displace it from its original position. The lowest -portion of the Mediterranean will be reserved for the bed and -current of the Nile, the largest river that flows into that sea. And -with it are grouped all its tributaries, which at first fell into -the sea; as may be seen with the Po and its tributaries, which first -fell into that sea, which between the Appenines and the German Alps -was united to the Adriatic sea. - -That the Gallic Alps are the highest part of Europe. - -1064. - -And of these I found some in the rocks of the high Appenines and -mostly at the rock of La Vernia. [Footnote 6: _Sasso della Vernia._ -The frowning rock between the sources of the Arno and the Tiber, as -Dante describes this mountain, which is 1269 metres in height. - -This note is written by the side of that given as No. 1020; but -their connection does not make it clear what Leonardo's purpose was -in writing it.] - -1065. - -At Parma, at 'La Campana' on the twenty-fifth of October 1514. -[Footnote 2: _Capano_, an Inn.] - -A note on the petrifactions, or fossils near Parma will be found -under No. 989.] - -1066. - -A method for drying the marsh of Piombino. [Footnote: There is a -slight sketch with this text in the original.--Piombino is also -mentioned in Nos. 609, l. 55-58 (compare Pl. XXXV, 3, below). Also -in No. 1035.] - -1067. - -The shepherds in the Romagna at the foot of the Apennines make -peculiar large cavities in the mountains in the form of a horn, and -on one side they fasten a horn. This little horn becomes one and the -same with the said cavity and thus they produce by blowing into it a -very loud noise. [Footnote: As to the Romagna see also No. 1046.] - -1068. - -A spring may be seen to rise in Sicily which at certain times of the -year throws out chesnut leaves in quantities; but in Sicily chesnuts -do not grow, hence it is evident that that spring must issue from -some abyss in Italy and then flow beneath the sea to break forth in -Sicily. [Footnote: The chesnut tree is very common in Sicily. In -writing _cicilia_ Leonardo meant perhaps Cilicia.] - -II. - -FRANCE. - -1069. - - GERMANY. FRANCE. - -a. Austria, a. Picardy. -b. Saxony. b. Normandy. -c. Nuremberg. c. Dauphine. -d. Flanders. - - SPAIN. - - a. Biscay. - b. Castille. - c. Galicia. - d. Portugal. - e. Taragona. - f. Granada. - -[Footnote: Two slightly sketched maps, one of Europe the other of -Spain, are at the side of these notes.] - -1070. - -Perpignan. Roanne. Lyons. Paris. Ghent. Bruges. Holland. - -[Footnote: _Roana_ does not seem to mean here Rouen in Normandy, but -is probably Roanne (Rodumna) on the upper Loire, Lyonnais (Dep. du -Loire). This town is now unimportant, but in Leonardo's time was -still a place of some consequence.] - -1071. - -At Bordeaux in Gascony the sea rises about 40 braccia before its -ebb, and the river there is filled with salt water for more than a -hundred and fifty miles; and the vessels which are repaired there -rest high and dry on a high hill above the sea at low tide. -[Footnote 2: This is obviously an exaggeration founded on inaccurate -information. Half of 150 miles would be nearer the mark.] - -1072. - -The Rhone issues from the lake of Geneva and flows first to the West -and then to the South, with a course of 400 miles and pours its -waters into the Mediterranean. - -1073. - -_c d_ is the garden at Blois; _a b_ is the conduit of Blois, made in -France by Fra Giocondo, _b c_ is what is wanting in the height of -that conduit, _c d_ is the height of the garden at Blois, _e f_ is -the siphon of the conduit, _b c_, _e f_, _f g_ is where the siphon -discharges into the river. [Footnote: The tenor of this note (see -lines 2 and 3) seems to me to indicate that this passage was not -written in France, but was written from oral information. We have no -evidence as to when this note may have been written beyond the -circumstance that Fra Giocondo the Veronese Architect left France -not before the year 1505. The greater part of the magnificent -Chateau of Blois has now disappeared. Whether this note was made for -a special purpose is uncertain. The original form and extent of the -Chateau is shown in Androvet, _Les plus excellents Bastiments de -France, Paris MDCVII,_ and it may be observed that there is in the -middle of the garden a Pavilion somewhat similar to that shown on -Pl. LXXXVIII No. 7. - -See S. DE LA SAUSSAYE, _Histoire du Chateau de Blois 4eme edition -Blois et Paris_ p. 175: _En mariant sa fille ainee a Francois, comte -d'Angouleme, Louis XII lui avait constitue en dot les comtes de -Blois, d'Asti, de Coucy, de Montfort, d'Etampes et de Vertus. Une -ordonnance de Francois I. lui laissa en_ 1516 _l'administration du -comte de Blois. - -Le roi fit commencer, dans la meme annee, les travaux de celle belle -partie du chateau, connue sous le nom d'aile de Francois I, et dont -nous avons donne la description au commencement de ce livre. Nous -trouvons en effet, dans les archives du Baron de Foursanvault, une -piece qui en fixe parfaitement la date. On y lit: "Je, Baymon -Philippeaux, commis par le Roy a tenir le compte et fair le payement -des bastiments, ediffices et reparacions que le dit seigneur fait -faire en son chastu de Blois, confesse avoir eu et receu ... la -somme de trois mille livres tournois ... le cinquieme jour de -juillet, l'an mil cinq cent et seize._ P. 24: _Les jardins avaient -ete decores avec beaucoup de luxe par les differents possesseurs du -chateau. Il ne reste de tous les batiments qu'ils y eleverent que -ceux des officiers charges de l'ad_ministration et de la culture des -jardins, et un pavilion carre en pierre et en brique flanque de -terrasses a chacun de ses angles. Quoique defigure par des mesures -elevees sur les terrasses, cet edifice est tris-digne d'interet par -l'originalite du plan, la decoration architecturale et le souvenir -d'Anne de Bretagne qui le fit construire._ Felibien describes the -garden as follows: _Le jardin haut etait fort bien dresse par grands -compartimens de toutes sortes de figures, avec des allees de -meuriers blancs et des palissades de coudriers. Deux grands berceaux -de charpenterie separoient toute la longueur et la largeur du -jardin, et dans les quatres angles des allees, ou ces berceaux se -croissent, il y auoit 4 cabinets, de mesme charpenterie ... Il y a -pas longtemps qu'il y auoit dans ce mesme jardin, a l'endroit ou se -croissent les allees du milieu, un edifice de figure octogone, de -plus de 7 thoises de diametre et de plus de neuf thoises de haut; -avec 4 enfoncements en forme de niches dans les 4 angles des allies. -Ce bastiment.... esloit de charpente mais d'un extraordinairement -bien travaille. On y voyait particulierement la cordiliere qui -regnati tout autour en forme de cordon. Car la Reyne affectait de la -mettre nonseulement a ses armes et a ses chiffres mais de la faire -representer en divers manieres dans tous les ouvrages qu'on lui -faisait pour elle ... le bastiment estati couvert en forme de dome -qui dans son milieu avait encore un plus petit dome, ou lanterne -vitree au-dessus de laquelle estait une figure doree representant -Saint Michel. Les deux domes estoient proprement couvert d'ardoise -et de plomb dore par dehors; par dedans ils esloient lambrissez -d'une menuiserie tres delicate. Au milieu de ce Salon il y avait un -grand bassin octogone de marbre blanc, dont toutes les faces -estoient enrichies de differentes sculptures, avec les armes et les -chiffres du Roy Louis XII et de la Reine Anne, Dans ce bassin il y -en avait un autre pose sur un piedestal lequel auoit sept piedz de -diametre. Il estait de figure ronde a godrons, avec des masques et -d'autres ornements tres scauamment taillez. Du milieu de ce -deuxiesme bassin s'y levoit un autre petit piedestal qui portait un -troisiesme bassin de trois pieds de diametre, aussy parfaitement -bien taille; c'estoit de ce dernier bassin que jallissoit l'eau qui -se rependoit en suitte dans les deux autres bassins. Les beaux -ouvrages faits d'un marbre esgalement blanc et poli, furent brisez -par la pesanteur de tout l'edifice, que les injures de l'air -renverserent de fond en comble.] - -1074. - -The river Loire at Amboise. - -The river is higher within the bank _b d_ than outside that bank. - -The island where there is a part of Amboise. - -This is the river that passes through Amboise; it passes at _a b c -d_, and when it has passed the bridge it turns back, against the -original current, by the channel _d e_, _b f_ in contact with the -bank which lies between the two contrary currents of the said river, -_a b_, _c d_, and _d e_, _b f_. It then turns down again by the -channel _f l_, _g h_, _n m_, and reunites with the river from which -it was at first separated, which passes by _k n_, which makes _k m_, -_r t_. But when the river is very full it flows all in one channel -passing over the bank _b d_. [Footnote: See Pl. CXV. Lines 1-7 are -above, lines 8-10 in the middle of the large island and the word -_Isola_ is written above _d_ in the smaller island; _a_ is written -on the margin on the bank of the river above 1. I; in the -reproduction it is not visible. As may be seen from the last -sentence, the observation was made after long study of the river's -course, when Leonardo had resided for some time at, or near, -Amboise.] - -1075. - -The water may be dammed up above the level of Romorantin to such a -height, that in its fall it may be used for numerous mills. - -1075. - -The river at Villefranche may be conducted to Romorantin which may -be done by the inhabitants; and the timber of which their houses are -built may be carried in boats to Romorantin [Footnote: Compare No. -744.]. The river may be dammed up at such a height that the waters -may be brought back to Romorantin with a convenient fall. - -1076. - -As to whether it is better that the water should all be raised in a -single turn or in two? - -The answer is that in one single turn the wheel could not support -all the water that it can raise in two turns, because at the half -turn of the wheel it would be raising 100 pounds and no more; and if -it had to raise the whole, 200 pounds in one turn, it could not -raise them unless the wheel were of double the diameter and if the -diameter were doubled, the time of its revolution would be doubled; -therefore it is better and a greater advantage in expense to make -such a wheel of half the size (?) the land which it would water and -would render the country fertile to supply food to the inhabitants, -and would make navigable canals for mercantile purposes. - -The way in which the river in its flow should scour its own channel. - -By the ninth of the third; the more rapid it is, the more it wears -away its channel; and, by the converse proposition, the slower the -water the more it deposits that which renders it turbid. - -And let the sluice be movable like the one I arranged in Friuli -[Footnote 19: This passage reveals to us the fact that Leonardo had -visited the country of Friuli and that he had stayed there for some -time. Nothing whatever was known of this previously.], where when -one sluice was opened the water which passed through it dug out the -bottom. Therefore when the rivers are flooded, the sluices of the -mills ought to be opened in order that the whole course of the river -may pass through falls to each mill; there should be many in order -to give a greater impetus, and so all the river will be scoured. And -below the site of each of the two mills there may be one of the said -sluice falls; one of them may be placed below each mill. - -1078. - -A trabocco is four braccia, and one mile is three thousand of the -said braccia. Each braccio is divided into 12 inches; and the water -in the canals has a fall in every hundred trabocchi of two of these -inches; therefore 14 inches of fall are necessary in two thousand -eight hundred braccia of flow in these canals; it follows that 15 -inches of fall give the required momentum to the currents of the -waters in the said canals, that is one braccio and a half in the -mile. And from this it may be concluded that the water taken from -the river of Ville-franche and lent to the river of Romorantin -will..... Where one river by reason of its low level cannot flow -into the other, it will be necessary to dam it up, so that it may -acquire a fall into the other, which was previously the higher. - -The eve of Saint Antony I returned from Romorantin to Amboise, and -the King went away two days before from Romorantin. - ->From Romorantin as far as the bridge at Saudre it is called the -Saudre, and from that bridge as far as Tours it is called the Cher. - -I would test the level of that channel which is to lead from the -Loire to Romorantin, with a channel one braccio wide and one braccio -deep. - -[Footnote: Lines 6-18 are partly reproduced in the facsimile on p. -254, and the whole of lines 19-25. - -The following names are written along the rivers on the larger -sketch, _era f_ (the Loire) _scier f_ (the Cher) three times. _Pote -Sodro_ (bridge of the Soudre). _Villa francha_ (Villefranche) -_banco_ (sandbank) _Sodro_ (Soudre). The circle below shows the -position of Romorantin. The words '_orologio del sole_' written -below do not belong to the map of the rivers. The following names -are written by the side of the smaller sketch-map:--_tors_ (Tours), -_Abosa_ (Amboise) _bres_--for Bles (Blois) _mo rica_ (Montrichard). -_Lione_ (Lyons). This map was also published in the 'Saggio' -(Milano, 1872) Pl. XXII, and the editors remark: _Forse la linia -retta che va da Amboise a Romorantin segna l'andamento proposto d'un -Canale, che poi rembra prolungarsi in giu fin dove sta scritto -Lione._ - -M. Ravaisson has enlarged on this idea in the Gazette des Beaux Arts -(1881 p. 530): _Les traces de Leonard permettent d'entrevoir que le -canal commencant soit aupres de Tours, soit aupres de Blois et -passant par Romorantin, avec port d'embarquement a Villefranche, -devait, au dela de Bourges, traverser l'Allier au-dessous des -affluents de la Dore et de la Sioule, aller par Moulins jusqu' a -Digoin; enfin, sur l'autre rive de la Loire, depasser les monts du -Charolais et rejoindre la Saone aupres de Macon._ It seems to me -rash, however, to found so elaborate an hypothesis on these sketches -of rivers. The slight stroke going to _Lione_ is perhaps only an -indication of the direction.--With regard to the Loire compare also -No. 988. l. 38.] - -1079. - -THE ROAD TO ORLEANS - -At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/3 from the South to -the South East. At 1/4 from the South to the South East. At 1/5 from -the South to the South East. Between the South West and South, to -the East bearing to the South; from the South towards the East 1/8; -thence to the West, between the South and South West; at the South. - -[Footnote: The meaning is obscure; a more important passage -referring to France is to be found under No. 744] - -On the Germans (1080. 1081). - -1080. - -The way in which the Germans closing up together cross and -interweave their broad leather shields against the enemy, stooping -down and putting one of the ends on the ground while they hold the -rest in their hand. [Footnote: Above the text is a sketch of a few -lines crossing each other and the words _de ponderibus_. The meaning -of the passage is obscure.] - -1081. - -The Germans are wont to annoy a garrison with the smoke of feathers, -sulphur and realgar, and they make this smoke last 7 or 8 hours. -Likewise the husks of wheat make a great and lasting smoke; and also -dry dung; but this must be mixed with olive husks, that is olives -pressed for oil and from which the oil has been extracted. -[Footnote: There is with this passage a sketch of a round tower -shrouded in smoke.] - -The Danube. - -1082. - -That the valleys were formerly in great part covered by lakes the -soil of which always forms the banks of rivers,--and by seas, which -afterwards, by the persistent wearing of the rivers, cut through the -mountains and the wandering courses of the rivers carried away the -other plains enclosed by the mountains; and the cutting away of the -mountains is evident from the strata in the rocks, which correspond -in their sections as made by the courses of the rivers [Footnote 4: -_Emus_, the Balkan; _Dardania_, now Servia.], The Haemus mountains -which go along Thrace and Dardania and join the Sardonius mountains -which, going on to the westward change their name from Sardus to -Rebi, as they come near Dalmatia; then turning to the West cross -Illyria, now called Sclavonia, changing the name of Rebi to Albanus, -and going on still to the West, they change to Mount Ocra in the -North; and to the South above Istria they are named Caruancas; and -to the West above Italy they join the Adula, where the Danube rises -[8], which stretches to the East and has a course of 1500 miles; its -shortest line is about l000 miles, and the same or about the same is -that branch of the Adula mountains changed as to their name, as -before mentioned. To the North are the Carpathians, closing in the -breadth of the valley of the Danube, which, as I have said extends -eastward, a length of about 1000 miles, and is sometimes 200 and in -some places 300 miles wide; and in the midst flows the Danube, the -principal river of Europe as to size. The said Danube runs through -the middle of Austria and Albania and northwards through Bavaria, -Poland, Hungary, Wallachia and Bosnia and then the Danube or Donau -flows into the Black Sea, which formerly extended almost to Austria -and occupied the plains through which the Danube now courses; and -the evidence of this is in the oysters and cockle shells and -scollops and bones of great fishes which are still to be found in -many places on the sides of those mountains; and this sea was formed -by the filling up of the spurs of the Adula mountains which then -extended to the East joining the spurs of the Taurus which extend to -the West. And near Bithynia the waters of this Black Sea poured into -the Propontis [Marmora] falling into the Aegean Sea, that is the -Mediterranean, where, after a long course, the spurs of the Adula -mountains became separated from those of the Taurus. The Black Sea -sank lower and laid bare the valley of the Danube with the above -named countries, and the whole of Asia Minor beyond the Taurus range -to the North, and the plains from mount Caucasus to the Black Sea to -the West, and the plains of the Don this side--that is to say, at -the foot of the Ural mountains. And thus the Black Sea must have -sunk about 1000 braccia to uncover such vast plains. - -[Footnote 8: _Danubio_, in the original _Reno_; evidently a mistake -as we may infer from _come dissi_ l. 10 &c.] - -III. - -THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN END OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. - -The straits of Gibraltar (1083-1085). - -1083. - -WHY THE SEA MAKES A STRONGER CURRENT IN THE STRAITS OF SPAIN THAN -ELSEWHERE. - -A river of equal depth runs with greater speed in a narrow space -than in a wide one, in proportion to the difference between the -wider and the narrower one. - -This proposition is clearly proved by reason confirmed by -experiment. Supposing that through a channel one mile wide there -flows one mile in length of water; where the river is five miles -wide each of the 5 square miles will require 1/5 of itself to be -equal to the square mile of water required in the sea, and where the -river is 3 miles wide each of these square miles will require the -third of its volume to make up the amount of the square mile of the -narrow part; as is demonstrated in _f g h_ at the mile marked _n_. - -[Footnote: In the place marked A in the diagram _Mare Mediterano_ -(Mediterranean Sea) is written in the original. And at B, _stretto -di Spugna_ (straits of Spain, _i.e._ Gibraltar). Compare No. 960.] - -1084. - -WHY THE CURRENT OF GIBRALTAR IS ALWAYS GREATER TO THE WEST THAN TO -THE EAST. - -The reason is that if you put together the mouths of the rivers -which discharge into the Mediterranean sea, you would find the sum -of water to be larger than that which this sea pours through the -straits into the ocean. You see Africa discharging its rivers that -run northwards into this sea, and among them the Nile which runs -through 3000 miles of Africa; there is also the Bagrada river and -the Schelif and others. [Footnote 5: _Bagrada_ (Leonardo writes -Bragada) in Tunis, now Medscherda; _Mavretano_, now Schelif.] -Likewise Europe pours into it the Don and the Danube, the Po, the -Rhone, the Arno, and the Tiber, so that evidently these rivers, with -an infinite number of others of less fame, make its great breadth -and depth and current; and the sea is not wider than 18 miles at the -most westerly point of land where it divides Europe from Africa. - -1085. - -The gulf of the Mediterranean, as an inland sea, received the -principal waters of Africa, Asia and Europe that flowed towards it; -and its waters came up to the foot of the mountains that surrounded -it and made its shores. And the summits of the Apennines stood up -out of this sea like islands, surrounded by salt water. Africa -again, behind its Atlas mountains did not expose uncovered to the -sky the surface of its vast plains about 3000 miles in length, and -Memphis [Footnote 6: _Mefi._ Leonardo can only mean here the citadel -of Cairo on the Mokattam hills.] was on the shores of this sea, and -above the plains of Italy, where now birds fly in flocks, fish were -wont to wander in large shoals. - -1086. - -Tunis. - -The greatest ebb made anywhere by the Mediterranean is above Tunis, -being about two and a half braccia and at Venice it falls two -braccia. In all the rest of the Mediterranean sea the fall is little -or none. - -1087. - -Libya. - -Describe the mountains of shifting deserts; that is to say the -formation of waves of sand borne by the wind, and of its mountains -and hills, such as occur in Libya. Examples may be seen on the wide -sands of the Po and the Ticino, and other large rivers. - -1088. - -Majorca. - -Circumfulgore is a naval machine. It was an invention of the men of -Majorca. [Footnote: The machine is fully described in the MS. and -shown in a sketch.] - -1089. - -The Tyrrhene Sea. - -Some at the Tyrrhene sea employ this method; that is to say they -fastened an anchor to one end of the yard, and to the other a cord, -of which the lower end was fastened to an anchor; and in battle they -flung this anchor on to the oars of the opponent's boat and by the -use of a capstan drew it to the side; and threw soft soap and tow, -daubed with pitch and set ablaze, on to that side where the anchor -hung; so that in order to escape that fire, the defenders of that -ship had to fly to the opposite side; and in doing this they aided -to the attack, because the galley was more easily drawn to the side -by reason of the counterpoise. [Footnote: This text is illustrated -in the original by a pen and ink sketch.] - -IV. - -THE LEVANT. - -The Levantine Sea. - -1090. - -On the shores of the Mediterranean 300 rivers flow, and 40, 200 -ports. And this sea is 3000 miles long. Many times has the increase -of its waters, heaped up by their backward flow and the blowing of -the West winds, caused the overflow of the Nile and of the rivers -which flow out through the Black Sea, and have so much raised the -seas that they have spread with vast floods over many countries. And -these floods take place at the time when the sun melts the snows on -the high mountains of Ethiopia that rise up into the cold regions of -the air; and in the same way the approach of the sun acts on the -mountains of Sarmatia in Asia and on those in Europe; so that the -gathering together of these three things are, and always have been, -the cause of tremendous floods: that is, the return flow of the sea -with the West wind and the melting of the snows. So every river will -overflow in Syria, in Samaria, in Judea between Sinai and the -Lebanon, and in the rest of Syria between the Lebanon and the Taurus -mountains, and in Cilicia, in the Armenian mountains, and in -Pamphilia and in Lycia within the hills, and in Egypt as far as the -Atlas mountains. The gulf of Persia which was formerly a vast lake -of the Tigris and discharged into the Indian Sea, has now worn away -the mountains which formed its banks and laid them even with the -level of the Indian ocean. And if the Mediterranean had continued -its flow through the gulf of Arabia, it would have done the same, -that is to say, would have reduced the level of the Mediterranean to -that of the Indian Sea. - -The Red Sea. (1091. 1092). - -1091. - -For a long time the water of the Mediterranean flowed out through -the Red Sea, which is 100 miles wide and 1500 long, and full of -reefs; and it has worn away the sides of Mount Sinai, a fact which -testifies, not to an inundation from the Indian sea beating on these -coasts, but to a deluge of water which carried with it all the -rivers which abound round the Mediterranean, and besides this there -is the reflux of the sea; and then, a cutting being made to the West -3000 miles away from this place, Gibraltar was separated from Ceuta, -which had been joined to it. And this passage was cut very low down, -in the plains between Gibraltar and the ocean at the foot of the -mountain, in the low part, aided by the hollowing out of some -valleys made by certain rivers, which might have flowed here. -Hercules [Footnote 9: Leonardo seems here to mention Hercules half -jestingly and only in order to suggest to the reader an allusion to -the legend of the pillars of Hercules.] came to open the sea to the -westward and then the sea waters began to pour into the Western -Ocean; and in consequence of this great fall, the Red Sea remained -the higher; whence the water, abandoning its course here, ever after -poured away through the Straits of Spain. - -1092. - -The surface of the Red Sea is on a level with the ocean. - -A mountain may have fallen and closed the mouth of the Red Sea and -prevented the outlet of the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean Sea -thus overfilled had for outlet the passage below the mountains of -Gades; for, in our own times a similar thing has been seen [Footnote -6: Compare also No. 1336, ll. 30, 35 and 36.-- Paolo Giovio, the -celebrated historian (born at Como in 1483) reports that in 1513 at -the foot of the Alps, above Bellinzona, on the road to Switzerland, -a mountain fell with a very great noise, in consequence of an -earthquake, and that the mass of rocks, which fell on the left -(Western) side blocked the river Breno (T. I p. 218 and 345 of D. -Sauvage's French edition, quoted in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire des -tremblements de terre de la peninsule italique; Academie Royale de -Belgique._ T. XXII).--]; a mountain fell seven miles across a valley -and closed it up and made a lake. And thus most lakes have been made -by mountains, as the lake of Garda, the lakes of Como and Lugano, -and the Lago Maggiore. The Mediterranean fell but little on the -confines of Syria, in consequence of the Gaditanean passage, but a -great deal in this passage, because before this cutting was made the -Mediterranean sea flowed to the South East, and then the fall had to -be made by its run through the Straits of Gades. - -At _a_ the water of the Mediterranean fell into the ocean. - -All the plains which lie between the sea and mountains were formerly -covered with salt water. - -Every valley has been made by its own river; and the proportion -between valleys is the same as that between river and river. - -The greatest river in our world is the Mediterranean river, which -moves from the sources of the Nile to the Western ocean. - -And its greatest height is in Outer Mauritania and it has a course -of ten thousand miles before it reunites with its ocean, the father -of the waters. - -That is 3000 miles for the Mediterranean, 3000 for the Nile, as far -as discovered and 3000 for the Nile which flows to the East, &c. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CXI 2, a sketch of the shores of the -Mediterranean Sea, where lines 11 to 16 may be seen. The large -figures 158 are not in Leonardo's writing. The character of the -writing leads us to conclude that this text was written later than -the foregoing. A slight sketch of the Mediterranean is also to be -found in MS. I', 47a.] - -The Nile (1093-1098). - -1093. - -Therefore we must conclude those mountains to be of the greatest -height, above which the clouds falling in snow give rise to the -Nile. - -1094. - -The Egyptians, the Ethiopians, and the Arabs, in crossing the Nile -with camels, are accustomed to attach two bags on the sides of the -camel's bodies that is skins in the form shown underneath. - -In these four meshes of the net the camels for baggage place their -feet. - -[Footnote: Unfortunately both the sketches which accompany this -passage are too much effaced to be reproduced. The upper represents -the two sacks joined by ropes, as here described, the other shows -four camels with riders swimming through a river.] - -1095. - -The Tigris passes through Asia Minor and brings with it the water of -three lakes, one after the other of various elevations; the first -being Munace and the middle Pallas and the lowest Triton. And the -Nile again springs from three very high lakes in Ethiopia, and runs -northwards towards the sea of Egypt with a course of 4000 miles, and -by the shortest and straightest line it is 3000 miles. It is said -that it issues from the Mountains of the Moon, and has various -unknown sources. The said lakes are about 4000 braccia above the -surface of the sphere of water, that is 1 mile and 1/3, giving to -the Nile a fall of 1 braccia in every mile. - -[Footnote 5: _Incogniti principio._ The affluents of the lakes are -probably here intended. Compare, as to the Nile, Nos. 970, 1063 and -1084.] - -1096. - -Very many times the Nile and other very large rivers have poured out -their whole element of water and restored it to the sea. - -1097. - -Why does the inundation of the Nile occur in the summer, coming from -torrid countries? - -1098. - -It is not denied that the Nile is constantly muddy in entering the -Egyptian sea and that its turbidity is caused by soil that this -river is continually bringing from the places it passes; which soil -never returns in the sea which receives it, unless it throws it on -its shores. You see the sandy desert beyond Mount Atlas where -formerly it was covered with salt water. - -Customs of Asiatic Nations (1099. 1100). - -1099. - -The Assyrians and the people of Euboea accustom their horses to -carry sacks which they can at pleasure fill with air, and which in -case of need they carry instead of the girth of the saddle above and -at the side, and they are well covered with plates of cuir bouilli, -in order that they may not be perforated by flights of arrows. Thus -they have not on their minds their security in flight, when the -victory is uncertain; a horse thus equipped enables four or five men -to cross over at need. - -1100. - -SMALL BOATS. - -The small boats used by the Assyrians were made of thin laths of -willow plaited over rods also of willow, and bent into the form of a -boat. They were daubed with fine mud soaked with oil or with -turpentine, and reduced to a kind of mud which resisted the water -and because pine would split; and always remained fresh; and they -covered this sort of boats with the skins of oxen in safely crossing -the river Sicuris of Spain, as is reported by Lucant; [Footnote 7: -See Lucan's Pharsalia IV, 130: _Utque habuit ripas Sicoris camposque -reliquit, Primum cana salix madefacto vimine parvam Texitur in -puppim, calsoque inducto juvenco Vectoris patiens tumidum supernatat -amnem. Sic Venetus stagnante Pado, fusoque Britannus Navigat oceano, -sic cum tenet omnia Nilus, Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymbo papyro. -His ratibus transjecta manus festinat utrimque Succisam cavare nemus -] - -The Spaniards, the Scythians and the Arabs, when they want to make a -bridge in haste, fix hurdlework made of willows on bags of ox-hide, -and so cross in safety. - -Rhodes (1101. 1102). - -1101. - -In [fourteen hundred and] eighty nine there was an earthquake in the -sea of Atalia near Rhodes, which opened the sea--that is its -bottom--and into this opening such a torrent of water poured that -for more than three hours the bottom of the sea was uncovered by -reason of the water which was lost in it, and then it closed to the -former level. - -[Footnote: _Nello ottanto_ 9. It is scarcely likely that Leonardo -should here mean 89 AD. Dr. H. MULLER- STRUBING writes to me as -follows on this subject: "With reference to Rhodes Ross says (_Reise -auf den Griechischen Inseln, III_ 70 _ff_. 1840), that ancient -history affords instances of severe earthquakes at Rhodes, among -others one in the second year of the 138th Olympiad=270 B. C.; a -remarkably violent one under Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138-161) and -again under Constantine and later. But Leonardo expressly speaks of -an earthquake "_nel mar di Atalia presso a Rodi_", which is -singular. The town of Attalia, founded by Attalus, which is what he -no doubt means, was in Pamphylia and more than 150 English miles -East of Rhodes in a straight line. Leake and most other geographers -identify it with the present town of Adalia. Attalia is rarely -mentioned by the ancients, indeed only by Strabo and Pliny and no -earthquake is spoken of. I think therefore you are justified in -assuming that Leonardo means 1489". In the elaborate catalogue of -earthquakes in the East by Sciale Dshelal eddin Sayouthy (an -unpublished Arabic MS. in the possession of Prof. SCHEFER, (Membre -de l'Institut, Paris) mention is made of a terrible earthquake in -the year 867 of the Mohamedan Era corresponding to the year 1489, -and it is there stated that a hundred persons were killed by it in -the fortress of Kerak. There are three places of this name. Kerak on -the sea of Tiberias, Kerak near Tahle on the Libanon, which I -visited in the summer of l876--but neither of these is the place -alluded to. Possibly it may be the strongly fortified town of -Kerak=Kir Moab, to the West of the Dead Sea. There is no notice -about this in ALEXIS PERCY, _Memoire sur les tremblements de terres -ressentis dans la peninsule turco- hellenique et en Syrie (Memoires -couronnes et memoires des savants etrangers, Academie Royale de -Belgique, Tome XXIII)._] - -1102. - -Rhodes has in it 5000 houses. - -Cyprus (1103. 1104). - -1103. - -SITE FOR [A TEMPLE OF] VENUS. - -You must make steps on four sides, by which to mount to a meadow -formed by nature at the top of a rock which may be hollowed out and -supported in front by pilasters and open underneath in a large -portico, - -[Footnote: See Pl. LXXXIII. Compare also p. 33 of this Vol. The -standing male figure at the side is evidently suggested by Michael -Angelo's David. On the same place a slight sketch of horses seems to -have been drawn first; there is no reason for assuming that the text -and this sketch, which have no connection with each other, are of -the same date. - -_Sito di Venere._ By this heading Leonardo appears to mean Cyprus, -which was always considered by the ancients to be the home and birth -place of Aphrodite (Kirpic in Homer).] - -in which the water may fall into various vases of granite, -porphyryand serpentine, within semi-circular recesses; and the water -may overflow from these. And round this portico towards the North -there should be a lake with a little island in the midst of which -should be a thick and shady wood; the waters at the top of the -pilasters should pour into vases at their base, from whence they -should flow in little channels. - -Starting from the shore of Cilicia towards the South you discover -the beauties of the island of Cyprus. - -The Caspian Sea (1105. 1106). - -1104. - ->From the shore of the Southern coast of Cilicia may be seen to the -South the beautiful island of Cyprus, which was the realm of the -goddess Venus, and many navigators being attracted by her beauty, -had their ships and rigging broken amidst the reefs, surrounded by -the whirling waters. Here the beauty of delightful hills tempts -wandering mariners to refresh themselves amidst their flowery -verdure, where the winds are tempered and fill the island and the -surrounding seas with fragrant odours. Ah! how many a ship has here -been sunk. Ah! how many a vessel broken on these rocks. Here might -be seen barks without number, some wrecked and half covered by the -sand; others showing the poop and another the prow, here a keel and -there the ribs; and it seems like a day of judgment when there -should be a resurrection of dead ships, so great is the number of -them covering all the Northern shore; and while the North gale makes -various and fearful noises there. - -1105. - -Write to Bartolomeo the Turk as to the flow and ebb of the Black -sea, and whether he is aware if there be such a flow and ebb in the -Hyrcanean or Caspian sea. [Footnote: The handwriting of this note -points to a late date.] - -1106. - -WHY WATER IS FOUND AT THE TOP OF MOUNTAINS. - ->From the straits of Gibraltar to the Don is 3500 miles, that is one -mile and 1/6, giving a fall of one braccio in a mile to any water -that moves gently. The Caspian sea is a great deal higher; and none -of the mountains of Europe rise a mile above the surface of our -seas; therefore it might be said that the water which is on the -summits of our mountains might come from the height of those seas, -and of the rivers which flow into them, and which are still higher. - -The sea of Azov. - -1107. - -Hence it follows that the sea of Azov is the highest part of the -Mediterranean sea, being at a distance of 3500 miles from the -Straits of Gibraltar, as is shown by the map for navigation; and it -has 3500 braccia of descent, that is, one mile and 1/6; therefore it -is higher than any mountains which exist in the West. - -[Footnote: The passage before this, in the original, treats of the -exit of the waters from Lakes in general.] - -The Dardanelles. - -1108. - -In the Bosphorus the Black Sea flows always into the Egean sea, and -the Egean sea never flows into it. And this is because the Caspian, -which is 400 miles to the East, with the rivers which pour into it, -always flows through subterranean caves into this sea of Pontus; and -the Don does the same as well as the Danube, so that the waters of -Pontus are always higher than those of the Egean; for the higher -always fall towards the lower, and never the lower towards the -higher. - -Constantinople. - -1109. - -The bridge of Pera at Constantinople, 40 braccia wide, 70 braccia -high above the water, 600 braccia long; that is 400 over the sea and -200 on the land, thus making its own abutments. - -[Footnote: See Pl. CX No. 1. In 1453 by order of Sultan Mohamed II. -the Golden Horn was crossed by a pontoon bridge laid on barrels (see -Joh. Dukas' History of the Byzantine Empire XXXVIII p. 279). --The -biographers of Michelangelo, Vasari as well as Condivi, relate that -at the time when Michelangelo suddenly left Rome, in 1506, he -entertained some intention of going to Constantinople, there to -serve the Sultan, who sought to engage him, by means of certain -Franciscan Monks, for the purpose of constructing a bridge to -connect Constantinople with Pera. See VASARI, _Vite_ (ed. Sansoni -VII, 168): _Michelangelo, veduto questa furia del papa, dubitando di -lui, ebbe, secondo che si dice, voglia di andarsene in -Gostantinopoli a servire il Turco, per mezzo di certi frati di San -Francesco, che desiderava averlo per fare un ponte che passassi da -Gostantinopoli a Pera._ And CONDIVI, _Vita di M. Buonaroti chap._ -30_; Michelangelo allora vedendosi condotto a questo, temendo -dell'ira del papa, penso d'andarsene in Levante; massimamente -essendo stato dal Turco ricercato con grandissime promesse per mezzo -di certi frati di San Francesco, per volersene servire in fare un -ponte da Costantinopoli a Pera ed in altri affari._ Leonardo's plan -for this bridge was made in 1502. We may therefore conclude that at -about that time the Sultan Bajazet II. had either announced a -competition in this matter, or that through his agents Leonardo had -first been called upon to carry out the scheme.] - -The Euphrates. - -1110. - -If the river will turn to the rift farther on it will never return -to its bed, as the Euphrates does, and this may do at Bologna the -one who is disappointed for his rivers. - -Centrae Asia. - -1111. - -Mounts Caucasus, Comedorum, and Paropemisidae are joined together -between Bactria and India, and give birth to the river Oxus which -takes its rise in these mountains and flows 500 miles towards the -North and as many towards the West, and discharges its waters into -the Caspian sea; and is accompanied by the Oxus, Dargados, Arthamis, -Xariaspes, Dargamaim, Ocus and Margus, all very large rivers. From -the opposite side towards the South rises the great river Indus -which sends its waters for 600 miles Southwards and receives as -tributaries in this course the rivers Xaradrus, Hyphasis, Vadris, -Vandabal Bislaspus to the East, Suastes and Coe to the West, uniting -with these rivers, and with their waters it flows 800 miles to the -West; then, turning back by the Arbiti mountains makes an elbow and -turns Southwards, where after a course of about 100 miles it finds -the Indian Sea, in which it pours itself by seven branches. On the -side of the same mountains rises the great Ganges, which river flows -Southwards for 500 miles and to the Southwest a thousand ... and -Sarabas, Diarnuna, Soas and Scilo, Condranunda are its tributaries. -It flows into the Indian sea by many mouths. - -On the natives of hot countries. - -1112. - -Men born in hot countries love the night because it refreshes them -and have a horror of light because it burns them; and therefore they -are of the colour of night, that is black. And in cold countries it -is just the contrary. - -[Footnote: The sketch here inserted is in MS. H3 55b.] - -_XVIII._ - -_Naval Warfare.--Mechanical Appliances.--Music._ - -_Such theoretical questions, as have been laid before the reader in -Sections XVI and XVII, though they were the chief subjects of -Leonardo's studies of the sea, did not exclusively claim his -attention. A few passages have been collected at the beginning of -this section, which prove that he had turned his mind to the -practical problems of navigation, and more especially of naval -warfare. What we know for certain of his life gives us no data, it -is true, as to when or where these matters came under his -consideration; but the fact remains certain both from these notes in -his manuscripts, and from the well known letter to Ludovico il Moro -(No._ 1340_), in which he expressly states that he is as capable as -any man, in this very department._ - -_The numerous notes as to the laws and rationale of the flight of -birds, are scattered through several note-books. An account of these -is given in the Bibliography of the manuscripts at the end of this -work. It seems probable that the idea which led him to these -investigations was his desire to construct a flying or aerial -machine for man. At the same time it must be admitted that the notes -on the two subjects are quite unconnected in the manuscripts, and -that those on the flight of birds are by far the most numerous and -extensive. The two most important passages that treat of the -construction of a flying machine are those already published as Tav. -XVI, No._ 1 _and Tav. XVIII in the_ "Saggio delle opere di Leonardo -da Vinci" _(Milan_ 1872_). The passages--Nos._ 1120-1125--_here -printed for the first time and hitherto unknown--refer to the same -subject and, with the exception of one already published in the -Saggio-- No._ 1126--_they are, so far as I know, the only notes, -among the numerous observations on the flight of birds, in which the -phenomena are incidentally and expressly connected with the idea of -a flying machine._ - -_The notes on machines of war, the construction of fortifications, -and similar matters which fall within the department of the -Engineer, have not been included in this work, for the reasons given -on page_ 26 _of this Vol. An exception has been made in favour of -the passages Nos._ 1127 _and_ 1128, _because they have a more -general interest, as bearing on the important question: whence the -Master derived his knowledge of these matters. Though it would be -rash to assert that Leonardo was the first to introduce the science -of mining into Italy, it may be confidently said that he is one of -the earliest writers who can be proved to have known and understood -it; while, on the other hand, it is almost beyond doubt that in the -East at that time, the whole science of besieging towns and mining -in particular, was far more advanced than in Europe. This gives a -peculiar value to the expressions used in No._ 1127. - -_I have been unable to find in the manuscripts any passage whatever -which throws any light on Leonardo's great reputation as a musician. -Nothing therein illustrates VASARPS well-known statement:_ Avvenne -che morto Giovan Galeazze duca di Milano, e creato Lodovico Sforza -nel grado medesimo anno 1494, fu condotto a Milano con gran -riputazione Lionardo al duca, il quale molto si dilettava del suono -della lira, perche sonasse; e Lionardo porto quello strumento -ch'egli aveva di sua mano fabbricato d'argento gran parte, in forma -d'un teschio di cavallo, cosa bizzarra e nuova, acciocche l'armonia -fosse con maggior tuba e piu sonora di voce; laonde supero tutti i -musici che quivi erano concorsi a sonare. - -_The only notes on musical matters are those given as Nos._ 1129 -_and_ 1130, _which explain certain arrangements in instruments._ - -The ship's logs of Vitruvius, of Alberti and of Leonardo - -1113. - -ON MOVEMENTS;--TO KNOW HOW MUCH A SHIP ADVANCES IN AN HOUR. - -The ancients used various devices to ascertain the distance gone by -a ship each hour, among which Vitruvius [Footnote 6: See VITRUVIUS, -_De Architectura lib. X._ C. 14 (p. 264 in the edition of Rose and -Muller- Strubing). The German edition published at Bale in 1543 has, -on fol. 596, an illustration of the contrivance, as described by -Vitruvius.] gives one in his work on Architecture which is just as -fallacious as all the others; and this is a mill wheel which touches -the waves of the sea at one end and in each complete revolution -describes a straight line which represents the circumference of the -wheel extended to a straightness. But this invention is of no worth -excepting on the smooth and motionless surface of lakes. But if the -water moves together with the ship at an equal rate, then the wheel -remains motionless; and if the motion of the water is more or less -rapid than that of the ship, then neither has the wheel the same -motion as the ship so that this invention is of but little use. -There is another method tried by experiment with a known distance -between one island and another; and this is done by a board or under -the pressure of wind which strikes on it with more or less -swiftness. This is in Battista Alberti [Footnote 25: LEON BATTISTA -ALBERTI, _De Architectura lib. V._, c. 12 treats '_de le navi e -parti loro_', but there is no reference to the machine, mentioned by -Leonardo. Alberti says here: _Noi abbiamo trattato lungamente in -altro luogo de' modi de le navi, ma in questo luogo ne abbiamo detto -quel tanto che si bisogna_. To this the following note is added in -the most recent Italian edition: _Questo libro e tuttora inedito e -porta il titolo, secondo Gesnero di_ '_Liber navis_'.]. - -Battista Alberti's method which is made by experiment on a known -distance between one island and another. But such an invention does -not succeed excepting on a ship like the one on which the experiment -was made, and it must be of the same burden and have the same sails, -and the sails in the same places, and the size of the waves must be -the same. But my method will serve for any ship, whether with oars -or sails; and whether it be small or large, broad or long, or high -or low, it always serves [Footnote 52: Leonardo does not reveal the -method invented by him.]. - -Methods of staying and moving in water - -1114. - -How an army ought to cross rivers by swimming with air-bags ... How -fishes swim [Footnote 2: Compare No. 821.]; of the way in which they -jump out of the water, as may be seen with dolphins; and it seems a -wonderful thing to make a leap from a thing which does not resist -but slips away. Of the swimming of animals of a long form, such as -eels and the like. Of the mode of swimming against currents and in -the rapid falls of rivers. Of the mode of swimming of fishes of a -round form. How it is that animals which have not long hind quartres -cannot swim. How it is that all other animals which have feet with -toes, know by nature how to swim, excepting man. In what way man -ought to learn to swim. Of the way in which man may rest on the -water. How man may protect himself against whirlpools or eddies in -the water, which drag him down. How a man dragged to the bottom must -seek the reflux which will throw him up from the depths. How he -ought to move his arms. How to swim on his back. How he can and how -he cannot stay under water unless he can hold his breath [13]. How -by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under -water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under -water, or how long I can stay without eating; and I do not publish -nor divulge these by reason of the evil nature of men who would use -them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea, by sending -ships to the bottom, and sinking them together with the men in them. -And although I will impart others, there is no danger in them; -because the mouth of the tube, by which you breathe, is above the -water supported on bags or corks [19]. - -[Footnote: L. 13-19 will also be found in Vol. I No. 1.] - -On naval warfare (1115. 1116). - -1115. - -Supposing in a battle between ships and galleys that the ships are -victorious by reason of the high of heir tops, you must haul the -yard up almost to the top of the mast, and at the extremity of the -yard, that is the end which is turned towards the enemy, have a -small cage fastened, wrapped up below and all round in a great -mattress full of cotton so that it may not be injured by the bombs; -then, with the capstan, haul down the opposite end of this yard and -the top on the opposite side will go up so high, that it will be far -above the round-top of the ship, and you will easily drive out the -men that are in it. But it is necessary that the men who are in the -galley should go to the opposite side of it so as to afford a -counterpoise to the weight of the men placed inside the cage on the -yard. - -1116. - -If you want to build an armada for the sea employ these ships to ram -in the enemy's ships. That is, make ships 100 feet long and 8 feet -wide, but arranged so that the left hand rowers may have their oars -to the right side of the ship, and the right hand ones to the left -side, as is shown at M, so that the leverage of the oars may be -longer. And the said ship may be one foot and a half thick, that is -made with cross beams within and without, with planks in contrary -directions. And this ship must have attached to it, a foot below the -water, an iron-shod spike of about the weight and size of an anvil; -and this, by force of oars may, after it has given the first blow, -be drawn back, and driven forward again with fury give a second -blow, and then a third, and so many as to destroy the other ship. - -The use of swimming belts. - -1117. - -A METHOD OF ESCAPING IN A TEMPEST AND SHIPWRECK AT SEA. - -Have a coat made of leather, which must be double across the breast, -that is having a hem on each side of about a finger breadth. Thus it -will be double from the waist to the knee; and the leather must be -quite air-tight. When you want to leap into the sea, blow out the -skirt of your coat through the double hems of the breast; and jump -into the sea, and allow yourself to be carried by the waves; when -you see no shore near, give your attention to the sea you are in, -and always keep in your mouth the air-tube which leads down into the -coat; and if now and again you require to take a breath of fresh -air, and the foam prevents you, you may draw a breath of the air -within the coat. - -[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_, Tav. II. B. Fig. 5, gives -the same figure, somewhat altered. 6. _La canna dell' aria_. Compare -Vol. I. No. I. Note] - -On the gravity of water. - -1118. - -If the weight of the sea bears on its bottom, a man, lying on that -bottom and having l000 braccia of water on his back, would have -enough to crush him. - -Diving apparatus and Skating (1119-1121). - -1119. - -Of walking under water. Method of walking on water. - -[Footnote: The two sketches belonging to this passage are given by -AMORETTI, _Memorie Storiche_. Tav. II, Fig. 3 and 4.] - -1120. - -Just as on a frozen river a man may run without moving his feet, so -a car might be made that would slide by itself. - -[Footnote: The drawings of carts by the side of this text have no -direct connection with the problem as stated in words.--Compare No. -1448, l. 17.] - -1121. - -A definition as to why a man who slides on ice does not fall. -[Footnote: An indistinct sketch accompanies the passage, in the -original.] - -On Flying machines (1122-1126). - -1122. - -Man when flying must stand free from the waist upwards so as to be -able to balance himself as he does in a boat so that the centre of -gravity in himself and in the machine may counterbalance each other, -and be shifted as necessity demands for the changes of its centre of -resistance. - -1123. - -Remember that your flying machine must imitate no other than the -bat, because the web is what by its union gives the armour, or -strength to the wings. - -If you imitate the wings of feathered birds, you will find a much -stronger structure, because they are pervious; that is, their -feathers are separate and the air passes through them. But the bat -is aided by the web that connects the whole and is not pervious. - -1124. - -TO ESCAPE THE PERIL OF DESTRUCTION. - -Destruction to such a machine may occur in two ways; of which the -first is the breaking of the machine. The second would be when the -machine should turn on its edge or nearly on its edge, because it -ought always to descend in a highly oblique direction, and almost -exactly balanced on its centre. As regards the first--the breaking -of the machine--, that may be prevented by making it as strong as -possible; and in whichever direction it may tend to turn over, one -centre must be very far from the other; that is, in a machine 30 -braccia long the centres must be 4 braccia one from the other. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 1428.] - -1125. - -Bags by which a man falling from a height of 6 braccia may avoid -hurting himself, by a fall whether into water or on the ground; and -these bags, strung together like a rosary, are to be fixed on one's -back. - -1126. - -An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to -the object. You may see that the beating of its wings against the -air supports a heavy eagle in the highest and rarest atmosphere, -close to the sphere of elemental fire. Again you may see the air in -motion over the sea, fill the swelling sails and drive heavily laden -ships. From these instances, and the reasons given, a man with wings -large enough and duly connected might learn to overcome the -resistance of the air, and by conquering it, succeed in subjugating -it and rising above it. [Footnote: A parachute is here sketched, -with an explanatory remark. It is reproduced on Tav. XVI in the -Saggio, and in: _Leonardo da Vinci als Ingenieur etc., Ein Beitrag -zur Geschichte der Technik und der induktiven Wissenschaften, von -Dr. Hermann Grothe, Berlin_ 1874, p. 50.] - -Of mining. - -1127. - -If you want to know where a mine runs, place a drum over all the -places where you suspect that it is being made, and upon this drum -put a couple of dice, and when you are over the spot where they are -mining, the dice will jump a little on the drum at every blow which -is given underground in the mining. - -There are persons who, having the convenience of a river or a lake -in their lands, have made, close to the place where they suspect -that a mine is being made, a great reservoir of water, and have -countermined the enemy, and having found them, have turned the water -upon them and destroyed a great number in the mine. - -Of Greek fire. - -1128. - -GREEK FIRE. - -Take charcoal of willow, and saltpetre, and sulphuric acid, and -sulphur, and pitch, with frankincense and camphor, and Ethiopian -wool, and boil them all together. This fire is so ready to burn that -it clings to the timbers even under water. And add to this -composition liquid varnish, and bituminous oil, and turpentine and -strong vinegar, and mix all together and dry it in the sun, or in an -oven when the bread is taken out; and then stick it round hempen or -other tow, moulding it into a round form, and studding it all over -with very sharp nails. You must leave in this ball an opening to -serve as a fusee, and cover it with rosin and sulphur. - -Again, this fire, stuck at the top of a long plank which has one -braccio length of the end pointed with iron that it may not be burnt -by the said fire, is good for avoiding and keeping off the ships, so -as not to be overwhelmed by their onset. - -Again throw vessels of glass full of pitch on to the enemy's ships -when the men in them are intent on the battle; and then by throwing -similar burning balls upon them you have it in your power to burn -all their ships. - -[Footnote: Venturi has given another short text about the Greek fire -in a French translation (Essai Section XIV). He adds that the -original text is to be found in MS. B. 30 (?). Libri speaks of it in -a note as follows (_Histoire des sciences mathematiques en Italie -Vol. II_ p. 129): _La composition du feu gregeois est une des chases -qui ont ete les plus cherchees et qui sont encore les plus -douteuses. On dit qu'il fut invente au septieme siecle de l'ere -chretienne par l'architecte Callinique (Constantini Porphyrogenetae -opera, Lugd. Batav._ 1617,-- _in-_8vo; p. 172, _de admin, imper. -exp._ 48_), et il se trouve souvent mentionne par les Historiens -Byzantins. Tantot on le langait avec des machines, comme on -lancerait une banche, tantot on le soufflait avec de longs tubes, -comme on soufflerait un gaz ou un liquide enflamme (Annae Comnenae -Alexias_, p. 335, _lib. XI.--Aeliani et Leonis, imperatoris tactica, -Lugd.-Bat._ 1613, _in_-4. part. 2 a, p. 322, _Leonis tact. cap._ -l9.--_Joinville, histoire du Saint Louis collect. Petitot tom. II,_ -p. 235). _Les ecrivains contemporains disent que l'eau ne pouvait -pas eteindre ce feu, mais qu'avec du vinaigre et du sable on y -parvenait. Suivant quelques historiens le feu gregeois etait compose -de soufre et de resine. Marcus Graecus (Liber ignium, Paris,_ 1804, -_in_-40_) donne plusieurs manieres de le faire qui ne sont pas tres -intelligibles, mais parmi lesquelles on trouve la composition de la -poudre a canon. Leonard de Vinci (MSS. de Leonard de Vinci, vol. B. -f. 30,) dit qu'on le faisait avec du charbon de saule, du salpetre, -de l'eau de vie, de la resine, du soufre, de la poix et du camphre. -Mais il est probable que nous ne savons pas qu'elle etait sa -composition, surtout a cause du secret qu'en faisaient les Grecs. En -effet, l'empereur Constantin Porphyrogenete recommende a son fils de -ne jamais en donner aux Barbares, et de leur repondre, s'ils en -demandaient, qu'il avait ete apporti du ciel par un ange et que le -secret en avait ete confie aux Chretiens (Constantini -Porphyrogennetae opera,_ p. 26-27, _de admin. imper., cap. _12_)._] - -Of Music (1129. 1130). - -1129. - -A drum with cogs working by wheels with springs [2]. - -[Footnote: This chapter consists of explanations of the sketches -shown on Pl. CXXI. Lines 1 and 2 of the text are to be seen at the -top at the left hand side of the first sketch of a drum. Lines 3-5 -refer to the sketch immediately below this. Line 6 is written as the -side of the seventh sketch, and lines 7 and 8 at the side of the -eighth. Lines 9-16 are at the bottom in the middle. The remainder of -the text is at the side of the drawing at the bottom.] - -A square drum of which the parchment may be drawn tight or slackened -by the lever _a b_ [5]. - -A drum for harmony [6]. - -[7] A clapper for harmony; that is, three clappers together. - -[9] Just as one and the same drum makes a deep or acute sound -according as the parchments are more or less tightened, so these -parchments variously tightened on one and the same drum will make -various sounds [16]. - -Keys narrow and close together; (bicchi) far apart; these will be -right for the trumpet shown above. - -_a_ must enter in the place of the ordinary keys which have the ... -in the openings of a flute. - -1130. - -Tymbals to be played like the monochord, or the soft flute. - -[6] Here there is to be a cylinder of cane after the manner of -clappers with a musical round called a Canon, which is sung in four -parts; each singer singing the whole round. Therefore I here make a -wheel with 4 teeth so that each tooth takes by itself the part of a -singer. - -[Footnote: In the original there are some more sketches, to which -the text, from line 6, refers. They are studies for a contrivance -exactly like the cylinder in our musical boxes.] - -1131. - -Of decorations. - -White and sky-blue cloths, woven in checks to make a decoration. - -Cloths with the threads drawn at _a b c d e f g h i k_, to go round -the decoration. - -_XIX._ - -_Philosophical Maxims. Morals. Polemics and Speculations_. - -_Vasari indulges in severe strictures on Leonardo's religious views. -He speaks, among other things, of his_ "capricci nel filosofar delle -cose naturali" _and says on this point:_ "Per il che fece nell'animo -un concetto si eretico che e' non si accostava a qualsi voglia -religione, stimando per avventura assai piu lo esser filosofo che -cristiano" _(see the first edition of_ 'Le Vite'_). But this -accusation on the part of a writer in the days of the Inquisition is -not a very serious one--and the less so, since, throughout the -manuscripts, we find nothing to support it._ - -_Under the heading of "Philosophical Maxims" I have collected all -the passages which can give us a clear comprehension of Leonardo's -ideas of the world at large. It is scarcely necessary to observe -that there is absolutely nothing in them to lead to the inference -that he was an atheist. His views of nature and its laws are no -doubt very unlike those of his contemporaries, and have a much -closer affinity to those which find general acceptance at the -present day. On the other hand, it is obvious from Leonardo's will -(see No._ 1566_) that, in the year before his death, he had -professed to adhere to the fundamental doctrines of the Roman -Catholic faith, and this evidently from his own personal desire and -impulse._ - -_The incredible and demonstrably fictitious legend of Leonardo's -death in the arms of Francis the First, is given, with others, by -Vasari and further embellished by this odious comment:_ "Mostrava -tuttavia quanto avea offeso Dio e gli uomini del mondo, non avendo -operato nell'arte come si conveniva." _This last accusation, it may -be remarked, is above all evidence of the superficial character of -the information which Vasari was in a position to give about -Leonardo. It seems to imply that Leonardo was disdainful of diligent -labour. With regard to the second, referring to Leonardo's morality -and dealings with his fellow men, Vasari himself nullifies it by -asserting the very contrary in several passages. A further -refutation may be found in the following sentence from the letter in -which Melsi, the young Milanese nobleman, announces the Master's -death to Leonardo's brothers:_ Credo siate certificati della morte -di Maestro Lionardo fratello vostro, e mio quanto optimo padre, per -la cui morte sarebbe impossibile che io potesse esprimere il dolore -che io ho preso; e in mentre che queste mia membra si sosterranno -insieme, io possedero una perpetua infelicita, e meritamente perche -sviscerato et ardentissimo amore mi portava giornalmente. E dolto ad -ognuno la perdita di tal uomo, quale non e piu in podesta della -natura, ecc. - -_It is true that, in April_ 1476, _we find the names of Leonardo and -Verrocchio entered in the_ "Libro degli Uffiziali di notte e de' -Monasteri" _as breaking the laws; but we immediately after find the -note_ "Absoluti cum condizione ut retamburentur" (Tamburini _was the -name given to the warrant cases of the night police). The acquittal -therefore did not exclude the possibility of a repetition of the -charge. It was in fact repeated, two months later, and on this -occasion the Master and his pupil were again fully acquitted. -Verrocchio was at this time forty and Leonardo four-and-twenty. The -documents referring to this affair are in the State Archives of -Florence; they have been withheld from publication, but it seemed to -me desirable to give the reader this brief account of the leading -facts of the story, as the vague hints of it, which have recently -been made public, may have given to the incident an aspect which it -had not in reality, and which it does not deserve._ - -_The passages here classed under the head "Morals" reveal Leonardo -to us as a man whose life and conduct were unfailingly governed by -lofty principles and aims. He could scarcely have recorded his stern -reprobation and unmeasured contempt for men who do nothing useful -and strive only for riches, if his own life and ambitions had been -such as they have so often been misrepresented._ - -_At a period like that, when superstition still exercised unlimited -dominion over the minds not merely of the illiterate crowd, but of -the cultivated and learned classes, it was very natural that -Leonardo's views as to Alchemy, Ghosts, Magicians, and the like -should be met with stern reprobation whenever and wherever he may -have expressed them; this accounts for the argumentative tone of all -his utterances on such subjects which I have collected in -Subdivision III of this section. To these I have added some passages -which throw light on Leonardo's personal views on the Universe. They -are, without exception, characterised by a broad spirit of -naturalism of which the principles are more strictly applied in his -essays on Astronomy, and still more on Physical Geography._ - -_To avoid repetition, only such notes on Philosophy, Morals and -Polemics, have been included in this section as occur as independent -texts in the original MSS. Several moral reflections have already -been given in Vol. I, in section "Allegorical representations, -Mottoes and Emblems". Others will be found in the following section. -Nos._ 9 _to_ 12, _Vol. I, are also passages of an argumentative -character. It did not seem requisite to repeat here these and -similar passages, since their direct connection with the context is -far closer in places where they have appeared already, than it would -be here._ - -I. - -PHILOSOPHICAL MAXIMS. - -Prayers to God (1132. 1133). - -1132. - -I obey Thee Lord, first for the love I ought, in all reason to bear -Thee; secondly for that Thou canst shorten or prolong the lives of -men. - -1133. - -A PRAYER. - -Thou, O God, dost sell us all good things at the price of labour. - -The powers of Nature (1134-1139). - -1134. - -O admirable impartiality of Thine, Thou first Mover; Thou hast not -permitted that any force should fail of the order or quality of its -necessary results. - -1135. - -Necessity is the mistress and guide of nature. - -Necessity is the theme and the inventress, the eternal curb and law -of nature. - -1136. - -In many cases one and the same thing is attracted by two strong -forces, namely Necessity and Potency. Water falls in rain; the earth -absorbs it from the necessity for moisture; and the sun evaporates -it, not from necessity, but by its power. - -1137. - -Weight, force and casual impulse, together with resistance, are the -four external powers in which all the visible actions of mortals -have their being and their end. - -1138. - -Our body is dependant on heaven and heaven on the Spirit. - -1139. - -The motive power is the cause of all life. - -Psychology (1140-1147). - -1140. - -And you, O Man, who will discern in this work of mine the wonderful -works of Nature, if you think it would be a criminal thing to -destroy it, reflect how much more criminal it is to take the life of -a man; and if this, his external form, appears to thee marvellously -constructed, remember that it is nothing as compared with the soul -that dwells in that structure; for that indeed, be it what it may, -is a thing divine. Leave it then to dwell in His work at His good -will and pleasure, and let not your rage or malice destroy a -life--for indeed, he who does not value it, does not himself deserve -it [Footnote 19: In MS. II 15a is the note: _chi no stima la vita, -non la merita._]. - -[Footnote: This text is on the back of the drawings reproduced on -Pl. CVII. Compare No. 798, 35 note on p. 111: Compare also No. 837 -and 838.] - -1141. - -The soul can never be corrupted with the corruption of the body,, -but is in the body as it were the air which causes the sound of the -organ, where when a pipe bursts, the wind would cease to have any -good effect. [Footnote: Compare No. 845.] - -1142. - -The part always has a tendency to reunite with its whole in order to -escape from its imperfection. - -The spirit desires to remain with its body, because, without the -organic instruments of that body, it can neither act, nor feel -anything. - -1143. - -If any one wishes to see how the soul dwells in its body, let him -observe how this body uses its daily habitation; that is to say, if -this is devoid of order and confused, the body will be kept in -disorder and confusion by its soul. - -1144. - -Why does the eye see a thing more clearly in dreams than with the -imagination being awake? - -1145. - -The senses are of the earth; Reason, stands apart in contemplation. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 842.] - -1146. - -Every action needs to be prompted by a motive. - -To know and to will are two operations of the human mind. - -Discerning, judging, deliberating are acts of the human mind. - -1147. - -All our knowledge has its origin in our preceptions. - -Science, its principles and rules (1148--1161) - -1148. - -Science is the observation of things possible, whether present or -past; prescience is the knowledge of things which may come to pass, -though but slowly. - -1149. - -Experience, the interpreter between formative nature and the human -race, teaches how that nature acts among mortals; and being -constrained by necessity cannot act otherwise than as reason, which -is its helm, requires her to act. - -1150. - -Wisdom is the daughter of experience. - -1151. - -Nature is full of infinite causes that have never occured in -experience. - -1152. - -Truth was the only daughter of Time. - -1153. - -Experience never errs; it is only your judgments that err by -promising themselves effects such as are not caused by your -experiments. - -Experience does not err; only your judgments err by expecting from -her what is not in her power. Men wrongly complain of Experience; -with great abuse they accuse her of leading them astray but they set -Experience aside, turning from it with complaints as to our -ignorance causing us to be carried away by vain and foolish desires -to promise ourselves, in her name, things that are not in her power; -saying that she is fallacious. Men are unjust in complaining of -innocent Experience, constantly accusing her of error and of false -evidence. - -1154. - -Instrumental or mechanical science is of all the noblest and the -most useful, seeing that by means of this all animated bodies that -have movement perform all their actions; and these movements are -based on the centre of gravity which is placed in the middle -dividing unequal weights, and it has dearth and wealth of muscles -and also lever and counterlever. - -1155. - -OF MECHANICS. - -Mechanics are the Paradise of mathematical science, because here we -come to the fruits of mathematics. [Footnote: Compare No. 660, 11. -19--22 (Vol. I., p. 332). 1156. - -Every instrument requires to be made by experience. - -1157. - -The man who blames the supreme certainty of mathematics feeds on -confusion, and can never silence the contradictions of sophistical -sciences which lead to an eternal quackery. - -1158. - -There is no certainty in sciences where one of the mathematical -sciences cannot be applied, or which are not in relation with these -mathematics. - -1159. - -Any one who in discussion relies upon authority uses, not his -understanding, but rather his memory. Good culture is born of a good -disposition; and since the cause is more to be praised than the -effect, I will rather praise a good disposition without culture, -than good culture without the disposition. - -1160. - -Science is the captain, and practice the soldiers. - -1161. - -OF THE ERRORS OF THOSE WHO DEPEND ON PRACTICE WITHOUT SCIENCE. - -Those who fall in love with practice without science are like a -sailor who enters a ship without a helm or a compass, and who never -can be certain whither he is going. - -II. - -MORALS. - -What is life? (1162. 1163). - -1162. - -Now you see that the hope and the desire of returning home and to -one's former state is like the moth to the light, and that the man -who with constant longing awaits with joy each new spring time, each -new summer, each new month and new year--deeming that the things he -longs for are ever too late in coming--does not perceive that he is -longing for his own destruction. But this desire is the very -quintessence, the spirit of the elements, which finding itself -imprisoned with the soul is ever longing to return from the human -body to its giver. And you must know that this same longing is that -quintessence, inseparable from nature, and that man is the image of -the world. - -1163. - -O Time! consumer of all things; O envious age! thou dost destroy all -things and devour all things with the relentless teeth of years, -little by little in a slow death. Helen, when she looked in her -mirror, seeing the withered wrinkles made in her face by old age, -wept and wondered why she had twice been carried away. - -O Time! consumer of all things, and O envious age! by which all -things are all devoured. - -Death. - -1164. - -Every evil leaves behind a grief in our memory, except the supreme -evil, that is death, which destroys this memory together with life. - -How to spend life (1165-1170). - -1165. - -0 sleepers! what a thing is slumber! Sleep resembles death. Ah, why -then dost thou not work in such wise as that after death thou mayst -retain a resemblance to perfect life, when, during life, thou art in -sleep so like to the hapless dead? [Footnote: Compare No. 676, Vol. -I. p. 353.] - -1166. - -One pushes down the other. - -By these square-blocks are meant the life and the studies of men. - -1167. - -The knowledge of past times and of the places on the earth is both -an ornament and nutriment to the human mind. - -1168. - -To lie is so vile, that even if it were in speaking well of godly -things it would take off something from God's grace; and Truth is so -excellent, that if it praises but small things they become noble. - -Beyond a doubt truth bears the same relation to falsehood as light -to darkness; and this truth is in itself so excellent that, even -when it dwells on humble and lowly matters, it is still infinitely -above uncertainty and lies, disguised in high and lofty discourses; -because in our minds, even if lying should be their fifth element, -this does not prevent that the truth of things is the chief -nutriment of superior intellects, though not of wandering wits. - -But you who live in dreams are better pleased by the sophistical -reasons and frauds of wits in great and uncertain things, than by -those reasons which are certain and natural and not so far above us. - -1169. - -Avoid studies of which the result dies with the worker. - -1170. - -Men are in error when they lament the flight of time, accusing it of -being too swift, and not perceiving that it is sufficient as it -passes; but good memory, with which nature has endowed us, causes -things long past to seem present. - -1171. - -Learning acquired in youth arrests the evil of old age; and if you -understand that old age has wisdom for its food, you will so conduct -yourself in youth that your old age will not lack for nourishment. - -1172. - -The acquisition of any knowledge is always of use to the intellect, -because it may thus drive out useless things and retain the good. - -For nothing can be loved or hated unless it is first known. - -1173. - -As a day well spent procures a happy sleep, so a life well employed -procures a happy death. - -1174. - -The water you touch in a river is the last of that which has passed, -and the first of that which is coming. Thus it is with time present. - -Life if well spent, is long. - -1175. - -Just as food eaten without caring for it is turned into loathsome -nourishment, so study without a taste for it spoils memory, by -retaining nothing which it has taken in. - -1176. - -Just as eating against one's will is injurious to health, so study -without a liking for it spoils the memory, and it retains nothing it -takes in. - -1177. - -On Mount Etna the words freeze in your mouth and you may make ice of -them.[Footnote 2: There is no clue to explain this strange -sentence.] - -Just as iron rusts unless it is used, and water putrifies or, in -cold, turns to ice, so our intellect spoils unless it is kept in -use. - -You do ill if you praise, and still worse if you reprove in a matter -you do not understand. - -When Fortune comes, seize her in front with a sure hand, because -behind she is bald. - -1178. - -It seems to me that men of coarse and clumsy habits and of small -knowledge do not deserve such fine instruments nor so great a -variety of natural mechanism as men of speculation and of great -knowledge; but merely a sack in which their food may be stowed and -whence it may issue, since they cannot be judged to be any thing -else than vehicles for food; for it seems to me they have nothing -about them of the human species but the voice and the figure, and -for all the rest are much below beasts. - -1179. - -Some there are who are nothing else than a passage for food and -augmentors of excrement and fillers of privies, because through them -no other things in the world, nor any good effects are produced, -since nothing but full privies results from them. - -On foolishness and ignorance (1180--1182). - -1180. - -The greatest deception men suffer is from their own opinions. - -1181. - -Folly is the shield of shame, as unreadiness is that of poverty -glorified. - -1182. - -Blind ignorance misleads us thus and delights with the results of -lascivious joys. - -Because it does not know the true light. Because it does not know -what is the true light. - -Vain splendour takes from us the power of being .... behold! for its -vain splendour we go into the fire, thus blind ignorance does -mislead us. That is, blind ignorance so misleads us that ... - -O! wretched mortals, open your eyes. - -On riches (1183--1187). - -1183. - -That is not riches, which may be lost; virtue is our true good and -the true reward of its possessor. That cannot be lost; that never -deserts us, but when life leaves us. As to property and external -riches, hold them with trembling; they often leave their possessor -in contempt, and mocked at for having lost them. - -1184. - -Every man wishes to make money to give it to the doctors, destroyers -of life; they then ought to be rich. [Footnote 2: Compare No. 856.] - -Man has much power of discourse which for the most part is vain and -false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a -small truth is better than a great lie. - -1185. - -He who possesses most must be most afraid of loss. - -1186. - -He who wishes to be rich in a day will be hanged in a year. - -1187. - -That man is of supreme folly who always wants for fear of wanting; -and his life flies away while he is still hoping to enjoy the good -things which he has with extreme labour acquired. - -Rules of Life (1188-1202). - -1188. - -If you governed your body by the rules of virtue you would not walk -on all fours in this world. - -You grow in reputation like bread in the hands of a child. -[Footnote: The first sentence is obscure. Compare Nos. 825, 826.] - -1189. - -Savage he is who saves himself. - -1190. - -We ought not to desire the impossible. [Footnote: The writing of -this note, which is exceedingly minute, is reproduced in facsimile -on Pl. XLI No. 5 above the first diagram. - -1191. - -Ask counsel of him who rules himself well. - -Justice requires power, insight, and will; and it resembles the -queen-bee. - -He who does not punish evil commands it to be done. - -He who takes the snake by the tail will presently be bitten by it. - -The grave will fall in upon him who digs it. - -1192. - -The man who does not restrain wantonness, allies himself with -beasts. - -You can have no dominion greater or less than that over yourself. - -He who thinks little, errs much. - -It is easier to contend with evil at the first than at the last. - -No counsel is more loyal than that given on ships which are in -peril: He may expect loss who acts on the advice of an inexperienced -youth. - -1193. - -Where there is most feeling, there is the greatest martyrdom;--a -great martyr. - -1194. - -The memory of benefits is a frail defence against ingratitude. - -Reprove your friend in secret and praise him openly. - -Be not false about the past. - -1195. - -A SIMILE FOR PATIENCE. - -Patience serves us against insults precisely as clothes do against -the cold. For if you multiply your garments as the cold increases, -that cold cannot hurt you; in the same way increase your patience -under great offences, and they cannot hurt your feelings. - -1196. - -To speak well of a base man is much the same as speaking ill of a -good man. - -1197. - -Envy wounds with false accusations, that is with detraction, a thing -which scares virtue. - -1198. - -We are deceived by promises and time disappoints us ... [Footnote 2: -The rest of this passage may be rendered in various ways, but none -of them give a satisfactory meaning.] - -1199. - -Fear arises sooner than any thing else. - -1200. - -Just as courage imperils life, fear protects it. - -Threats alone are the weapons of the threatened man. - -Wherever good fortune enters, envy lays siege to the place and -attacks it; and when it departs, sorrow and repentance remain -behind. - -He who walks straight rarely falls. - -It is bad if you praise, and worse if you reprove a thing, I mean, -if you do not understand the matter well. - -It is ill to praise, and worse to reprimand in matters that you do -not understand. - -1201. - -Words which do not satisfy the ear of the hearer weary him or vex -him, and the symptoms of this you will often see in such hearers in -their frequent yawns; you therefore, who speak before men whose good -will you desire, when you see such an excess of fatigue, abridge -your speech, or change your discourse; and if you do otherwise, then -instead of the favour you desire, you will get dislike and -hostility. - -And if you would see in what a man takes pleasure, without hearing -him speak, change the subject of your discourse in talking to him, -and when you presently see him intent, without yawning or wrinkling -his brow or other actions of various kinds, you may be certain that -the matter of which you are speaking is such as is agreeable to him -&c. - -1202. - -The lover is moved by the beloved object as the senses are by -sensible objects; and they unite and become one and the same thing. -The work is the first thing born of this union; if the thing loved -is base the lover becomes base. - -When the thing taken into union is perfectly adapted to that which -receives it, the result is delight and pleasure and satisfaction. - -When that which loves is united to the thing beloved it can rest -there; when the burden is laid down it finds rest there. - -Politics (1203. 1204). - -1203. - -There will be eternal fame also for the inhabitants of that town, -constructed and enlarged by him. - -All communities obey and are led by their magnates, and these -magnates ally themselves with the lords and subjugate them in two -ways: either by consanguinity, or by fortune; by consanguinity, when -their children are, as it were, hostages, and a security and pledge -of their suspected fidelity; by property, when you make each of -these build a house or two inside your city which may yield some -revenue and he shall have...; 10 towns, five thousand houses with -thirty thousand inhabitants, and you will disperse this great -congregation of people which stand like goats one behind the other, -filling every place with fetid smells and sowing seeds of pestilence -and death; - -And the city will gain beauty worthy of its name and to you it will -be useful by its revenues, and the eternal fame of its -aggrandizement. - -[Footnote: These notes were possibly written in preparation for a -letter. The meaning is obscure.] - -1204. - -To preserve Nature's chiefest boon, that is freedom, I can find -means of offence and defence, when it is assailed by ambitious -tyrants, and first I will speak of the situation of the walls, and -also I shall show how communities can maintain their good and just -Lords. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 1266.] - -III. - -POLEMICS.--SPECULATION. - -Against Speculators (1205. 1206). - -1205. - -Oh! speculators on things, boast not of knowing the things that -nature ordinarily brings about; but rejoice if you know the end of -those things which you yourself devise. - -1206. - -Oh! speculators on perpetual motion how many vain projects of the -like character you have created! Go and be the companions of the -searchers for gold. [Footnote: Another short passage in MS. I, -referring also to speculators, is given by LIBRI (_Hist, des -Sciences math._ III, 228): _Sicche voi speculatori non vi fidate -delli autori che anno sol col immaginatione voluto farsi interpreti -tra la natura e l'omo, ma sol di quelli che non coi cienni della -natura, ma cogli effetti delle sue esperienze anno esercitati i loro -ingegni._] - -Against alchemists (1207. 1208). - -1207. - -The false interpreters of nature declare that quicksilver is the -common seed of every metal, not remembering that nature varies the -seed according to the variety of the things she desires to produce -in the world. - -1208. - -And many have made a trade of delusions and false miracles, -deceiving the stupid multitude. - -Against friars. - -1209. - -Pharisees--that is to say, friars. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 837, 11. 54-57, No. 1296 (p. 363 and 364), -and No. 1305 (p. 370).] - -Against writers of epitomes. - -1210. - -Abbreviators do harm to knowledge and to love, seeing that the love -of any thing is the offspring of this knowledge, the love being the -more fervent in proportion as the knowledge is more certain. And -this certainty is born of a complete knowledge of all the parts, -which, when combined, compose the totality of the thing which ought -to be loved. Of what use then is he who abridges the details of -those matters of which he professes to give thorough information, -while he leaves behind the chief part of the things of which the -whole is composed? It is true that impatience, the mother of -stupidity, praises brevity, as if such persons had not life long -enough to serve them to acquire a complete knowledge of one single -subject, such as the human body; and then they want to comprehend -the mind of God in which the universe is included, weighing it -minutely and mincing it into infinite parts, as if they had to -dissect it! - -Oh! human stupidity, do you not perceive that, though you have been -with yourself all your life, you are not yet aware of the thing you -possess most of, that is of your folly? and then, with the crowd of -sophists, you deceive yourselves and others, despising the -mathematical sciences, in which truth dwells and the knowledge of -the things included in them. And then you occupy yourself with -miracles, and write that you possess information of those things of -which the human mind is incapable and which cannot be proved by any -instance from nature. And you fancy you have wrought miracles when -you spoil a work of some speculative mind, and do not perceive that -you are falling into the same error as that of a man who strips a -tree of the ornament of its branches covered with leaves mingled -with the scented blossoms or fruit....... [Footnote 48: _Givstino_, -Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of the second century, -who compiled an epitome from the general history written by Trogus -Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus. The work of the latter -writer no longer exist.] as Justinus did, in abridging the histories -written by Trogus Pompeius, who had written in an ornate style all -the worthy deeds of his forefathers, full of the most admirable and -ornamental passages; and so composed a bald work worthy only of -those impatient spirits, who fancy they are losing as much time as -that which they employ usefully in studying the works of nature and -the deeds of men. But these may remain in company of beasts; among -their associates should be dogs and other animals full of rapine and -they may hunt with them after...., and then follow helpless beasts, -which in time of great snows come near to your houses asking alms as -from their master.... - -On spirits (1211--1213). - -1211. - -O mathematicians shed light on this error. - -The spirit has no voice, because where there is a voice there is a -body, and where there is a body space is occupied, and this prevents -the eye from seeing what is placed behind that space; hence the -surrounding air is filled by the body, that is by its image. - -1212. - -There can be no voice where there is no motion or percussion of the -air; there can be no percussion of the air where there is no -instrument, there can be no instrument without a body; and this -being so, a spirit can have neither voice, nor form, nor strength. -And if it were to assume a body it could not penetrate nor enter -where the passages are closed. And if any one should say that by -air, compressed and compacted together, a spirit may take bodies of -various forms and by this means speak and move with strength--to him -I reply that when there are neither nerves nor bones there can be no -force exercised in any kind of movement made by such imaginary -spirits. - -Beware of the teaching of these speculators, because their reasoning -is not confirmed by experience. - -1213. - -Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which -deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which -gives birth to simple and natural things. But it is all the more -worthy of reprehension than alchemy, because it brings forth nothing -but what is like itself, that is, lies; this does not happen in -Alchemy which deals with simple products of nature and whose -function cannot be exercised by nature itself, because it has no -organic instruments with which it can work, as men do by means of -their hands, who have produced, for instance, glass &c. but this -Necromancy the flag and flying banner, blown by the winds, is the -guide of the stupid crowd which is constantly witness to the -dazzling and endless effects of this art; and there are books full, -declaring that enchantments and spirits can work and speak without -tongues and without organic instruments-- without which it is -impossible to speak-- and can carry heaviest weights and raise -storms and rain; and that men can be turned into cats and wolves and -other beasts, although indeed it is those who affirm these things -who first became beasts. - -And surely if this Necromancy did exist, as is believed by small -wits, there is nothing on the earth that would be of so much -importance alike for the detriment and service of men, if it were -true that there were in such an art a power to disturb the calm -serenity of the air, converting it into darkness and making -coruscations or winds, with terrific thunder and lightnings rushing -through the darkness, and with violent storms overthrowing high -buildings and rooting up forests; and thus to oppose armies, -crushing and annihilating them; and, besides these frightful storms -may deprive the peasants of the reward of their labours.--Now what -kind of warfare is there to hurt the enemy so much as to deprive him -of the harvest? What naval warfare could be compared with this? I -say, the man who has power to command the winds and to make ruinous -gales by which any fleet may be submerged, --surely a man who could -command such violent forces would be lord of the nations, and no -human ingenuity could resist his crushing force. The hidden -treasures and gems reposing in the body of the earth would all be -made manifest to him. No lock nor fortress, though impregnable, -would be able to save any one against the will of the necromancer. -He would have himself carried through the air from East to West and -through all the opposite sides of the universe. But why should I -enlarge further upon this? What is there that could not be done by -such a craftsman? Almost nothing, except to escape death. Hereby I -have explained in part the mischief and the usefulness, contained in -this art, if it is real; and if it is real why has it not remained -among men who desire it so much, having nothing to do with any -deity? For I know that there are numberless people who would, to -satisfy a whim, destroy God and all the universe; and if this -necromancy, being, as it were, so necessary to men, has not been -left among them, it can never have existed, nor will it ever exist -according to the definition of the spirit, which is invisible in -substance; for within the elements there are no incorporate things, -because where there is no body, there is a vacuum; and no vacuum can -exist in the elements because it would be immediately filled up. -Turn over. - -1214. - -OF SPIRITS. - -We have said, on the other side of this page, that the definition of -a spirit is a power conjoined to a body; because it cannot move of -its own accord, nor can it have any kind of motion in space; and if -you were to say that it moves itself, this cannot be within the -elements. For, if the spirit is an incorporeal quantity, this -quantity is called a vacuum, and a vacuum does not exist in nature; -and granting that one were formed, it would be immediately filled up -by the rushing in of the element in which the vacuum had been -generated. Therefore, from the definition of weight, which is -this--Gravity is an accidental power, created by one element being -drawn to or suspended in another--it follows that an element, not -weighing anything compared with itself, has weight in the element -above it and lighter than it; as we see that the parts of water have -no gravity or levity compared with other water, but if you draw it -up into the air, then it would acquire weight, and if you were to -draw the air beneath the water then the water which remains above -this air would acquire weight, which weight could not sustain itself -by itself, whence collapse is inevitable. And this happens in water; -wherever the vacuum may be in this water it will fall in; and this -would happen with a spirit amid the elements, where it would -continuously generate a vacuum in whatever element it might find -itself, whence it would be inevitable that it should be constantly -flying towards the sky until it had quitted these elements. - -AS TO WHETHER A SPIRIT HAS A BODY AMID THE ELEMENTS. - -We have proved that a spirit cannot exist of itself amid the -elements without a body, nor can it move of itself by voluntary -motion unless it be to rise upwards. But now we will say how such a -spirit taking an aerial body would be inevitably melt into air; -because if it remained united, it would be separated and fall to -form a vacuum, as is said above; therefore it is inevitable, if it -is to be able to remain suspended in the air, that it should absorb -a certain quantity of air; and if it were mingled with the air, two -difficulties arise; that is to say: It must rarefy that portion of -the air with which it mingles; and for this cause the rarefied air -must fly up of itself and will not remain among the air that is -heavier than itself; and besides this the subtle spiritual essence -disunites itself, and its nature is modified, by which that nature -loses some of its first virtue. Added to these there is a third -difficulty, and this is that such a body formed of air assumed by -the spirits is exposed to the penetrating winds, which are -incessantly sundering and dispersing the united portions of the air, -revolving and whirling amidst the rest of the atmosphere; therefore -the spirit which is infused in this - -1215. - -air would be dismembered or rent and broken up with the rending of -the air into which it was incorporated. - -AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT, HAVING TAKEN THIS BODY OF AIR, CAN MOVE OF -ITSELF OR NOT. - -It is impossible that the spirit infused into a certain quantity of -air, should move this air; and this is proved by the above passage -where it is said: the spirit rarefies that portion of the air in -which it incorporates itself; therefore this air will rise high -above the other air and there will be a motion of the air caused by -its lightness and not by a voluntary movement of the spirit, and if -this air is encountered by the wind, according to the 3rd of this, -the air will be moved by the wind and not by the spirit incorporated -in it. - -AS TO WHETHER THE SPIRIT CAN SPEAK OR NOT. - -In order to prove whether the spirit can speak or not, it is -necessary in the first place to define what a voice is and how it is -generated; and we will say that the voice is, as it were, the -movement of air in friction against a dense body, or a dense body in -friction against the air,--which is the same thing. And this -friction of the dense and the rare condenses the rare and causes -resistance; again, the rare, when in swift motion, and the rare in -slow motion condense each other when they come in contact and make a -noise and very great uproar; and the sound or murmur made by the -rare moving through the rare with only moderate swiftness, like a -great flame generating noises in the air; and the tremendous uproar -made by the rare mingling with the rare, and when that air which is -both swift and rare rushes into that which is itself rare and in -motion, it is like the flame of fire which issues from a big gun and -striking against the air; and again when a flame issues from the -cloud, there is a concussion in the air as the bolt is generated. -Therefore we may say that the spirit cannot produce a voice without -movement of the air, and air in it there is none, nor can it emit -what it has not; and if desires to move that air in which it is -incorporated, it is necessary that the spirit should multiply -itself, and that cannot multiply which has no quantity. And in the -4th place it is said that no rare body can move, if it has not a -stable spot, whence it may take its motion; much more is it so when -an element has to move within its own element, which does not move -of itself, excepting by uniform evaporation at the centre of the -thing evaporated; as occurs in a sponge squeezed in the hand held -under water; the water escapes in every direction with equal -movement through the openings between the fingers of the hand in -which it is squeezed. - -As to whether the spirit has an articulate voice, and whether the -spirit can be heard, and what hearing is, and seeing; the wave of -the voice passes through the air as the images of objects pass to -the eye. - -Nonentity. - -1216. - -Every quantity is intellectually conceivable as infinitely -divisible. - -[Amid the vastness of the things among which we live, the existence -of nothingness holds the first place; its function extends over all -things that have no existence, and its essence, as regards time, -lies precisely between the past and the future, and has nothing in -the present. This nothingness has the part equal to the whole, and -the whole to the part, the divisible to the indivisible; and the -product of the sum is the same whether we divide or multiply, and in -addition as in subtraction; as is proved by arithmeticians by their -tenth figure which represents zero; and its power has not extension -among the things of Nature.] - -[What is called Nothingness is to be found only in time and in -speech. In time it stands between the past and future and has no -existence in the present; and thus in speech it is one of the things -of which we say: They are not, or they are impossible.] - -With regard to time, nothingness lies between the past and the -future, and has nothing to do with the present, and as to its nature -it is to be classed among things impossible: hence, from what has -been said, it has no existence; because where there is nothing there -would necessarily be a vacuum. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 916.] - -Reflections on Nature (1217-1219). - -1217. - -EXAMPLE OF THE LIGHTNING IN CLOUDS. - -[O mighty and once living instrument of formative nature. Incapable -of availing thyself of thy vast strength thou hast to abandon a life -of stillness and to obey the law which God and time gave to -procreative nature.] - -Ah! how many a time the shoals of terrified dolphins and the huge -tunny-fish were seen to flee before thy cruel fury, to escape; -whilst thy fulminations raised in the sea a sudden tempest with -buffeting and submersion of ships in the great waves; and filling -the uncovered shores with the terrified and desperate fishes which -fled from thee, and left by the sea, remained in spots where they -became the abundant prey of the people in the neighbourhood. - -O time, swift robber of all created things, how many kings, how many -nations hast thou undone, and how many changes of states and of -various events have happened since the wondrous forms of this fish -perished here in this cavernous and winding recess. Now destroyed by -time thou liest patiently in this confined space with bones stripped -and bare; serving as a support and prop for the superimposed -mountain. - -[Footnote: The character of the handwriting points to an early -period of Leonardo's life. It has become very indistinct, and is at -present exceedingly difficult to decipher. Some passages remain -doubtful.] - -[Footnote: Compare No. 1339, written on the same sheet.] - -1218. - -The watery element was left enclosed between the raised banks of the -rivers, and the sea was seen between the uplifted earth and the -surrounding air which has to envelope and enclose the complicated -machine of the earth, and whose mass, standing between the water and -the element of fire, remained much restricted and deprived of its -indispensable moisture; the rivers will be deprived of their waters, -the fruitful earth will put forth no more her light verdure; the -fields will no more be decked with waving corn; all the animals, -finding no fresh grass for pasture, will die and food will then be -lacking to the lions and wolves and other beasts of prey, and to men -who after many efforts will be compelled to abandon their life, and -the human race will die out. In this way the fertile and fruitful -earth will remain deserted, arid and sterile from the water being -shut up in its interior, and from the activity of nature it will -continue a little time to increase until the cold and subtle air -being gone, it will be forced to end with the element of fire; and -then its surface will be left burnt up to cinder and this will be -the end of all terrestrial nature. [Footnote: Compare No. 1339, -written on the same sheet.] - -1219. - -Why did nature not ordain that one animal should not live by the -death of another? Nature, being inconstant and taking pleasure in -creating and making constantly new lives and forms, because she -knows that her terrestrial materials become thereby augmented, is -more ready and more swift in her creating, than time in his -destruction; and so she has ordained that many animals shall be food -for others. Nay, this not satisfying her desire, to the same end she -frequently sends forth certain poisonous and pestilential vapours -upon the vast increase and congregation of animals; and most of all -upon men, who increase vastly because other animals do not feed upon -them; and, the causes being removed, the effects would not follow. -This earth therefore seeks to lose its life, desiring only continual -reproduction; and as, by the argument you bring forward and -demonstrate, like effects always follow like causes, animals are the -image of the world. - -_XX._ - -_Humorous Writings._ - -_Just as Michaelangelo's occasional poems reflect his private life -as well as the general disposition of his mind, we may find in the -writings collected in this section, the transcript of Leonardo's -fanciful nature, and we should probably not be far wrong in -assuming, that he himself had recited these fables in the company of -his friends or at the court festivals of princes and patrons._ Era -tanto piacevole nella conversazione-- _so relates Vasari_--che -tirava a se gli animi delle genti. _And Paulus Jovius says in his -short biography of the artist:_ Fuit ingenio valde comi, nitido, -liberali, vultu autem longe venustissimo, et cum elegantiae omnis -deliciarumque maxime theatralium mirificus inventor ac arbiter -esset, ad lyramque scito caneret, cunctis per omnem aetatem -principibus mire placuit. _There can be no doubt that the fables are -the original offspring of Leonardo's brain, and not borrowed from -any foreign source; indeed the schemes and plans for the composition -of fables collected in division V seem to afford an external proof -of this, if the fables themselves did not render it self-evident. -Several of them-- for instance No._ l279--_are so strikingly -characteristic of Leonardo's views of natural science that we cannot -do them justice till we are acquainted with his theories on such -subjects; and this is equally true of the 'Prophecies'_. - -_I have prefixed to these quaint writings the 'Studies on the life -and habits of animals' which are singular from their peculiar -aphoristic style, and I have transcribed them in exactly the order -in which they are written in MS. H. This is one of the very rare -instances in which one subject is treated in a consecutive series of -notes, all in one MS., and Leonardo has also departed from his -ordinary habits, by occasionally not completing the text on the page -it is begun. These brief notes of a somewhat mysterious bearing have -been placed here, simply because they may possibly have been -intended to serve as hints for fables or allegories. They can -scarcely be regarded as preparatory for a natural history, rather -they would seem to be extracts. On the one hand the names of some of -the animals seem to prove that Leonardo could not here be recording -observations of his own; on the other hand the notes on their habits -and life appear to me to dwell precisely on what must have -interested him most--so far as it is possible to form any complete -estimate of his nature and tastes._ - -_In No._ 1293 _lines_ 1-10, _we have a sketch of a scheme for -grouping the Prophecies. I have not however availed myself of it as -a clue to their arrangement here because, in the first place, the -texts are not so numerous as to render the suggested classification -useful to the reader, and, also, because in reading the long series, -as they occur in the original, we may follow the author's mind; and -here and there it is not difficult to see how one theme suggested -another. I have however regarded Leonardo's scheme for the -classification of the Prophecies as available for that of the Fables -and Jests, and have adhered to it as far as possible._ - -_Among the humourous writings I might perhaps have included the_ -'Rebusses', _of which there are several in the collection of -Leonardo's drawings at Windsor; it seems to me not likely that many -or all of them could be solved at the present day and the MSS. throw -no light on them. Nor should I be justified if I intended to include -in the literary works the well-known caricatures of human faces -attributed to Leonardo-- of which, however, it may be incidentally -observed, the greater number are in my opinion undoubtedly spurious. -Two only have necessarily been given owing to their presence in -text, which it was desired to reproduce: Vol. I page_ 326, _and Pl. -CXXII. It can scarcely be doubted that some satirical intention is -conveyed by the drawing on Pl. LXIV (text No. _688_). - -My reason for not presenting Leonardo to the reader as a poet is the -fact that the maxims and morals in verse which have been ascribed to -him, are not to be found in the manuscripts, and Prof. Uzielli has -already proved that they cannot be by him. Hence it would seem that -only a few short verses can be attributed to him with any -certainty._ - -I. - -STUDIES ON THE LIFE AND HABITS OF ANIMALS. - -1220. - -THE LOVE OF VIRTUE. - -The gold-finch is a bird of which it is related that, when it is -carried into the presence of a sick person, if the sick man is going -to die, the bird turns away its head and never looks at him; but if -the sick man is to be saved the bird never loses sight of him but is -the cause of curing him of all his sickness. - -Like unto this is the love of virtue. It never looks at any vile or -base thing, but rather clings always to pure and virtuous things and -takes up its abode in a noble heart; as the birds do in green woods -on flowery branches. And this Love shows itself more in adversity -than in prosperity; as light does, which shines most where the place -is darkest. - -1221. - -ENVY. - -We read of the kite that, when it sees its young ones growing too -big in the nest, out of envy it pecks their sides, and keeps them -without food. - -CHEERFULNESS. - -Cheerfulness is proper to the cock, which rejoices over every little -thing, and crows with varied and lively movements. - -SADNESS. - -Sadness resembles the raven, which, when it sees its young ones born -white, departs in great grief, and abandons them with doleful -lamentations, and does not feed them until it sees in them some few -black feathers. - -1222. - -PEACE. - -We read of the beaver that when it is pursued, knowing that it is -for the virtue [contained] in its medicinal testicles and not being -able to escape, it stops; and to be at peace with its pursuers, it -bites off its testicles with its sharp teeth, and leaves them to its -enemies. - -RAGE. - -It is said of the bear that when it goes to the haunts of bees to -take their honey, the bees having begun to sting him he leaves the -honey and rushes to revenge himself. And as he seeks to be revenged -on all those that sting him, he is revenged on none; in such wise -that his rage is turned to madness, and he flings himself on the -ground, vainly exasperating, by his hands and feet, the foes against -which he is defending himself. - -1223. - -GRATITUDE. - -The virtue of gratitude is said to be more [developed] in the birds -called hoopoes which, knowing the benefits of life and food, they -have received from their father and their mother, when they see them -grow old, make a nest for them and brood over them and feed them, -and with their beaks pull out their old and shabby feathers; and -then, with a certain herb restore their sight so that they return to -a prosperous state. - -AVARICE. - -The toad feeds on earth and always remains lean; because it never -eats enough:-- it is so afraid lest it should want for earth. - -1224. - -INGRATITUDE. - -Pigeons are a symbol of ingratitude; for when they are old enough no -longer to need to be fed, they begin to fight with their father, and -this struggle does not end until the young one drives the father out -and takes the hen and makes her his own. - -CRUELTY. - -The basilisk is so utterly cruel that when it cannot kill animals by -its baleful gaze, it turns upon herbs and plants, and fixing its -gaze on them withers them up. - -1225. - -GENEROSITY. - -It is said of the eagle that it is never so hungry but that it will -leave a part of its prey for the birds that are round it, which, -being unable to provide their own food, are necessarily dependent on -the eagle, since it is thus that they obtain food. - -DISCIPLINE. - -When the wolf goes cunningly round some stable of cattle, and by -accident puts his foot in a trap, so that he makes a noise, he bites -his foot off to punish himself for his folly. - -1226. - -FLATTERERS OR SYRENS. - -The syren sings so sweetly that she lulls the mariners to sleep; -then she climbs upon the ships and kills the sleeping mariners. - -PRUDENCE. - -The ant, by her natural foresight provides in the summer for the -winter, killing the seeds she harvests that they may not germinate, -and on them, in due time she feeds. - -FOLLY. - -The wild bull having a horror of a red colour, the hunters dress up -the trunk of a tree with red and the bull runs at this with great -frenzy, thus fixing his horns, and forthwith the hunters kill him -there. - -1227. - -JUSTICE. - -We may liken the virtue of Justice to the king of the bees which -orders and arranges every thing with judgment. For some bees are -ordered to go to the flowers, others are ordered to labour, others -to fight with the wasps, others to clear away all dirt, others to -accompagny and escort the king; and when he is old and has no wings -they carry him. And if one of them fails in his duty, he is punished -without reprieve. - -TRUTH. - -Although partridges steal each other's eggs, nevertheless the young -born of these eggs always return to their true mother. - -1228. - -FIDELITY, OR LOYALTY. - -The cranes are so faithful and loyal to their king, that at night, -when he is sleeping, some of them go round the field to keep watch -at a distance; others remain near, each holding a stone in his foot, -so that if sleep should overcome them, this stone would fall and -make so much noise that they would wake up again. And there are -others which sleep together round the king; and this they do every -night, changing in turn so that their king may never find them -wanting. - -FALSEHOOD. - -The fox when it sees a flock of herons or magpies or birds of that -kind, suddenly flings himself on the ground with his mouth open to -look as he were dead; and these birds want to peck at his tongue, -and he bites off their heads. - -1229. - -LIES. - -The mole has very small eyes and it always lives under ground; and -it lives as long as it is in the dark but when it comes into the -light it dies immediately, because it becomes known;--and so it is -with lies. - -VALOUR. - -The lion is never afraid, but rather fights with a bold spirit and -savage onslaught against a multitude of hunters, always seeking to -injure the first that injures him. - -FEAR OR COWARDICE. - -The hare is always frightened; and the leaves that fall from the -trees in autumn always keep him in terror and generally put him to -flight. - -1230. - -MAGNANIMITY. - -The falcon never preys but on large birds; and it will let itself -die rather than feed on little ones, or eat stinking meat. - -VAIN GLORY. - -As regards this vice, we read that the peacock is more guilty of it -than any other animal. For it is always contemplating the beauty of -its tail, which it spreads in the form of a wheel, and by its cries -attracts to itself the gaze of the creatures that surround it. - -And this is the last vice to be conquered. - -1231. - -CONSTANCY. - -Constancy may be symbolised by the phoenix which, knowing that by -nature it must be resuscitated, has the constancy to endure the -burning flames which consume it, and then it rises anew. - -INCONSTANCY. - -The swallow may serve for Inconstancy, for it is always in movement, -since it cannot endure the smallest discomfort. - -CONTINENCE. - -The camel is the most lustful animal there is, and will follow the -female for a thousand miles. But if you keep it constantly with its -mother or sister it will leave them alone, so temperate is its -nature. - -1232. - -INCONTINENCE. - -The unicorn, through its intemperance and not knowing how to control -itself, for the love it bears to fair maidens forgets its ferocity -and wildness; and laying aside all fear it will go up to a seated -damsel and go to sleep in her lap, and thus the hunters take it. - -HUMILITY. - -We see the most striking example of humility in the lamb which will -submit to any animal; and when they are given for food to imprisoned -lions they are as gentle to them as to their own mother, so that -very often it has been seen that the lions forbear to kill them. - -1233. - -PRIDE. - -The falcon, by reason of its haughtiness and pride, is fain to lord -it and rule over all the other birds of prey, and longs to be sole -and supreme; and very often the falcon has been seen to assault the -eagle, the Queen of birds. - -ABSTINENCE. - -The wild ass, when it goes to the well to drink, and finds the water -troubled, is never so thirsty but that it will abstain from -drinking, and wait till the water is clear again. - -GLUTTONY. - -The vulture is so addicted to gluttony that it will go a thousand -miles to eat a carrion [carcase]; therefore is it that it follows -armies. - -1234. - -CHASTITY. - -The turtle-dove is never false to its mate; and if one dies the -other preserves perpetual chastity, and never again sits on a green -bough, nor ever again drinks of clear water. - -UNCHASTITY. - -The bat, owing to unbridled lust, observes no universal rule in -pairing, but males with males and females with females pair -promiscuously, as it may happen. - -MODERATION. - -The ermine out of moderation never eats but once in the day; it will -rather let itself be taken by the hunters than take refuge in a -dirty lair, in order not to stain its purity. - -1235. - -THE EAGLE. - -The eagle when it is old flies so high that it scorches its -feathers, and Nature allowing that it should renew its youth, it -falls into shallow water [Footnote 5: The meaning is obscure.]. And -if its young ones cannot bear to gaze on the sun [Footnote 6: The -meaning is obscure.]--; it does not feed them with any bird, that -does not wish to die. Animals which much fear it do not approach its -nest, although it does not hurt them. It always leaves part of its -prey uneaten. - -LUMERPA,--FAME. - -This is found in Asia Major, and shines so brightly that it absorbs -its own shadow, and when it dies it does not lose this light, and -its feathers never fall out, but a feather pulled out shines no -longer. - -1236. - -THE PELICAN. - -This bird has a great love for its young; and when it finds them in -its nest dead from a serpent's bite, it pierces itself to the heart, -and with its blood it bathes them till they return to life. - -THE SALAMANDER. - -This has no digestive organs, and gets no food but from the fire, in -which it constantly renews its scaly skin. - -The salamander, which renews its scaly skin in the fire,--for -virtue. - -THE CAMELEON. - -This lives on air, and there it is the prey of all the birds; so in -order to be safer it flies above the clouds and finds an air so -rarefied that it cannot support the bird that follows it. - -At that height nothing can go unless it has a gift from Heaven, and -that is where the chameleon flies. - -1237. - -THE ALEPO, A FISH. - -The fish _alepo_ does not live out of water. - -THE OSTRICH. - -This bird converts iron into nourishment, and hatches its eggs by -its gaze;--Armies under commanders. - -THE SWAN. - -The swan is white without any spot, and it sings sweetly as it dies, -its life ending with that song. - -THE STORK. - -This bird, by drinking saltwater purges itself of distempers. If the -male finds his mate unfaithful, he abandons her; and when it grows -old its young ones brood over it, and feed it till it dies. - -1238. - -THE GRASSHOPPER. - -This silences the cuckoo with its song. It dies in oil and revives -in vinegar. It sings in the greatest heats - -THE BAT. - -The more light there is the blinder this creature becomes; as those -who gaze most at the sun become most dazzled.--For Vice, that cannot -remain where Virtue appears. - -THE PARTRIDGE. - -This bird changes from the female into the male and forgets its -former sex; and out of envy it steals the eggs from others and -hatches them, but the young ones follow the true mother. - -THE SWALLOW. - -This bird gives sight to its blind young ones by means of celandine. - -1239. - -THE OYSTER.--FOR TREACHERY. - -This creature, when the moon is full opens itself wide, and when the -crab looks in he throws in a piece of rock or seaweed and the oyster -cannot close again, whereby it serves for food to that crab. This is -what happens to him who opens his mouth to tell his secret. He -becomes the prey of the treacherous hearer. - -THE BASILISK.--CRUELTY. - -All snakes flie from this creature; but the weasel attacks it by -means of rue and kills it. - -THE ASP. - -This carries instantaneous death in its fangs; and, that it may not -hear the charmer it stops its ears with its tail. - -1240. - -THE DRAGON. - -This creature entangles itself in the legs of the elephant which -falls upon it, and so both die, and in its death it is avenged. - -THE VIPER. - -She, in pairing opens her mouth and at last clenches her teeth and -kills her husband. Then the young ones, growing within her body rend -her open and kill their mother. - -THE SCORPION. - -Saliva, spit out when fasting will kill a scorpion. This may be -likened to abstinence from greediness, which removes and heals the -ills which result from that gluttony, and opens the path of virtue. - -1241. - -THE CROCODILE. HYPOCRISY. - -This animal catches a man and straightway kills him; after he is -dead, it weeps for him with a lamentable voice and many tears. Then, -having done lamenting, it cruelly devours him. It is thus with the -hypocrite, who, for the smallest matter, has his face bathed with -tears, but shows the heart of a tiger and rejoices in his heart at -the woes of others, while wearing a pitiful face. - -THE TOAD. - -The toad flies from the light of the sun, and if it is held there by -force it puffs itself out so much as to hide its head below and -shield itself from the rays. Thus does the foe of clear and radiant -virtue, who can only be constrainedly brought to face it with puffed -up courage. - -1242. - -THE CATERPILLAR.--FOR VIRTUE IN GENERAL. - -The caterpillar, which by means of assiduous care is able to weave -round itself a new dwelling place with marvellous artifice and fine -workmanship, comes out of it afterwards with painted and lovely -wings, with which it rises towards Heaven. - -THE SPIDER. - -The spider brings forth out of herself the delicate and ingenious -web, which makes her a return by the prey it takes. - -[Footnote: Two notes are underneath this text. The first: _'nessuna -chosa e da ttemere piu che lla sozza fama'_ is a repetition of the -first line of the text given in Vol. I No. 695. - -The second: _faticha fugga cholla fama in braccio quasi ochultata c_ -is written in red chalk and is evidently an incomplete sentence.] - -1243. - -THE LION. - -This animal, with his thundering roar, rouses his young the third -day after they are born, teaching them the use of all their dormant -senses and all the wild things which are in the wood flee away. - -This may be compared to the children of Virtue who are roused by the -sound of praise and grow up in honourable studies, by which they are -more and more elevated; while all that is base flies at the sound, -shunning those who are virtuous. - -Again, the lion covers over its foot tracks, so that the way it has -gone may not be known to its enemies. Thus it beseems a captain to -conceal the secrets of his mind so that the enemy may not know his -purpose. - -1244. - -THE TARANTULA. - -The bite of the tarantula fixes a man's mind on one idea; that is on -the thing he was thinking of when he was bitten. - -THE SCREECH-OWL AND THE OWL. - -These punish those who are scoffing at them by pecking out their -eyes; for nature has so ordered it, that they may thus be fed. - -1245. - -THE ELEPHANT. - -The huge elephant has by nature what is rarely found in man; that is -Honesty, Prudence, Justice, and the Observance of Religion; inasmuch -as when the moon is new, these beasts go down to the rivers, and -there, solemnly cleansing themselves, they bathe, and so, having -saluted the planet, return to the woods. And when they are ill, -being laid down, they fling up plants towards Heaven as though they -would offer sacrifice. --They bury their tusks when they fall out -from old age.--Of these two tusks they use one to dig up roots for -food; but they save the point of the other for fighting with; when -they are taken by hunters and when worn out by fatigue, they dig up -these buried tusks and ransom themselves. - -1246. - -They are merciful, and know the dangers, and if one finds a man -alone and lost, he kindly puts him back in the road he has missed, -if he finds the footprints of the man before the man himself. It -dreads betrayal, so it stops and blows, pointing it out to the other -elephants who form in a troop and go warily. - -These beasts always go in troops, and the oldest goes in front and -the second in age remains the last, and thus they enclose the troop. -Out of shame they pair only at night and secretly, nor do they then -rejoin the herd but first bathe in the river. The females do not -fight as with other animals; and it is so merciful that it is most -unwilling by nature ever to hurt those weaker than itself. And if it -meets in the middle of its way a flock of sheep - -1247. - -it puts them aside with its trunk, so as not to trample them under -foot; and it never hurts any thing unless when provoked. When one -has fallen into a pit the others fill up the pit with branches, -earth and stones, thus raising the bottom that he may easily get -out. They greatly dread the noise of swine and fly in confusion, -doing no less harm then, with their feet, to their own kind than to -the enemy. They delight in rivers and are always wandering about -near them, though on account of their great weight they cannot swim. -They devour stones, and the trunks of trees are their favourite -food. They have a horror of rats. Flies delight in their smell and -settle on their back, and the beast scrapes its skin making its -folds even and kills them. - -1248. - -When they cross rivers they send their young ones up against the -stream of the water; thus, being set towards the fall, they break -the united current of the water so that the current does not carry -them away. The dragon flings itself under the elephant's body, and -with its tail it ties its legs; with its wings and with its arms it -also clings round its ribs and cuts its throat with its teeth, and -the elephant falls upon it and the dragon is burst. Thus, in its -death it is revenged on its foe. - -THE DRAGON. - -These go in companies together, and they twine themselves after the -manner of roots, and with their heads raised they cross lakes, and -swim to where they find better pasture; and if they did not thus -combine - -1249. - -they would be drowned, therefore they combine. - -THE SERPENT. - -The serpent is a very large animal. When it sees a bird in the air -it draws in its breath so strongly that it draws the birds into its -mouth too. Marcus Regulus, the consul of the Roman army was -attacked, with his army, by such an animal and almost defeated. And -this animal, being killed by a catapult, measured 123 feet, that is -64 1/2 braccia and its head was high above all the trees in a wood. - -THE BOA(?) - -This is a very large snake which entangles itself round the legs of -the cow so that it cannot move and then sucks it, in such wise that -it almost dries it up. In the time of Claudius the Emperor, there -was killed, on the Vatican Hill, - -1250. - -one which had inside it a boy, entire, that it had swallowed. - -THE MACLI.--CAUGHT WHEN ASLEEP. - -This beast is born in Scandinavia. It has the shape of a great -horse, excepting that the great length of its neck and of its ears -make a difference. It feeds on grass, going backwards, for it has so -long an upper lip that if it went forwards it would cover up the -grass. Its legs are all in one piece; for this reason when it wants -to sleep it leans against a tree, and the hunters, spying out the -place where it is wont to sleep, saw the tree almost through, and -then, when it leans against it to sleep, in its sleep it falls, and -thus the hunters take it. And every other mode of taking it is in -vain, because it is incredibly swift in running. - -1251. - -THE BISON WHICH DOES INJURY IN ITS FLIGHT. - -This beast is a native of Paeonia and has a neck with a mane like a -horse. In all its other parts it is like a bull, excepting that its -horns are in a way bent inwards so that it cannot butt; hence it has -no safety but in flight, in which it flings out its excrement to a -distance of 400 braccia in its course, and this burns like fire -wherever it touches. - -LIONS, PARDS, PANTHERS, TIGERS. - -These keep their claws in the sheath, and never put them out unless -they are on the back of their prey or their enemy. - -THE LIONESS. - -When the lioness defends her young from the hand of the hunter, in -order not to be frightened by the spears she keeps her eyes on the -ground, to the end that she may not by her flight leave her young -ones prisoners. - -1252. - -THE LION. - -This animal, which is so terrible, fears nothing more than the noise -of empty carts, and likewise the crowing of cocks. And it is much -terrified at the sight of one, and looks at its comb with a -frightened aspect, and is strangely alarmed when its face is -covered. - -THE PANTHER IN AFRICA. - -This has the form of the lioness but it is taller on its legs and -slimmer and long bodied; and it is all white and marked with black -spots after the manner of rosettes; and all animals delight to look -upon these rosettes, and they would always be standing round it if -it were not for the terror of its face; - -1253. - -therefore knowing this, it hides its face, and the surrounding -animals grow bold and come close, the better to enjoy the sight of -so much beauty; when suddenly it seizes the nearest and at once -devours it. - -CAMELS. - -The Bactrian have two humps; the Arabian one only. They are swift in -battle and most useful to carry burdens. This animal is extremely -observant of rule and measure, for it will not move if it has a -greater weight than it is used to, and if it is taken too far it -does the same, and suddenly stops and so the merchants are obliged -to lodge there. - -1254. - -THE TIGER. - -This beast is a native of Hyrcania, and it is something like the -panther from the various spots on its skin. It is an animal of -terrible swiftness; the hunter when he finds its young ones carries -them off hastily, placing mirrors in the place whence he takes them, -and at once escapes on a swift horse. The panther returning finds -the mirrors fixed on the ground and looking into them believes it -sees its young; then scratching with its paws it discovers the -cheat. Forthwith, by means of the scent of its young, it follows the -hunter, and when this hunter sees the tigress he drops one of the -young ones and she takes it, and having carried it to the den she -immediately returns to the hunter and does - -1255. - -the same till he gets into his boat. - -CATOBLEPAS. - -It is found in Ethiopia near to the source Nigricapo. It is not a -very large animal, is sluggish in all its parts, and its head is so -large that it carries it with difficulty, in such wise that it -always droops towards the ground; otherwise it would be a great pest -to man, for any one on whom it fixes its eyes dies immediately. -[Footnote: Leonardo undoubtedly derived these remarks as to the -Catoblepas from Pliny, Hist. Nat. VIII. 21 (al. 32): _Apud Hesperios -Aethiopas fons est Nigris_ (different readings), _ut plerique -existimavere, Nili caput.-----Juxta hunc fera appellatur catoblepas, -modica alioquin, ceterisque membris iners, caput tantum praegrave -aegre ferens; alias internecio humani generis, omnibus qui oculos -ejus videre, confestim morientibus._ Aelian, _Hist. An._ gives a far -more minute description of the creature, but he says that it poisons -beasts not by its gaze, but by its venomous breath. Athenaeus 221 B, -mentions both. If Leonardo had known of these two passages, he would -scarcely have omitted the poisonous breath. (H. MULLER-STRUBING.)] - -THE BASILISK. - -This is found in the province of Cyrenaica and is not more than 12 -fingers long. It has on its head a white spot after the fashion of a -diadem. It scares all serpents with its whistling. It resembles a -snake, but does not move by wriggling but from the centre forwards -to the right. It is said that one - -1256. - -of these, being killed with a spear by one who was on horse-back, -and its venom flowing on the spear, not only the man but the horse -also died. It spoils the wheat and not only that which it touches, -but where it breathes the grass dries and the stones are split. - -THE WEASEL. - -This beast finding the lair of the basilisk kills it with the smell -of its urine, and this smell, indeed, often kills the weasel itself. - -THE CERASTES. - -This has four movable little horns; so, when it wants to feed, it -hides under leaves all of its body except these little horns which, -as they move, seem to the birds to be some small worms at play. Then -they immediately swoop down to pick them and the Cerastes suddenly -twines round them and encircles and devours them. - -1257. - -THE AMPHISBOENA. - -This has two heads, one in its proper place the other at the tail; -as if one place were not enough from which to fling its venom. - -THE IACULUS. - -This lies on trees, and flings itself down like a dart, and pierces -through the wild beast and kills them. - -THE ASP. - -The bite of this animal cannot be cured unless by immediately -cutting out the bitten part. This pestilential animal has such a -love for its mate that they always go in company. And if, by mishap, -one of them is killed the other, with incredible swiftness, follows -him who has killed it; and it is so determined and eager for -vengeance that it overcomes every difficulty, and passing by every -troop it seeks to hurt none but its enemy. And it will travel any -distance, and it is impossible to avoid it unless by crossing water -and by very swift flight. It has its eyes turned inwards, and large -ears and it hears better than it sees. - -1258. - -THE ICHNEUMON. - -This animal is the mortal enemy of the asp. It is a native of Egypt -and when it sees an asp near its place, it runs at once to the bed -or mud of the Nile and with this makes itself muddy all over, then -it dries itself in the sun, smears itself again with mud, and thus, -drying one after the other, it makes itself three or four coatings -like a coat of mail. Then it attacks the asp, and fights well with -him, so that, taking its time it catches him in the throat and -destroys him. - -THE CROCODILE. - -This is found in the Nile, it has four feet and lives on land and in -water. No other terrestrial creature but this is found to have no -tongue, and it only bites by moving its upper jaw. It grows to a -length of forty feet and has claws and is armed with a hide that -will take any blow. By day it is on land and at night in the water. -It feeds on fishes, and going to sleep on the bank of the Nile with -its mouth open, a bird called - -1259. - -trochilus, a very small bird, runs at once to its mouth and hops -among its teeth and goes pecking out the remains of the food, and so -inciting it with voluptuous delight tempts it to open the whole of -its mouth, and so it sleeps. This being observed by the ichneumon it -flings itself into its mouth and perforates its stomach and bowels, -and finally kills it. - -THE DOLPHIN. - -Nature has given such knowledge to animals, that besides the -consciousness of their own advantages they know the disadvantages of -their foes. Thus the dolphin understands what strength lies in a cut -from the fins placed on his chine, and how tender is the belly of -the crocodile; hence in fighting with him it thrusts at him from -beneath and rips up his belly and so kills him. - -The crocodile is a terror to those that flee, and a base coward to -those that pursue him. - -1260. - -THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. - -This beast when it feels itself over-full goes about seeking thorns, -or where there may be the remains of canes that have been split, and -it rubs against them till a vein is opened; then when the blood has -flowed as much as he needs, he plasters himself with mud and heals -the wound. In form he is something like a horse with long haunches, -a twisted tail and the teeth of a wild boar, his neck has a mane; -the skin cannot be pierced, unless when he is bathing; he feeds on -plants in the fields and goes into them backwards so that it may -seem, as though he had come out. - -THE IBIS. - -This bird resembles a crane, and when it feels itself ill it fills -its craw with water, and with its beak makes an injection of it. - -THE STAG. - -These creatures when they feel themselves bitten by the spider -called father-long-legs, eat crabs and free themselves of the venom. - -1261. - -THE LIZARD. - -This, when fighting with serpents eats the sow-thistle and is free. - -THE SWALLOW. - -This [bird] gives sight to its blind young ones, with the juice of -the celandine. - -THE WEASEL. - -This, when chasing rats first eats of rue. - -THE WILD BOAR. - -This beast cures its sickness by eating of ivy. - -THE SNAKE. - -This creature when it wants to renew itself casts its old skin, -beginning with the head, and changing in one day and one night. - -THE PANTHER. - -This beast after its bowels have fallen out will still fight with -the dogs and hunters. - -1262. - -THE CHAMELEON. - -This creature always takes the colour of the thing on which it is -resting, whence it is often devoured together with the leaves on -which the elephant feeds. - -THE RAVEN. - -When it has killed the Chameleon it takes laurel as a purge. - -1263. - -Moderation checks all the vices. The ermine will die rather than -besmirch itself. - -OF FORESIGHT. - -The cock does not crow till it has thrice flapped its wings; the -parrot in moving among boughs never puts its feet excepting where it -has first put its beak. Vows are not made till Hope is dead. - -Motion tends towards the centre of gravity. - -1264. - -MAGNANIMITY. - -The falcon never seizes any but large birds and will sooner die than -eat [tainted] meat of bad savour. - -II. - -FABLES. - -Fables on animals (1265-1270). - -1265. - -A FABLE. - -An oyster being turned out together with other fish in the house of -a fisherman near the sea, he entreated a rat to take him to the sea. -The rat purposing to eat him bid him open; but as he bit him the -oyster squeezed his head and closed; and the cat came and killed -him. - -1266. - -A FABLE. - -The thrushes rejoiced greatly at seeing a man take the owl and -deprive her of liberty, tying her feet with strong bonds. But this -owl was afterwards by means of bird-lime the cause of the thrushes -losing not only their liberty, but their life. This is said for -those countries which rejoice in seeing their governors lose their -liberty, when by that means they themselves lose all succour, and -remain in bondage in the power of their enemies, losing their -liberty and often their life. - -1267. - -A FABLE. - -A dog, lying asleep on the fur of a sheep, one of his fleas, -perceiving the odour of the greasy wool, judged that this must be a -land of better living, and also more secure from the teeth and nails -of the dog than where he fed on the dog; and without farther -reflection he left the dog and went into the thick wool. There he -began with great labour to try to pass among the roots of the hairs; -but after much sweating had to give up the task as vain, because -these hairs were so close that they almost touched each other, and -there was no space where fleas could taste the skin. Hence, after -much labour and fatigue, he began to wish to return to his dog, who -however had already departed; so he was constrained after long -repentance and bitter tears, to die of hunger. - -1268. - -A FABLE. - -The vain and wandering butterfly, not content with being able to fly -at its ease through the air, overcome by the tempting flame of the -candle, decided to fly into it; but its sportive impulse was the -cause of a sudden fall, for its delicate wings were burnt in the -flame. And the hapless butterfly having dropped, all scorched, at -the foot of the candlestick, after much lamentation and repentance, -dried the tears from its swimming eyes, and raising its face -exclaimed: O false light! how many must thou have miserably deceived -in the past, like me; or if I must indeed see light so near, ought I -not to have known the sun from the false glare of dirty tallow? - -A FABLE. - -The monkey, finding a nest of small birds, went up to it greatly -delighted. But they, being already fledged, he could only succeed in -taking the smallest; greatly delighted he took it in his hand and -went to his abode; and having begun to look at the little bird he -took to kissing it, and from excess of love he kissed it so much and -turned it about and squeezed it till he killed it. This is said for -those who by not punishing their children let them come to mischief. - -1269. - -A FABLE. - -A rat was besieged in his little dwelling by a weasel, which with -unwearied vigilance awaited his surrender, while watching his -imminent peril through a little hole. Meanwhile the cat came by and -suddenly seized the weasel and forthwith devoured it. Then the rat -offered up a sacrifice to Jove of some of his store of nuts, humbly -thanking His providence, and came out of his hole to enjoy his -lately lost liberty. But he was instantly deprived of it, together -with his life, by the cruel claws and teeth of the lurking cat. - -1270. - -A FABLE. - -The ant found a grain of millet. The seed feeling itself taken -prisoner cried out to her: "If you will do me the kindness to allow -me accomplish my function of reproduction, I will give you a hundred -such as I am." And so it was. - -A Spider found a bunch of grapes which for its sweetness was much -resorted to by bees and divers kinds of flies. It seemed to her that -she had found a most convenient spot to spread her snare, and having -settled herself on it with her delicate web, and entered into her -new habitation, there, every day placing herself in the openings -made by the spaces between the grapes, she fell like a thief on the -wretched creatures which were not aware of her. But, after a few -days had passed, the vintager came, and cut away the bunch of grapes -and put it with others, with which it was trodden; and thus the -grapes were a snare and pitfall both for the treacherous spider and -the betrayed flies. - -An ass having gone to sleep on the ice over a deep lake, his heat -dissolved the ice and the ass awoke under water to his great grief, -and was forthwith drowned. - -A falcon, unable to endure with patience the disappearance of a -duck, which, flying before him had plunged under water, wished to -follow it under water, and having soaked his feathers had to remain -in the water while the duck rising to the air mocked at the falcon -as he drowned. - -The spider wishing to take flies in her treacherous net, was cruelly -killed in it by the hornet. - -An eagle wanting to mock at the owl was caught by the wings in -bird-lime and was taken and killed by a man. - -Fables on lifeless objects (1271--1274). - -1271. - -The water finding that its element was the lordly ocean, was seized -with a desire to rise above the air, and being encouraged by the -element of fire and rising as a very subtle vapour, it seemed as -though it were really as thin as air. But having risen very high, it -reached the air that was still more rare and cold, where the fire -forsook it, and the minute particles, being brought together, united -and became heavy; whence its haughtiness deserting it, it betook -itself to flight and it fell from the sky, and was drunk up by the -dry earth, where, being imprisoned for a long time, it did penance -for its sin. - -1272. - -A FABLE. - -The razor having one day come forth from the handle which serves as -its sheath and having placed himself in the sun, saw the sun -reflected in his body, which filled him with great pride. And -turning it over in his thoughts he began to say to himself: "And -shall I return again to that shop from which I have just come? -Certainly not; such splendid beauty shall not, please God, be turned -to such base uses. What folly it would be that could lead me to -shave the lathered beards of rustic peasants and perform such menial -service! Is this body destined for such work? Certainly not. I will -hide myself in some retired spot and there pass my life in tranquil -repose." And having thus remained hidden for some months, one day he -came out into the air, and issuing from his sheath, saw himself -turned to the similitude of a rusty saw while his surface no longer -reflected the resplendent sun. With useless repentance he vainly -deplored the irreparable mischief saying to himself: "Oh! how far -better was it to employ at the barbers my lost edge of such -exquisite keenness! Where is that lustrous surface? It has been -consumed by this vexatious and unsightly rust." - -The same thing happens to those minds which instead of exercise give -themselves up to sloth. They are like the razor here spoken of, and -lose the keenness of their edge, while the rust of ignorance spoils -their form. - -A FABLE. - -A stone of some size recently uncovered by the water lay on a -certain spot somewhat raised, and just where a delightful grove -ended by a stony road; here it was surrounded by plants decorated by -various flowers of divers colours. And as it saw the great quantity -of stones collected together in the roadway below, it began to wish -it could let itself fall down there, saying to itself: "What have I -to do here with these plants? I want to live in the company of -those, my sisters." And letting itself fall, its rapid course ended -among these longed for companions. When it had been there sometime -it began to find itself constantly toiling under the wheels of the -carts the iron-shoed feet of horses and of travellers. This one -rolled it over, that one trod upon it; sometimes it lifted itself a -little and then it was covered with mud or the dung of some animal, -and it was in vain that it looked at the spot whence it had come as -a place of solitude and tranquil place. - -Thus it happens to those who choose to leave a life of solitary -comtemplation, and come to live in cities among people full of -infinite evil. - -1273. - -Some flames had already lasted in the furnace of a glass-blower, -when they saw a candle approaching in a beautiful and glittering -candlestick. With ardent longing they strove to reach it; and one of -them, quitting its natural course, writhed up to an unburnt brand on -which it fed and passed at the opposite end out by a narrow chink to -the candle which was near. It flung itself upon it, and with fierce -jealousy and greediness it devoured it, having reduced it almost to -death, and, wishing to procure the prolongation of its life, it -tried to return to the furnace whence it had come. But in vain, for -it was compelled to die, the wood perishing together with the -candle, being at last converted, with lamentation and repentance, -into foul smoke, while leaving all its sisters in brilliant and -enduring life and beauty. - -1274. - -A small patch of snow finding itself clinging to the top of a rock -which was lying on the topmost height of a very high mountain and -being left to its own imaginings, it began to reflect in this way, -saying to itself: "Now, shall not I be thought vain and proud for -having placed myself--such a small patch of snow--in so lofty a -spot, and for allowing that so large a quantity of snow as I have -seen here around me, should take a place lower than mine? Certainly -my small dimensions by no means merit this elevation. How easily may -I, in proof of my insignificance, experience the same fate as that -which the sun brought about yesterday to my companions, who were -all, in a few hours, destroyed by the sun. And this happened from -their having placed themselves higher than became them. I will flee -from the wrath of the sun, and humble myself and find a place -befitting my small importance." Thus, flinging itself down, it began -to descend, hurrying from its high home on to the other snow; but -the more it sought a low place the more its bulk increased, so that -when at last its course was ended on a hill, it found itself no less -in size than the hill which supported it; and it was the last of the -snow which was destroyed that summer by the sun. This is said for -those who, humbling themselves, become exalted. - -Fables on plants (1275-1279). - -1275. - -The cedar, being desirous of producing a fine and noble fruit at its -summit, set to work to form it with all the strength of its sap. But -this fruit, when grown, was the cause of the tall and upright -tree-top being bent over. - -The peach, being envious of the vast quantity of fruit which she saw -borne on the nut-tree, her neighbour, determined to do the same, and -loaded herself with her own in such a way that the weight of the -fruit pulled her up by the roots and broke her down to the ground. - -The nut-tree stood always by a road side displaying the wealth of -its fruit to the passers by, and every one cast stones at it. - -The fig-tree, having no fruit, no one looked at it; then, wishing to -produce fruits that it might be praised by men, it was bent and -broken down by them. - -The fig-tree, standing by the side of the elm and seeing that its -boughs were bare of fruit, yet that it had the audacity to keep the -Sun from its own unripe figs with its branches, said to it: "Oh elm! -art thou not ashamed to stand in front of me. But wait till my -offspring are fully grown and you will see where you are!" But when -her offspring were mature, a troop of soldiers coming by fell upon -the fig-tree and her figs were all torn off her, and her boughs cut -away and broken. Then, when she was thus maimed in all her limbs, -the elm asked her, saying: "O fig-tree! which was best, to be -without offspring, or to be brought by them into so miserable a -plight!" - -1276. - -The plant complains of the old and dry stick which stands by its -side and of the dry stakes that surround it. - -One keeps it upright, the other keeps it from low company. - -1277. - -A FABLE. - -A nut, having been carried by a crow to the top of a tall campanile -and released by falling into a chink from the mortal grip of its -beak, it prayed the wall by the grace bestowed on it by God in -allowing it to be so high and thick, and to own such fine bells and -of so noble a tone, that it would succour it, and that, as it had -not been able to fall under the verdurous boughs of its venerable -father and lie in the fat earth covered up by his fallen leaves it -would not abandon it; because, finding itself in the beak of the -cruel crow, it had there made a vow that if it escaped from her it -would end its life in a little hole. At these words the wall, moved -to compassion, was content to shelter it in the spot where it had -fallen; and after a short time the nut began to split open and put -forth roots between the rifts of the stones and push them apart, and -to throw out shoots from its hollow shell; and, to be brief, these -rose above the building and the twisted roots, growing thicker, -began to thrust the walls apart, and tear out the ancient stones -from their old places. Then the wall too late and in vain bewailed -the cause of its destruction and in a short time, it wrought the -ruin of a great part of it. - -1278. - -A FABLE. - -The privet feeling its tender boughs loaded with young fruit, -pricked by the sharp claws and beak of the insolent blackbird, -complained to the blackbird with pitious remonstrance entreating her -that since she stole its delicious fruits she should not deprive it -of the leaves with which it preserved them from the burning rays of -the sun, and that she should not divest it of its tender bark by -scratching it with her sharp claws. To which the blackbird replied -with angry upbraiding: "O, be silent, uncultured shrub! Do you not -know that Nature made you produce these fruits for my nourishment; -do you not see that you are in the world [only] to serve me as food; -do you not know, base creature, that next winter you will be food -and prey for the Fire?" To which words the tree listened patiently, -and not without tears. After a short time the blackbird was taken in -a net and boughs were cut to make a cage, in which to imprison her. -Branches were cut, among others from the pliant privet, to serve for -the small rods of the cage; and seeing herself to be the cause of -the Blackbird's loss of liberty it rejoiced and spoke as follows: "O -Blackbird, I am here, and not yet burnt by fire as you said. I shall -see you in prison before you see me burnt." - -A FABLE. - -The laurel and the myrtle seeing the pear tree cut down cried out -with a loud voice: "O pear-tree! whither are you going? Where is the -pride you had when you were covered with ripe fruits? Now you will -no longer shade us with your mass of leaves." Then the pear-tree -replied: "I am going with the husbandman who has cut me down and who -will take me to the workshop of a good sculptor who by his art will -make me take the form of Jove the god; and I shall be dedicated in a -temple and adored by men in the place of Jove, while you are bound -always to remain maimed and stripped of your boughs, which will be -placed round me to do me honour. - -A FABLE. - -The chesnut, seeing a man upon the fig-tree, bending its boughs down -and pulling off the ripe fruits, which he put into his open mouth -destroying and crushing them with his hard teeth, it tossed its long -boughs and with a noisy rustle exclaimed: "O fig! how much less are -you protected by nature than I. See how in me my sweet offspring are -set in close array; first clothed in soft wrappers over which is the -hard but softly lined husk; and not content with taking this care of -me, and having given them so strong a shelter, on this she has -placed sharp and close-set spines so that the hand of man cannot -hurt me." Then the fig-tree and her offspring began to laugh and -having laughed she said: "I know man to be of such ingenuity that -with rods and stones and stakes flung up among your branches he will -bereave you of your fruits; and when they are fallen, he will -trample them with his feet or with stones, so that your offspring -will come out of their armour, crushed and maimed; while I am -touched carefully by their hands, and not like you with sticks and -stones." - -1279. - -The hapless willow, finding that she could not enjoy the pleasure of -seeing her slender branches grow or attain to the height she wished, -or point to the sky, by reason of the vine and whatever other trees -that grew near, but was always maimed and lopped and spoiled, -brought all her spirits together and gave and devoted itself -entirely to imagination, standing plunged in long meditation and -seeking, in all the world of plants, with which of them she might -ally herself and which could not need the help of her withes. Having -stood for some time in this prolific imagination, with a sudden -flash the gourd presented itself to her thoughts and tossing all her -branches with extreme delight, it seemed to her that she had found -the companion suited to her purpose, because the gourd is more apt -to bind others than to need binding; having come to this conclusion -she awaited eagerly some friendly bird who should be the mediator of -her wishes. Presently seeing near her the magpie she said to him: "O -gentle bird! by the memory of the refuge which you found this -morning among my branches, when the hungry cruel, and rapacious -falcon wanted to devour you, and by that repose which you have -always found in me when your wings craved rest, and by the pleasure -you have enjoyed among my boughs, when playing with your companions -or making love--I entreat you find the gourd and obtain from her -some of her seeds, and tell her that those that are born of them I -will treat exactly as though they were my own flesh and blood; and -in this way use all the words you can think of, which are of the -same persuasive purport; though, indeed, since you are a master of -language, I need not teach you. And if you will do me this service I -shall be happy to have your nest in the fork of my boughs, and all -your family without payment of any rent." Then the magpie, having -made and confirmed certain new stipulations with the willow,--and -principally that she should never admit upon her any snake or -polecat, cocked his tail, and put down his head, and flung himself -from the bough, throwing his weight upon his wings; and these, -beating the fleeting air, now here, now there, bearing about -inquisitively, while his tail served as a rudder to steer him, he -came to a gourd; then with a handsome bow and a few polite words, he -obtained the required seeds, and carried them to the willow, who -received him with a cheerful face. And when he had scraped away with -his foot a small quantity of the earth near the willow, describing a -circle, with his beak he planted the grains, which in a short time -began to grow, and by their growth and the branches to take up all -the boughs of the willow, while their broad leaves deprived it of -the beauty of the sun and sky. And not content with so much evil, -the gourds next began, by their rude hold, to drag the ends of the -tender shoots down towards the earth, with strange twisting and -distortion. - -Then, being much annoyed, it shook itself in vain to throw off the -gourd. After raving for some days in such plans vainly, because the -firm union forbade it, seeing the wind come by it commended itself -to him. The wind flew hard and opened the old and hollow stem of the -willow in two down to the roots, so that it fell into two parts. In -vain did it bewail itself recognising that it was born to no good -end. - -III. - -JESTS AND TALES. - -1280. - -A JEST. - -A priest, making the rounds of his parish on Easter Eve, and -sprinkling holy water in the houses as is customary, came to a -painter's room, where he sprinkled the water on some of his -pictures. The painter turned round, somewhat angered, and asked him -why this sprinkling had been bestowed on his pictures; then said the -priest, that it was the custom and his duty to do so, and that he -was doing good; and that he who did good might look for good in -return, and, indeed, for better, since God had promised that every -good deed that was done on earth should be rewarded a hundred-fold -from above. Then the painter, waiting till he went out, went to an -upper window and flung a large pail of water on the priest's back, -saying: "Here is the reward a hundred-fold from above, which you -said would come from the good you had done me with your holy water, -by which you have damaged my pictures." - -1281. - -When wine is drunk by a drunkard, that wine is revenged on the -drinker. - -1282. - -Wine, the divine juice of the grape, finding itself in a golden and -richly wrought cup, on the table of Mahomet, was puffed up with -pride at so much honour; when suddenly it was struck by a contrary -reflection, saying to itself: "What am I about, that I should -rejoice, and not perceive that I am now near to my death and shall -leave my golden abode in this cup to enter into the foul and fetid -caverns of the human body, and to be transmuted from a fragrant and -delicious liquor into a foul and base one. Nay, and as though so -much evil as this were not enough, I must for a long time lie in -hideous receptacles, together with other fetid and corrupt matter, -cast out from human intestines." And it cried to Heaven, imploring -vengeance for so much insult, and that an end might henceforth be -put to such contempt; and that, since that country produced the -finest and best grapes in the whole world, at least they should not -be turned into wine. Then Jove made that wine drunk by Mahomet to -rise in spirit to his brain; and that in so deleterious a manner -that it made him mad, and gave birth to so many follies that when he -had recovered himself, he made a law that no Asiatic should drink -wine, and henceforth the vine and its fruit were left free. - -As soon as wine has entered the stomach it begins to ferment and -swell; then the spirit of that man begins to abandon his body, -rising as it were skywards, and the brain finds itself parting from -the body. Then it begins to degrade him, and make him rave like a -madman, and then he does irreparable evil, killing his friends. - -1283. - -An artizan often going to visit a great gentleman without any -definite purpose, the gentleman asked him what he did this for. The -other said that he came there to have a pleasure which his lordship -could not have; since to him it was a satisfaction to see men -greater than himself, as is the way with the populace; while the -gentleman could only see men of less consequence than himself; and -so lords and great men were deprived of that pleasure. - -1284. - -Franciscan begging Friars are wont, at certain times, to keep fasts, -when they do not eat meat in their convents. But on journeys, as -they live on charity, they have license to eat whatever is set -before them. Now a couple of these friars on their travels, stopped -at an inn, in company with a certain merchant, and sat down with him -at the same table, where, from the poverty of the inn, nothing was -served to them but a small roast chicken. The merchant, seeing this -to be but little even for himself, turned to the friars and said: -"If my memory serves me, you do not eat any kind of flesh in your -convents at this season." At these words the friars were compelled -by their rule to admit, without cavil, that this was the truth; so -the merchant had his wish, and eat the chicken and the friars did -the best they could. After dinner the messmates departed, all three -together, and after travelling some distance they came to a river of -some width and depth. All three being on foot--the friars by reason -of their poverty, and the other from avarice--it was necessary by -the custom of company that one of the friars, being barefoot, should -carry the merchant on his shoulders: so having given his wooden -shoes into his keeping, he took up his man. But it so happened that -when the friar had got to the middle of the river, he again -remembered a rule of his order, and stopping short, he looked up, -like Saint Christopher, to the burden on his back and said: "Tell -me, have you any money about you?"--"You know I have", answered the -other, "How do you suppose that a Merchant like me should go about -otherwise?" "Alack!" cried the friar, "our rules forbid as to carry -any money on our persons," and forthwith he dropped him into the -water, which the merchant perceived was a facetious way of being -revenged on the indignity he had done them; so, with a smiling face, -and blushing somewhat with shame, he peaceably endured the revenge. - -1285. - -A JEST. - -A man wishing to prove, by the authority of Pythagoras, that he had -formerly been in the world, while another would not let him finish -his argument, the first speaker said to the second: "It is by this -token that I was formerly here, I remember that you were a miller." -The other one, feeling himself stung by these words, agreed that it -was true, and that by the same token he remembered that the speaker -had been the ass that carried the flour. - -A JEST. - -It was asked of a painter why, since he made such beautiful figures, -which were but dead things, his children were so ugly; to which the -painter replied that he made his pictures by day, and his children -by night. - -1286. - -A man saw a large sword which another one wore at his side. Said he -"Poor fellow, for a long time I have seen you tied to that weapon; -why do you not release yourself as your hands are untied, and set -yourself free?" To which the other replied: "This is none of yours, -on the contrary it is an old story." The former speaker, feeling -stung, replied: "I know that you are acquainted with so few things -in this world, that I thought anything I could tell you would be new -to you." - -1287. - -A man gave up his intimacy with one of his friends because he often -spoke ill of his other friends. The neglected friend one day -lamenting to this former friend, after much complaining, entreated -him to say what might be the cause that had made him forget so much -friendship. To which he answered: "I will no longer be intimate with -you because I love you, and I do not choose that you, by speaking -ill of me, your friend, to others, should produce in others, as in -me, a bad impression of yourself, by speaking evil to them of me, -your friend. Therefore, being no longer intimate together, it will -seem as though we had become enemies; and in speaking evil of me, as -is your wont, you will not be blamed so much as if we continued -intimate. - -1288. - -A man was arguing and boasting that he knew many and various tricks. -Another among the bystanders said: "I know how to play a trick which -will make whomsoever I like pull off his breeches." The first man-- -the boaster--said: "You won't make me pull off mine, and I bet you a -pair of hose on it." He who proposed the game, having accepted the -offer, produced breeches and drew them across the face of him who -bet the pair of hose and won the bet [4]. - -A man said to an acquaintance: "Your eyes are changed to a strange -colour." The other replied: "It often happens, but you have not -noticed it." "When does it happen?" said the former. "Every time -that my eyes see your ugly face, from the shock of so unpleasing a -sight they suddenly turn pale and change to a strange colour." - -A man said to another: "Your eyes are changed to a strange colour." -The other replied: "It is because my eyes behold your strange ugly -face." - -A man said that in his country were the strangest things in the -world. Another answered: "You, who were born there, confirm this as -true, by the strangeness of your ugly face." - -[Footnote: The joke turns, it appears, on two meanings of trarre and -is not easily translated.] - -1289. - -An old man was publicly casting contempt on a young one, and boldly -showing that he did not fear him; on which the young man replied -that his advanced age served him better as a shield than either his -tongue or his strength. - -1290. - -A JEST. - -A sick man finding himself in _articulo mortis_ heard a knock at the -door, and asking one of his servants who was knocking, the servant -went out, and answered that it was a woman calling herself Madonna -Bona. Then the sick man lifting his arms to Heaven thanked God with -a loud voice, and told the servants that they were to let her come -in at once, so that he might see one good woman before he died, -since in all his life he had never yet seen one. - -1291. - -A JEST. - -A man was desired to rise from bed, because the sun was already -risen. To which he replied: "If I had as far to go, and as much to -do as he has, I should be risen by now; but having but a little way -to go, I shall not rise yet." - -1292. - -A man, seeing a woman ready to hold up the target for a jousting -match, exclaimed, looking at the shield, and considering his spear: -"Alack! this is too small a workman for so great a business." - -IV. - -PROPHECIES. - -1293. - -THE DIVISION OF THE PROPHECIES. - -First, of things relating to animals; secondly, of irrational -creatures; thirdly of plants; fourthly, of ceremonies; fifthly, of -manners; sixthly, of cases or edicts or quarrels; seventhly, of -cases that are impossible in nature [paradoxes], as, for instance, -of those things which, the more is taken from them, the more they -grow. And reserve the great matters till the end, and the small -matters give at the beginning. And first show the evils and then the -punishment of philosophical things. - -(Of Ants.) - -These creatures will form many communities, which will hide -themselves and their young ones and victuals in dark caverns, and -they will feed themselves and their families in dark places for many -months without any light, artificial or natural. - -[Footnote: Lines 1--5l are in the original written in one column, -beginning with the text of line 11. At the end of the column is the -programme for the arrangement of the prophecies, placed here at the -head: Lines 56--79 form a second column, lines 80--97 a third one -(see the reproduction of the text on the facsimile PI. CXVIII). - -Another suggestion for the arrangement of the prophecies is to be -found among the notes 55--57 on page 357.] - -(Of Bees.) - -And many others will be deprived of their store and their food, and -will be cruelly submerged and drowned by folks devoid of reason. Oh -Justice of God! Why dost thou not wake and behold thy creatures thus -ill used? - -(Of Sheep, Cows, Goats and the like.) - -Endless multitudes of these will have their little children taken -from them ripped open and flayed and most barbarously quartered. - -(Of Nuts, and Olives, and Acorns, and Chesnuts, and such like.) - -Many offspring shall be snatched by cruel thrashing from the very -arms of their mothers, and flung on the ground, and crushed. - -(Of Children bound in Bundles.) - -O cities of the Sea! In you I see your citizens--both females and -males--tightly bound, arms and legs, with strong withes by folks who -will not understand your language. And you will only be able to -assuage your sorrows and lost liberty by means of tearful complaints -and sighing and lamentation among yourselves; for those who will -bind you will not understand you, nor will you understand them. - -(Of Cats that eat Rats.) - -In you, O cities of Africa your children will be seen quartered in -their own houses by most cruel and rapacious beasts of your own -country. - -(Of Asses that are beaten.) - -[Footnote 48: Compare No. 845.] O Nature! Wherefore art thou so -partial; being to some of thy children a tender and benign mother, -and to others a most cruel and pitiless stepmother? I see children -of thine given up to slavery to others, without any sort of -advantage, and instead of remuneration for the good they do, they -are paid with the severest suffering, and spend their whole life in -benefitting those who ill treat them. - -(Of Men who sleep on boards of Trees.) - -Men shall sleep, and eat, and dwell among trees, in the forests and -open country. - -(Of Dreaming.) - -Men will seem to see new destructions in the sky. The flames that -fall from it will seem to rise in it and to fly from it with terror. -They will hear every kind of animals speak in human language. They -will instantaneously run in person in various parts of the world, -without motion. They will see the greatest splendour in the midst of -darkness. O! marvel of the human race! What madness has led you -thus! You will speak with animals of every species and they with you -in human speech. You will see yourself fall from great heights -without any harm and torrents will accompany you, and will mingle -with their rapid course. - -(Of Christians.) - -Many who hold the faith of the Son only build temples in the name of -the Mother. - -(Of Food which has been alive.) - -[84] A great portion of bodies that have been alive will pass into -the bodies of other animals; which is as much as to say, that the -deserted tenements will pass piecemeal into the inhabited ones, -furnishing them with good things, and carrying with them their -evils. That is to say the life of man is formed from things eaten, -and these carry with them that part of man which dies . . . - -1294. - -(Of Funeral Rites, and Processions, and Lights, and Bells, and -Followers.) - -The greatest honours will be paid to men, and much pomp, without -their knowledge. - -[Footnote: A facsimile of this text is on PI. CXVI below on the -right, but the writing is larger than the other notes on the same -sheet and of a somewhat different style. The ink is also of a -different hue, as may be seen on the original sheet at Milan.] - -1295. - -(Of the Avaricious.) - -There will be many who will eagerly and with great care and -solicitude follow up a thing, which, if they only knew its -malignity, would always terrify them. - -(Of those men, who, the older they grow, the more avaricious they -become, whereas, having but little time to stay, they should become -more liberal.) - -We see those who are regarded as being most experienced and -judicious, when they least need a thing, seek and cherish it with -most avidity. - -(Of the Ditch.) - -Many will be busied in taking away from a thing, which will grow in -proportion as it is diminished. - -(Of a Weight placed on a Feather-pillow.) - -And it will be seen in many bodies that by raising the head they -swell visibly; and by laying the raised head down again, their size -will immediately be diminished. - -(Of catching Lice.) - -And many will be hunters of animals, which, the fewer there are the -more will be taken; and conversely, the more there are, the fewer -will be taken. - -(Of Drawing Water in two Buckets with a single Rope.) - -And many will be busily occupied, though the more of the thing they -draw up, the more will escape at the other end. - -(Of the Tongues of Pigs and Calves in Sausage-skins.) - -Oh! how foul a thing, that we should see the tongue of one animal in -the guts of another. - -(Of Sieves made of the Hair of Animals.) - -We shall see the food of animals pass through their skin everyway -excepting through their mouths, and penetrate from the outside -downwards to the ground. - -(Of Lanterns.) - -[Footnote 35: Lanterns were in Italy formerly made of horn.] The -cruel horns of powerful bulls will screen the lights of night -against the wild fury of the winds. - -(Of Feather-beds.) - -Flying creatures will give their very feathers to support men. - -(Of Animals which walk on Trees--wearing wooden Shoes.) - -The mire will be so great that men will walk on the trees of their -country. - -(Of the Soles of Shoes, which are made from the Ox.) - -And in many parts of the country men will be seen walking on the -skins of large beasts. - -(Of Sailing in Ships.) - -There will be great winds by reason of which things of the East will -become things of the West; and those of the South, being involved in -the course of the winds, will follow them to distant lands. - -(Of Worshipping the Pictures of Saints.) - -Men will speak to men who hear not; having their eyes open, they -will not see; they will speak to these, and they will not be -answered. They will implore favours of those who have ears and hear -not; they will make light for the blind. - -(Of Sawyers.) - -There will be many men who will move one against another, holding in -their hands a cutting tool. But these will not do each other any -injury beyond tiring each other; for, when one pushes forward the -other will draw back. But woe to him who comes between them! For he -will end by being cut in pieces. - -(Of Silk-spinning.) - -Dismal cries will be heard loud, shrieking with anguish, and the -hoarse and smothered tones of those who will be despoiled, and at -last left naked and motionless; and this by reason of the mover, -which makes every thing turn round. - -(Of putting Bread into the Mouth of the Oven and taking it out -again.) - -In every city, land, castle and house, men shall be seen, who for -want of food will take it out of the mouths of others, who will not -be able to resist in any way. - -(Of tilled Land.) - -The Earth will be seen turned up side down and facing the opposite -hemispheres, uncovering the lurking holes of the fiercest animals. - -(Of Sowing Seed.) - -Then many of the men who will remain alive, will throw the victuals -they have preserved out of their houses, a free prey to the birds -and beasts of the earth, without taking any care of them at all. - -(Of the Rains, which, by making the Rivers muddy, wash away the -Land.) - -[Footnote 81: Compare No. 945.] Something will fall from the sky -which will transport a large part of Africa which lies under that -sky towards Europe, and that of Europe towards Africa, and that of -the Scythian countries will meet with tremendous revolutions -[Footnote 84: Compare No. 945.]. - -(Of Wood that burns.) - -The trees and shrubs in the great forests will be converted into -cinder. - -(Of Kilns for Bricks and Lime.) - -Finally the earth will turn red from a conflagration of many days -and the stones will be turned to cinders. - -(Of boiled Fish.) - -The natives of the waters will die in the boiling flood. - -(Of the Olives which fall from the Olive trees, shedding oil which -makes light.) - -And things will fall with great force from above, which will give us -nourishment and light. - -(Of Owls and screech owls and what will happen to certain birds.) - -Many will perish of dashing their heads in pieces, and the eyes of -many will jump out of their heads by reason of fearful creatures -come out of the darkness. - -(Of flax which works the cure of men.) - -That which was at first bound, cast out and rent by many and various -beaters will be respected and honoured, and its precepts will be -listened to with reverence and love. - -(Of Books which teach Precepts.) - -Bodies without souls will, by their contents give us precepts by -which to die well. - -(Of Flagellants.) - -Men will hide themselves under the bark of trees, and, screaming, -they will make themselves martyrs, by striking their own limbs. - -(Of the Handles of Knives made of the Horns of Sheep.) - -We shall see the horns of certain beasts fitted to iron tools, which -will take the lives of many of their kind. - -(Of Night when no Colour can be discerned.) - -There will come a time when no difference can be discerned between -colours, on the contrary, everything will be black alike. - -(Of Swords and Spears which by themselves never hurt any one.) - -One who by himself is mild enough and void of all offence will -become terrible and fierce by being in bad company, and will most -cruelly take the life of many men, and would kill many more if they -were not hindered by bodies having no soul, that have come out of -caverns--that is, breastplates of iron. - -(Of Snares and Traps.) - -Many dead things will move furiously, and will take and bind the -living, and will ensnare them for the enemies who seek their death -and destruction. - -(Of Metals.) - -That shall be brought forth out of dark and obscure caves, which -will put the whole human race in great anxiety, peril and death. To -many that seek them, after many sorrows they will give delight, and -to those who are not in their company, death with want and -misfortune. This will lead to the commission of endless crimes; this -will increase and persuade bad men to assassinations, robberies and -treachery, and by reason of it each will be suspicious of his -partner. This will deprive free cities of their happy condition; -this will take away the lives of many; this will make men torment -each other with many artifices deceptions and treasons. O monstrous -creature! How much better would it be for men that every thing -should return to Hell! For this the vast forests will be devastated -of their trees; for this endless animals will lose their lives. - -(Of Fire.) - -One shall be born from small beginnings which will rapidly become -vast. This will respect no created thing, rather will it, by its -power, transform almost every thing from its own nature into -another. - -(Of Ships which sink.) - -Huge bodies will be seen, devoid of life, carrying, in fierce haste, -a multitude of men to the destruction of their lives. - -(Of Oxen, which are eaten.) - -The masters of estates will eat their own labourers. - -(Of beating Beds to renew them.) - -Men will be seen so deeply ungrateful that they will turn upon that -which has harboured them, for nothing at all; they will so load it -with blows that a great part of its inside will come out of its -place, and will be turned over and over in its body. - -(Of Things which are eaten and which first are killed.) - -Those who nourish them will be killed by them and afflicted by -merciless deaths. - -(Of the Reflection of Walls of Cities in the Water of their -Ditches.) - -The high walls of great cities will be seen up side down in their -ditches. - -(Of Water, which flows turbid and mixed with Soil and Dust; and of -Mist, which is mixed with the Air; and of Fire which is mixed with -its own, and each with each.) - -All the elements will be seen mixed together in a great whirling -mass, now borne towards the centre of the world, now towards the -sky; and now furiously rushing from the South towards the frozen -North, and sometimes from the East towards the West, and then again -from this hemisphere to the other. - -(The World may be divided into two Hemispheres at any Point.) - -All men will suddenly be transferred into opposite hemispheres. - -(The division of the East from the West may be made at any point.) - -All living creatures will be moved from the East to the West; and in -the same way from North to South, and vice versa. - -(Of the Motion of Water which carries wood, which is dead.) - -Bodies devoid of life will move by themselves and carry with them -endless generations of the dead, taking the wealth from the -bystanders. - -(Of Eggs which being eaten cannot form Chickens.) - -Oh! how many will they be that never come to the birth! - -(Of Fishes which are eaten unborn.) - -Endless generations will be lost by the death of the pregnant. - -(Of the Lamentation on Good Friday.) - -Throughout Europe there will be a lamentation of great nations over -the death of one man who died in the East. - -(Of Dreaming.) - -Men will walk and not stir, they will talk to those who are not -present, and hear those who do not speak. - -(Of a Man's Shadow which moves with him.) - -Shapes and figures of men and animals will be seen following these -animals and men wherever they flee. And exactly as the one moves the -other moves; but what seems so wonderful is the variety of height -they assume. - -(Of our Shadow cast by the Sun, and our Reflection in the Water at -one and the same time.) - -Many a time will one man be seen as three and all three move -together, and often the most real one quits him. - -(Of wooden Chests which contain great Treasures.) - -Within walnuts and trees and other plants vast treasures will be -found, which lie hidden there and well guarded. - -(Of putting out the Light when going to Bed.) - -Many persons puffing out a breath with too much haste, will thereby -lose their sight, and soon after all consciousness. - -(Of the Bells of Mules, which are close to their Ears.) - -In many parts of Europe instruments of various sizes will be heard -making divers harmonies, with great labour to those who hear them -most closely. - -(Of Asses.) - -The severest labour will be repaid with hunger and thirst, and -discomfort, and blows, and goadings, and curses, and great abuse. - -(Of Soldiers on horseback.) - -Many men will be seen carried by large animals, swift of pace, to -the loss of their lives and immediate death. - -In the air and on earth animals will be seen of divers colours -furiously carrying men to the destruction of their lives. - -(Of the Stars of Spurs.) - -By the aid of the stars men will be seen who will be as swift as any -swift animal. - -(Of a Stick, which is dead.) - -The motions of a dead thing will make many living ones flee with -pain and lamentation and cries. - -(Of Tinder.) - -With a stone and with iron things will be made visible which before -were not seen. - -1296. - -(Of going in Ships.) - -We shall see the trees of the great forests of Taurus and of Sinai -and of the Appenines and others, rush by means of the air, from East -to West and from North to South; and carry, by means of the air, -great multitudes of men. Oh! how many vows! Oh! how many deaths! Oh! -how many partings of friends and relations! Oh! how many will those -be who will never again see their own country nor their native land, -and who will die unburied, with their bones strewn in various parts -of the world! - -(Of moving on All Saints' Day.) - -Many will forsake their own dwellings and carry with them all their -belongings and will go to live in other parts. - -(Of All Souls' Day.) - -How many will they be who will bewail their deceased forefathers, -carrying lights to them. - -(Of Friars, who spending nothing but words, receive great gifts and -bestow Paradise.) - -Invisible money will procure the triumph of many who will spend it. - -(Of Bows made of the Horns of Oxen.) - -Many will there be who will die a painful death by means of the -horns of cattle. - -(Of writing Letters from one Country to another.) - -Men will speak with each other from the most remote countries, and -reply. - -(Of Hemispheres, which are infinite; and which are divided by an -infinite number of Lines, so that every Man always has one of these -Lines between his Feet.) - -Men standing in opposite hemispheres will converse and deride each -other and embrace each other, and understand each other's language. - -(Of Priests who say Mass.) - -There will be many men who, when they go to their labour will put on -the richest clothes, and these will be made after the fashion of -aprons [petticoats]. - -(Of Friars who are Confessors.) - -And unhappy women will, of their own free will, reveal to men all -their sins and shameful and most secret deeds. - -(Of Churches and the Habitations of Friars.) - -Many will there be who will give up work and labour and poverty of -life and goods, and will go to live among wealth in splendid -buildings, declaring that this is the way to make themselves -acceptable to God. - -(Of Selling Paradise.) - -An infinite number of men will sell publicly and unhindered things -of the very highest price, without leave from the Master of it; -while it never was theirs nor in their power; and human justice will -not prevent it. - -(Of the Dead which are carried to be buried.) - -The simple folks will carry vast quantities of lights to light up -the road for those who have entirely lost the power of sight. - -(Of Dowries for Maidens.) - -And whereas, at first, maidens could not be protected against the -violence of Men, neither by the watchfulness of parents nor by -strong walls, the time will come when the fathers and parents of -those girls will pay a large price to a man who wants to marry them, -even if they are rich, noble and most handsome. Certainly this seems -as though nature wished to eradicate the human race as being useless -to the world, and as spoiling all created things. - -(Of the Cruelty of Man.) - -Animals will be seen on the earth who will always be fighting -against each other with the greatest loss and frequent deaths on -each side. And there will be no end to their malignity; by their -strong limbs we shall see a great portion of the trees of the vast -forests laid low throughout the universe; and, when they are filled -with food the satisfaction of their desires will be to deal death -and grief and labour and wars and fury to every living thing; and -from their immoderate pride they will desire to rise towards heaven, -but the too great weight of their limbs will keep them down. Nothing -will remain on earth, or under the earth or in the waters which will -not be persecuted, disturbed and spoiled, and those of one country -removed into another. And their bodies will become the sepulture and -means of transit of all they have killed. - -O Earth! why dost thou not open and engulf them in the fissures of -thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of -heaven such a cruel and horrible monster. - -1297. - -PROPHECIES. - -There will be many which will increase in their destruction. - -(The Ball of Snow rolling over Snow.) - -There will be many who, forgetting their existence and their name, -will lie as dead on the spoils of other dead creatures. - -(Sleeping on the Feathers of Birds.) - -The East will be seen to rush to the West and the South to the North -in confusion round and about the universe, with great noise and -trembling or fury. - -(In the East wind which rushes to the West.) - -The solar rays will kindle fire on the earth, by which a thing that -is under the sky will be set on fire, and, being reflected by some -obstacle, it will bend downwards. - -(The Concave Mirror kindles a Fire, with which we heat the oven, and -this has its foundation beneath its roof.) - -A great part of the sea will fly towards heaven and for a long time -will not return. (That is, in Clouds.) - -There remains the motion which divides the mover from the thing -moved. - -Those who give light for divine service will be destroyed.(The Bees -which make the Wax for Candles) - -Dead things will come from underground and by their fierce movements -will send numberless human beings out of the world. (Iron, which -comes from under ground is dead but the Weapons are made of it which -kill so many Men.) - -The greatest mountains, even those which are remote from the sea -shore, will drive the sea from its place. - -(This is by Rivers which carry the Earth they wash away from the -Mountains and bear it to the Sea-shore; and where the Earth comes -the sea must retire.) - -The water dropped from the clouds still in motion on the flanks of -mountains will lie still for a long period of time without any -motion whatever; and this will happen in many and divers lands. - -(Snow, which falls in flakes and is Water.) - -The great rocks of the mountains will throw out fire; so that they -will burn the timber of many vast forests, and many beasts both wild -and tame. - -(The Flint in the Tinder-box which makes a Fire that consumes all -the loads of Wood of which the Forests are despoiled and with this -the flesh of Beasts is cooked.) - -Oh! how many great buildings will be ruined by reason of Fire. - -(The Fire of great Guns.) - -Oxen will be to a great extent the cause of the destruction of -cities, and in the same way horses and buffaloes. - -(By drawing Guns.) - -1298. - -The Lion tribe will be seen tearing open the earth with their clawed -paws and in the caves thus made, burying themselves together with -the other animals that are beneath them. - -Animals will come forth from the earth in gloomy vesture, which will -attack the human species with astonishing assaults, and which by -their ferocious bites will make confusion of blood among those they -devour. - -Again the air will be filled with a mischievous winged race which -will assail men and beasts and feed upon them with much noise-- -filling themselves with scarlet blood. - -1299. - -Blood will be seen issuing from the torn flesh of men, and trickling -down the surface. - -Men will have such cruel maladies that they will tear their flesh -with their own nails. (The Itch.) - -Plants will be seen left without leaves, and the rivers standing -still in their channels. - -The waters of the sea will rise above the high peaks of the -mountains towards heaven and fall again on to the dwellings of men. -(That is, in Clouds.) - -The largest trees of the forest will be seen carried by the fury of -the winds from East to West. (That is across the Sea.) - -Men will cast away their own victuals. (That is, in Sowing.) - -1300. - -Human beings will be seen who will not understand each other's -speech; that is, a German with a Turk. - -Fathers will be seen giving their daughters into the power of man -and giving up all their former care in guarding them. (When Girls -are married.) - -Men will come out their graves turned into flying creatures; and -they will attack other men, taking their food from their very hand -or table. (As Flies.) - -Many will there be who, flaying their mother, will tear the skin -from her back. (Husbandmen tilling the Earth.) - -Happy will they be who lend ear to the words of the Dead. (Who read -good works and obey them.) - -1031. - -Feathers will raise men, as they do birds, towards heaven (that is, -by the letters which are written with quills.) - -The works of men's hands will occasion their death. (Swords and -Spears.) - -Men out of fear will cling to the thing they most fear. (That is -they will be miserable lest they should fall into misery.) - -Things that are separate shall be united and acquire such virtue -that they will restore to man his lost memory; that is papyrus -[sheets] which are made of separate strips and have preserved the -memory of the things and acts of men. - -The bones of the Dead will be seen to govern the fortunes of him who -moves them. (By Dice.) - -Cattle with their horns protect the Flame from its death. (In a -Lantern [Footnote 13: See note page 357.].) - -The Forests will bring forth young which will be the cause of their -death. (The handle of the hatchet.) - -1302. - -Men will deal bitter blows to that which is the cause of their life. -(In thrashing Grain.) - -The skins of animals will rouse men from their silence with great -outcries and curses. (Balls for playing Games.) - -Very often a thing that is itself broken is the occasion of much -union. (That is the Comb made of split Cane which unites the threads -of Silk.) - -The wind passing through the skins of animals will make men dance. -(That is the Bag-pipe, which makes people dance.) - -1303. - -(Of Walnut trees, that are beaten.) - -Those which have done best will be most beaten, and their offspring -taken and flayed or peeled, and their bones broken or crushed. - -(Of Sculpture.) - -Alas! what do I see? The Saviour cru- cified anew. - -(Of the Mouth of Man, which is a Sepulchre.) - -Great noise will issue from the sepulchres of those who died evil -and violent deaths. - -(Of the Skins of Animals which have the sense of feeling what is in -the things written.) - -The more you converse with skins covered with sentiments, the more -wisdom will you acquire. - -(Of Priests who bear the Host in their body.) - -Then almost all the tabernacles in which dwells the Corpus Domini, -will be plainly seen walking about of themselves on the various -roads of the world. - -1304. - -And those who feed on grass will turn night into day (Tallow.) - -And many creatures of land and water will go up among the stars -(that is Planets.) - -The dead will be seen carrying the living (in Carts and Ships in -various places.) - -Food shall be taken out of the mouth of many ( the oven's mouth.) - -And those which will have their food in their mouth will be deprived -of it by the hands of others (the oven.) - -1305. - -(Of Crucifixes which are sold.) - -I see Christ sold and crucified afresh, and his Saints suffering -Martyrdom. - -(Of Physicians, who live by sickness.) - -Men will come into so wretched a plight that they will be glad that -others will derive profit from their sufferings or from the loss of -their real wealth, that is health. - -(Of the Religion of Friars, who live by the Saints who have been -dead a great while.) - -Those who are dead will, after a thou- sand years be those who will -give a livelihood to many who are living. - -(Of Stones converted into Lime, with which prison walls are made.) - -Many things that have been before that time destroyed by fire will -deprive many men of liberty. - -1306. - -(Of Children who are suckled.) - -Many Franciscans, Dominicans and Benedictines will eat that which at -other times was eaten by others, who for some months to come will -not be able to speak. - -(Of Cockles and Sea Snails which are thrown up by the sea and which -rot inside their shells.) - -How many will there be who, after they are dead, will putrefy inside -their own houses, filling all the surrounding air with a fetid -smell. - -1307. - -(Of Mules which have on them rich burdens of silver and gold.) - -Much treasure and great riches will be laid upon four-footed beasts, -which will convey them to divers places. - -1308. - -(Of the Shadow cast by a man at night with a light.) - -Huge figures will appear in human shape, and the nearer you get to -them, the more will their immense size diminish. - -[Footnote page 1307: It seems to me probable that this note, which -occurs in the note book used in 1502, when Leonardo, in the service -of Cesare Borgia, visited Urbino, was suggested by the famous -pillage of the riches of the palace of Guidobaldo, whose treasures -Cesare Borgia at once had carried to Cesena (see GREGOROVIUS, -_Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_. XIII, 5, 4). ] - -1309. - -(Of Snakes, carried by Storks.) - -Serpents of great length will be seen at a great height in the air, -fighting with birds. - -(Of great guns, which come out of a pit and a mould.) - -Creatures will come from underground which with their terrific noise -will stun all who are near; and with their breath will kill men and -destroy cities and castles. - -1310. - -(Of Grain and other Seeds.) - -Men will fling out of their houses those victuals which were -intended to sustain their life. - -(Of Trees, which nourish grafted shoots.) - -Fathers and mothers will be seen to take much more delight in their -step-children then in their own children. - -(Of the Censer.) - -Some will go about in white garments with arrogant gestures -threatening others with metal and fire which will do no harm at all -to them. - -1311. - -(Of drying Fodder.) - -Innumerable lives will be destroyed and innumerable vacant spaces -will be made on the earth. - -(Of the Life of Men, who every year change their bodily substance.) - -Men, when dead, will pass through their own bowels. - -1312. - -(Shoemakers.) - -Men will take pleasure in seeing their own work destroyed and -injured. - -1313. - -(Of Kids.) - -The time of Herod will come again, for the little innocent children -will be taken from their nurses, and will die of terrible wounds -inflicted by cruel men. - -V. - -DRAUGHTS AND SCHEMES FOR THE HUMOROUS WRITINGS. - -Schemes for fables, etc. (1314-1323). - -1314. - -A FABLE. - -The crab standing under the rock to catch the fish which crept under -it, it came to pass that the rock fell with a ruinous downfall of -stones, and by their fall the crab was crushed. - -THE SAME. - -The spider, being among the grapes, caught the flies which were -feeding on those grapes. Then came the vintage, and the spider was -cut down with the grapes. - -The vine that has grown old on an old tree falls with the ruin of -that tree, and through that bad companionship must perish with it. - -The torrent carried so much earth and stones into its bed, that it -was then constrained to change its course. - -The net that was wont to take the fish was seized and carried away -by the rush of fish. - -The ball of snow when, as it rolls, it descends from the snowy -mountains, increases in size as it falls. - -The willow, which by its long shoots hopes as it grows, to outstrip -every other plant, from having associated itself with the vine which -is pruned every year was always crippled. - -1315. - -Fable of the tongue bitten by the teeth. - -The cedar puffed up with pride of its beauty, separated itself from -the trees around it and in so doing it turned away towards the wind, -which not being broken in its fury, flung it uprooted on the earth. - -The traveller's joy, not content in its hedge, began to fling its -branches out over the high road, and cling to the opposite hedge, -and for this it was broken away by the passers by. - -1316. - -The goldfinch gives victuals to its caged young. Death rather than -loss of liberty. [Footnote: Above this text is another note, also -referring to liberty; see No. 694.] - -1317. - -(Of Bags.) - -Goats will convey the wine to the city. - -1318. - -All those things which in winter are hidden under the snow, will be -uncovered and laid bare in summer. (for Falsehood, which cannot -remain hidden). - -1319. - -A FABLE. - -The lily set itself down by the shores of the Ticino, and the -current carried away bank and the lily with it. - -1320. - -A JEST. - -Why Hungarian ducats have a double cross on them. - -1321. - -A SIMILE. - -A vase of unbaked clay, when broken, may be remoulded, but not a -baked one. - -1322. - -Seeing the paper all stained with the deep blackness of ink, it he -deeply regrets it; and this proves to the paper that the words, -composed upon it were the cause of its being preserved. - -1323. - -The pen must necessarily have the penknife for a companion, and it -is a useful companionship, for one is not good for much without the -other. - -Schemes for prophecies (1324-1329). - -1324. - -The knife, which is an artificial weapon, deprives man of his nails, -his natural weapons. - -The mirror conducts itself haughtily holding mirrored in itself the -Queen. When she departs the mirror remains there ... - -1325. - -Flax is dedicated to death, and to the corruption of mortals. To -death, by being used for snares and nets for birds, animals and -fish; to corruption, by the flaxen sheets in which the dead are -wrapped when they are buried, and who become corrupt in these -winding sheets.-- And again, this flax does not separate its fibre -till it has begun to steep and putrefy, and this is the flower with -which garlands and decorations for funerals should be made. - -1326. - -(Of Peasants who work in shirts) - -Shadows will come from the East which will blacken with great colour -darkness the sky that covers Italy. - -(Of the Barbers.) - -All men will take refuge in Africa. - -1327. - -The cloth which is held in the hand in the current of a running -stream, in the waters of which the cloth leaves all its foulness and -dirt, is meant to signify this &c. - -By the thorn with inoculated good fruit is signified those natures -which of themselves were not disposed towards virtue, but by the aid -of their preceptors they have the repudation of it. - -1328. - -A COMMON THING. - -A wretched person will be flattered, and these flatterers are always -the deceivers, robbers and murderers of the wretched person. - -The image of the sun where it falls appears as a thing which covers -the person who attempts to cover it. - -(Money and Gold.) - -Out of cavernous pits a thing shall come forth which will make all -the nations of the world toil and sweat with the greatest torments, -anxiety and labour, that they may gain its aid. - -(Of the Dread of Poverty.) - -The malicious and terrible [monster] will cause so much terror of -itself in men that they will rush together, with a rapid motion, -like madmen, thinking they are escaping her boundless force. - -(Of Advice.) - -The man who may be most necessary to him who needs him, will be -repaid with ingratitude, that is greatly contemned. - -1329. - -(Of Bees.) - -They live together in communities, they are destroyed that we may -take the honey from them. Many and very great nations will be -destroyed in their own dwellings. - -1330. - -WHY DOGS TAKE PLEASURE IN SMELLING AT EACH OTHER. - -This animal has a horror of the poor, because they eat poor food, -and it loves the rich, because they have good living and especially -meat. And the excrement of animals always retains some virtue of its -origin as is shown by the faeces ... - -Now dogs have so keen a smell, that they can discern by their nose -the virtue remaining in these faeces, and if they find them in the -streets, smell them and if they smell in them the virtue of meat or -of other things, they take them, and if not, they leave them: And to -return to the question, I say that if by means of this smell they -know that dog to be well fed, they respect him, because they judge -that he has a powerful and rich master; and if they discover no such -smell with the virtue of meet, they judge that dog to be of small -account and to have a poor and humble master, and therefore they -bite that dog as they would his master. - -1331. - -The circular plans of carrying earth are very useful, inasmuch as -men never stop in their work; and it is done in many ways. By one of -these ways men carry the earth on their shoulders, by another in -chests and others on wheelbarrows. The man who carries it on his -shoulders first fills the tub on the ground, and he loses time in -hoisting it on to his shoulders. He with the chests loses no time. -[Footnote: The subject of this text has apparently no connection -with the other texts of this section.] - -Irony (1332). - -1332. - -If Petrarch was so fond of bay, it was because it is of a good taste -in sausages and with tunny; I cannot put any value on their foolery. -[Footnote: Conte Porro has published these lines in the _Archivio -Stor. Lombarda_ VIII, IV; he reads the concluding line thus: _I no -posso di loro gia (sic) co' far tesauro._--This is known to be by a -contemporary poet, as Senatore Morelli informs me.] - -Tricks (1333-1335). - -1333. - -We are two brothers, each of us has a brother. Here the way of -saying it makes it appear that the two brothers have become four. - -1334. - -TRICKS OF DIVIDING. - -Take in each hand an equal number; put 4 from the right hand into -the left; cast away the remainder; cast away an equal number from -the left hand; add 5, and now you will find 13 in this [left] hand; -that is-I made you put 4 from the right hand into the left, and cast -away the remainder; now your right hand has 4 more; then I make you -throw away as many from the right as you threw away from the left; -so, throwing from each hand a quantity of which the remainder may be -equal, you now have 4 and 4, which make 8, and that the trick may -not be detec- ted I made you put 5 more, which made 13. - -TRICKS OF DIVIDING. - -Take any number less than 12 that you please; then take of mine -enough to make up the number 12, and that which remains to me is the -number which you at first had; because when I said, take any number -less than 12 as you please, I took 12 into my hand, and of that 12 -you took such a number as made up your number of 12; and what you -added to your number, you took from mine; that is, if you had 8 to -go as far as to 12, you took of my 12, 4; hence this 4 transferred -from me to you reduced my 12 to a remainder of 8, and your 8 became -12; so that my 8 is equal to your 8, before it was made 12. - -[Footnote 1334: G. Govi _says in the_ 'Saggio' p. 22: _Si dilett -Leonarda, di giuochi di prestigi e molti (?) ne descrisse, che si -leggono poi riportati dal Paciolo nel suo libro:_ de Viribus -Quantitatis, _e che, se non tutti, sono certo in gran parte -invenzioni del Vinci._] - -1335. - -If you want to teach someone a subject you do not know yourself, let -him measure the length of an object unknown to you, and he will -learn the measure you did not know before;--Master Giovanni da Lodi. - -_XXI._ - -_Letters. Personal Records. Dated Notes._ - -_When we consider how superficial and imperfect are the accounts of -Leonardo's life written some time after his death by Vasari and -others, any notes or letters which can throw more light on his -personal circumstances cannot fail to be in the highest degree -interesting. The texts here given as Nos._ 1351--1353, _set his -residence in Rome in quite a new aspect; nay, the picture which -irresistibly dwells in our minds after reading these details of his -life in the Vatican, forms a striking contrast to the contemporary -life of Raphael at Rome._ - -_I have placed foremost of these documents the very remarkable -letters to the Defterdar of Syria. In these Leonardo speaks of -himself as having staid among the mountains of Armenia, and as the -biographies of the master tell nothing of any such distant journeys, -it would seem most obvious to treat this passage as fiction, and so -spare ourselves the onus of proof and discussion. But on close -examination no one can doubt that these documents, with the -accompanying sketches, are the work of Leonardo's own hand. Not -merely is the character of the handwriting his, but the spelling and -the language are his also. In one respect only does the writing -betray any marked deviation from the rest of the notes, especially -those treating on scientific questions; namely, in these -observations he seems to have taken particular pains to give the -most distinct and best form of expression to all he had to say; we -find erasures and emendations in almost every line. He proceeded, as -we shall see, in the same way in the sketches for letters to -Giuliano de' Medici, and what can be more natural, I may ask, than -to find the draft of a letter thus altered and improved when it is -to contain an account of a definite subject, and when personal -interests are in the scale? The finished copies as sent off are not -known to exist; if we had these instead of the rough drafts, we -might unhesitatingly have declared that some unknown Italian -engineer must have been, at that time, engaged in Armenia in the -service of the Egyptian Sultan, and that Leonardo had copied his -documents. Under this hypothesis however we should have to state -that this unknown writer must have been so far one in mind with -Leonardo as to use the same style of language and even the same -lines of thought. This explanation might--as I say--have been -possible, if only we had the finished letters. But why should these -rough drafts of letters be regarded as anything else than what they -actually and obviously are? If Leonardo had been a man of our own -time, we might perhaps have attempted to account for the facts by -saying that Leonardo, without having been in the East himself, might -have undertaken to write a Romance of which the scene was laid in -Armenia, and at the desire of his publisher had made sketches of -landscape to illustrate the text. - -I feel bound to mention this singular hypothesis as it has actually -been put forward (see No. 1336 note 5); and it would certainly seem -as though there were no other possible way of evading the conclusion -to which these letters point, and their bearing on the life of the -master,--absurd as the alternative is. But, if, on a question of -such importance, we are justified in suggesting theories that have -no foundation in probability, I could suggest another which, as -compared with that of a Fiction by Leonardo, would be neither more -nor less plausible; it is, moreover the only other hypothesis, -perhaps, which can be devised to account for these passages, if it -were possible to prove that the interpretation that the documents -themselves suggest, must be rejected a priori; viz may not Leonardo -have written them with the intention of mystifying those who, after -his death, should try to decipher these manuscripts with a view to -publishing them? But if, in fact, no objection that will stand the -test of criticism can be brought against the simple and direct -interpretation of the words as they stand, we are bound to regard -Leonardo's travels in the East as an established fact. There is, I -believe nothing in what we know of his biography to negative such a -fact, especially as the details of his life for some few years are -wholly unknown; nor need we be at a loss for evidence which may -serve to explain--at any rate to some extent--the strangeness of his -undertaking such a journey. We have no information as to Leonardo's -history between 1482 and 1486; it cannot be proved that he was -either in Milan or in Florence. On the other hand the tenor of this -letter does not require us to assume a longer absence than a year or -two. For, even if his appointment_ (offitio) _as Engineer in Syria -had been a permanent one, it might have become untenable--by the -death perhaps of the Defterdar, his patron, or by his removal from -office--, and Leonardo on his return home may have kept silence on -the subject of an episode which probably had ended in failure and -disappointment. - -From the text of No. 1379 we can hardly doubt that Leonardo intended -to make an excursion secretly from Rome to Naples, although so far -as has hitherto been known, his biographers never allude to it. In -another place (No. 1077) he says that he had worked as an Engineer -in Friuli. Are we to doubt this statement too, merely because no -biographer has hitherto given us any information on the matter? In -the geographical notes Leonardo frequently speaks of the East, and -though such passages afford no direct proof of his having been -there, they show beyond a doubt that, next to the Nile, the -Euphrates, the Tigris and the Taurus mountains had a special -interest in his eyes. As a still further proof of the futility of -the argument that there is nothing in his drawings to show that he -had travelled in the East, we find on Pl. CXX a study of oriental -heads of Armenian type,--though of course this may have been made in -Italy. - -If the style of these letters were less sober, and the expressions -less strictly to the point throughout, it miglit be possible to -regard them as a romantic fiction instead of a narrative of fact. -Nay, we have only to compare them with such obviously fanciful -passages as No. 1354, Nos. 670-673, and the Fables and Prophecies. -It is unnecessary to discuss the subject any further here; such -explanations as the letter needs are given in the foot notes. - -The drafts of letters to Lodovico il Moro are very remarkable. -Leonardo and this prince were certainly far less closely connected, -than has hitherto been supposed. It is impossible that Leonardo can -have remained so long in the service of this prince, because the -salary was good, as is commonly stated. On the contrary, it would -seem, that what kept him there, in spite of his sore need of the -money owed him by the prince, was the hope of some day being able to -carry out the project of casting the_ 'gran cavallo'. - -Drafts of Letters and Reports referring to Armenia (1336. 1337). - -1336. - -To THE DEVATDAR OF SYRIA, LIEUTENANT OF THE SACRED SULTAN OF -BABYLON. - -[3] The recent disaster in our Northern parts which I am certain -will terrify not you alone but the whole world, which - -[Footnote: Lines 1-52 are reproduced in facsimile on Pl. CXVI. - -1. _Diodario._ This word is not to be found in any Italian -dictionary, and for a long time I vainly sought an explanation of -it. The youthful reminiscences of my wife afforded the desired clue. -The chief town of each Turkish Villayet, or province --such as -Broussa, for instance, in Asia Minor, is the residence of a -Defterdar, who presides over the financial affairs of the province. -_Defterdar hane_ was, in former times, the name given to the -Ministry of Finance at Constantinople; the Minister of Finance to -the Porte is now known as the _Mallie-Nazri_ and the _Defterdars_ -are his subordinates. A _Defterdar_, at the present day is merely -the head of the finance department in each Provincial district. With -regard to my suggestion that Leonardo's _Diodario_ might be -identical with the Defterdar of former times, the late M. C. -DEFREMERIE, Arabic Professor, and Membre de l'Institut de France -wrote to me as follows: _Votre conjecture est parfaitement fondee; -diodario est Vequivalent de devadar ou plus exactement devatdar, -titre d'une importante dignite en Egypt'e, sous les Mamlouks._ - -The word however is not of Turkish, but of Perso-Arabie derivation. -[Defter written in arab?] literally _Defter_ (Arabic) meaning -_folio_; for _dar_ (Persian) Bookkeeper or holder is the English -equivalent; and the idea is that of a deputy in command. During the -Mamelook supremacy over Syria, which corresponded in date with -Leonardo's time, the office of Defterdar was the third in importance -in the State. - -_Soltano di Babilonia_. The name of Babylon was commonly applied to -Cairo in the middle ages. For instance BREIDENBACH, _Itinerarium -Hierosolyma_ p. 218 says: "At last we reached Babylon. But this is -not that Babylon which stood on the further shore of the river -Chober, but that which is called the Egyptian Babylon. It is close -by Cairo and the twain are but one and not two towns; one half is -called Cairo and the other Babylon, whence they are called together -Cairo-Babylon; originally the town is said to have been named -Memphis and then Babylon, but now it is called Cairo." Compare No. -1085, 6. - -Egypt was governed from 1382 till 1517 by the Borgite or -Tcherkessian dynasty of the Mamelook Sultans. One of the most famous -of these, Sultan Kait Bey, ruled from 1468-1496 during whose reign -the Gama (or Mosque) of Kait Bey and tomb of Kait Bey near the -Okella Kait Bey were erected in Cairo, which preserve his name to -this day. Under the rule of this great and wise prince many -foreigners, particularly Italians, found occupation in Egypt, as may -be seen in the 'Viaggio di Josaphat Barbaro', among other -travellers. "Next to Leonardo (so I learn from Prof. Jac. Burckhardt -of Bale) Kait Bey's most helpful engineer was a German who in about -1487, superintended the construction of the Mole at Alexandria. -Felix Fabri knew him and mentions him in his _Historia Suevorum_, -written in 1488." - -3. _Il nuovo accidente accaduto_, or as Leonardo first wrote and -then erased, _e accaduto un nuovo accidente_. From the sequel this -must refer to an earthquake, and indeed these were frequent at that -period, particularly in Asia Minor, where they caused immense -mischief. See No. 1101 note.] - -shall be related to you in due order, showing first the effect and -then the cause. [Footnote 4: The text here breaks off. The following -lines are a fresh beginning of a letter, evidently addressed to the -same person, but, as it would seem, written at a later date than the -previous text. The numerous corrections and amendments amply prove -that it is not a copy from any account of a journey by some unknown -person; but, on the contrary, that Leonardo was particularly anxious -to choose such words and phrases as might best express his own -ideas.] - -Finding myself in this part of Armenia [Footnote 5: _Parti -d'Erminia_. See No. 945, note. The extent of Armenia in Leonardo's -time is only approximately known. In the XVth century the Persians -governed the Eastern, and the Arabs the Southern portions. Arabic -authors--as, for instance Abulfeda--include Cilicia and a part of -Cappadocia in Armenia, and Greater Armenia was the tract of that -country known later as Turcomania, while Armenia Minor was the -territory between Cappadocia and the Euphrates. It was not till -1522, or even 1574 that the whole country came under the dominion of -the Ottoman Turks, in the reign of Selim I. - -The Mamelook Sultans of Egypt seem to have taken a particular -interest in this, the most Northern province of their empire, which -was even then in danger of being conquered by the Turks. In the -autumn of 1477 Sultan Kait Bey made a journey of inspection, -visiting Antioch and the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates with a -numerous and brilliant escort. This tour is briefly alluded to by -_Moodshireddin_ p. 561; and by WEIL, _Geschichte der Abbasiden_ V, -p. 358. An anonymous member of the suite wrote a diary of the -expedition in Arabic, which has been published by R. V. LONZONE -(_'Viaggio in Palestina e Soria di Kaid Ba XVIII sultano della II -dinastia mamelucca, fatto nel 1477. Testo arabo. Torino 1878'_, -without notes or commentary). Compare the critique on this edition, -by J. GILDEMEISTER in _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina Vereins_ -(Vol. Ill p. 246--249). Lanzone's edition seems to be no more than -an abridged copy of the original. I owe to Professor Sche'fer, -Membre de l'Institut, the information that he is in possession of a -manuscript in which the text is fuller, and more correctly given. -The Mamelook dynasty was, as is well known, of Circassian origin, -and a large proportion of the Egyptian Army was recruited in -Circassia even so late as in the XVth century. That was a period of -political storms in Syria and Asia Minor and it is easy to suppose -that the Sultan's minister, to whom Leonardo addresses his report as -his superior, had a special interest in the welfare of those -frontier provinces. Only to mention a few historical events of -Sultan Kait Bey's reign, we find that in 1488 he assisted the -Circassians to resist the encroachments of Alaeddoulet, an Asiatic -prince who had allied himself with the Osmanli to threaten the -province; the consequence was a war in Cilicia by sea and land, -which broke out in the following year between the contending powers. -Only a few years earlier the same province had been the scene of the -so-called Caramenian war in which the united Venetian, Neapolitan -and Sclavonic fleets had been engaged. (See CORIALANO CIPPICO, -_Della guerra dei Veneziani nell' Asia dal_ 1469--1474. Venezia -1796, p. 54) and we learn incidentally that a certain Leonardo -Boldo, Governor of Scutari under Sultan Mahmoud,--as his name would -indicate, one of the numerous renegades of Italian birth--played an -important part in the negotiations for peace. - -_Tu mi mandasti_. The address _tu_ to a personage so high in office -is singular and suggests personal intimacy; Leonardo seems to have -been a favourite with the Diodario. Compare lines 54 and 55. - -I have endeavoured to show, and I believe that I am also in a -position to prove with regard to these texts, that they are draughts -of letters actually written by Leonardo; at the same time I must not -omit to mention that shortly after I had discovered - -these texts in the Codex Atlanticus and published a paper on the -subject in the _Zeitschrift fur bildende Kunst (Vol. XVI)_, Prof. -Govi put forward this hypothesis to account for their origin: - -_"Quanto alle notizie sul monte Tauro, sull'Armenia e sull' Asia -minore che si contengono negli altri frammenti, esse vennero prese -da qualche geografro o viaggiatore contemporaneo. Dall'indice -imperfetto che accompagna quei frammenti, si potrebbe dedurre che -Leonardo volesse farne un libro, che poi non venne compiuto. A ogni -modo, non e possibile di trovare in questi brani nessun indizio di -un viaggio di Leonardo in oriente, ne della sua conversione alla -religione di Maometto, come qualcuno pretenderebbe. Leonardo amava -con passione gli studi geografici, e nel suoi scritti s'incontran -spesso itinerart, indicazioni, o descrizioni di luoghi, schizzi di -carte e abbozzi topografici di varie regioni, non e quindi strano -che egli, abile narratore com'era, si fosse proposto di scrivere una -specie di Romanzo in forma epistolare svolgendone Pintreccio -nell'Asia Minore, intorno alla quale i libri d'allora, e forse -qualche viaggiatore amico suo, gli avevano somministrato alcuni -elementi piu o meno_ fantastici. (See Transunti della Reale -Accademia dei Lincei Voi. V Ser. 3). - -It is hardly necessary to point out that Prof. Govi omits to name -the sources from which Leonardo could be supposed to have drawn his -information, and I may leave it to the reader to pronounce judgment -on the anomaly which is involved in the hypothesis that we have here -a fragment of a Romance, cast in the form of a correspondence. At -the same time, I cannot but admit that the solution of the -difficulties proposed by Prof. Govi is, under the circumstances, -certainly the easiest way of dealing with the question. But we -should then be equally justified in supposing some more of -Leonardo's letters to be fragments of such romances; particularly -those of which the addresses can no longer be named. Still, as -regards these drafts of letters to the Diodario, if we accept the -Romance theory, as pro- posed by Prof. Govi, we are also compelled -to assume that Leonardo purposed from the first to illustrate his -tale; for it needs only a glance at the sketches on PI. CXVI to CXIX -to perceive that they are connected with the texts; and of course -the rest of Leonardo's numerous notes on matters pertaining to the -East, the greater part of which are here published for the first -time, may also be somehow connected with this strange romance. - -7. _Citta de Calindra (Chalindra)_. The position of this city is so -exactly determined, between the valley of the Euphrates and the -Taurus range that it ought to be possible to identify it. But it can -hardly be the same as the sea port of Cilicia with a somewhat -similar name Celenderis, Kelandria, Celendria, Kilindria, now the -Turkish Gulnar. In two Catalonian Portulans in the Bibliotheque -Natio- nale in Paris-one dating from the XV'h century, by Wilhelm -von Soler, the other by Olivez de Majorca, in l584-I find this place -called Calandra. But Leonardo's Calindra must certainly have lain -more to the North West, probably somewhere in Kurdistan. The fact -that the geographical position is so care- fully determined by -Leonardo seems to prove that it was a place of no great importance -and little known. It is singular that the words first written in 1. -8 were divisa dal lago (Lake Van?), altered afterwards to -dall'Eitfrates. - -Nostri confini, and in 1. 6 proposito nostro. These refer to the -frontier and to the affairs of the Mamelook Sultan, Lines 65 and 66 -throw some light on the purpose of Leonardo's mission. - -8. _I_ corni del gra mote Tauro. Compare the sketches PI. -CXVI-CXVIII. So long as it is im- possible to identify the situation -of Calindra it is most difficult to decide with any certainty which -peak of the Taurus is here meant; and I greatly regret that I had no -foreknowledge of this puzzling topographical question when, in 1876, -I was pursuing archaeological enquiries in the Provinces of Aleppo -and Cilicia, and had to travel for some time in view of the imposing -snow-peaks of Bulghar Dagh and Ala Tepessi. - -9-10. The opinion here expressed as to the height of the mountain -would be unmeaning, unless it had been written before Leonardo moved -to Milan, where Monte Rosa is so conspicuous an object in the -landscape. 4 _ore inanzi_ seems to mean, four hours before the sun's -rays penetrate to the bottom of the valleys.] - -to carry into effect with due love and care the task for which you -sent me [Footnote: ][6]; and to make a beginning in a place which -seemed to me to be most to our purpose, I entered into the city of -Calindrafy[7], near to our frontiers. This city is situated at the -base of that part of the Taurus mountains which is divided from the -Euphrates and looks towards the peaks of the great Mount Taurus [8] -to the West [9]. These peaks are of such a height that they seem to -touch the sky, and in all the world there is no part of the earth, -higher than its summit[10], and the rays of the sun always fall upon -it on its East side, four hours before day-time, and being of the -whitest stone [Footnote 11:_Pietra bianchissima_. The Taurus -Mountains consist in great part of limestone.] it shines -resplendently and fulfils the function to these Armenians which a -bright moon-light would in the midst of the darkness; and by its -great height it outreaches the utmost level of the clouds by a space -of four miles in a straight line. This peak is seen in many places -towards the West, illuminated by the sun after its setting the third -part of the night. This it is, which with you [Footnote 14: -_Appresso di voi_. Leonardo had at first written _noi_ as though his -meaning had,been: This peak appeared to us to be a comet when you -and I observed it in North Syria (at Aleppo? at Aintas?). The -description of the curious reflection in the evening, resembling the -"Alpine-glow" is certainly not an invented fiction, for in the next -lines an explanation of the phenomenon is offered, or at least -attempted.] we formerly in calm weather had supposed to be a comet, -and appears to us in the darkness of night, to change its form, -being sometimes divided in two or three parts, and sometimes long -and sometimes short. And this is caused by the clouds on the horizon -of the sky which interpose between part of this mountain and the -sun, and by cutting off some of the solar rays the light on the -mountain is intercepted by various intervals of clouds, and -therefore varies in the form of its brightness. - -THE DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK [Footnote 19: The next 33 lines are -evidently the contents of a connected Report or Book, but not of one -which he had at hand; more probably, indeed, of one he purposed -writing.]. - -The praise and confession of the faith [Footnote 20: _Persuasione di -fede_, of the Christian or the Mohammedan faith? We must suppose the -latter, at the beginning of a document addressed to so high a -Mohammedan official. _Predica_ probably stands as an abbreviation -for _predicazione_ (lat. _praedicatio_) in the sense of praise or -glorification; very probably it may mean some such initial doxology -as we find in Mohammedan works. (Comp. 1. 40.)]. - -The sudden inundation, to its end. - -[23] The destruction of the city. - -[24]The death of the people and their despair. - -The preacher's search, his release and benevolence [Footnote 28: The -phraseology of this is too general for any conjecture as to its -meaning to be worth hazarding.] - -Description of the cause of this fall of the mountain [Footnote 30: -_Ruina del monte_. Of course by an earthquake. In a catalogue of -earthquakes, entitled _kechf aussalssaleb an auasf ezzel-zeleh_, and -written by Djelal eddin]. - -The mischief it did. - -[32] Fall of snow. - -The finding of the prophet [33]. - -His prophesy. - -[35] The inundation of the lower portion of Eastern Armenia, the -draining of which was effected by the cutting through the Taurus -Mountains. - -How the new prophet showed [Footnote 40:_Nova profeta, 1. 33, -profeta_. Mohammed. Leonardo here refers to the Koran: - -In the name of the most merciful God.--When the earth shall be -shaken by an earthquake; and the earth shall cast forth her burdens; -and a man shall say, what aileth her? On that day the earth shall -declare her tidings, for that thy Lord will inspire her. On that day -men shall go forward in distinct classes, that they may behold their -works. And whoever shall have wrought good of the weight of an ant, -shall behold the same. And whoever shall have wrought evil of the -weight of an ant, shall behold the same. (The Koran, translated by -G. Sale, Chapter XCIX, p. 452).] that this destruction would happen -as he had foretold. - -Description of the Taurus Mountains [43] and the river Euphrates. - -Why the mountain shines at the top, from half to a third of the -night, and looks like a comet to the inhabitants of the West after -the sunset, and before day to those of the East. - -Why this comet appears of variable forms, so that it is now round -and now long, and now again divided into two or three parts, and now -in one piece, and when it is to be seen again. - -OF THE SHAPE OF THE TAURUS MOUNTAINS [Footnote 53-94: The facsimile -of this passage is given on Pl. CXVII.]. - -I am not to be accused, Oh Devatdar, of idleness, as your chidings -seem to hint; but your excessive love for me, which gave rise to the -benefits you have conferred on me [Footnote 55] is that which has -also compelled me to the utmost painstaking in seeking out and -diligently investigating the cause of so great and stupendous an -effect. And this could not be done without time; now, in order to -satisfy you fully as to the cause of so great an effect, it is -requisite that I should explain to you the form of the place, and -then I will proceed to the effect, by which I believe you will be -amply satisfied. - -[Footnote 36: _Tagliata di Monte Tauro_. The Euphrates flows through -the Taurus range near the influx of the Kura Shai; it rushes through -a rift in the wildest cliffs from 2000 to 3000 feet high and runs on -for 90 miles in 300 falls or rapids till it reaches Telek, near -which at a spot called Gleikash, or the Hart's leap, it measures -only 35 paces across. Compare the map on Pl. CXIX and the -explanation for it on p. 391.] - -[Footnote 54: The foregoing sketch of a letter, lines 5. 18, appears -to have remained a fragment when Leonardo received pressing orders -which caused him to write immediately and fully on the subject -mentioned in line 43.] - -[Footnote 59: This passage was evidently intended as an improvement -on that immediately preceding it. The purport of both is essentially -the same, but the first is pitched in a key of ill-disguised -annoyance which is absent from the second. I do not see how these -two versions can be reconciled with the romance-theory held by Prof. -Govi.] Do not be aggrieved, O Devatdar, by my delay in responding to -your pressing request, for those things which you require of me are -of such a nature that they cannot be well expressed without some -lapse of time; particularly because, in order to explain the cause -of so great an effect, it is necessary to describe with accuracy the -nature of the place; and by this means I can afterwards easily -satisfy your above-mentioned request. [Footnote 62: This passage was -evidently intended as an improvement on that immediately preceding -it. The purport of both is essentially the same, but the first is -pitched in a key of ill-disguised annoyance which is absent from the -second. I do not see how these two versions can be reconciled with -the romance-theory held by Prof. Govi.] - -I will pass over any description of the form of Asia Minor, or as to -what seas or lands form the limits of its outline and extent, -because I know that by your own diligence and carefulness in your -studies you have not remained in ignorance of these matters [65]; -and I will go on to describe the true form of the Taurus Mountain -which is the cause of this stupendous and harmful marvel, and which -will serve to advance us in our purpose [66]. This Taurus is that -mountain which, with many others is said to be the ridge of Mount -Caucasus; but wishing to be very clear about it, I desired to speak -to some of the inhabitants of the shores of the Caspian sea, who -give evidence that this must be the true Caucasus, and that though -their mountains bear the same name, yet these are higher; and to -confirm this in the Scythian tongue Caucasus means a very high -[Footnote 68: Caucasus; Herodot Kaoxaais; Armen. Kaukaz.] peak, and -in fact we have no information of there being, in the East or in the -West, any mountain so high. And the proof of this is that the -inhabitants of the countries to the West see the rays of the sun -illuminating a great part of its summit for as much as a quarter of -the longest night. And in the same way, in those countries which lie -to the East. - -OF THE STRUCTURE AND SIZE OF MOUNT TAURUS. - -[Footnote 73: The statements are of course founded on those of the -'inhabitants' spoken of in 1. 67.] The shadow of this ridge of the -Taurus is of such a height that when, in the middle of June, the Sun -is at its meridian, its shadow extends as far as the borders of -Sarmatia, twelve days off; and in the middle of December it extends -as far as the Hyperborean mountains, which are at a month's journey -to the North [75]. And the side which faces the wind is always free -from clouds and mists, because the wind which is parted in beating -on the rock, closes again on the further side of that rock, and in -its motion carries with it the clouds from all quarters and leaves -them where it strikes. And it is always full of thunderbolts from -the great quantity of clouds which accumulate there, whence the rock -is all riven and full of huge debris [Footnote 77: Sudden storms are -equally common on the heights of Ararat. It is hardly necessary to -observe that Ararat cannot be meant here. Its summit is formed like -the crater of Vesuvius. The peaks sketched on Pl. CXVI-CXVIII are -probably views of the same mountain, taken from different sides. -Near the solitary peak, Pl. CXVIII these three names are written -_goba, arnigasar, caruda_, names most likely of different peaks. Pl. -CXVI and CXVII are in the original on a single sheet folded down the -middle, 30 centimetres high and 43 1/2 wide. On the reverse of one -half of the sheet are notes on _peso_ and _bilancia_ (weight and -balance), on the other are the 'prophecies' printed under Nos. 1293 -and 1294. It is evident from the arrangement that these were written -subsequently, on the space which had been left blank. These pages -are facsimiled on Pl. CXVIII. In Pl. CXVI-CXVIII the size is smaller -than in the original; the map of Armenia, Pl. CXVIII, is on Pl. CXIX -slightly enlarged. On this map we find the following names, -beginning from the right hand at the top: _pariardes mo_ (for -Paryadres Mons, Arm. Parchar, now Barchal or Kolai Dagh; Trebizond -is on its slope). - -_Aquilone_ --North, _Antitaurus Antitaurus psis mo_ (probably meant -for Thospitis = Lake Van, Arm. Dgov Vanai, Tospoi, and the Mountain -range to the South); _Gordis mo_ (Mountains of Gordyaea), the birth -place of the Tigris; _Oriente_ --East; _Tigris_, and then, to the -left, _Eufrates_. Then, above to the left _Argeo mo_ (now Erdshigas, -an extinct volcano, 12000 feet high); _Celeno mo_ (no doubt Sultan -Dagh in Pisidia). Celeno is the Greek town of KeAouvat-- see Arian -I, 29, I--now the ruins of Dineir); _oriente_ --East; _africo -libezco_ (for libeccio--South West). In the middle of the Euphrates -river on this small map we see a shaded portion surrounded by -mountains, perhaps to indicate the inundation mentioned in l. 35. -The affluent to the Euphrates shown as coming with many windings -from the high land of 'Argeo' on the West, is the Tochma Su, which -joins the main river at Malatie. I have not been able to discover -any map of Armenia of the XVth or XVIth century in which the course -of the Euphrates is laid down with any thing like the correctness -displayed in this sketch. The best I have seen is the Catalonian -Portulan of Olivez de Majorca, executed in 1584, and it is far -behind Leonardo's.]. This mountain, at its base, is inhabited by a -very rich population and is full of most beautiful springs and -rivers, and is fertile and abounding in all good produce, -particularly in those parts which face to the South. But after -mounting about three miles we begin to find forests of great fir -trees, and beech and other similar trees; after this, for a space of -three more miles, there are meadows and vast pastures; and all the -rest, as far as the beginning of the Taurus, is eternal snows which -never disappear at any time, and extend to a height of about -fourteen miles in all. From this beginning of the Taurus up to the -height of a mile the clouds never pass away; thus we have fifteen -miles, that is, a height of about five miles in a straight line; and -the summit of the peaks of the Taurus are as much, or about that. -There, half way up, we begin to find a scorching air and never feel -a breath of wind; but nothing can live long there; there nothing is -brought forth save a few birds of prey which breed in the high -fissures of Taurus and descend below the clouds to seek their prey. -Above the wooded hills all is bare rock, that is, from the clouds -upwards; and the rock is the purest white. And it is impossible to -walk to the high summit on account of the rough and perilous ascent. - -1337. - -[Footnote: 1337. On comparing this commencement of a letter l. 1-2 -with that in l. 3 and 4 of No. 1336 it is quite evident that both -refer to the same event. (Compare also No. 1337 l. 10-l2 and 17 with -No. 1336 l. 23, 24 and 32.) But the text No. 1336, including the -fragment l. 3-4, was obviously written later than the draft here -reproduced. The _Diodario_ is not directly addressed--the person -addressed indeed is not known--and it seems to me highly probable -that it was written to some other patron and friend whose name and -position are not mentioned.] - -Having often made you, by my letters, acquainted with the things -which have happened, I think I ought not to be silent as to the -events of the last few days, which--[2]... - -Having several times-- - -Having many times rejoiced with you by letters over your prosperous -fortunes, I know now that, as a friend you will be sad with me over -the miserable state in which I find myself; and this is, that during -the last few days I have been in so much trouble, fear, peril and -loss, besides the miseries of the people here, that we have been -envious of the dead; and certainly I do not believe that since the -elements by their separation reduced the vast chaos to order, they -have ever combined their force and fury to do so much mischief to -man. As far as regards us here, what we have seen and gone through -is such that I could not imagine that things could ever rise to such -an amount of mischief, as we experienced in the space of ten hours. -In the first place we were assailed and attacked by the violence and -fury of the winds [10]; to this was added the falling of great -mountains of snow which filled up all this valley, thus destroying a -great part of our city [Footnote 11: _Della nostra citta_ (Leonardo -first wrote _di questa citta_). From this we may infer that he had -at some time lived in the place in question wherever it might be.]. -And not content with this the tempest sent a sudden flood of water -to submerge all the low part of this city [12]; added to which there -came a sudden rain, or rather a ruinous torrent and flood of water, -sand, mud, and stones, entangled with roots, and stems and fragments -of various trees; and every kind of thing flying through the air -fell upon us; finally a great fire broke out, not brought by the -wind, but carried as it would seem, by ten thousand devils, which -completely burnt up all this neighbourhood and it has not yet -ceased. And those few who remain unhurt are in such dejection and -such terror that they hardly have courage to speak to each other, as -if they were stunned. Having abandoned all our business, we stay -here together in the ruins of some churches, men and women mingled -together, small and great [Footnote 17: _Certe ruine di chiese_. -Either of Armenian churches or of Mosques, which it was not unusual -to speak of as churches. - -_Maschi e femmini insieme unite_, implies an infringement of the -usually strict rule of the separation of the sexes.], just like -herds of goats. The neighbours out of pity succoured us with -victuals, and they had previously been our enemies. And if - -[Footnote 18: _I vicini, nostri nimici_. The town must then have -stood quite close to the frontier of the country. Compare 1336. L. -7. _vicini ai nostri confini_. Dr. M. JORDAN has already published -lines 4-13 (see _Das Malerbuch, Leipzig_, 1873, p. 90:--his reading -differs from mine) under the title of "Description of a landscape -near Lake Como". We do in fact find, among other loose sheets in the -Codex Atlanticus, certain texts referring to valleys of the Alps -(see Nos. 1030, 1031 and note p. 237) and in the arrangement of the -loose sheets, of which the Codex Atlanticus has been formed, these -happen to be placed close to this text. The compiler stuck both on -the same folio sheet; and if this is not the reason for Dr. JORDAN'S -choosing such a title (Description &c.) I cannot imagine what it can -have been. It is, at any rate, a merely hypothetical statement. The -designation of the population of the country round a city as "the -enemy" (_nemici_) is hardly appropriate to Italy in the time of -Leonardo.] - -it had not been for certain people who succoured us with victuals, -all would have died of hunger. Now you see the state we are in. And -all these evils are as nothing compared with those which are -promised to us shortly. - -I know that as a friend you will grieve for my misfortunes, as I, in -former letters have shown my joy at your prosperity ... - -Notes about events observed abroad (1338-1339). - -1338. - -BOOK 43. OF THE MOVEMENT OF AIR ENCLOSED IN WATER. - -I have seen motions of the air so furious that they have carried, -mixed up in their course, the largest trees of the forest and whole -roofs of great palaces, and I have seen the same fury bore a hole -with a whirling movement digging out a gravel pit, and carrying -gravel, sand and water more than half a mile through the air. - -[Footnote: The first sixteen lines of this passage which treat of -the subject as indicated on the title line have no place in this -connexion and have been omitted.] - -[Footnote 2: _Ho veduto movimenti_ &c. Nothing of the kind happened -in Italy during Leonardo's lifetime, and it is therefore extremely -probable that this refers to the natural phenomena which are so -fully described in the foregoing passage. (Compare too, No. 1021.) -There can be no doubt that the descriptions of the Deluge in the -Libro di Pittura (Vol. I, No. 607-611), and that of the fall of a -mountain No. 610, l. 17-30 were written from the vivid impressions -derived from personal experience. Compare also Pl. XXXIV-XL.] - -1339. - -[Footnote: It may be inferred from the character of the writing, -which is in the style of the note in facsimile Vol. I, p. 297, that -this passage was written between 1470 and 1480. As the figure 6 at -the end of the text indicates, it was continued on another page, but -I have searched in vain for it. The reverse of this leaf is coloured -red for drawing in silver point, but has not been used for that -purpose but for writing on, and at about the same date. The passages -are given as Nos. 1217, 1218, 1219, 1162 and No. 994 (see note page -218). The text given above is obviously not a fragment of a letter, -but a record of some personal experience. No. 1379 also seems to -refer to Leonardo's journeys in Southern Italy.] - -Like a whirling wind which rushes down a sandy and hollow valley, -and which, in its hasty course, drives to its centre every thing -that opposes its furious course ... - -No otherwise does the Northern blast whirl round in its tempestuous -progress ... - -Nor does the tempestuous sea bellow so loud, when the Northern blast -dashes it, with its foaming waves between Scylla and Charybdis; nor -Stromboli, nor Mount Etna, when their sulphurous flames, having been -forcibly confined, rend, and burst open the mountain, fulminating -stones and earth through the air together with the flames they -vomit. - -Nor when the inflamed caverns of Mount Etna [Footnote 13: Mongibello -is a name commonly given in Sicily to Mount Etna (from Djebel, -Arab.=mountain). Fr. FERRARA, _Descrizione dell' Etna con la storia -delle eruzioni_ (Palermo, 1818, p. 88) tells us, on the authority of -the _Cronaca del Monastero Benedettino di Licordia_ of an eruption -of the Volcano with a great flow of lava on Sept. 21, 1447. The next -records of the mountain are from the years 1533 and 1536. A. Percy -neither does mention any eruptions of Etna during the years to which -this note must probably refer _Memoire des tremblements de terre de -la peninsule italique, Vol. XXII des Memoires couronnees et Memoires -des savants etrangers. Academie Royal de Belgique_). - -A literal interpretation of the passage would not, however, indicate -an allusion to any great eruption; particularly in the connection -with Stromboli, where the periodical outbreaks in very short -intervals are very striking to any observer, especially at night -time, when passing the island on the way from Naples to Messina.], -rejecting the ill-restained element vomit it forth, back to its own -region, driving furiously before it every obstacle that comes in the -way of its impetuous rage ... - -Unable to resist my eager desire and wanting to see the great ... of -the various and strange shapes made by formative nature, and having -wandered some distance among gloomy rocks, I came to the entrance of -a great cavern, in front of which I stood some time, astonished and -unaware of such a thing. Bending my back into an arch I rested my -left hand on my knee and held my right hand over my down-cast and -contracted eye brows: often bending first one way and then the -other, to see whether I could discover anything inside, and this -being forbidden by the deep darkness within, and after having -remained there some time, two contrary emotions arose in me, fear -and desire--fear of the threatening dark cavern, desire to see -whether there were any marvellous thing within it ... - -Drafts of Letters to Lodovico il Moro (1340-1345). - -1340. - -[Footnote: The numerous corrections, the alterations in the figures -(l. 18) and the absence of any signature prove that this is merely -the rough draft of a letter to Lodovico il Moro. It is one of the -very few manuscripts which are written from left to right--see the -facsimile of the beginning as here reproduced. This is probably the -final sketch of a document the clean of which copy was written in -the usual manner. Leonardo no doubt very rarely wrote so, and this -is probably the reason of the conspicuous dissimilarity in the -handwriting, when he did. (Compare Pl. XXXVIII.) It is noteworthy -too that here the orthography and abbreviations are also -exceptional. But such superficial peculiarities are not enough to -stamp the document as altogether spurious. It is neither a forgery -nor the production of any artist but Leonardo himself. As to this -point the contents leave us no doubt as to its authenticity, -particularly l. 32 (see No. 719, where this passage is repeated). -But whether the fragment, as we here see it, was written from -Leonardo's dictation--a theory favoured by the orthography, the -erasures and corrections--or whether it may be a copy made for or by -Melzi or Mazenta is comparatively unimportant. There are in the -Codex Atlanticus a few other documents not written by Leonardo -himself, but the notes in his own hand found on the reverse pages of -these leaves amply prove that they were certainly in Leonardo's -possession. This mark of ownership is wanting to the text in -question, but the compilers of the Codex Atlanticus, at any rate, -accepted it as a genuine document. - -With regard to the probable date of this projected letter see Vol. -II, p. 3.] - -Most illustrious Lord, Having now sufficiently considered the -specimens of all those who proclaim themselves skilled contrivers of -instruments of war, and that the invention and operation of the said -instruments are nothing different to those in common use: I shall -endeavour, without prejudice to any one else, to explain myself to -your Excellency showing your Lordship my secrets, and then offering -them to your best pleasure and approbation to work with effect at -opportune moments as well as all those things which, in part, shall -be briefly noted below. - -1) I have a sort of extremely light and strong bridges, adapted to -be most easily carried, and with them you may pursue, and at any -time flee from the enemy; and others, secure and indestructible by -fire and battle, easy and convenient to lift and place. Also methods -of burning and destroying those of the enemy. - -2) I know how, when a place is besieged, to take the water out of -the trenches, and make endless variety of bridges, and covered ways -and ladders, and other machines pertaining to such expeditions. - -3) Item. If, by reason of the height of the banks, or the strength -of the place and its position, it is impossible, when besieging a -place, to avail oneself of the plan of bombardment, I have methods -for destroying every rock or other fortress, even if it were founded -on a rock, &c. - -4) Again I have kinds of mortars; most convenient and easy to carry; -and with these can fling small stones almost resembling a storm; and -with the smoke of these causing great terror to the enemy, to his -great detriment and confusion. - -9) [8] And when the fight should be at sea I have kinds of many -machines most efficient for offence and defence; and vessels which -will resist the attack of the largest guns and powder and fumes. - -5) Item. I have means by secret and tortuous mines and ways, made -without noise to reach a designated [spot], even if it were needed -to pass under a trench or a river. - -6) Item. I will make covered chariots, safe and unattackable which, -entering among the enemy with their artillery, there is no body of -men so great but they would break them. And behind these, infantry -could follow quite unhurt and without any hindrance. - -7) Item. In case of need I will make big guns, mortars and light -ordnance of fine and useful forms, out of the common type. - -8) Where the operation of bombardment should fail, I would contrive -catapults, mangonels, _trabocchi_ and other machines of marvellous -efficacy and not in common use. And in short, according to the -variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of -offence and defence. - -10) In time of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction and -to the equal of any other in architecture and the composition of -buildings public and private; and in guiding water from one place to -another. - -Item: I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze or clay, and also -in painting whatever may be done, and as well as any other, be he -whom he may. - -[32] Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to -the immortal glory and eternal honour of the prince your father of -happy memory, and of the illustrious house of Sforza. - -And if any one of the above-named things seem to any one to be -impossible or not feasible, I am most ready to make the experiment -in your park, or in whatever place may please your Excellency--to -whom I commend myself with the utmost humility &c. - -1341. - -To my illustrious Lord, Lodovico, Duke of Bari, Leonardo da Vinci of -Florence-- Leonardo. - -[Footnote: Evidently a note of the superscription of a letter to the -Duke, and written, like the foregoing from left to right. The -manuscript containing it is of the year 1493. Lodovico was not -proclaimed and styled Duke of Milan till September 1494. The Dukedom -of Bari belonged to the Sforza family till 1499.] - -1342. - -You would like to see a model which will prove useful to you and to -me, also it will be of use to those who will be the cause of our -usefulness. - -[Footnote: 1342. 1343. These two notes occur in the same not very -voluminous MS. as the former one and it is possible that they are -fragments of the same letter. By the _Modello_, the equestrian -statue is probably meant, particularly as the model of this statue -was publicly exhibited in this very year, 1493, on tne occasion of -the marriage of the Emperor Maximilian with Bianca Maria Sforza.] - -1343. - -There are here, my Lord, many gentlemen who will undertake this -expense among them, if they are allowed to enjoy the use of -admission to the waters, the mills, and the passage of vessels and -when it is sold to them the price will be repaid to them by the -canal of Martesana. - -1344. - -I am greatly vexed to be in necessity, but I still more regret that -this should be the cause of the hindrance of my wish which is always -disposed to obey your Excellency. - -Perhaps your Excellency did not give further orders to Messer -Gualtieri, believing that I had money enough. - -I am greatly annoyed that you should have found me in necessity, and -that my having to earn my living should have hindered me ... - -[12] It vexes me greatly that having to earn my living has forced me -to interrupt the work and to attend to small matters, instead of -following up the work which your Lordship entrusted to me. But I -hope in a short time to have earned so much that I may carry it out -quietly to the satisfaction of your Excellency, to whom I commend -myself; and if your Lordship thought that I had money, your Lordship -was deceived. I had to feed 6 men for 56 months, and have had 50 -ducats. - -1345. - -And if any other comission is given me - by any ... -of the reward of my service. Because I am - not [able] to be ... -things assigned because meanwhile they - have ... to them ... -... which they well may settle rather than I ... -not my art which I wish to change and ... -given some clothing if I dare a sum ... - - -My Lord, I knowing your Excellency's - mind to be occupied ... -to remind your Lordship of my small matters - and the arts put to silence -that my silence might be the cause of making - your Lordship scorn ... -my life in your service. I hold myself ever - in readiness to obey ... - -[Footnote 11: See No. 723, where this passage is repeated.] - -Of the horse I will say nothing because - I know the times [are bad] -to your Lordship how I had still to receive - two years' salary of the ... -with the two skilled workmen who are constantly -in my pay and at my cost -that at last I found myself advanced the - said sum about 15 lire ... -works of fame by which I could show to - those who shall see it that I have been -everywhere, but I do not know where I -could bestow my work [more] ... - -[Footnote 17: See No. 1344 l. 12.] -I, having been working to gain my - living ... - -I not having been informed what it is, I find - myself ... - -[Footnote 19: In April, 1498, Leonardo was engaged in -painting the Saletta Nigra of the Castello at Milan. -(See G. MONGERI, _l'Arte in Milano_, 1872, p. 417.)] - -remember the commission to paint the - rooms ... - -I conveyed to your Lordship only requesting - you ... - - -[Footnote: The paper on which this is written is torn down the -middle; about half of each line remains.] - -Draft of letter to be sent to Piacenza (1346. 1347). - -[Footnote: 1346. 1347. Piacenza belonged to Milan. The Lord spoken -of in this letter, is no doubt Lodovico il Moro. One may infer from -the concluding sentence (No. 1346, l. 33. 34 and No. 1347), that -Leonardo, who no doubt compiled this letter, did not forward it to -Piacenza himself, but gave it to some influential patron, under -whose name and signature a copy of it was sent to the Commission.] - -1346. - -Magnificent Commissioners of Buildings I, understanding that your -Magnificencies have made up your minds to make certain great works -in bronze, will remind you of certain things: first that you should -not be so hasty or so quick to give the commission, lest by this -haste it should become impossible to select a good model and a good -master; and some man of small merit may be chosen, who by his -insufficiency may cause you to be abused by your descendants, -judging that this age was but ill supplied with men of good counsel -and with good masters; seeing that other cities, and chiefly the -city of the Florentines, has been as it were in these very days, -endowed with beautiful and grand works in bronze; among which are -the doors of their Baptistery. And this town of Florence, like -Piacenza, is a place of intercourse, through which many foreigners -pass; who, seeing that the works are fine and of good quality, carry -away a good impression, and will say that that city is well filled -with worthy inhabitants, seeing the works which bear witness to -their opinion; and on the other hand, I say seeing so much metal -expended and so badly wrought, it were less shame to the city if the -doors had been of plain wood; because, the material, costing so -little, would not seem to merit any great outlay of skill... - -Now the principal parts which are sought for in cities are their -cathedrals, and of these the first things which strike the eye are -the doors, by which one passes into these churches. - -Beware, gentlemen of the Commission, lest too great speed in your -determination, and so much haste to expedite the entrusting of so -great a work as that which I hear you have ordered, be the cause -that that which was intended for the honour of God and of men should -be turned to great dishonour of your judgments, and of your city, -which, being a place of mark, is the resort and gathering-place of -innumerable foreigners. And this dishonour would result if by your -lack of diligence you were to put your trust in some vaunter, who by -his tricks or by favour shown to him here should obtain such work -from you, by which lasting and very great shame would result to him -and to you. Thus I cannot help being angry when I consider what men -those are who have conferred with you as wishing to undertake this -great work without thinking of their sufficiency for it, not to say -more. This one is a potter, that one a maker of cuirasses, this one -is a bell-founder, another a bell ringer, and one is even a -bombardier; and among them one in his Lordship's service, who -boasted that he was the gossip of Messer Ambrosio Ferrere [Footnote -26: Messer Ambrogio Ferrere was Farmer of the Customs under the -Duke. Piacenza at that time belonged to Milan.], who has some power -and who has made him some promises; and if this were not enough he -would mount on horseback, and go to his Lord and obtain such letters -that you could never refuse [to give] him the work. But consider -where masters of real talent and fit for such work are brought when -they have to compete with such men as these. Open your eyes and look -carefully lest your money should be spent in buying your own -disgrace. I can declare to you that from that place you will procure -none but average works of inferior and coarse masters. There is no -capable man,--[33] and you may believe me,--except Leonardo the -Florentine, who is making the equestrian statue in bronze of the -Duke Francesco and who has no need to bring himself into notice, -because he has work for all his life time; and I doubt, whether -being so great a work, he will ever finish it [34]. - -The miserable painstakers ... with what hope may they expect a -reward of their merit? - -1347. - -There is one whom his Lordship invited from Florence to do this work -and who is a worthy master, but with so very much business he will -never finish it; and you may imagine that a difference there is to -be seen between a beautiful object and an ugly one. Quote Pliny. - -Letter to the Cardinal Ippolito d' Este. - -1348. - -[Footnote: This letter addressed to the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este is -here given from Marchese G. CAMPORI'S publication: _Nuovi documenti -per la Vita di Leonardo da Vinci. Atti e Memorie delle R. R. -Deputazioni di Storia patria per la provincie modenesi e parmenesi, -Vol. III._ It is the only text throughout this work which I have not -myself examined and copied from the original. The learned discoverer -of this letter--the only letter from Leonardo hitherto known as -having been sent--adds these interesting remarks: _Codesto Cardinale -nato ad Ercole I. nel 1470, arcivescovo di Strigonia a sette anni, -poi d'Agra, aveva conseguito nel 1497 la pingue ed ambita cattedra -di Milano, la dove avra conosciuto il Vinci, sebbene il poco amore -ch'ei professava alle arti lasci credere che le proteste di servitu -di Leonardo piu che a gratitudine per favori ricevuti e per opere a -lui allogate, accennino a speranza per un favore che si aspetta. -Notabile e ancora in questo prezioso documento la ripetuta signatura -del grande artista 'che si scrive Vincio e Vincius, non da Vinci -come si tiene comunemente, sebbene l'una e l'altra possano valere a -significare cosi il casato come il paese; restando a sapere se il -nome del paese di Vinci fosse assunto a cognome della famiglia di -Leonardo nel qual supposto piu propriamento avrebbe a chiamarsi -Leonardo Vinci, o Vincio (latinamente Vincius) com'egli stesso amo -segnarsi in questa lettera, e come scrissero parecchi contenporanei -di lui, il Casio, il Cesariano, Geoffrey Tory, il Gaurico, il -Bandello, Raffaelle Maffei, il Paciolo. Per ultimo non lascero -d'avvertire come la lettera del Vinci e assai ben conservata, di -nitida e larga scrittura in forma pienemente corrispondente a quella -dei suoi manoscritti, vergata all'uso comune da sinistra a destra, -anziche contrariamente come fu suo costume; ma indubbiamente -autentica e fornita della menzione e del suggello che fresca ancora -conserva l'impronta di una testa di profilo da un picciolo antico -cammeo._ (Compare No. 1368, note.)] - -Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord. - The Lord Ippolito, Cardinal of Este - at Ferrare. - -Most Illustrious and most Reverend Lord. - -I arrived from Milan but a few days since and finding that my elder -brother refuses to - -carry into effect a will, made three years ago when my father -died--as also, and no less, because I would not fail in a matter I -esteem most important--I cannot forbear to crave of your most -Reverend Highness a letter of recommendation and favour to Ser -Raphaello Hieronymo, at present one of the illustrious members of -the Signoria before whom my cause is being argued; and more -particularly it has been laid by his Excellency the Gonfaloniere -into the hands of the said Ser Raphaello, that his Worship may have -to decide and end it before the festival of All Saints. And -therefore, my Lord, I entreat you, as urgently as I know how and am -able, that your Highness will write a letter to the said Ser -Raphaello in that admirable and pressing manner which your Highness -can use, recommending to him Leonardo Vincio, your most humble -servant as I am, and shall always be; requesting him and pressing -him not only to do me justice but to do so with despatch; and I have -not the least doubt, from many things that I hear, that Ser -Raphaello, being most affectionately devoted to your Highness, the -matter will issue _ad votum_. And this I shall attribute to your -most Reverend Highness' letter, to whom I once more humbly commend -myself. _Et bene valeat_. - -Florence XVIIIa 7bris 1507. -E. V. R. D. - -your humble servant -Leonardus Vincius, pictor. - -Draft of Letter to the Governor of Milan. - -1349. - -I am afraid lest the small return I have made for the great -benefits, I have received from your Excellency, have not made you -somewhat angry with me, and that this is why to so many letters -which I have written to your Lordship I have never had an answer. I -now send Salai to explain to your Lordship that I am almost at an -end of the litigation I had with my brother; that I hope to find -myself with you this Easter, and to carry with me two pictures of -two Madonnas of different sizes. These were done for our most -Christian King, or for whomsoever your Lordship may please. I should -be very glad to know on my return thence where I may have to reside, -for I would not give any more trouble to your Lordship. Also, as I -have worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to -continue or not. I wrote to the President as to that water which the -king granted me, and which I was not put in possession of because at -that time there was a dearth in the canal by reason of the great -droughts and because [Footnote:Compare Nos. 1009 and 1010. Leonardo -has noted the payment of the pension from the king in 1505.] its -outlets were not regulated; but he certainly promised me that when -this was done I should be put in possession. Thus I pray your -Lordship that you will take so much trouble, now that these outlets -are regulated, as to remind the President of my matter; that is, to -give me possession of this water, because on my return I hope to -make there instruments and other things which will greatly please -our most Christian King. Nothing else occurs to me. I am always -yours to command. [Footnote:1349. Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de -Chaumont, was Governor of Milan under Louis XII. Leonardo was in -personal communication with him so early as in 1503. He was absent -from Milan in the autumn of 1506 and from October l5l0--when he -besieged Pope Julius II. in Bologna--till his death, which took -place at Correggio, February 11, 1511. Francesco Vinci, Leonardo's -uncle, died--as Amoretti tells us--in the winter of l5l0-11 (or -according to Uzielli in 1506?), and Leonardo remained in Florence -for business connected with his estate. The letter written with -reference to this affair, No. 1348, is undoubtedly earlier than the -letters Nos. 1349 and 1350. Amoretti tells us, _Memorie Storiche_, -ch. II, that the following note existed on the same leaf in MS. C. -A. I have not however succeeded in finding it. The passage runs -thus: _Jo sono quasi al fine del mio letizio che io o con mie -fratetgli ... Ancora ricordo a V. Excia la facenda che o cum Ser -Juliana mio Fratello capo delli altri fratelli ricordandoli come se -offerse di conciar le cose nostre fra noi fratelli del comune della -eredita de mio Zio, e quelli costringa alla expeditione, quale -conteneva la lettera che lui me mando._] - -Drafts of Letters to the Superintendent of Canals and to Fr. Melzi. - -1350. - -Magnificent President, I am sending thither Salai, my pupil, who is -the bearer of this, and from him you will hear by word of mouth the -cause of my... - -Magnificent President, I... - -Magnificent President:--Having ofttimes remembered the proposals -made many times to me by your Excellency, I take the liberty of -writing to remind your Lordship of the promise made to me at my last -departure, that is the possession of the twelve inches of water -granted to me by the most Christian King. Your Lordship knows that I -did not enter into possession, because at that time when it was -given to me there was a dearth of water in the canal, as well by -reason of the great drought as also because the outlets were not -regulated; but your Excellency promised me that as soon as this was -done, I should have my rights. Afterwards hearing that the canal was -complete I wrote several times to your Lordship and to Messer -Girolamo da Cusano,who has in his keeping the deed of this gift; and -so also I wrote to Corigero and never had a reply. I now send -thither Salai, my pupil, the bearer of this, to whom your Lordship -may tell by word of mouth all that happened in the matter about -which I petition your Excellency. I expect to go thither this Easter -since I am nearly at the end of my lawsuit, and I will take with me -two pictures of our Lady which I have begun, and at the present time -have brought them on to a very good end; nothing else occurs to me. - -My Lord the love which your Excellency has always shown me and the -benefits that I have constantly received from you I have hitherto... - -I am fearful lest the small return I have made for the great -benefits I have received from your Excellency may not have made you -somewhat annoyed with me. And this is why, to many letters which I -have written to your Excellency I have never had an answer. I now -send to you Salai to explain to your Excellency that I am almost at -the end of my litigation with my brothers, and that I hope to be -with you this Easter and carry with me two pictures on which are two -Madonnas of different sizes which I began for the most Christian -King, or for whomsoever you please. I should be very glad to know -where, on my return from this place, I shall have to reside, because -I do not wish to give more trouble to your Lordship; and then, -having worked for the most Christian King, whether my salary is to -be continued or not. I write to the President as to the water that -the king granted me of which I had not been put in possession by -reason of the dearth in the canal, caused by the great drought and -because its outlets were not regulated; but he promised me certainly -that as soon as the regulation was made, I should be put in -possession of it; I therefore pray you that, if you should meet the -said President, you would be good enough, now that the outlets are -regulated, to remind the said President to cause me to be put in -possession of that water, since I understand it is in great measure -in his power. Nothing else occurs to me; always yours to command. - -Good day to you Messer Francesco. Why, in God's name, of all the -letters I have written to you, have you never answered one. Now wait -till I come, by God, and I shall make you write so much that perhaps -you will become sick of it. - -Dear Messer Francesco. I am sending thither Salai to learn from His -Magnificence the President to what end the regulation of the water -has come since, at my departure this regulation of the outlets of -the canal had been ordered, because His Magnificence the President -promised me that as soon as this was done I should be satisfied. It -is now some time since I heard that the canal was in order, as also -its outlets, and I immediately wrote to the President and to you, -and then I repeated it, and never had an answer. So you will have -the goodness to answer me as to that which happened, and as I am not -to hurry the matter, would you take the trouble, for the love of me, -to urge the President a little, and also Messer Girolamo Cusano, to -whom you will commend me and offer my duty to his Magnificence. - -[Footnote: 1350. 28-36. Draft of a letter to Francesco Melzi, born -l493--a youth therefore of about 17 in 1510. Leonardo addresses his -young friend as "Messer", as being the son of a noble house. Melzi -practised art under Leonardo as a dilettante and not as a pupil, -like Cesare da Sesto and others (See LERMOLIEFF, _Die Galerien_ &c., -p. 476).] - -Drafts of a letter to Giuliano de' Medici (1351-1352). - -135l. - -[Most illustrious Lord. I greatly rejoice most Illustrious Lord at -your...] - -I was so greatly rejoiced, most illustrious Lord, by the desired -restoration of your health, that it almost had the effect that [my -own health recovered]--[I have got through my illness]--my own -illness left me-- --of your Excellency's almost restored health. But -I am extremely vexed that I have not been able completely to satisfy -the wishes of your Excellency, by reason of the wickedness of that -deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone which could be done for him -by me and by which I might be of use to him; and in the first place -his allowances were paid to him before the time, which I believe he -would willingly deny, if I had not the writing signed by myself and -the interpreter. And I, seeing that he did not work for me unless he -had no work to do for others, which he was very careful in -solliciting, invited him to dine with me, and to work afterwards -near me, because, besides the saving of expense, he - -[Footnote 1351. 1353: It is clear from the contents of this notes -that they refer to Leonardo's residence in Rome in 1513-1515. Nor -can there be any doubt that they were addressed to Leonardo's patron -at the time: Giuliano de' Medici, third son of Lorenzo the -Magnificent and brother of Pope Leo X (born 1478). In 1512 he became -the head of the Florentine Republic. The Pope invited him to Rome, -where he settled; in 1513 he was named patrician with much splendid -ceremonial. The medal struck in honour of the event bears the words -MAG. IVLIAN. MEDICES. Leonardo too uses the style "Magnifico", in -his letter. Compare also No. 1377. - -GlNO CAPPONI (_Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_, Vol. III, p. -139) thus describes the character of Giuliano de' Medici, who died -in 1516: _Era il migliore della famiglia, di vita placida, grande -spenditore, tenendo intorno a se uomini ingegnosi, ed ogni nuova -cosa voleva provare._ - -See too GREGOROVIUS, _Geschichte der Stadi Rom_, VIII (book XIV. -III, 2): _Die Luftschlosser furstlicher Grosse, wozu ihn der Papst -hatte erheben wollen zerfielen. Julian war der edelste aller -damaligen Medici, ein Mensch von innerlicher Richtung, unbefriedigt -durch das Leben, mitten im Sonnenglanz der Herrlichkeit Leo's X. -eine dunkle Gestalt die wie ein Schatten voruberzog._ Giuliano lived -in the Vatican, and it may be safely inferred from No. 1352 l. 2, -and No. 1353 l. 4, that Leonardo did the same. - -From the following unpublished notice in the Vatican archives, which -M. Eug. Muntz, librarian of the Ecole des Beaux arts, Paris, has -done me the favour to communicate to me, we get a more accurate view -of Leonardo's relation to the often named GIORGIO TEDESCO: - -_Nota delle provisione_ (sic) _a da pagare per me in nome del nostro -ill. S. Bernardo Bini e chompa di Roma, e prima della illma sua -chonsorte ogni mese d. 800. - -A Ldo da Vinci per sua provisione d. XXXIII, e piu d. VII al detto -per la provisione di Giorgio tedescho, che sono in tutto d. 40. - -From this we learn, that seven ducats formed the German's monthly -wages, but according to No. 1353 l. 7 he pretended that eight ducats -had been agreed upon.] - -would acquire the Italian language. He always promised, but would -never do so. And this I did also, because that Giovanni, the German -who makes the mirrors, was there always in the workshop, and wanted -to see and to know all that was being done there and made it known -outside ... strongly criticising it; and because he dined with those -of the Pope's guard, and then they went out with guns killing birds -among the ruins; and this went on from after dinner till the -evening; and when I sent Lorenzo to urge him to work he said that he -would not have so many masters over him, and that his work was for -your Excellency's Wardrobe; and thus two months passed and so it -went on; and one day finding Gian Niccolo of the Wardrobe and asking -whether the German had finished the work for your Magnificence, he -told me this was not true, but only that he had given him two guns -to clean. Afterwards, when I had urged him farther, be left the -workshop and began to work in his room, and lost much time in making -another pair of pincers and files and other tools with screws; and -there he worked at mills for twisting silk which he hid when any one -of my people went in, and with a thousand oaths and mutterings, so -that none of them would go there any more. - -I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the desired -restoration of your health, that my own illness almost left me. But -I am greatly vexed at not having been able to completely satisfy -your Excellency's wishes by reason of the wickedness of that German -deceiver, for whom I left nothing undone by which I could have hope -to please him; and secondly I invited him to lodge and board with -me, by which means I should constantly see the work he was doing and -with greater ease correct his errors while, besides this, he would -learn the Italian tongue, by means of which be could with more ease -talk without an interpreter; his moneys were always given him in -advance of the time when due. Afterwards he wanted to have the -models finished in wood, just as they were to be in iron, and wished -to carry them away to his own country. But this I refused him, -telling him that I would give him, in drawing, the breadth, length, -height and form of what he had to do; and so we remained in -ill-will. - -The next thing was that he made himself another workshop and pincers -and tools in his room where he slept, and there he worked for -others; afterwards he went to dine with the Swiss of the guard, -where there are idle fellows, in which he beat them all; and most -times they went two or three together with guns, to shoot birds -among the ruins, and this went on till evening. - -At last I found how this master Giovanni the mirror-maker was he who -had done it all, for two reasons; the first because he had said that -my coming here had deprived him of the countenance and favour of -your Lordship which always... The other is that he said that his -iron-workers' rooms suited him for working at his mirrors, and of -this he gave proof; for besides making him my enemy, he made him -sell all he had and leave his workshop to him, where he works with a -number of workmen making numerous mirrors to send to the fairs. - -1352. - -I was so greatly rejoiced, most Illustrious Lord, by the wished for -recovery of your health, that my own ills have almost left me; and I -say God be praised for it. But it vexes me greatly that I have not -been able completely to satisfy your Excellency's wishes by reason -of the wickedness of that German deceiver, for whom I left nothing -undone by which I could hope to please him; and secondly I invited -him to lodge and board with me, by which means I should see -constantly the work he was doing, for which purpose I would have a -table fixed at the foot of one of these windows, where he could work -with the file and finish the things made below; and so I should -constantly see the work he might do, and it could be corrected with -greater ease. - -Draft of letter written at Rome. - -1353. - -This other hindered me in anatomy, blaming it before the Pope; and -likewise at the hospital; and he has filled [4] this whole Belvedere -with workshops for mirrors; and he did the same thing in Maestro -Giorgio's room. He said that he had been promised [7] eight ducats -every month, beginning with the first day, when he set out, or at -latest when he spoke with you; and that you agreed. - -Seeing that he seldom stayed in the workshop, and that he ate a -great deal, I sent him word that, if he liked I could deal with him -separately for each thing that he might make, and would give him -what we might agree to be a fair valuation. He took counsel with his -neighbour and gave up his room, selling every thing, and went to -find... - -Miscellaneous Records (1354. 1355). - -1354. - -[Footnote: A puzzling passage, meant, as it would seem, for a jest. -Compare the description of Giants in Dante, _Inf_. XXI and XXII. -Perhaps Leonardo had the Giant Antaeus in his mind. Of him the myth -relates that he was a son of Ge, that he fed on lions; that he -hunted in Libya and killed the inhabitants. He enjoyed the -peculiarity of renewing his strength whenever he fell and came in -contact with his mother earth; but that Hercules lifted him up and -so conquered and strangled him. Lucan gives a full account of the -struggle. Pharsalia IV, 617. The reading of this passage, which is -very indistinctly written, is in many places doubtful.] - -Dear Benedetto de' Pertarti. When the proud giant fell because of -the bloody and miry state of the ground it was as though a mountain -had fallen so that the country shook as with an earthquake, and -terror fell on Pluto in hell. From the violence of the shock he lay -as stunned on the level ground. Suddenly the people, seeing him as -one killed by a thunderbolt, turned back; like ants running wildly -over the body of the fallen oak, so these rushing over his ample -limbs.......... them with frequent wounds; by which, the giant being -roused and feeling himself almost covered by the multitude, he -suddenly perceives the smarting of the stabs, and sent forth a roar -which sounded like a terrific clap of thunder; and placing his hands -on the ground he raised his terrible face: and having lifted one -hand to his head he found it full of men and rabble sticking to it -like the minute creatures which not unfrequently are found there; -wherefore with a shake of his head he sends the men flying through -the air just as hail does when driven by the fury of the winds. Many -of these men were found to be dead; stamping with his feet. - -And clinging to his hair, and striving to hide in it, they behaved -like sailors in a storm, who run up the ropes to lessen the force of -the wind [by taking in sail]. - -News of things from the East. - -Be it known to you that in the month of June there appeared a Giant, -who came from the Lybian desert... mad with rage like ants.... -struck down by the rude. - -This great Giant was born in Mount Atlas and was a hero ... and had -to fight against the Egyptians and Arabs, Medes and Persians. He -lived in the sea on whales, grampuses and ships. - -Mars fearing for his life took refuge under the... of Jove. - -And at the great fall it seemed as though the whole province quaked. - -1355. - -This spirit returns to the brain whence it had departed, with a loud -voice and with these words, it moved... - -And if any man though he may have wisdom or goodness ......... - -[Footnote: This passage, very difficult to decipher, is on the -reverse of a drawing at Windsor, Pl. CXXII, which possibly has some -connection with it. The drawing is slightly reduced in this -reproduction; the original being 25 cm. high by 19 cm. wide.] - -O blessed and happy spirit whence comest thou? Well have I known -this man, much against my will. This one is a receptacle of -villainy; he is a perfect heap of the utmost ingratitude combined -with every vice. But of what use is it to fatigue myself with vain -words? Nothing is to be found in them but every form of sin ... And -if there should be found among them any that possesses any good, -they will not be treated differently to myself by other men; and in -fine, I come to the conclusion that it is bad if they are hostile, -and worse if they are friendly. - -Miscellaneous drafts of letters and personal records (1356--1368). - -1356. - -All the ills that are or ever were, if they could be set to work by -him, would not satisfy the desires of his iniquitous soul; and I -could not in any length of time describe his nature to you, but I -conclude... - -1357. - -I know one who, having promised me much, less than my due, being -disappointed of his presumptuous desires, has tried to deprive me of -all my friends; and as he has found them wise and not pliable to his -will, he has menaced me that, having found means of denouncing me, -he would deprive me of my benefactors. Hence I have informed your -Lordship of this, to the end [that this man who wishes to sow the -usual scandals, may find no soil fit for sowing the thoughts and -deeds of his evil nature] so that he, trying to make your Lordship, -the instrument of his iniquitous and maliceous nature may be -disappointed of his desire. - -1358. - -[Footnote: Below this text we read gusstino--Giustino and in another -passage on the same page Justin is quoted (No. 1210, 1. 48). The two -have however no real connection.] - -And in this case I know that I shall make few enemies seeing that no -one will believe what I can say of him; for they are but few whom -his vices have disgusted, and he only dislikes those men whose -natures are contrary to those vices. And many hate their fathers, -and break off friendship with those who reprove their vices; and he -will not permit any examples against them, nor any advice. - -If you meet with any one who is virtuous do not drive him from you; -do him honour, so that he may not have to flee from you and be -reduced to hiding in hermitages, or caves or other solitary places -to escape from your treachery; if there is such an one among you do -him honour, for these are our Saints upon earth; these are they who -deserve statues from us, and images; but remember that their images -are not to be eaten by you, as is still done in some parts of India -[Footnote 15: In explanation of this passage I have received the -following communication from Dr. G. W. LEITNER of Lahore: "So far as -Indian customs are known to us, this practice spoken of by Leonardo -as 'still existing in some parts of India' is perfectly unknown; and -it is equally opposed to the spirit of Hinduism, Mohammedanism and -Sikhism. In central Thibet the ashes of the dead, when burnt, are -mixed with dough, and small figures--usually of Buddha--are stamped -out of them and some are laid in the grave while others are -distributed among the relations. The custom spoken of by Leonardo -may have prevailed there but I never heard of it." Possibly Leonardo -refers here to customs of nations of America.] where, when the -images have according to them, performed some miracle, the priests -cut them in pieces, being of wood, and give them to all the people -of the country, not without payment; and each one grates his portion -very fine, and puts it upon the first food he eats; and thus -believes that by faith he has eaten his saint who then preserves him -from all perils. What do you think here, Man, of your own species? -Are you so wise as you believe yourselves to be? Are these things to -be done by men? - -1359. - -As I told you in past days, you know that I am without any.... -Francesco d'Antonio. Bernardo di Maestro Jacopo. - -1360. - -Tell me how the things happened. - -1361. - -j lorezo\\\ 2 inbiadali\\\ 3 inferri de\\\ 4in lorezo\\\ 5[inno -abuil]\\ 6 in acocatu\\\ 7 per la sella\\\ 8colte di lor\\\ 9v -cavallott\\\ I0el uiagg\\\ IIal\\\ I2a lurez\\\ 13in biada\\\ -14inferri\\\ 15abuss\\\ 16in viagg\\\ 17alorz\\\ [Footnote: This -seems to be the beginning of a letter, but only the first words of -the lines have been preserved, the leaf being torn down the middle. -No translation is possible.] - -1362. - -And so may it please our great Author that I may demonstrate the -nature of man and his customs, in the way I describe his figure. - -[Footnote: A preparatory note for the passage given as No. 798, 11. -41--42.] - -1363. - -This writing distinctly about the kite seems to be my destiny, -because among the first recollections of my infancy, it seemed to me -that, as I was in my cradle, a kite came to me and opened my mouth -with its tail, and struck me several times with its tail inside my -lips. - -[Footnote: This note probably refers to the text No. 1221.] - -1364. - -[When I did well, as a boy you used to put me in prison. Now if I do -it being grown up, you will do worse to me.] - -1365. - -Tell me if anything was ever done. - -1366. - -Tell me if ever I did a thing which me .... - -1367. - -Do not reveal, if liberty is precious to you; my face is the prison -of love. - -[Footnote: This note seems to be a quotation.] - -1368. - -Maestro Leonardo of Florence. - -[Footnote: So Leonardo writes his name on a sheet with sundry short -notes, evidently to try a pen. Compare the signature with those in -Nos. 1341, 1348 and 1374 (see also No. 1346, l. 33). The form -"Lionardo" does not occur in the autographs. The Portrait of the -Master in the Royal Library at Turin, which is reproduced--slightly -diminished--on Pl. I, has in the original two lines of writing -underneath; one in red chalk of two or three words is partly -effaced: _lionardo it... lm_ (or _lai_?); the second written in -pencil is as follows: _fatto da lui stesso assai vecchio_. In both -of these the writing is very like the Master's, but is certainly -only an imitation.] - -Notes bearing Dates (1369--1378). - -1369. - -The day of Santa Maria _della Neve_ [of the Snows] August the 2nd -1473. [Footnote: W. An. I. 1368. 1369. This date is on a drawing of -a rocky landscape. See _Chronique des Arts_ 1881 no. 23: _Leonard de -Vinci a-t-il ete au Righi le 5 aout 1473_? letter by H. de -Geymuller. The next following date in the MSS. is 1478 (see No. -663). - -1370. - -On the 2nd of April 1489, book entitled 'Of the human figure'. -[Footnote: While the letters in the MS. notes of 1473 and 1478 are -very ornate, this note and the texts on anatomy on the same sheet -(for instance No. 805) are in the same simple hand as we see on Pl. -CXVI and CXIX. No 1370 is the only dated note of the years between -1480 and 1489, and the characters are in all essential points -identical with those that we see in the latest manuscripts written -in France (compare the facsimiles on Pl. CXV and p. 254), so that it -is hardly possible to determine exactly the date of a manuscript -from the style of the handwriting, if it does not betray the -peculiarities of style as displayed in the few notes dated previous -to l480.--Compare the facsimile of the manuscripts 1479 on Pl.LXII, -No. 2; No. 664, note, Vol. I p. 346. This shows already a marked -simplicity as compared with the calligraphy of I478. - -The text No. 720 belongs to the year 1490; No. 1510 to the year -1492; No. 1459, No. 1384 and No. 1460 to the year 1493; No. 1463, -No. 1517, No. 1024, 1025 and 1461 to the year 1494; Nos. 1523 and -1524 to the year 1497. - -1371. - -On the 1st of August 1499, I wrote here of motion and of weight. - -[Footnote:1371. _Scrissi qui_. Leonardo does not say where; still we -may assume that it was not in Milan. Amoretti writes, _Memorie -Storiche_, chap. XIX: _Sembra pertanto che non nel 1499 ma nel 1500, -dopo il ritorno e la prigionia del duca, sia da qui partito Lionardo -per andare a Firenze; ed e quindi probabile, che i mesi di governo -nuovo e incerto abbia passati coll' amico suo Francesco Melzi a -Vaprio, ove meglio che altrove studiar potea la natura, e -soprattutta le acque, e l'Adda specialmente, che gia era stato -l'ogetto delle sue idrostatiche ricerche_. At that time Melzi was -only six years of age. The next date is 1502; to this year belong -No. 1034, 1040, 1042, 1048 and 1053. The note No. 1525 belongs to -the year 1503.] - -1372. - -On the 9th of July 1504, Wednesday, at seven o'clock, died Ser Piero -da Vinci, notary at the Palazzo del Podesta, my father, --at seven -o'clock, being eighty years old, leaving behind ten sons and two -daughters. - -[Footnote: This statement of Ser Piero's age contradicts that of the -_Riassunto della portata di Antonio da Vinci_ (Leonardo's -grandfather), who speaks of Ser Piero as being thirty years old in -1457; and that of the _Riassunto della portata di Ser Piero e -Francesco_, sons of Antonia da Vinci, where Ser Piero is mentioned -as being forty in 1469. These documents were published by G. -UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a L. da Vinci, Firenze_, 1872, pp. 144 -and 146. Leonardo was, as is well known, a natural son. His mother -'La Catarina' was married in 1457 to Acchattabriga di Piero del -Vaccha da Vinci. She died in 1519. Leonardo never mentions her in -the Manuscripts. In the year of Leonardo's birth Ser Piero married -Albiera di Giovanni Amadoci, and after her death at the age of -thirty eight he again married, Francesca, daughter of Ser Giovanni -Lanfredi, then only fifteen. Their children were Leonardo's -halfbrothers, Antonio (b. 1476), Ser Giuliano (b. 1479), Lorenzo (b. -1484), a girl, Violante (b. 1485), and another boy Domenico (b. -1486); Domenico's descendants still exist as a family. Ser Piero -married for the third time Lucrezia di Guglielmo Cortigiani by whom -he had six children: Margherita (b. 1491), Benedetto (b. 1492), -Pandolfo (b. 1494), Guglielmo (b. 1496), Bartolommeo (b. 1497), and -Giovanni) date of birth unknown). Pierino da Vinci the sculptor -(about 1520-1554) was the son of Bartolommeo, the fifth of these -children. The dates of their deaths are not known, but we may infer -from the above passage that they were all still living in 1505.] - -1373. - -On Wednesday at seven o'clock died Ser Piero da Vinci on the 9th of -July 1504. - -[Footnote: This and the previous text it may be remarked are the -only mention made by Leonardo of his father; Nos. 1526, 1527 and No. -1463 are of the year 1504.] - -1374. - -Begun by me, Leonardo da Vinci, on the l2th of July 1505. - -[Footnote: Thus he writes on the first page of the MS. The title is -on the foregoing coversheet as follows: _Libro titolato -disstrafformatione coe_ (cioe) _d'un corpo nvn_ (in un) _altro sanza -diminuitione e acresscemento di materia._] - -1375. - -Begun at Milan on the l2th of September 1508. - -[Footnote: No. 1528 and No. 1529 belong to the same year. The text -Vol. I, No. 4 belongs to the following year 1509 (1508 old style); -so also does No. 1009.-- Nos. 1022, 1057 and 1464 belong to 1511.] - -1376. - -On the 9th of January 1513. - -[Footnote: No. 1465 belongs to the same year. No. 1065 has the next -date 1514.] - -1377. - -The Magnifico Giuliano de' Medici left Rome on the 9th of January -1515, just at daybreak, to take a wife in Savoy; and on the same day -fell the death of the king of France. - -[Footnote: Giuliano de Medici, brother to Pope Leo X.; see note to -Nos. 1351-1353. In February, 1515, he was married to Filiberta, -daughter of Filippo, Duke of Savoy, and aunt to Francis I, Louis -XII's successor on the throne of France. Louis XII died on Jan. 1st, -and not on Jan. 9th as is here stated.-- This addition is written in -paler ink and evidently at a later date.] - -1378. - -On the 24th of June, St John's day, 1518 at Amboise, in the palace -of... - -[Footnote: _Castello del clli_. The meaning of this word is obscure; -it is perhaps not written at full length.] - -_XXII._ - -_Miscellaneous Notes._ - -_The incidental memoranda scattered here and there throughout the -MSS. can have been for the most part intelligible to the writer -only; in many cases their meaning and connection are all the more -obscure because we are in ignorance about the persons with whom -Leonardo used to converse nor can we say what part he may have -played in the various events of his time. Vasari and other early -biographers give us a very superficial and far from accurate picture -of Leonardo's private life. Though his own memoranda, referring for -the most part to incidents of no permanent interest, do not go far -towards supplying this deficiency, they are nevertheless of some -importance and interest as helping us to solve the numerous -mysteries in which the history of Leonardo's long life remains -involved. We may at any rate assume, from Leonardo's having -committed to paper notes on more or less trivial matters on his -pupils, on his house-keeping, on various known and unknown -personages, and a hundred other trifies--that at the time they must -have been in some way important to him._ - -_I have endeavoured to make these 'Miscellaneous Notes' as complete -as possible, for in many cases an incidental memorandum will help to -explain the meaning of some other note of a similar kind. The first -portion of these notes (Nos. l379--l457), as well as those referring -to his pupils and to other artists and artificers who lived in his -house (1458--1468,) are arranged in chronological order. A -considerable proportion of these notes belong to the period between -1490 and 1500, when Leonardo was living at Milan under the patronage -of Lodovico il Moro, a time concerning which we have otherwise only -very scanty information. If Leonardo did really--as has always been -supposed,--spend also the greater part of the preceding decade in -Milan, it seems hardly likely that we should not find a single note -indicative of the fact, or referring to any event of that period, on -the numerous loose leaves in his writing that exist. Leonardo's life -in Milan between 1489 and 1500 must have been comparatively -uneventful. The MSS. and memoranda of those years seem to prove that -it was a tranquil period of intellectual and artistic labour rather -than of bustling court life. Whatever may have been the fate of the -MSS. and note books of the foregoing years--whether they were -destroyed by Leonardo himself or have been lost--it is certainly -strange that nothing whatever exists to inform us as to his life and -doings in Milan earlier than the consecutive series of manuscripts -which begin in the year 1489._ - -_There is nothing surprising in the fact that the notes regarding -his pupils are few and meagre. Excepting for the record of money -transactions only very exceptional circumstances would have prompted -him to make any written observations on the persons with whom he was -in daily intercourse, among whom, of course, were his pupils. Of -them all none is so frequently mentioned as Salai, but the character -of the notes does not--as it seems to me--justify us in supposing -that he was any thing more than a sort of factotum of Leonardo's -(see 1519, note)._ - -_Leonardo's quotations from books and his lists of titles supply -nothing more than a hint as to his occasional literary studies or -recreations. It was evidently no part of his ambition to be deeply -read (see Nrs. 10, 11, 1159) and he more than once expressly states -(in various passages which will be found in the foregoing sections) -that he did not recognise the authority of the Ancients, on -scientific questions, which in his day was held paramount. -Archimedes is the sole exception, and Leonardo frankly owns his -admiration for the illustrious Greek to whose genius his own was so -much akin (see No. 1476). All his notes on various authors, -excepting those which have already been inserted in the previous -section, have been arranged alphabetically for the sake of -convenience (1469--1508)._ - -_The passages next in order contain accounts and inventories -principally of household property. The publication of these--often -very trivial entries--is only justifiable as proving that the -wealth, the splendid mode of life and lavish expenditure which have -been attributed to Leonardo are altogether mythical; unless we put -forward the very improbable hypothesis that these notes as to money -in hand, outlay and receipts, refer throughout to an exceptional -state of his affairs, viz. when he was short of money._ - -_The memoranda collected at the end (No. 1505--1565) are, in the -original, in the usual writing, from left to right. Besides, the -style of the handwriting is at variance with what we should expect -it to be, if really Leonardo himself had written these notes. Most -of them are to be found in juxtaposition with undoubtedly authentic -writing of his. But this may be easily explained, if we take into -account the fact, that Leonardo frequently wrote on loose sheets. He -may therefore have occasionally used paper on which others had made -short memoranda, for the most part as it would seem, for his use. At -the end of all I have given Leonardo's will from the copy of it -preserved in the Melzi Library. It has already been printed by -Amoretti and by Uzielli. It is not known what has become of the -original document._ - -Memoranda before 1500 (1379-l413). - -1379. - -Find Longhi and tell him that you wait for him at Rome and will go -with him to Naples; make you pay the donation [Footnote 2: _Libro di -Vitolone_ see No. 1506 note.] and take the book by Vitolone, and the -measurements of the public buildings. [3] Have two covered boxes -made to be carried on mules, but bed-covers will be best; this makes -three, of which you will leave one at Vinci. [4] Obtain -the.............. from Giovanni Lombardo the linen draper of Verona. -Buy handkerchiefs and towels,.... and shoes, 4 pairs of hose, a -jerkin of... and skins, to make new ones; the lake of Alessandro. -[Footnote: 7 and fol. It would seem from the text that Leonardo -intended to have instructions in painting on paper. It is hardly -necessary to point out that the Art of illuminating was quite -separate from that of painting.] - -Sell what you cannot take with you. Get from Jean de Paris the -method of painting in tempera and the way of making white [Footnote: -The mysterious looking words, quite distinctly written, in line 1: -_ingol, amor a, ilopan a_ and on line 2: _enoiganod al_ are -obviously in cipher and the solution is a simple one; by reading -them backwards we find for _ingol_: logni-probably _longi_, -evidently the name of a person; for _amor a_: _a Roma_, for _ilopan -a_: _a Napoli_. Leonardo has done the same in two passages treating -on some secrets of his art Nos. 641 and 729, the only other places -in which we find this cipher employed; we may therefore conclude -that it was for the sake of secrecy that he used it. - -There can be no doubt, from the tenor of this passage, that Leonardo -projected a secret excursion to Naples. Nothing has hitherto been -known of this journey, but the significance of the passage will be -easily understood by a reference to the following notes, from which -we may infer that Leonardo really had at the time plans for -travelling further than Naples. From lines 3, 4 and 7 it is evident -that he purposed, after selling every thing that was not easily -portable, to leave a chest in the care of his relations at Vinci. -His luggage was to be packed into two trunks especially adapted for -transport by mules. The exact meaning of many sentences in the -following notes must necessarily remain obscure. These brief remarks -on small and irrelevant affairs and so forth are however of no -historical value. The notes referring to the preparations for his -journey are more intelligible.] - -salt, and how to make tinted paper; sheets of paper folded up; and -his box of colours; learn to work flesh colours in tempera, learn to -dissolve gum lac, linseed ... white, of the garlic of Piacenza; take -'de Ponderibus'; take the works of Leonardo of Cremona. Remove the -small furnace ... seed of lilies and of... Sell the boards of the -support. Make him who stole it, give you the ... learn levelling and -how much soil a man can dig out in a day. - -1380. - -This was done by Leone in the piazza of the castle with a chain and -an arrow. [Footnote: This note must have been made in Milan; as we -know from the date of the MS.] - -1381. - -NAMES OF ENGINEERS. - -Callias of Rhodes, Epimachus the Athenian, Diogenes, a philosopher, -of Rhodes, Calcedonius of Thrace, Febar of Tyre, Callimachus the -architect, a master of fires. [Footnote: Callias, Architect of -Aradus, mentioned by Vitruvius (X, 16, 5).--Epimachus, of Athens, -invented a battering-enginee for Demetrius Poliorketes (Vitruvius X, -16, 4).--Callimachus, the inventor of the Corinthian capital (Vitr. -IV, I, 9), and of the method of boring marble (Paus. I, 26, 7), was -also famous for his casts in bronze (Plin. XXXIV, 8, 19). He -invented a lamp for the temple of Athene Polias, on the Acropolis of -Athens (Paus. I, 26, 7)--The other names, here mentioned, cannot be -identified.] - -1382. - -Ask maestro Lodovico for 'the conduits of water'. [Footnote: -Condotti d'acqua. Possibly a book, a MS. or a map.] - -1383. - -... at Pistoja, Fioravante di Domenico at Florence is my most -beloved friend, as though he were my [brother]. [Footnote: On the -same sheet is the text No. 663.] - -1384. - -On the 16th day of July. - -Caterina came on 16th day of July, 1493. - -Messer Mariolo's Morel the Florentin, has a big horse with a fine -neck and a beautiful head. - -The white stallion belonging to the falconer has fine hind quarters; -it is behind the Comasina Gate. - -The big horse of Cermonino, of Signor Giulio. [Footnote: Compare -Nos. 1522 and 1517. Caterina seems to have been his housekeeper.] - -1385. - -OF THE INSTRUMENT. - -Any one who spends one ducat may take the instrument; and he will -not pay more than half a ducat as a premium to the inventor of the -instrument and one grosso to the workman every year. I do not want -sub-officials. [Footnote: Refers perhaps to the regulation of the -water in the canals.] - -1386. - -Maestro Giuliano da Marliano has a fine herbal. He lives opposite to -Strami the Carpenters. [Footnote: Compare No. 616, note. 4. -legnamiere (milanese dialect) = legnajuolo.] - -1387. - -Christofano da Castiglione who lives at the Pieta has a fine head. - -1388. - -Work of ... of the stable of Galeazzo; by the road of Brera -[Footnote 4: Brera, see No. 1448, II, 13]; benefice of Stanghe -[Footnote 5:Stanghe, see No. 1509.]; benefice of Porta Nuova; -benefice of Monza; Indaco's mistake; give first the benefices; then -the works; then ingratitude, indignity and lamentations. - -1389. - -Chiliarch--captain of 1000. - -Prefects--captains. - -A legion, six thousand and sixty three men. - -1390. - -A nun lives at La Colomba at Cremona; she works good straw plait, -and a friar of Saint Francis. [Footnote: _La Colomba_ is to this day -the name of a small house at Cremona, decorated with frescoes.] - -1391. - -Needle,--Niccolao,--thread,--Ferrando, -lacopo -Andrea,--canvas,--stone,--colours, --brushes,--pallet,--sponge,--the -panel of the Duke. - -1392. - -Messer Gian Domenico Mezzabarba and Messer Giovanni Franceso -Mezzabarba. By the side of Messer Piero d'Anghiera. - -1393. - -Conte Francesco Torello. - -1394. - -Giuliano Trombetta,--Antonio di Ferrara, --Oil of .... [Footnote: -Near this text is the sketch of a head drawn in red chalk.] - -1395. - -Paul was snatched up to heaven. [Footnote: See the facsimile of this -note on Pl. XXIII No. 2.] - -1396. - -Giuliano da Maria, physician, has a steward without hands. - -1397. - -Have some ears of corn of large size sent from Florence. - -1398. - -See the bedstead at Santa Maria. Secret. - -1399. - -Arrigo is to have 11 gold Ducats. Arrigo is to have 4 gold ducats in -the middle of August. - -1400. - -Give your master the instance of a captain who does not himself win -the victory, but the soldiers do by his counsels; and so he still -deserves the reward. - -1401. - -Messer Pier Antonio. - -1402. - -Oil,--yellow,--Ambrosio,--the mouth, --the farmhouse. - -1403. - -My dear Alessandro from Parma, by the hand of ... - -1404. - -Giovannina, has a fantastic face,--is at Santa Caterina, at the -Hospital. [Footnote: Compare the text on the same page: No. 667.] - -1405. - -24 tavole make 1 perch. 4 trabochi make 1 tavola. 4 braccia and a -half make a trabocco. A perch contains 1936 square braccia, or 1944. - -1406. - -The road of Messer Mariolo is 13 1/4 braccia wide; the House of -Evangelista is 75. - -It enters 7 1/2 braccia in the house of Mariolo. [Footnote: On this -page and that which faces it, MS.I2 7la, are two diagrams with -numerous reference numbers, evidently relating to the measurements -of a street.] - -1407. - -I ask at what part of its curved motion the moving cause will leave -the thing moved and moveable. - -Speak to Pietro Monti of these methods of throwing spears. - -1408. - -Antonio de' Risi is at the council of Justice. - -1409. - -Paolo said that no machine that moves another .... [Footnote: The -passage, of which the beginning is here given, deals with questions -in mechanics. The instances in which Leonardo quotes the opinions of -his contemporaries on scientific matters are so rare as to be worth -noticing. Compare No. 901. ] - -1410. - -Caravaggio. [Footnote: _Caravaggio_, a village not far from the Adda -between Milan and Brescia, where Polidoro and Michelangelo da -Caravaggio were born. This note is given in facsimile on Pl. XIII, -No. I (above, to the left). On Pl. XIII, No. 2 above to the right we -read _cerovazo_.] - -1411. - -Pulleys,--nails,--rope,--mercury,--cloth, Monday. - -1412. - -MEMORANDUM. - -Maghino, Speculus of Master Giovanni the Frenchman; Galenus on -utility. - -1413. - -Near to Cordusio is Pier Antonio da Tossano and his brother -Serafino. [Footnote: This note is written between lines 23 and 24 of -the text No. 710. Corduso, Cordusio (_curia ducis_) = Cordus in the -Milanese dialect, is the name of a Piazza between the Via del -Broletto and the Piazza de' Mercanti at Milan.. In the time of il -Moro it was the centre of the town. The persons here named were -members of the noble Milanese family de'Fossani; Ambrogio da -Possano, the contemporary painter, had no connection with them.] - -1414. - -Memoranda after 1500 (1414--1434) - -1414. - -Paul of Vannochio at Siena ... The upper chamber for the apostles. - -[4] Buildings by Bramante. - -The governor of the castle made a prisoner. - -[6] Visconti carried away and his son killed. [Footnote 6: Visconti. -_Chi fosse quel Visconte non sapremmo indovinare fra tanti di questo -nome. Arluno narra che allora atterrate furono le case de' Viconti, -de' Castiglioni, de' Sanseverini, e de' Botta e non � improbabile -che ne fossero insultati e morti i padroni. Molti Visconti annovera -lo stesso Cronista che per essersi rallegrati del ritorno del duca -in Milano furono da' Francesi arrestati, e strascinati in Francia -come prigionieri di stato; e fra questi Messer Francesco Visconti, e -suo figliuolo Battista_. (AMORETTI, Mem. Stor. XIX.).] - -Giovanni della Rosa deprived of his money. - -Borgonzio began ....; and moreover his fortunes fled. [Footnote 8: -Borgonzio o Brugonzio Botta fu regolatore delle ducali entrate sotto -il Moro, alla cui fuga la casa sua fu pur messa a sacco da' -partitanti francesi. (AMORETTI, l. c.)] - -The Duke has lost the state, property and liberty and none of his -entreprises was carried out by him. - -[Footnote: l. 4--10 This passage evidently refers to events in Milan -at the time of the overthrow of Ludovico il Moro. Amoretti published -it in the '_Memorie Storiche_' and added copious notes.] - -1415. - -Ambrosio Petri, St. Mark, 4 boards for the window, 2 ..., 3 the -saints of chapels, 5 the Genoese at home. - -1416. - -Piece of tapestry,--pair of compasses,-- Tommaso's book,--the book -of Giovanni Benci,--the box in the custom-house,--to cut the -cloth,--the sword-belt,--to sole the boots, --a light hat,--the cane -from the ruined houses,--the debt for the table linen, ---swimming-belt,--a book of white paper for drawing,--charcoal.--How -much is a florin ...., a leather bodice. - -1417. - -Borges shall get for you the Archimedes from the bishop of Padua, -and Vitellozzo the one from Borgo a San Sepolcro [Footnote 3: Borgo -a San Sepolcro, where Luca Paciolo, Leonardo's friend, was born.] - -[Footnote: Borges. A Spanish name.] - -1418. - -Marzocco's tablet. - -1419. - -Marcello lives in the house of Giacomo da Mengardino. - -1420. - -Where is Valentino?--boots,--boxes in the -custom-house,...,--[Footnote 5: Carmine. A church and monastery at -Florence.] the monk at the Carmine,--squares,--[Footnotes 7 and 8: -Martelli, Borgherini; names of Florentine families. See No. 4.] -Piero Martelli,--[8] Salvi Borgherini,--send back the bags,--a -support for the spectacles,--[Footnote 11: San Gallo; possibly -Giuliano da San Gallo, the Florentine architect.] the nude study of -San Gallo,--the cloak. Porphyry,--groups,--square,--[Footnote 16: -Pandolfini, see No. 1544 note.] Pandolfino. [Footnote: Valentino. -Cesare Borgia is probably meant. After being made Archbishop of -Valence by Alexander VI he was commonly called Valentinus or -Valentino. With reference to Leonardo's engagements by him see pp. -224 and 243, note.] - -1421. - -Concave mirrors; philosophy of Aristotle;[Footnote 2: _Avicenna_ -(Leonardo here writes it Avinega) the Arab philosopher, 980-1037, -for centuries the unimpeachable authority on all medical questions. -Leonardo possibly points here to a printed edition: _Avicennae -canonum libri V, latine_ 1476 _Patavis._ Other editions are, Padua -1479, and Venice 1490.] the books of Avicenna Italian and Latin -vocabulary; Messer Ottaviano Palavicino or his Vitruvius [Footnote -3: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]. bohemian knives; -Vitruvius[Footnote 6: _Vitruvius._ See Vol. I, No. 343 note.]; go -every Saturday to the hot bath where you will see naked men; - -'Meteora' [Footnote 7: _Meteora._ See No. 1448, 25.], - -Archimedes, on the centre of gravity; [Footnote 9: The works of -Archimedes were not printed during Leonardo's life-time.] anatomy -[Footnote 10: Compare No. 1494.] Alessandro Benedetto; The Dante of -Niccolo della Croce; Inflate the lungs of a pig and observe whether -they increase in width and in length, or in width diminishing in -length. - -[Footnote 14: _Johannes Marliani sua etate philosophorum et -medicorum principis et ducalis phisic. primi de proportione motuum -velocitate questio subtilissima incipit ex ejusdem Marliani -originali feliciter extracta, M(ilano)_ 1482. - -Another work by him has the title: _Marlianus mediolanensis. Questio -de caliditate corporum humanorum tempore hiemis ed estatis et de -antiparistasi ad celebrem philosophorum et medicorum universitatem -ticinensem._ 1474.] Marliano, on Calculation, to Bertuccio. -Albertus, on heaven and earth [Footnote 15: See No. 1469, 1. 7.], -[from the monk Bernardino]. Horace has written on the movements of -the heavens. - -[Footnote: _Filosofia d'Aristotele_ see No. 1481 note.] - -1422. - -Of the three regular bodies as opposed to some commentators who -disparage the Ancients, who were the originators of grammar and the -sciences and ... - -1423. - -The room in the tower of Vaneri. - -[Footnote: This note is written inside the sketch of a plan of a -house. On the same page is the date 1513 (see No. 1376).] - -1424. - -The figures you will have to reserve for the last book on shadows -that they may appear in the study of Gerardo the illuminator at San -Marco at Florence. - -[Go to see Melzo, and the Ambassador, and Maestro Bernardo]. - -[Footnote: L. 1-3 are in the original written between lines 3 and 4 -of No. 292. But the sense is not clear in this connection. It is -scarcely possible to devine the meaning of the following sentence. - -2. 3. _Gherardo_ Miniatore, a famous illuminator, 1445-1497, to whom -Vasari dedicated a section of his Lives (Vol. II pp. 237-243, ed. -Sansoni 1879). - -5. _Bernardo_, possibly the painter Bernardo Zenale.] - -1425. - -Hermes the philosopher. - -1426. - -Suisset, viz. calculator,--Tisber, --Angelo Fossobron,--Alberto. - -1427. - -The structure of the drawbridge shown me by Donnino, and why _c_ and -_d_ thrust downwards. - -[Footnote: The sketch on the same page as this text represents two -poles one across the other. At the ends of the longest are the -letter _c_ and _d_. The sense of the passage is not rendered any -clearer.] - -1428. - -The great bird will take its first flight;-- on the back of his -great swan,--filling the universe with wonders; filling all writings -with his fame and bringing eternal glory to his birthplace. - -[Footnote: This seems to be a speculation about the flying machine -(compare p. 271).] - -1429. - -This stratagem was used by the Gauls against the Romans, and so -great a mortality ensued that all Rome was dressed in mourning. - -[Footnote: Leonardo perhaps alludes to the Gauls under Brennus, who -laid his sword in the scale when the tribute was weighed.] - -1430. - -Alberto da Imola;--Algebra, that is, the demonstration of the -equality of one thing to another. - -1431. - -Johannes Rubicissa e Robbia. - -1432. - -Ask the wife of Biagio Crivelli how the capon nurtures and hatches -the eggs of the hen,--he being drunk. - -1433. - -The book on Water to Messer Marco Antonio. - -[Footnote: Possibly Marc-Antonio della Torre, see p. 97.] - -1434. - -Have Avicenna's work on useful inventions translated; spectacles -with the case, steel and fork and...., charcoal, boards, and paper, -and chalk and white, and wax;.... .... for glass, a saw for bones -with fine teeth, a chisel, inkstand ........ three herbs, and Agnolo -Benedetto. Get a skull, nut,--mustard. - -Boots,--gloves, socks, combs, papers, towels, shirts,.... -shoe-tapes,--..... shoes, penknife, pens. A skin for the chest. - -[Footnote: 4. Lapis. Compare Condivi, _Vita di Michelagnolo -Buonarotti_, Chap. XVIII.: _Ma egli_ (Michelangelo) _non avendo che -mostrare, prese una penna (percioche in quel tempo il lapis non era -in uso) e con tal leggiadria gli dipinse una mano ecc._ The incident -is of the year l496.--Lapis means pencil, and chalk (_matita_). -Between lines 7 and 8 are the texts given as Nos. 819 and No. 7.] - -Undated memoranda (1435-1457). - -1435. - -The book of Piero Crescenze,--studies from the nude by Giovanni -Ambrosio,--compasses, --the book of Giovanni Giacomo. - -1436. - -MEMORARDUM. - -To make some provisions for my garden, --Giordano, _De -Ponderibus_[Footnote 3: _Giordano_. Jordanus Nemorarius, a -mathematician of the beginning of the XIIIth century. No particulars -of his life are known. The title of his principal work is: -_Arithmetica decem libris demonstrata_, first published at Paris -1496. In 1523 appeared at Nuremberg: _Liber Jordani Nemorarii de -ponderibus, propositiones XIII et earundem demonstrationes, -multarumque rerum rationes sane pulcherrimas complectens, nunc in -lucem editus._],--the peacemaker, the flow and ebb of the sea,--have -two baggage trunks made, look to Beltraffio's [Footnote 6: -_Beltraffio_, see No. 465, note 2. - -There are sketches by the side of lines 8 and 10.] lathe and have -taken the stone,--out leave the books belonging to Messer Andrea the -German,-- make scales of a long reed and weigh the substance when -hot and again when cold. The mirror of Master Luigi; _A b_ the flow -and ebb of the water is shown at the mill of Vaprio,--a cap. - -1437. - -Giovanni Fabre,--Lazaro del Volpe,-- the common,--Ser Piero. - -[Footnote: These names are inserted on a plan of plots of land -adjoining the Arno.] - -1438. - -[Lactantius], [the book of Benozzo], groups,--to bind the book,--a -lantern,--Ser Pecantino,--Pandolfino.--[Rosso]--a square, --small -knives,--carriages,--curry combs-- cup. - -1439. - -Quadrant of Carlo Marmocchi,--Messer Francesco Araldo,--Ser -Benedetto d'Accie perello,--Benedetto on arithmetic,--Maestro Paulo, -physician,--Domenico di Michelino,-- ...... of the Alberti,--Messer -Giovanni Argimboldi. - -1440. - -Colours, formula,--Archimedes,--Marcantonio. - -Tinned iron,--pierced iron. - -1441. - -See the shop that was formerly Bartolommeo's, the stationer. - -[Footnote: 6. _Marc Antonio_, see No. 1433.] - -1442. - -The first book is by Michele di Francesco Nabini; it treats on -science. - -1443. - -Messer Francesco, physician of Lucca, with the Cardinal Farnese. - -[Footnote: _Alessandro Farnese_, afterwards Pope Paul III was -created in 1493 Cardinal di San Cosimo e San Damiano, by Alexander -VI.] - -1444. - -Pandolfino's book [Footnote 1: _Pandolfino, Agnolo_, of Florence. It -is to this day doubtful whether he or L. B. Alberti was the author -of the famous work '_Del Governo della Famiglia_'. It is the more -probable that Leonardo should have meant this work by the words _il -libro_, because no other book is known to have been written by -Pandolfino. This being the case this allusion of Leonardo's is an -important evidence in favour of Pandolfino's authorship (compare No. -1454, line 3).],--knives,--a pen for ruling,--to have the vest -dyed,--The library at St.-Mark's,--The library at Santo -Spirito,--Lactantius of the Daldi [Footnote 7: The works of -Lactantius were published very often in Italy during Leonardo's -lifetime. The first edition published in 1465 "_in monastero -sublacensi_" was also the first book printed in Italy.],--Antonio -Covoni,--A book by Maestro Paolo Infermieri, --Boots, shoes and -hose,--(Shell)lac, --An apprentice to do the models for me. Grammar, -by Lorenzo de Medici,--Giovanni del Sodo,--Sansovino, [Footnote 15: -_Sansovino_, Andrea--the _sculptor_; 1460-1529.]--a ruler,--a very -sharp knife,--Spectacles,--fractions...., ---repair.........,--Tomaso's book,-- Michelagnolo's little chain; -Learn the multiplication of roots from Maestro Luca;--my map of the -world which Giovanni Benci has [Footnote 25: Leonardo here probably -alludes to the map, not executed by him (See p. 224), which is with -the collection of his MSS. at Windsor, and was published in the -_Archaeologia_ Vol. XI (see p. 224).];-Socks,--clothes from the -customhouse-officier,--Red Cordova leather,--The map of the world, -of Giovanni Benci,--a print, the districts about Milan--Market book. - -Get the Friar di Brera to show you [the book] '_de Ponderibus_' -[Footnote 11: _Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until -1571 it was the monastery of the order of the Umiliati and -afterwards of the Jesuits. - -_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.],-- - -Of the measurement of San Lorenzo,-- - -I lent certain groups to Fra Filippo de Brera, [Footnote 13: -_Brera_, now _Palazzo delle Scienze ed Arti. Until 1571 it was the -monastery of the order of the Umiliati and afterwards of the -Jesuits. - -_De ponderibus_, compare No. 1436, 3.]-- - -Memorandum: to ask Maestro Giovannino as to the mode in which the -tower of Ferrara is walled without loopholes,-- - -Ask Maestro Antonio how mortars are placed on bastions by day or by -night,-- - -Ask Benedetto Portinari how the people go on the ice in Flanders,-- - -On proportions by Alchino, with notes by Marliano, from Messer -Fazio,-- - -The measurement of the sun, promised me by Maestro Giovanni, the -Frenchman,-- - -The cross bow of Maestro Gianetto,-- - -The book by Giovanni Taverna that Messer Fazio,-- - -You will draw Milan [21],-- - -The measurement of the canal, locks and supports, and large boats; -and the expense,-- - -Plan of Milan [Footnote 23: _Fondamento_ is commonly used by -Leonardo to mean ground-plan. See for instance p. 53.],-- - -Groups by Bramante [Footnote 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No. -600, note 9.],-- - -The book on celestial phenomena by Aristoteles, in Italian [Footnote -25: _Meteora_. By this Leonardo means no doubt the four books. He -must refer here to a MS. translation, as no Italian translation is -known to have been published (see No. 1477 note).],-- - -Try to get Vitolone, which is in the library at Pavia [Footnote 26: -_Vitolone_ see No. 1506, note. - -_Libreria di Pavia_. One of the most famous of Italian libraries. -After the victory of Novara in April 1500, Louis XII had it conveyed -to France, '_come trofeo di vittoria_'!] and which treats of -Mathematics,--He had a master [learned] in waterworks and get him to -explain the repairs and the costs, and a lock and a canal and a mill -in the Lombard fashion. - -A grandson of Gian Angelo's, the painter has a book on water which -was his fathers. - -Paolino Scarpellino, called Assiolo has great knowledge of water -works. - -[Footnote 12: _Sco Lorenzo_. A church at Milan, see pp. 39, 40 and -50.] - -[Footnote 13. 24: _Gruppi_. See Vol. I p. 355, No. 600, note 9.] - -[Footnote 16: The _Portinari_ were one of the great merchant- -families of Florence.] - -1449. - -Francesco d'Antonio at Florence. - -1450. - -Giuliano Condi[1],--Tomaso Ridolfi,-- Tomaso Paganelli,--Nicolo del -Nero,--Simone Zasti,--Nasi,--the heir of Lionardo Manelli, ---Guglielmo di Ser Martino,--Bartolomeo del Tovaglia,--Andrea -Arrigucci,-- Nicolo Capponi,--Giovanni Portinari. - -[Footnote: I. _Guiliano Gondi_. Ser Piero da Vinci, Leonardo's -father, lived till 1480, in a house belonging to Giuliano Gondi. In -1498 this was pulled down to make room for the fine Palazzo built on -the Piazza San Firenze by Giuliano di San Gallo, which still exists. -In the _Riassunto del Catasto di Ser Piero da Vinci_, 1480, Leonardo -is not mentioned; it is evident therefore that he was living -elsewhere. It may be noticed incidentally that in the _Catasto di -Giuliano Gondi_ of the same year the following mention is made of -his four eldest sons: - -_Lionardo mio figliuolo d'eta d'anni 29, non fa nulla, Giovambatista -d'eta d'anni 28 in Ghostantinopoli, Billichozo d'eta d'anni 24 a -Napoli, Simone d'eta d'anni 23 in Ungheria._ - -He himself was a merchant of gold filigree (_facciamo lavorare una -bottegha d'arte di seta ... facciamo un pocho di trafico a Napoli_}. -As he was 59 years old in 1480, he certainly would not have been -alive at the time of Leonardo's death. But Leonardo must have been -on intimate terms with the family till the end of his life, for in a -letter dated June 1. 1519, in which Fr. Melzi, writing from Amboise, -announces Leonardo's death to Giuliano da Vinci at Florence (see p. -284), he says at the end "_Datemene risposta per i Gondi_" (see -UZIELLI, _Ricerche_, passim). - -Most of the other names on the list are those of well-known -Florentine families.] - -1451. - -Pandolfino. - -1452. - -Vespuccio will give me a book of Geometry. - -[Footnote: See No. 844, note, p. 130.] - -1453. - -Marcantonio Colonna at Santi Apostoli. - -[Footnote: In July 1506 Pope Julius II gave Donna Lucrezia della -Rovere, the daughter of his sister Lucchina, in marriage to the -youthful Marcantonio Colonna, who, like his brothers Prospero and -Fabrizio, became one of the most famous Captains of his family. He -gave to him Frascati and made him a present of the palazzo he had -built, when Cardinal, near the church of Santi Apostoli which is now -known as the Palazzo Colonna (see GREGOROVIUS, _Gesch. der Stadt -Rom._ Vol. VIII, book XIV I, 3. And COPPI, _Mem. Colonnesi_ p. -251).] - -1454. - -A box, a cage,-- A square, to make the bird [Footnote 2: Vasari -states that Leonardo invented mechanical birds which moved through -the air. Compare No. 703.],-- Pandolfino's book, mortar [?],-- Small -knives, Venieri for the - -[Footnote: Much of No. 1444 is repeated in this memorandum.] - -Pen for ruling, stone,--star,-- - -To have the vest dyed, Alfieri's tazza,-- - -The Libraries, the book on celestial - phenomena,-- - -Lactantius of the go to the house of -Daldi,-- the Pazzi, - -Book from Maestro small box,-- -Paolo Infermieri,-- - -Boots, shoes and small gimlet,-- -hose, - -Lac, .......,-- - -An apprentice for .....,-- -models, - -Grammar of Lo- the amount of the -renzo de' Medici, ... - -Giovanni del Sodo ..... -for...,--the broken - -Sansovino, the.... - -Piero di Cosino the wings,-- - -[Footnote 16: _Pier di Cosimo_ the well known Florentine painter -1462-1521. See VASARI, _Vite_ (Vol. IV, p. 134 ed. Sansoni 1880) -about Leonardo's influence on Piero di Cosimo's style of painting.] - -Filippo and Lorenzo [Footnote 17: _Filippo e Lorenzo_; probably the -painters Filippino Lippi and Lorenzo di Credi. L. di Credi's -pictures and Vasari's history of that painter bear ample evidence to -his intimate relations with Leonardo.],--A ruler-,-- Spectacles,--to -do the..... again,--Tomaso's book,--Michelagnolo's chain,--The -multiplication of roots,--Of the bow and strinch,--The map of the -world from Benci,-- Socks,--The clothes from the custom-house -officier,--Cordova leather,--Market books, --waters of -Cronaca,--waters of Tanaglino..., --the caps,--Rosso's mirror; to -see him make it,--1/3 of which I have 5/6,--on the celestial -phenomena, by Aristotle [Footnote 36: _Meteora_. See No. 1448, -25.],--boxes of Lorenzo di Pier Francesco [Footnote 37: _Lorenzo di -Pier Francesco_ and his brother _Giovanni_ were a lateral branch of -the _Medici_ family and changed their name for that of -Popolani.],--Maestro Piero of the Borgo,--To have my book -bound,--Show the book to Serigatto,-- and get the rule of the clock -[Footnote 41: Possibly this refers to the clock on the tower of the -Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. In February 1512 it had been repaired, -and so arranged as to indicate the hours after the French manner -(twelve hours a. m. and as many p. m.).],-- -ring,--nutmeg,--gum,--the square,--Giovan' Batista at the piazza, -de' Mozzi,--Giovanni Benci has my book and jaspers,--brass for the -spectacles. - -1455. - -Search in Florence for...... - -1456. - -Bernardo da Ponte ... Val di Lugano ... many veins for anatomical -demonstration. - -[Footnote: This fragmentary note is written on the margin of a -drawing of two legs.] - -1457. - -Paolo of Tavechia, to see the marks in the German stones. - -[Footnote: This note occurs on a pen and ink drawing made by -Leonardo as a sketch for the celebrated large cartoon in the -possession of the Royal Academy of Arts, in London. This cartoon is -commonly supposed to be identical with that described and lauded by -Vasari, which was exhibited in Florence at the time and which now -seems to be lost. Mr. Alfred Marks, of Long Ditton, in his valuable -paper (read before the Royal Soc. of Literature, June 28, 1882) "On -the St. Anne of Leonardo da Vinci", has adduced proof that the -cartoon now in the Royal Academy was executed earlier at Milan. The -note here given, which is written on the sheet containing the study -for the said cartoon, has evidently no reference to the drawing on -which it is written but is obviously of the same date. Though I have -not any opening here for discussing this question of the cartoon, it -seemed to me important to point out that the character of the -writing in this note does not confirm the opinion hitherto held that -the Royal Academy cartoon was the one described by Vasari, but, on -the contrary, supports the hypothesis put forward by Mr. Marks.] - -Notes on pupils (1458-1468.) - -1458. - -Giacomo came to live with me on St.-Mary Magdalen's[Footnote: _Il di -della Maddalena._ July 22.] day, 1490, aged 10 years. The second day -I had two shirts cut out for him, a pair of hose, and a jerkin, and -when I put aside some money to pay for these things he stole 4 -_lire_ the money out of the purse; and I could never make him -confess, though I was quite certain of the fact.--Thief, liar, -obstinate, glutton. - -The day after, I went to sup with Giacomo Andrea, and the said -Giacomo supped for two and did mischief for four; for he brake 3 -cruets, spilled the wine, and after this came to sup where I .... - -Item: on the 7th day of September he stole a silver point of the -value of 22 soldi from Marco[Footnote 6: _Marco_, probably -Leonardo's pupil Marco d'Oggionno; 1470 is supposed to be the date -of his birth and 1540 of his death. - -_Che stava con meco._ We may infer from this that he left the master -shortly after this, his term of study having perhaps expired.] who -was living with me, 4 _lire_ this being of silver; and he took it -from his studio, and when the said Marco had searched for it a long -while he found it hidden in the said Giacomo's box 4 _lire_. - -Item: on the 26th January following, I, being in the house of Messer -Galeazzo da San Severino [Footnote 9: Galeazzo. See No. 718 note.], -was arranging the festival for his jousting, and certain footmen -having undressed to try on some costumes of wild men for the said -festival, Giacomo went to the purse of one of them which lay on the -bed with other clothes, 2 lire 4 S, and took out such money as was -in it. - -Item: when I was in the same house, Maestro Agostino da Pavia gave -to me a Turkish hide to have (2 lire.) a pair of short boots made of -it; this Giacomo stole it of me within a month and sold it to a -cobbler for 20 soldi, with which money, by his own confession, he -bought anise comfits. - -Item: again, on the 2nd April, Giovan Antonio [Footnote 16: Giovan -Antonio, probably Beltraffio, 1467 to 1516.] having left a silver -point on a drawing of his, Giacomo stole it, and this was of the -value of 24 soldi (1 lira 4 S.) - -The first year- - -A cloak, 2 lire, -6 shirts, 4 lire, -3 jerkins, 6 lire, -4 pairs of hose, 7 lire 8 soldi, -1 lined doublet, 5 lire, -24 pairs of shoes, 6 lire 5 soldi, -A cap, 1 lira, -laces, 1 lira. - -[Footnote: Leonardo here gives a detailed account not only of the -loss he and others incurred through Giacomo but of the wild tricks -of the youth, and we may therefore assume that the note was not made -merely as a record for his own use, but as a report to be forwarded -to the lad's father or other responsible guardian.] - -1459. - -On the last day but one of September; - -Thursday the 27th day of September Maestro Tommaso came back and -worked for himself until the last day but one of February. On the -18th day of March, 1493, Giulio, a German, came to live with -me,--Lucia, Piero, Leonardo. - -On the 6th day of October. - -1460. - -1493. On the 1st day of November we settled accounts. Giulio had to -pay 4 months; and Maestro Tommaso 9 months; Maestro Tommaso -afterwards made 6 candlesticks, 10 days' work; Giulio some -fire-tongs 15 days work. Then he worked for himself till the 27th -May, and worked for me at a lever till the 18th July; then for -himself till the 7th of August, and for one day, on the fifteenth, -for a lady. Then again for me at 2 locks until the 20th of August. - -1461. - -On the 23rd day of August, 12 lire from Pulisona. On the 14th of -March 1494, Galeazzo came to live with me, agreeing to pay 5 lire a -month for his cost paying on the l4th day of each month. - -His father gave me 2 Rhenish florins. - -On the l4th of July, I had from Galeazzo 2 Rhenish florins. - -1462. - -On the 15th day of September Giulio began the lock of my studio -1494. - -1463. - -Saturday morning the 3rd of August 1504 Jacopo the German came to -live with me in the house, and agreed with me that I should charge -him a carlino a day. - -1464. - -1511. On the 26th of September Antonio broke his leg; he must rest -40 days. - -[Footnote: This note refers possibly to Beltraffio.] - -1465. - -I left Milan for Rome on the 24th day of September, 1513, with -Giovanni [Footnote 2: _Giovan;_ it is not likely that Leonardo -should have called Giovan' Antonio Beltraffio at one time Giovanni, -as in this note and another time Antonio, as in No. 1464 while in -No. 1458 l. 16 we find _Giovan'Antonio_, and in No. 1436, l.6 -_Beltraffio_. Possibly the Giovanni here spoken of is Leonardo's -less known pupil Giovan Pietrino (see No. 1467, 5).], Francesco di -Melzi [Footnote 2,3: _Francesco de' Melzi_ is often mentioned, see -Nos. 1350.], Salai [Footnote 3: _Salai_. See No. 1519 note.], -Lorenzo and il Fanfoia. - -[Footnote 4: _Lorenzo_. See No. 1351, l. 10 (p. 408). Amoretti gives -the following note in _Mem. Stor. XXIII:_ 1505. _Martedi--sera a di -14 d'aprile. Venne Lorenzo a stare con mecho: disse essere d'eta -d'anni 17 .. a di 15 del detto aprile ebbi scudi 25 d'oro dal -chamerlingo di Santa Maria nuova._ This, he asserts is derived from -a MS. marked S, in quarto. This MS. seems to have vanished and left -no trace behind; Amoretti himself had not seen it, but copied from a -selection of extracts made by Oltrocchi before the Leonardo MSS. -were conveyed to Paris on the responsibility of the first French -Republic. Lorenzo, by this, must have been born in 1487. The -sculptor Lorenzetto was born in 1490. Amoretti has been led by the -above passage to make the following absurd observations: - -_Cotesto Lorenzo, che poi gli fu sempre compagno, almeno sin che -stette in Italia, sarebb' egli Lorenzo Lotto bergamasco? Sappiamo -essere stato questo valente dipintore uno de'bravi scolari del -Vinci_ (?). - -_Il Fafoia_, perhaps a nickname. Cesare da Sesto, Leonardo's pupil, -seems to have been in Rome in these years, as we learn from a -drawing by him in the Louvre. - -1466. - -On the 3rd day of January. - -Benedetto came on the 17th of October; he stayed with me two months -and 13 days of last year, in which time he earned 38 lire, 18 soldi -and 8 dinari; he had of this 26 lire and 8 soldi, and there remains -to be paid for the past year 12 lire 10 soldi. - -Giodatti (?) came on the 8th day of September, at 4 soldi a month, -and stayed with me 3 months and 24 days, and earned 59 lire 14 soldi -and 8 dinari; he has had 43 lire, 4 soldi, there remains to pay 16 -lire, 10 soldi and 8 dinari. - -Benedetto, 24 grossoni. - -[Footnote: This seems to be an account for two assistants. The name -of the second is scarcely legible. The year is not given. The note -is nevertheless of chronological value. The first line tells us the -date when the note was registered, January 3d, and the observations -that follow refer to events of the previous month 'of last year' -_(dell'anno passato)_. Leonardo cannot therefore have written thus -in Florence where the year was, at that period, calculated as -beginning in the month of March (see Vol. I, No. 4, note 2). He must -then have been in Milan. What is more important is that we thus -learn how to date the beginning of the year in all the notes written -at Milan. This clears up Uzielli's doubts: _A Milano facevasi -cominciar l'anno ab incarnatione, cioe il 25 Marzo e a nativitate, -cioe il 25 Decembre. Ci sembra probabile che Leonardo dovesse -prescegliere lo stile che era in uso a Firenze._ (_Ricerche_, p. 84, -note.)] - -1467. - -Gian Maria 4, -Benedetto 4, -Gian Pietro [5] 3, -Salai 3, -Bartolomeo 3, -Gherardo 4. - -1468. - -Salai, 20 lire, -Bonifacio, 2 lire, -Bartolomeo, 4 lire, -Arrigo [Harry], 15 lire. - -Quotations and notes on books and authors (1469-1508). - -1469. - -Book on Arithmetic [Footnote 1: _"La nobel opera de arithmethica ne -la qual se tracta tute cosse amercantia pertinente facta & compilata -per Piero borgi da Veniesia", in-40. In fine: "Nela inclita cita di -Venetia a corni. 2 augusto. 1484. fu imposto fine ala presente -opera." Segn. a--p. quaderni. V'ha pero un' altra opera simile di -Filippo Calandro, 1491. E da consultarsi su quest' ultimo, Federici: -Memorie Trevigiane, Fiore di virtu: pag. 73. "Libricciuolo composto -di bello stile verso il 1320 e piu volte impresso nel secolo XV -(ristampato poi anche piu tardi). Gli accademici della Crusca lo -ammettono nella serie dei testi di lingua. Vedasi Gamba, Razzolini, -Panzer, Brunet, Lechi, ecc._ (G. D'A.)], 'Flowers of Virtue', - -Pliny [Footnote 2: _"Historia naturale di C. Plinio Secondo, -tradocta di lingua latina in fiorentina per Christophoro Laudino & -Opus Nicolai Jansonis gallici imp. anno salutis M.CCCC.LXXVI. -Venetiis" in-fol.--Diogene Laertio. Incomincia: "El libro de la vita -de philosophi etc.: Impressum Venetiis" per Bernardinum Celerium de -Luere, 1480", in-40_ (G. D'A.).], 'Lives of the Philosophers', - -The Bible [Footnote 3: _"La Bibia volgare historiata (per Nicolo di -Mallermi) Venecia ... M.CCCC.LXXI in kalende di Augusto (per -Vindelino de Spira)" 2 vol. in-fol. a 2 col. di 50 lin,; od altra -ediz. della stessa versione del Mallermi, Venetia 1471, e sempre: -"Venecia per Gabriel de Piero 1477," in-fol.; 2 vol.; Ottavio Scotto -da Modoetia 1481," "Venetia 1487 per Joan Rosso Vercellese," "1490 -Giovanni Ragazo di Monteferato a instantia di Luchanthonio di -Giunta, ecc."--Lapidario Teofrasto? Mandebille: "Le grand -lapidaire," versione italiana ms.?... Giorgio Agricola non puo -essere, perche nato nel 1494, forse Alberto Magno: de mineralibus. -Potrebbe essere una traduzione del poema latino (Liber lapidum seu -de gemmis) di Marbordio Veterio di Rennes (morto nel 1123 da lui -stesso tradotto in francese dal greco di Evao re d'Arabia celebre -medico che l'aveva composto per l'imperatore Tiberio. Marbodio -scrisse il suo prima per Filippo Augusto re di Francia. Vi sono -anche traduzioni in prosa. "Il lapidario o la forza e la virtu delle -pietre preziose, delle Erbe e degli Animali."_ (G. D'A.)], -'Lapidary', - -'On warfare' [Footnote 4: _Il Vegezio? ... Il Frontino? ... Il -Cornazzano?... Noi crediamo piuttosto il Valturio. Questo libro -doveva essere uno de'favoriti di Leonardo poiche libro di scienza e -d'arte nel tempo stesso._], 'Epistles of Filelfo', - -[Footnote: The late Marchese Girolamo d'Adda published a highly -valuable and interesting disquisition on this passage under the -title: _Leonardo da Vinci e la sua Libreria, note di un bibliofilo -(Milano 1873. Ed. di soli 75 esemplari_; privately printed). In the -autumn of 1880 the Marchese d'Adda showed me a considerable mass of -additional notes prepared for a second edition. This, as he then -intended, was to come out after the publication of this work of -mine. After the much regretted death of the elder Marchese, his son, -the Marchese Gioachino d'Adda was so liberal as to place these MS. -materials at my disposal for the present work, through the kind -intervention of Signor Gustavo Frizzoni. The following passages, -with the initials G. d'A. are prints from the valuable notes in that -publication, the MS. additions I have marked. I did not however -think myself justified in reproducing here the acute and interesting -observations on the contents of most of the rare books here -enumerated.] - -[Footnote: 1467. 5. See No. 1465, 2.] - -The first decade, [5] 'On the preservation of health', The third -decade, [6] Ciecho d'Ascoli, The fourth decade, [7] Albertus Magnus, -Guido, [8] New treatise on rhetorics, Piero Crescentio, [9] -Cibaldone, 'Quadriregio', [10] Aesop, - -Donato, [Footnote 11: "_Donatus latine & italice: Impressum Venetiis -impensis Johannis Baptistae de Sessa anno_ 1499, _in_-4�".-- "_El -Psalterio de David in lingua volgare (da Malermi Venetia nel -M.CCCC.LXXVI,_" in-fol. s. n._ (G. D'A.)] Psalms, - -Justinus, [Footnote 12: Compare No. 1210, 48.--_La versione di -Girolamo Squarzafico:_ "_Il libro di Justino posto diligentemente in -materna lingua. Venetia ale spesse (sic) di Johane de Colonia & -Johane Gheretze_ ... l477," _in-fol._--"_Marsilii Ficini, Theologia -platonica, sive de animarum immortalitate, Florentine, per Ant. -Misconimum_ 1482," _in-fol., ovvero qualche versione italiana di -questo stesso libro, ms._ (G. D'A.)] 'On the immortality of the -soul, - -Guido [Footnote 13: _Forse_ "_la Historia Trojana Guidonis_" _od il -_"_manipulus_" _di_ "_Guido da Monterocherii_"_ ma piu probabilmente -_"_Guido d'Arezzo_"_ il di cui libro: _"_Micrologus, seu disciplina -artis musicae_"_ poteva da Leonardo aversi ms.; di questi ne -esistono in molto biblioteche, e fu poi impresso nel 1784 dal -Gerbert._ - -_Molte sono le edizione dei sonetti di Burchiello Fiorentino, -impresse nel secolo XV. La prima e piu rara e recercata:_ -"_Incominciano li sonetti, ecc. (per Christoforo Arnaldo)_"_, in_-4� -_senza numeri, richiami o segnature, del_ 1475, _e fors' anche del_ -1472, _secondo Morelli e Dibdin, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Burchiello, - -'Doctrinale' [Footnote 14: _Versione italiana det "Doctrinal de -Sapience" di Guy de Roy, e foris'anche l'originale in lingua -francese.--_ - -_Di Pulci Luigi, benche nell' edizione:_ "_Florentiae_ 1479" _in_-4� -si dica: _"_Il Driadeo composto in rima octava per Lucio Pulcro_"_ -Altre ediz, del secolo XV, _"_Florentie Miscomini_ 1481, _in_-40, -_Firenze, apud S. Jacob, de Ripoli,_ 1483,_" _in_-4� _e "Antoni de -Francesco,_ 1487," _in_-4� _e Francesco di Jacopo_ 1489,_in_-4� _ed -altre ancora di Venezia e senza alcuna nota ecc._ (G. D'A.)] -Driadeo, - -Morgante [Footnote 15: _Una delle edizioni del Morgante impresse nel -secolo XV, ecc.--_ - -_Quale delle opere di Francesco Petrarca, sarebbe malagevole -l'indovinare, ma probabilmente il Canzoniere._ (G. D'A.)] Petrarch. - -John de Mandeville [Footnote 16: _Sono i viaggi del cavaliere_ -"_Mandeville_" _gentiluomo inglese. Scrisse il suo libro in lingua -francese. Fu stampato replicatamente nel secolo XV in francese, in -inglese ed in italiano ed in tedesco; del secolo XV ne annoverano -forse piu di 27 edizioni, di cui ne conosciamo_ 8 _in francese, -quattro in latino, sei in tedesco e molte altre in volgare._ (G. -D'A.)] - -'On honest recreation' [Footnote 17: _Il Platina (Bartolomeo Sacchi) -la versione italiana_ "_de la honesta voluptate, & valetudine (& de -li obsonnii) Venetia (senza nome di tipografo)_ 1487," _piccolo -in_-4� _gotico._ (G. D'A.)--Compare No. 844, 21.] - -Manganello, [Footnote 18: _Il Manganello: Satira eccessivamente -vivace contro le donne ad imitazione della Sesta di Giovenale. -Manganello non e soltanto il titolo del libricino, sua ben anche il -nome dell'autore ch'era un_ "_milanese_". _Di questo libercolo -rarissimo, che sembra impresso a Venezia dallo Zoppino (Nicolo -d'Aristotile detto il), senza data, ma dei primissimi anni del -secolo XVI, e forse piu antico, come vedremo in appresso, non se ne -conoscono fra biblioteche pubbliche e private che due soli esemplari -in Europa._ (G. D'A.)] - -The Chronicle of Isidoro, [Footnote 19: "_Cronica desidero_", -_sembra si deggia leggere piuttosto_ "_cronico disidoro_"_; ed in -questo caso s'intenderebbe la_ "_cronica d'Isidoro_" _tanto in voga -a quel tempo_ "_Comenza la Cronica di Sancto Isidoro menore con -alchune additione cavate del testo & istorie de la Bibia & del libro -di Paulo Oroso .... Impresso in Ascoli in casa del reverendo misser -Pascale ..... per mano di Guglielmo de Linis de Alamania -M.CCCC.LXXVII_" _in_-4� _di_ 157 _ff. E il primo libro impresso ad -Ascoli e l'edizione principe di questa cronica in oggi assai rara. -Non lo e meno l'edizione di Cividal del Friuli_, 1480, _e quella ben -anche di Aquila_, 1482, _sempre in-_4�. _Vedasi Panzer, Hain, Brunet -e P. Dechamps._ (G. D'A.)] - -The Epistles of Ovid, [Footnote 20: "_Le pistole di Ovidio tradotte -in prosa. Napoli Sixt. Riessinger_", _in_-4�, _oppure:_ "_Epistole -volgarizzate_ 1489," _in_-4� _a due col._ "_impresse ne la cita -(sic) di Bressa per pre: Baptista de Farfengo,_" _(in ottave) o:_ -"_El libro dele Epistole di Ovidio in rima volgare per messere -Dominico de Monticelli toschano. Brescia Farfengo_," _in_-4� _got. -(in rima volgare)_, 1491, _ed anche la versione di Luca Pulci. -Firenze, Mischomini_, 1481, _in_-4�. (G. D'A.) ] - -Epistles of Filelfo, [Footnote 21: See l. 4.] - -Sphere, [Footnote 22: "_Jo: de Sacrobusto_," _o_ "_Goro Dati_," _o_ -"_Tolosano da Colle_" _di cui molteplici edizioni del secolo XV._ -(G. D'A.)] - -The Jests of Poggio, [Footnote 23: _Tre edizioni delle facezie del -Poggio abbiamo in lingua italiana della fine del secolo XV, tutte -senza data. "Facetie de Poggio fiorentino traducte de latino in -vulgare ornatissimo," in-40, segn. a--e in caratteri romani; -l'altra: "Facetie traducte de latino in vulgare," in-40, caratteri -gotici, ecc._ (G. D'A.)] Chiromancy, [Footnote 24: "_Die Kunst -Cyromantia etc, in tedesco. 26 ff. di testo e figure il tutte -eseguito su tavole di legno verso la fine del secolo XV da Giorgio -Schapff". Dibdin, Heinecken, Sotheby e Chatto ne diedero una lunga -descrizione; i primi tre accompagnati da fac-simili. La data 1448 -che si legge alla fine del titolo si riferisce al periodo della -composizione del testo, non a quello della stampa del volume benche -tabellario. Altri molti libri di Chiromanzia si conoscono di quel -tempo e sarebbe opera vana il citarli tutti._ (G. D'A.)] - -Formulary of letters, [Footnote 25: _Miniatore Bartolomeo. -"Formulario de epistole vulgare missive e responsive, & altri fiori -de ornali parlamenti al principe Hercule d'Esti ecc. composto ecc. -Bologna per Ugo di Rugerii," in-40, del secolo XV. Altra edizione di -"Venetia Bernardino di Novara, 1487" e "Milano per Joanne Angelo -Scinzenzeler 1500," in-40._ (G. D'A.) - -Five books out of this list are noted by Leonardo in another MS. -(Tr. 3): _donato, -- lapidario, -- plinio, -- abacho, -- morgante._] - -1470. - -Nonius Marcellus, Festus Pompeius, Marcus Varro. - -[Footnote: Nonius Marcellus and Sextus Pompeius Festus were Roman -grammarians of about the fourth century A. D. Early publications of -the works of Marcellus are: _De proprietate sermonis, Romae_ (about -1470), and 1471 (place of publication unknown). _Compendiosa -doctrina, ad filium, de proprietate sermonum._ Venice, 1476. BRUNET, -_Manuel du libraire_ (IV, p. 97) notes: _Le texte de cet ancien -grammairien a ete reimprime plusieurs fois a la fin du XVe siecle, -avec ceux de Pomponius Festus et de Terentius Varro. La plus -ancienne edition qui reunisse ces trois auteurs est celle de Parme, -1480 ... Celles de Venise, 1483, 1490, 1498, et de Milan, 1500, -toutes in-fol., ont peu de valeur._] - -1471. - -Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello Merciaio has from maestro -Maffeo;--there for seven years the earth rises and for seven years -it sinks;--Enquire at the stationers about Vitruvius. - -1472. - -See 'On Ships' Messer Battista, and Frontinus 'On Acqueducts' -[Footnote 2: 2. _Vitruvius de Arch., et Frontinus de Aquedoctibus._ -Florence, 1513.--This is the earliest edition of Frontinus.--The -note referring to this author thus suggests a solution of the -problem of the date of the Leicester Manuscript.]. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 1113, 25.] - -1473. - -Anaxagoras: Every thing proceeds from every thing, and every thing -becomes every thing, and every thing can be turned into every thing -else, because that which exists in the elements is composed of those -elements. - -1474. - -The Archimedes belonging to the Bishop of Padua. - -[Footnote: See No. 1421, 1. 3, 6 and Vol. I, No. 343.] - -1475. - -Archimedes gave the quadrature of a polygonal figure, but not of the -circle. Hence Archimedes never squared any figure with curved sides. -He squared the circle minus the smallest portion that the intellect -can conceive, that is the smallest point visible. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 1504.] - -1476. - -If any man could have discovered the utmost powers of the cannon, in -all its various forms and have given such a secret to the Romans, -with what rapidity would they have conquered every country and have -vanquished every army, and what reward could have been great enough -for such a service! Archimedes indeed, although he had greatly -damaged the Romans in the siege of Syracuse, nevertheless did not -fail of being offered great rewards from these very Romans; and when -Syracuse was taken, diligent search was made for Archimedes; and he -being found dead greater lamentation was made for him by the Senate -and people of Rome than if they had lost all their army; and they -did not fail to honour him with burial and with a statue. At their -head was Marcus Marcellus. And after the second destruction of -Syracuse, the sepulchre of Archimedes was found again by Cato[25], -in the ruins of a temple. So Cato had the temple restored and the -sepulchre he so highly honoured.... Whence it is written that Cato -said that he was not so proud of any thing he had done as of having -paid such honour to Archimedes. - -[Footnote: Where Leonardo found the statement that Cato had found -and restored the tomb of Archimedes, I do not know. It is a merit -that Cicero claims as his own (Tusc. V, 23) and certainly with a -full right to it. None of Archimedes' biographers --not even the -diligent Mazzucchelli, mentions any version in which Cato is named. -It is evidently a slip of the memory on Leonardo's part. Besides, -according to the passage in Cicero, the grave was not found _'nelle -ruine d'un tempio'_--which is highly improbable as relating to a -Greek--but in an open spot (H. MULLER-STRUBING).--See too, as to -Archimedes, No. 1417. - -Leonardo says somewhere in MS. C.A.: _Architronito e una macchina di -fino rame, invenzlon d' Archimede_ (see _'Saggio'_, p. 20).] - -1477. - -Aristotle, Book 3 of the Physics, and Albertus Magnus, and Thomas -Aquinas and the others on the rebound of bodies, in the 7th on -Physics, on heaven and earth. - -1478. - -Aristotle says that if a force can move a body a given distance in a -given time, the same force will move half the same body twice as far -in the same time. - -1479. - -Aristotle in Book 3 of the Ethics: Man merits praise or blame solely -in such matters as lie within his option to do or not to do. - -1480. - -Aristotle says that every body tends to maintain its nature. - -1481. - -On the increase of the Nile, a small book by Aristotle. [Footnote: -_De inundatione Nili_, is quoted here and by others as a work of -Aristotle. The Greek original is lost, but a Latin version of the -beginning exists (Arist. Opp. IV p. 213 ed. Did. Par.). - -In his quotations from Aristotle Leonardo possibly refers to one of -the following editions: _Aristotelis libri IV de coelo et mundo; de -anima libri III; libri VIII physi- corum; libri de generatione et -corruptione; de sensu et sensato... omnia latine, interprete -Averroe, Venetiis 1483_ (first Latin edition). There is also a -separate edition of _Liber de coelo et mundo_, dated 1473.] - -1482. - -Avicenna will have it that soul gives birth to soul as body to body, -and each member to itself. - -[Footnote: Avicenna, see too No. 1421, 1. 2.] - -1483. - -Avicenna on liquids. - -1484. - -Roger Bacon, done in print. [Footnote: The earliest printed edition -known to Brunet of the works of Roger Bacon, is a French -translation, which appeared about fourty years after Leonardo's -death.] - -1485. - -Cleomedes the philosopher. - -[Footnote: Cleomede. A Greek mathematician of the IVth century B. C. -We have a Cyclic theory of Meteorica by him. His works were not -published before Leonardo's death.] - -1486. - -CORNELIUS CELSUS. - -The highest good is wisdom, the chief evil is suffering in the body. -Because, as we are composed of two things, that is soul and body, of -which the first is the better, the body is the inferior; wisdom -belongs to the better part, and the chief evil belongs to the worse -part and is the worst of all. As the best thing of all in the soul -is wisdom, so the worst in the body is suffering. Therefore just as -bodily pain is the chief evil, wisdom is the chief good of the soul, -that is with the wise man; and nothing else can be compared with it. - -[Footnote: _Aulus Cornelius Celsus_, a Roman physician, known as the -Roman Hippocrates, probably contemporary with Augustus. Only his -eight Books 'De Medicina', are preserved. The earliest editions are: -_Cornelius Celsus, de medicina libr. VIII._, Milan 1481 Venice 1493 -and 1497.] - -1487. - -Demetrius was wont to say that there was no difference between the -speech and words of the foolish and ignorant, and the noises and -rumblings of the wind in an inflated stomach. Nor did he say so -without reason, for he saw no difference between the parts whence -the noise issued; whether their lower parts or their mouth, since -one and the other were of equal use and importance. - -[Footnote: Compare Vol. I, No. 10.] - -1488. - -Maestro Stefano Caponi, a physician, lives at the piscina, and has -Euclid _De Ponderibus_. - -1489. - -5th Book of Euclid. First definition: a part is a quantity of less -magnitude than the greater magnitude when the less is contained a -certain number of times in the greater. - -A part properly speaking is that which may be multiplied, that is -when, being multiplied by a certain number, it forms exactly the -whole. A common aggregate part ... - -Second definition. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a -less, when the greater is measured by the less. - -By the first we define the lesser [magnitude] and by the second the -greater is defined. A part is spoken - -1490. - -of in relation to the whole; and all their relations lie between -these two extremes, and are called multiples. - -1491. - -Hippocrates says that the origin of men's sperm derives from the -brain, and from the lungs and testicles of our parents, where the -final decocture is made, and all the other limbs transmit their -substance to this sperm by means of expiration, because there are no -channels through which they might come to the sperm. - -[Footnote: The works of Hippocrates were printed first after -Leonardo's death.] - -1492. - -Lucretius in his third [book] 'De Rerum Natura'. The hands, nails -and teeth were (165) the weapons of ancient man. - -They also use for a standard a bunch of grass tied to a pole (167). - -[Footnote: _Lucretius, de rerum natura libri VI_ were printed first -about 1473, at Verona in 1486, at Brescia in 1495, at Venice in 1500 -and in 1515, and at Florence in 1515. The numbers 165 and 167 noted -by Leonardo at the end of the two passages seem to indicate pages, -but if so, none of the editions just mentioned can here be meant, -nor do these numbers refer to the verses in the poems of Lucretius.] - -1493. - -Ammianus Marcellinus asserts that seven hundred thousand volumes of -books were burnt in the siege of Alexandria in the time of Julius -Cesar. - -[Footnote: _Ammiani Marcellini historiarum libri qui extant XIII_, -published at Rome in 1474.] - -1494. - -Mondino says that the muscles which raise the toes are in the -outward side of the thigh, and he adds that there are no muscles in -the back [upper side] of the feet, because nature desired to make -them light, so as to move with ease; and if they had been fleshy -they would be heavier; and here experience shows ... - -[Footnote: _"Mundini anatomia. Mundinus, Anothomia (sic). Mundini -praestantissimorum doctorum almi studii ticiensis (sic) cura -diligentissime emendata. Impressa Papiae per magistrum Antonium de -Carfano 1478," in-fol.; ristampata: "Bononiae Johan. de Noerdlingen, -1482," in-fol.; "Padova per Mattheum Cerdonis de Vuindischgretz, -1484," in-40; "Lipsia, 1493," in-40; "Venezia, 1494," in-40 e ivi -"1498," con fig. Queste figure per altro non sono, come si e -preteso, le prime che fossero introdotte in un trattato di Notamia. -Nel 'fasciculus Medicinae' di Giovanni Ketham, che riproduce -l''Anatomia' del Mundinus, impresso pure a Venezia da J. e G. de -Gregoriis, 1491, in-fol., contengonsi intagli in legno (si vogliono -disegnati non gia incisi da Andrea Mantegna) di grande dimensione, e -che furono piu volte riprodotti negli anni successivi. Quest' -edizione del "fasciculus" del 1491, sta fra nostri libri e potrebbe -benissimo essere il volume d'Anatomia notato da Leonardo._ (G. -D'A.)] - -1495. - -Of the error of those who practice without knowledge;--[3] See first -the 'Ars poetica' of Horace [5]. - -[Footnote: A 3-5 are written on the margin at the side of the title -line of the text given, entire as No. 19] - -1496. - -The heirs of Maestro Giovanni Ghiringallo have the works of -Pelacano. - -1497. - -The catapult, as we are told by Nonius and Pliny, is a machine -devised by those &c. - -[Footnote: _Plinius_, see No. 946.] - -1498. - -I have found in a history of the Spaniards that in their wars with -the English Archimedes of Syracuse who at that time was living at -the court of Ecliderides, King of the Cirodastri. And in maritime -warfare he ordered that the ships should have tall masts, and that -on their tops there should be a spar fixed [Footnote 6: Compare No. -1115.] of 40 feet long and one third of a foot thick. At one end of -this was a small grappling iron and at the other a counterpoise; and -there was also attached 12 feet of chain; and, at the end of this -chain, as much rope as would reach from the chain to the base of the -top, where it was fixed with a small rope; from this base it ran -down to the bottom of the mast where a very strong spar was attached -and to this was fastened the end of the rope. But to go on to the -use of his machine; I say that below this grappling iron was a fire -[Footnote 14: Compare No. 1128.] which, with tremendous noise, threw -down its rays and a shower of burning pitch; which, pouring down on -the [enemy's] top, compelled the men who were in it to abandon the -top to which the grappling-iron had clung. This was hooked on to the -edges of the top and then suddenly the cord attached at the base of -the top to support the cord which went from the grappling iron, was -cut, giving way and drawing in the enemy's ship; and if the -anchor--was cast ... - -[Footnote: Archimedes never visited Spain, and the names here -mentioned cannot be explained. Leonardo seems to quote here from a -book, perhaps by some questionable mediaeval writer. Prof. C. Justi -writes to me from Madrid, that Spanish savants have no knowledge of -the sources from which this story may have been derived.] - -1499. - -Theophrastus on the ebb and flow of the tide, and of eddies, and on -water. [Footnote: The Greek philosophers had no opportunity to study -the phenomenon of the ebb and flow of the tide and none of them -wrote about it. The movement of the waters in the Euripus however -was to a few of them a puzzling problem.] - -1500. - -Tryphon of Alexandria, who spent his life at Apollonia, a city of -Albania (163). [Footnote: Tryphon of Alexandria, a Greek Grammarian -of the time of Augustus. His treatise TtaOY Aeijecu appeared first -at Milan in 1476, in Constantin Laskaris's Greek Grammar.] - -1501. - -Messer Vincenzio Aliprando, who lives near the Inn of the Bear, has -Giacomo Andrea's Vitruvius. - -1502. - -Vitruvius says that small models are of no avail for ascertaining -the effects of large ones; and I here propose to prove that this -conclusion is a false one. And chiefly by bringing forward the very -same argument which led him to this conclusion; that is, by an -experiment with an auger. For he proves that if a man, by a certain -exertion of strength, makes a hole of a given diameter, and -afterwards another hole of double the diameter, this cannot be made -with only double the exertion of the man's strength, but needs much -more. To this it may very well be answered that an auger - -1503. - -of double the diameter cannot be moved by double the exertion, be- -cause the superficies of a body of the same form but twice as large -has four times the extent of the superficies of the smaller, as is -shown in the two figures a and n. - -1504. - -OF SQUARING THE CIRCLE, AND WHO IT WAS THAT FIRST DISCOVERED IT BY -ACCIDENT. - -Vitruvius, measuring miles by means of the repeated revolutions of -the wheels which move vehicles, extended over many Stadia the lines -of the circumferences of the circles of these wheels. He became -aware of them by the animals that moved the vehicles. But he did not -discern that this was a means of finding a square equal to a circle. -This was first done by Archimedes of Syracuse, who by multiplying -the second diameter of a circle by half its circumference produced a -rectangular quadrilateral equal figure to the circle [Footnote 10: -Compare No. 1475.]. - -[Footnote: _Vitruvius_, see also Nos. 1113 and 343.] - -1505. - -Virgil says that a blank shield is devoid of merit because among the -people of Athens the true recognition confirmed by testimonies ... - -[Footnote: The end of the text cannot be deciphered.] - -1506. - -In Vitolone there are 805 conclusions [problems] in perspective. - -[Footnote: _(Witelo, Vitellion, Vitellon) Vitellione. E da vedersi -su questo ottico prospettico del secolo XIII Luca Pacioli, Paolo -Lomazzo, Leonardo da Vinci, ecc. e fra i moderni il Graesse, il -Libri, il Brunet, e le Memorie pubblicate dal principe Boncompagni, -e 'Sur l' orthographe du nom et sur la patrie de Witelo (Vitellion) -note de Maximilien Curtze, professeur a Thorn', ove sono descritti i -molti codici esistenti nelle biblioteche d' Europa. Bernardino Baldi -nelle sue 'Vite de'matematici', manoscritto presso il principe -Boncompagni, ha una biografia del Vitellione. Questo scritto del -Baldi reca la data 25 agosto 1588. Discorsero poi di lui Federigo -Risnerio e Giovanni di Monteregio nella prefazione dell' Alfagrano, -Giovanni Boteone, Girolamo Cardano, 'De subtilitate', che nota gli -errori di Vitellione. Visse, secondo il Baldi, intorno all' anno -1269, ma secondo il Reinoldo fioriva nel 1299, avendo dedicata la -sua opera ad un frate Guglielmo di Monteca, che visse di que' tempi. - -Intorno ad un manoscritto dell' ottica di Vitellione, citato da Luca -Pacioli v'ha un secondo esemplare del Kurlz, con aggiunte del -principe Boncompagni, e le illustrazioni del cav. Enrico Narducci. -Nel 'Catalogo di manoscritti' posseduti da D. Baldassare de' -principi Boncompagni, compilato da esso Narducci, Roma, 1862, sotto -al n. 358, troviamo citato: Vitellio, 'Perspectiva', manoscritto del -secolo XIV. La 'Prospettiva di Vitelleone' (sic) Thuringo-poloni e -citata due volte da Paolo Lomazzo nel Trattato dell' arte della -pittura. Vitellio o Vitello o Witelo. Il suo libro fu impresso in -foglio a Norimberga nel 1535; la secondo edizione e del 1551, sempre -di Norimberga, ed una terza di Basilea, 1572._ (See _Indagini -Storiche ... sulla Libreria-Visconteo-Sforzesca del Castello di -Pavia ... per cura di_ G. D'A., _Milano 1879. P. I. Appendice p. -113. 114)._] - -1507. - -Vitolone, at Saint Mark's. - -[Footnote: _Altro codice di cotesta 'Prospettiva' del Vitolone -troviamo notato nel 'Canone bibliographico di Nicolo V', conservato -alla, Magliabecchiana, in copia dell' originale verosimilmente -inviato dal Parentucelli a Cosimo de' Medici (Magliab. cod. segn. 1 -VII, 30 carte da 193 a 198). Proviene dal Convento di San Marco e lo -aveva trascritto frate Leonardo Scruberti fiorentino, dell' ordine -dei predicatori che fu anche bibliotecario della Medicea pubblica in -San Marco_ (See _Indagini Storiche ... per cura di_ G. D'A. _Parte -I, p. 97)._] - -1508. - -How this proposition of Xenophon is false. - -If you take away unequal quantities from unequal quantities, but in -the same proportion, &c. [Footnote: Xenophon's works were published -several times during Leonardo's lifetime.] - -Inventories and accounts (1509--1545). - -1509. - -On the 28th day of April I received from the Marchesino 103 lire and -12 dinari. [Footnote: Instead of the indication of the year there is -a blank space after _d'aprile_.--Marchesino Stange was one of -Lodovico il Moro's officials.--Compare No. 1388.] - -1510. - -On the 10th day of July 1492 in 135 -Rhenish florins 1. 445 -in dinari of 6 soldi 1. 112 S 16 -in dinari of 5 1/2 soldi 1. 29 S 13 -9 in gold and 3 scudi 1. 53 - ----------------------------- - 1. 811 in all - -1511. - -On the first day of February, lire 1200. - -1512. - -The hall towards the court is 126 paces long and 27 braccia wide. - -1513. - -The narrow cornice above the hall lire 30. - -The cornice beneath that, being one for each picture, lire 7, and -for the cost of blue, gold, white, plaster, indigo and glue 3 lire; -time 3 days. - -The pictures below these mouldings with their pilasters, 12 lire -each. - -I calculate the cost for smalt, blue and gold and other colours at 1 -1/2 lire. - -The days I calculate at 3, for the invention of the composition, -pilasters and other things. - -1514. - -Item for each vault 7 lire - -outlay for blue and gold 3 1/2 - -time, 4 days - -for the windows 1 1/2 - -The cornice below the windows 16 soldi per braccio - -item for 24 pictures of Roman history 14 lire each - -The philosophers 10 lire - -the pilasters, one ounce of blue 10 soldi - -for gold 15 soldi - -Total 2 and 1/2 lire. - -1515. - -The cornice above lire 30 - -The cornice below lire 7 - -The compositions, one with another lire 13 - -1516. - -Salai, 6 lire ... 4 soldi ... 10 soldi for a chain;-- - -On the l4th of March I had 13 lire S. 4; 16 lire remain. - -1517. - -How many braccia high is the level of the walls?-- - -123 braccia - -How large is the hall? - -How large is the garland? - -30 ducats. - -On the 29th day of January, 1494 - -cloth for hose lire 4 S 3 - -lining S 16 - -making S 8 - -to Salai S 3 - -a jasper ring S 13 - -a sparkling stone S 11 - -to Caterina S 10 - -to Caterina S 10 - -1518. - -The wheel lire 7 - -the tire lire 10 - -the shield lire 4 - -the cushion lire 8 - -the ends of the axle-tree lire 2 - -bed and frame lire 30 - -conduit lire 10 - -S.K.M.II.2 4a] - -1519. - -Parsley 10 parts - -mint 1 part - -thyme 1 part - -Vinegar ... and a little salt two pieces of canvas for Salai. - -[Footnote: This note, of about the year 1494, is the earliest -mention of Salai, and the last is of the year 1513 (see No. 1465, -3). From the various notes in the MSS. he seems to have been -Leonardo's assistant and keeper only, and scarcely himself a -painter. At any rate no signed or otherwise authenticated picture by -him is known to exist. Vasari speaks somewhat doubtfully on this -point.] - -1520. - -On Tuesday I bought wine for morning [drinking]; on Friday the 4th -day of September the same. - -[Footnote: This note enables us to fix the date of the Manuscript, -in which it is to be found. In 1495 the 4th of September fell on a -Friday; the contents of the Manuscript do not permit us to assign it -to a much earlier or later date (Compare No. 1522, and Note).] - -1521. - -The cistern ... at the Hospital, --2 ducats, --beans, --white maize, ---red maize, --millet, --buckwheat, --kidney beans, --beans, --peas. - -1522. - -EXPENSES OF THE INTERMENT OF CATERINA. - -For the 3 lbs of tapers 27 S -For the bier 8 S -A pall over the bier 12 S -For bearing and placing the cross 4 S -For bearing the body 8 S -For 4 priests and 4 clerks 20 S -Bell, book and sponge 2 S -For the gravediggers 16 S -To the senior 8 S -For a license from the authorities 1 S -106 S - -The doctor 2 S -Sugar and candles 12 S -120 S - -[Footnote: See Nos. 1384 and 1517.] - -1523. - -Salai's cloak, the 4th of April 1497. -4 braccia of silver cloth l. 15 S 4 -green velvet to trim it l. 9 S -- -binding l.-- S 9 -loops l.-- S 12 -the making l. 1 S 5 -binding for the front l.-- S 5 -stitching _________ -here are 13 grossoni of his l. 26 S 5 -Salai stole the soldi. - -1524. - -On Monday I bought 4 braccia of cloth lire 13 S 14 1/2 on the 17th -of, October 1497. - -1525. - -Memorandum. That on the 8th day of April 1503, I, Leonardo da Vinci, -lent to Vante, miniature painter 4 gold ducats, in gold. Salai -carried them to him and gave them into his own hand, and he said he -would repay within the space of 40 days. - -Memorandum. That on the same day I paid to Salai 3 gold ducats which -he said he wanted for a pair of rose-coloured hose with their -trimming; and there remain 9 ducats due to him--excepting that he -owes me 20 ducats, that is 17 I lent him at Milan, and 3 at Venice. - -Memorandum. That I gave Salai 21 braccia of cloth to make a shirt, -at 10 soldi the braccio, which I gave him on the 20th day of April -1503. - -[Footnote: With regard to Vante or Attavante, the miniature painter -(not Nanni as I formerly deciphered this name, which is difficult to -read; see _Zeitschrift fur Bild. Kunst_, 1879, p. 155), and Vasari, -Lives of Frate Giovanni da Fiesole, of Bartolommeo della Gatta, and -of Gherardo, _miniatore._ He, like Leonardo, was one of the -committee of artists who, in 1503, considered the erection and -placing of Michel Angelo's David. The date of his death is not -known; he was of the same age as Leonardo. Further details will be -found in '_Notizie di Attavante miniatore, e di alcuni suoi lavori_' -(Milanese's ed. of Vasari, III, 231-235).] - -1526. - -On the morning of San Peter's day, June 29th, 1504, I took io -ducats, of which I gave one to Tommaso my servant to spend. - -On Monday morning 1 florin to Salai to spend on the house. - -On Thursday I took 1 florin for my own spending. - -Wednesday evening 1 florin to Tommaso, before supper. - -Saturday morning 1 florin to Tommaso. - -Monday morning 1 florin less 10 soldi. - -Thursday to Salai 1 florin less 10 soldi. - -For a jerkin, 1 florin. - -For a jerkin And a cap 2 florins. - -To the hosier, 1 florin. - -To Salai, 1 florin. - -Friday morning, the 19th of July, 1 florin, less 6 soldi. I have 7 -fl. left, and 22 in the box. - -Tuesday, the 23th day of July, 1 florin to Tommaso. - -Monday morning, to Tommaso 1 florin. - -[Wednesday morning 1 fl. to Tommaso.] - -Thursday morning the 1st day of August 1 fl. to Tommaso. - -Sunday, the 4th of August, 1 florin. - -Friday, the 9th day of August 1504, I took 10 ducats out of the box. - -1527. - -1504. On the 9th day of August, 1504, I took 10 florins in gold[2] -... [3] on Friday the 9th day of August fifteen grossoni that is fl. -5 S 5 ... given to me 1 florin in gold on the 12th day of August [4] -... on the 14th of August, 32 grossoni to Tommaso. On the 18th of -the same 5 grossoni to Salai. On the 8th of September 6 grossoni to -the workman to spend; that is on the day of our Lady's birth. On the -16th day of September I gave 4 grossoni to Tommaso: on a Sunday. - -[Footnote: In the original, the passage given as No. 1463 is written -between lines 2 and 3 of this text, and it is possible that the -entries in lines 3 and 4 refer to the payments of Jacopo Tedesco, -who is there mentioned. The first words of these lines are very -illegible.] - -[Footnote 7: _Al fattore._ Il Fattore, was, as is well known, the -nick-name of Giovanni Franceso Penni, born in Florence in 1486, and -subsequently a pupil of Raphael's. According to Vasari he was known -by it even as a boy. Whether he is spoken of in this passage, or -whether the word Fattore should be translated literally, I will not -undertake to decide. The latter seems to me more probably right.] - -1528. - -On the day of October, 1508, I had 30 scudi; 13 I lent to Salai to -make up his sister's dowry, and 17 I have left. - -1529. - -Memorandum of the money I have had from the King as my salary from -July 1508 till April next 1509. First 100 scudi, then 70, then 50, -then 20 and then 200 florins at 48 soldi the florin. [Footnote: -Compare No. 1350 and 1561.] - -1530. - -Saturday the 2nd day of March I had from Santa Maria Novella 5 gold -ducats, leaving 450. Of these I gave 2 the same day to Salai, who -had lent them to me. [Footnote: See '_Conto corrente di Leonardo da -Vinci con lo Spedale di S. Maria Nuova_' [1500 a 1507, 1513-1520] -published by G. UZIELLI, _Ricerche intorno a Leonardo da Vinci, -Firenze,_ 1872, pp. 164, 165, 218 and 219. The date here given by -Leonardo does not occur in either of the accounts.] - -1531. - -Thursday, the eighth day of June, I took 17 grossoni, 18 soldi; on -the same Thursday in the morning I gave to Salai 22 soldi for the -expenses. - -1532. - -To Salai 4 grossoni, and for one braccio of velvet, 5 lire, and 1/2; -viz. 10 soldi for loops of silver; Salai 14 soldi for binding, the -making of the cloak 25 soldi. [Footnote: Compare No. 1523.] - -1533. - -I gave to Salai 93 lire 6 soldi, of which I have had 67 lire and -there remain 26 lire 6 soldi. - -1534. - -To Salai S 42 - -2 dozen of laces S 8 - -for papers S 3 d 8 - -a pair of shoes S 14 - -for velvet S 14 - -a sword and knife S 21 - -to the barber S 11 - -to Paolo for a ... S 20 - -For having his fortune told S 6 - -1535. - -On Friday morning, -one florin to Salai to -spend; 3 soldi received - -bread S.. d - -wine S.. d - -grapes S.. d - -mushrooms S.. d - -fruit S.. d - -[Footnote 6: Compare Nos. 1545, l. 4 and 5, -with similar entries for horse's fodder.] -bran S.. d - -at the barber's S.. d - -for shoes S.. d - -1536. - -On Thursday morning one florin. - -1537. - -On Saint Ambrose's day from the morning to Thursday 36 soldi. - -1538. - -The moneys I have had from Ser Matteo; -first 20 grassoni, then on 13 occasions 3 f. -and then 61 grassoni, then 3, and then 33; -46 soldi 12 grossoni. - -1539. - -For paper S 18 - -for canvas S 30 - -for paper S 10 d 19 - -Total S 73 - -1540. - -20 pounds of German -blue, at one ducat the pound lire 80 S d - -60 pounds of white, S.. -the pound lire 15 S d - -1 1/2 pound at 4 S the pound lire 6 S d - -2 pounds of cinnabar at -S 18 the pound lire 1 S 16 d - -6 pounds of green at S 12 -the pound lire 3 S 12 d - -4 pounds of yellow at S 12 -the pound lire 2 S 8 d - -1 pound of minium at S 8 -the pound lire 0 S 8 d - -4 pounds of ... at S 2 -the pound lire 0 S 8 d - -6 pounds of ochre at S 1 -the pound lire 0 S 6 d - -black ... at S 2 the pound -for 20 lire 2 S 0 d - -wax to make the stars -29 pounds at S--the pound lire 0 S 0 d - -40 pounds of oil for painting -at 5 soldi the pound lire 10 S 0 d - -Altogether lire 120 d 18 -without the gold. 18 - -tin for putting on the gold 120 18 - -58 - -1541. - -Two large hatchets and one very small one, 8 brass spoons, 4 -tablecloths, 2 towels, 15 small napkins, 2 coarse napkins, 2 coarse -cloths, 2 wrappers, 3 pairs of sheets, 2 pairs new and 1 old. - -1542. - -Bed 7 0 S - -ring 7 0 - -crockery 2 5 - -gardener 1 2 - -..... 2 8 - -porters 2 1 - -glasses 1 - -fuel 3 6 - -a lock 1 - -Section title: Miscellaneous Notes. - -1543. - -New tin-ware 3 pairs of sheets -6 small bowls, each of 4 breadths, -6 bowls, 2 small sheets, -2 large dishes, 2 tablecloths and 1/2, -2 dishes medium size, 16 coarse cloths, -2 small ones 8 shirts, - Old tin-ware 9 napkins, -3 small bowls, 2 hand-towels. -4 bowls, -3 square stones, -2 small bowls, -1 large bowl, -1 platter, -4 candlesticks, -1 small candlestick. - -1544. - -Hose S 40 -straw S 60 -wheat S 42 -wine S 54 -bread S 18 -meat S 54 -eggs S 5 -salad S 3 -the Barber S 2 d 6 -horses S 1 - -1545. - - Sunday - -meat S 10 d -wine S 12 d -bran S 5 d 4 -herbs S 10 d -buttermilk S 4 d 4 -melon S 3 d -bread S 3 d 1 -____________________ - Monday S 9 8 -____________________ -..... S 6 d -wine S 12 d -bran S 9 d 4 -buttermilk S 4 d 4 -herbs S 8 d -____________________ - Tuesday S d -_____________________ -meat S 0 d 8 -wine S 12 d -bread S 3 d -meal S 5 d 4 -herbs S 8 d -_____________________ - Wednesday -_____________________ -wine S 5 d -melon S 2 d -meal S 5 d 4 -vegetables S 8 - -Notes by unknown persons among the MSS. (1546-1565). - -1546. - -Miseracione divina sacro sancte Romane ecclesie tituli n cardinalis -2wulgariter nuncupatus venerabili religioso fratri Johanni Mair -d'Nustorf 3ordinis praedicatorum provintie teutonie (?) conventus -Wiennensis capellano 4 nostro commensali salutem in dno sempiternam -Religione zelus rite ac in [ferite?] 5honestas aliarumque -laudabilium probitatis et virtutum merita quibus apud nos fide -6digno commendationis testimonio Magistri videlicet ordinis felicis -recordacionis Leonardi de 7Mansuetis de Perusio sigillo suo ... us -dans tibi ad ... opera virtutum comen(salem)? 8 locum et tempus -success(ores) cujus similiter officium ministratus qui -praedecessoris sui donum (?) 9confirmavit et de novo dedit -aliorumque plurima [laudatis] qui opera tua laudant 10nos inducunt -ut tibi (?) reddamus ad gratiam liberalem hinc est quod nos -cupientes. [Footnote: The meaning of this document, which is very -difficult to decipher, and is written in unintelligible Latin, is, -that Leonardo di Mansuetis recommends the Rev. Mair of Nusdorf, -chaplain at Vienna, to some third person; and says also that -something, which had to be proved, has been proved. The rest of the -passages on the same leaf are undoubtedly in Leonardo's hand. (Nos. -483, 661, 519, 578, 392, 582, 887 and 894.)] - -1547. - -Johannes Antonius di Johannes Ambrosius de Bolate. He who lets time -pass and does not grow in virtue, the more I think of it the more I -grieve. No man has it in him to be virtuous who will give up honour -for gain. Good fortune is valueless to him who knows not toil. The -man becomes happy who follows Christ. There is no perfect gift -without great suffering. Our glories and our triumphs pass away. -Foul lust, and dreams, and luxury, and sloth have banished every -virtue from the world; so that our Nature, wandering and perplexed, -has almost lost the old and better track. Henceforth it were well to -rouse thyself from sleep. The master said that lying in down will -not bring thee to Fame; nor staying beneath the quilts. He who, -without Fame, burns his life to waste, leaves no more vestige of -himself on earth than wind-blown smoke, or the foam upon the sea. -[Footnote: From the last sentence we may infer that this text is by -the hand of a pupil of Leonardo's.-- On the same sheet are the notes -Nos.1175 and 715 in Leonardo's own handwriting.] - -1548. - -On the morning of Santo Zanobio the -29th of May 1504, I had from Lionardo Vinci -15 gold ducats and began to spend them. -to Mona Margarita S 62 d 4 -to remake the ring S 19 d 8 -clothes S 13 -good beef S 4 -eggs S 6 -debt at the bank S 7 -velvet S 12 -wine S 6 d 4 -meat S 4 -mulberries S 2 d 4 -mushrooms S 3 d 4 -salad S 1 -fruit S 1 d 4 -candles S 3 -... S 1 -flour S 2 - - Sunday 198 8 - -bread S 6 -wine S 9 d 4 -meat S 7 -soup S 2 -fruit S 3 d 4 -candles S 3 d - -Monday 31 - -bread S 6 d 4 -meat S 10 d 8 -wine S 9 d 4 -fruit S 4 -soup S 1 d 8 - - 32 - -1549. - -Tuesday - -bread S 6 -meat S 11 -wine S 7 -fruit S 9 -soup S 2 -salad S 1 - -[Footnote 1548 and 1549: On the same sheet is the text No. 1015 in Leonardo's own handwriting.] - -1550. - -To Monna Margarita S 5 -to Tomaso S 14 -to Monna Margarita d 5 S 2 -on the day of San Zanobi -left ... after -payment d 13 S 2 d 4 -of Monna Margarita - - altogether d 14 S 5 d 4 - -1551. - -On Monday, the l3th of February, I lent lire S 7 to Lionardo to -spend, Friday d 7. - -[Footnote: This note is followed by an account very like the one -given as No. 1549.] - -1552. - -Stephano Chigi, Canonico ..., servant of the honorable Count Grimani -at S. Apostoli. - -[Footnote: Compare No. 674, 21-23.] - -1553. - -Having become anxious ... Bernardo di Simone, Silvestro di Stefano, -Bernardo di Jacopo, Francesco di Matteo Bonciani, Antonio di -Giovanni Ruberti, Antonio da Pistoia.... Antonio; He who has time -and waits for time, will lose his friends and his money. - -1554. - -Reverend Maestro, Domino Giovanni, I spoke to Maestro Zacaria as a -brother about this business, and I made him satisfied with the -arrangement that I had wished; that is, as regards the commission -that I had from the parties and I say that between us there is no -need to pay money down, as regard the pictures of the ... - -1555. - -Of things seen through a mist that which is nearest its farthest -limit will be least visible, and all the more so as they are more -remote. - -1556. - -Theodoricus Rex Semper Augustus. - -1557. - -Either you say Hesperia alone, and it will mean Italy, or you add -ultima, and it will mean Spain. Umbria, part of Tuscany. - -[Footnote: The notes in Greek, Nos. 1557, 1558 and 1562 stand in -close connection with each other, but the meaning of some words is -very doubtful, and a translation is thus rendered impossible.] - -1558. - -[Footnote: Greek Characters] - -1559. - -Canonica of ... on the 5th of July 1507; my dearly beloved mother, -sisters and cousin I herewith inform you that thanks to God I am ... -about the sword which I ... bring it to Maso at the piazza ... and I -will settle the business of Piero so that ... - -[Footnote: AMORETTI, _Mem. Stor. XXIV_, quotes the first three lines -of this letter as by Leonardo. The character of the writing however -does not favour this hypothesis, and still less the contents. I -should regard it rather a rough draft of a letter by young Melzi. I -have not succeeded in deciphering completely the 13 lines of this -text. Amoretti reads at the beginning _Canonica di Vaprio_, but -_Vaprio_ seems to me a very doubtful reading.] - -1560. - - Ut bene respondet Naturae ars docta! dedisset - Vincius, ut tribuit cetera - sic animam - - Noluit ut similis magis haec foret: altera sic est: - Possidet illius Maurus amans animam. - -[Footnote: These three epigrams on the portrait of Lucrezia -Crivelli, a picture by Leonardo which must have been lost at a very -early date, seem to have been dedicated to Leonardo by the poet. -Leonardo used the reverse of the sheet for notes on geometry.] - -Hujus quam cernis nomen Lucretia, Divi Omnia cui larga contribuere -manu. Rara huic forma data est; pinxit Leonardos, amavit Maurus, -pictorum primus hic, ille ducum. - -Naturam, ac superas hac laesit imagine Divas Pictor: tantum hominis -posse manum haec doluit, Illae longa dari tam magnae tempera formae, -Quae spatio fuerat deperitura brevi. - -1561. - -Egidius Romanus on the formation of the human body in the mother's -womb [Footnote 1: _Liber magistri Egidii de pulsibus matrice -conipositus (cum commentario Gentilis de Fulgineo)_ published in -1484 at Padova, in 1494 and in 1514 at Venice, and in 1505 at -Lyons.]. - -[Footnote 2:2. This text appears to be in a handwriting different -from that in the note, l. 1. Here the reading is not so simple as -AMORETTI gave it, _Mem. Star. XXV: A Monsieur Lyonard Peintre du Roy -pour Amboyse_. He says too that this address is of the year 1509, -and Mr. Ravaisson remarks: "_De cette suscription il semble qu'on -peut inferer que Leonard etait alors en France, a la cour de Louis -XII ... Pour conclure je crois qu'il n'est pas prouve que Leonard de -Vinci n'ait pas fait un voyage de quelques mois en France sous Louis -XII, entre le printemps de 1509 et l'automne de_ 1510."--I must -confess that I myself have not succeeded in deciphering completely -this French writing of which two words remain to me doubtful. But so -much seems to be quite evident that this is not an address of a -letter at all, but a certificate or note. _Amboise_[l. 6] I believe -to be the signature of Charles d'Amboise the Governor of Milan. If -this explanation is the right one, it can be easily explained by the -contents of Nos. 1350 and 1529. The note, line 1, was perhaps added -later by another hand; and Leonardo himself wrote afterwards on the -same sheet some geometrical explanations. I must also point out that -the statement that this sheet belongs to the year 1509 has -absolutely no foundation in fact. There is no clue whatever for -giving a precise date to this note.] To Monsieur le Vinci,--the -horses of the king's equerry.... Continue the payment to Ms. -Lyonard, Painter to the King. - -[6] Amboise. - -1562. - -[Footnote: Greek Characters] - -1563. - -Memorandum to Maestro Lionardo to have ... the state of Florence. - -1564. - -To remind your Excellency that Ridolfo Manini brought to Florence a -quantity of crystal besides other stones such as are ... - -1565. - -XVI C. 6 de Ciuitate Dei, se Antipodes. - -[Footnote: A facsimile of this note, which refers to a well known -book by St. Augustin, is given on page 254.] - -1566. - -Leonardo's Will. - -Be it known to all persons, present and to come that at the court of -our Lord the King at Amboise before ourselves in person, Messer -Leonardo da Vinci painter to the King, at present staying at the -place known as Cloux near Amboise, duly considering the certainty of -death and the uncertainty of its time, has acknowledged and declared -in the said court and before us that he has made, according to the -tenor of these presents, his testament and the declaration of his -last will, as follows. And first he commends his soul to our Lord, -Almighty God, and to the Glorious Virgin Mary, and to our lord Saint -Michael, to all the blessed Angels and Saints male and female in -Paradise. - -Item. The said Testator desires to be buried within the church of -Saint Florentin at Amboise, and that his body shall be borne thither -by the chaplains of the church. - -Item. That his body may be followed from the said place to the said -church of Saint Florentin by the _collegium_ of the said church, -that is to say by the rector and the prior, or by their vicars and -chaplains of the church of Saint Denis of Amboise, also the lesser -friars of the place, and before his body shall be carried to the -said church this Testator desires, that in the said church of Saint -Florentin three grand masses shall be celebrated by the deacon and -sub-deacon and that on the day when these three high masses are -celebrated, thirty low masses shall also be performed at Saint -Gregoire. - -Item. That in the said church of Saint Denis similar services shall -be performed, as above. - -Item. That the same shall be done in the church of the said friars -and lesser brethren. - -Item. The aforesaid Testator gives and bequeaths to Messer Francesco -da Melzo, nobleman, of Milan, in remuneration for services and -favours done to him in the past, each - -[Footnote: See page 420.] - -and all of the books the Testator is at present possessed of, and -the instruments and portraits appertaining to his art and calling as -a painter. - -Item. The same Testator gives and bequeaths henceforth for ever to -Battista de Vilanis his servant one half, that is the moity, of his -garden which is outside the walls of Milan, and the other half of -the same garden to Salai his servant; in which garden aforesaid -Salai has built and constructed a house which shall be and remain -henceforth in all perpetuity the property of the said Salai, his -heirs and successors; and this is in remuneration for the good and -kind services which the said de Vilanis and Salai, his servants have -done him in past times until now. - -Item. The said Testator gives to Maturina his waiting woman a cloak -of good black cloth lined with fur, a ... of cloth and two ducats -paid once only; and this likewise is in remuneration for good -service rendered to him in past times by the said Maturina. - -Item. He desires that at his funeral sixty tapers shall be carried -which shall be borne by sixty poor men, to whom shall be given money -for carrying them; at the discretion of the said Melzo, and these -tapers shall be distributed among the four above mentioned churches. - -Item. The said Testator gives to each of the said churches ten lbs. -of wax in thick tapers, which shall be placed in the said churches -to be used on the day when those said services are celebrated. - -Item. That alms shall be given to the poor of the Hotel-Dieu, to the -poor of Saint Lazare d'Amboise and, to that end, there shall be -given and paid to the treasurers of that same fraternity the sum and -amount of seventy soldi of Tours. - -Item. The said Testator gives and bequeaths to the said Messer -Francesco Melzo, being present and agreeing, the remainder of his -pension and the sums of money which are owing to him from the past -time till the day of his death by the receiver or treasurer-general -M. Johan Sapin, and each and every sum of money that he has already -received from the aforesaid Sapin of his said pension, and in case -he should die before the said Melzo and not otherwise; which moneys -are at present in the possession of the said Testator in the said -place called Cloux, as he says. And he likewise gives and bequeaths -to the said Melzo all and each of his clothes which he at present -possesses at the said place of Cloux, and all in remuneration for -the good and kind services done by him in past times till now, as -well as in payment for the trouble and annoyance he may incur with -regard to the execution of this present testament, which however, -shall all be at the expense of the said Testator. - -And he orders and desires that the sum of four hundred scudi del -Sole, which he has deposited in the hands of the treasurer of Santa -Maria Nuova in the city of Florence, may be given to his brothers -now living in Florence with all the interest and usufruct that may -have accrued up to the present time, and be due from the aforesaid -treasurer to the aforesaid Testator on account of the said four -hundred crowns, since they were given and consigned by the Testator -to the said treasurers. - -Item. He desires and orders that the said Messer Francesco de Melzo -shall be and remain the sole and only executor of the said will of -the said Testator; and that the said testament shall be executed in -its full and complete meaning and according to that which is here -narrated and said, to have, hold, keep and observe, the said Messer -Leonardo da Vinci, constituted Testator, has obliged and obliges by -these presents the said his heirs and successors with all his goods -moveable and immoveable present and to come, and has renounced and -expressly renounces by these presents all and each of the things -which to that are contrary. Given at the said place of Cloux in the -presence of Magister Spirito Fieri vicar, of the church of Saint -Denis at Amboise, of M. Guglielmo Croysant priest and chaplain, of -Magister Cipriane Fulchin, Brother Francesco de Corion, and of -Francesco da Milano, a brother of the Convent of the Minorites at -Amboise, witnesses summoned and required to that end by the -indictment of the said court in the presence of the aforesaid M. -Francesco de Melze who accepting and agreeing to the same has -promised by his faith and his oath which he has administered to us -personally and has sworn to us never to do nor say nor act in any -way to the contrary. And it is sealed by his request with the royal -seal apposed to legal contracts at Amboise, and in token of good -faith. - -Given on the XXIIIrd day of April MDXVIII, before Easter. - -And on the XXIIIrd day of this month of April MDXVIII, in the -presence of M. Guglielmo Borian, Royal notary in the court of the -bailiwick of Amboise, the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci gave and -bequeathed, by his last will and testament, as aforesaid, to the -said M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and agreeing, the right -of water which the King Louis XII, of pious memory lately deceased -gave to this same de Vinci, the stream of the canal of Santo -Cristoforo in the duchy of Milan, to belong to the said Vilanis for -ever in such wise and manner that the said gentleman made him this -gift in the presence of M. Francesco da Melzo, gentleman, of Milan -and in mine. - -And on the aforesaid day in the said month of April in the said year -MDXVIII the same M. Leonardo de Vinci by his last will and testament -gave to the aforesaid M. Baptista de Vilanis, being present and -agreeing, each and all of the articles of furniture and utensils of -his house at present at the said place of Cloux, in the event of the -said de Vilanis surviving the aforesaid M. Leonardo de Vinci, in the -presence of the said M. Francesco Melzo and of me Notary &c. 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Arthur Thomson - -Release Date: January 22, 2007 [EBook #20417] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE OF SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Janes, Leonard Johnson and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -[Illustration: THE GREAT SCARLET SOLAR PROMINENCES, WHICH ARE SUCH A -NOTABLE FEATURE OF THE SOLAR PHENOMENA, ARE IMMENSE OUTBURSTS OF FLAMING -HYDROGEN RISING SOMETIMES TO A HEIGHT OF 500,000 MILES] - - - - -THE -OUTLINE OF SCIENCE - -A PLAIN STORY SIMPLY TOLD - - - -EDITED BY -J. ARTHUR THOMSON -REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE -UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN - - - -WITH OVER 800 ILLUSTRATIONS -OF WHICH ABOUT 40 ARE IN COLOUR - - -IN FOUR VOLUMES - - - -G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS -NEW YORK AND LONDON -The Knickerbocker press - - - - -Copyright, 1922 -by -G. P. Putnam's Sons - - - -_First Printing April, 1922 -Second Printing April, 1922 -Third Printing April, 1922 -Fourth Printing April, 1922 -Fifth Printing June, 1922 -Sixth Printing June, 1922 -Seventh Printing June, 1922 -Eighth Printing June, 1922 -Ninth Printing August, 1922 -Tenth Printing September, 1922 -Eleventh Printing Sept., 1922 -Twelfth Printing, May, 1924_ - - -Made in the United States of America - - - - -INTRODUCTORY NOTE - -By Professor J. Arthur Thomson - - -Was it not the great philosopher and mathematician Leibnitz who said -that the more knowledge advances the more it becomes possible to -condense it into little books? Now this "Outline of Science" is -certainly not a little book, and yet it illustrates part of the meaning -of Leibnitz's wise saying. For here within reasonable compass there is a -library of little books--an outline of many sciences. - -It will be profitable to the student in proportion to the discrimination -with which it is used. For it is not in the least meant to be of the -nature of an Encyclopaedia, giving condensed and comprehensive articles -with a big full stop at the end of each. Nor is it a collection of -"primers," beginning at the very beginning of each subject and working -methodically onwards. That is not the idea. - -What then is the aim of this book? It is to give the intelligent -student-citizen, otherwise called "the man in the street," a bunch of -intellectual keys by which to open doors which have been hitherto shut -to him, partly because he got no glimpse of the treasures behind the -doors, and partly because the portals were made forbidding by an -unnecessary display of technicalities. Laying aside conventional modes -of treatment and seeking rather to open up the subject as one might on a -walk with a friend, the work offers the student what might be called -informal introductions to the various departments of knowledge. To put -it in another way, the articles are meant to be clues which the reader -may follow till he has left his starting point very far behind. Perhaps -when he has gone far on his own he will not be ungrateful to the simple -book of "instructions to travellers" which this "Outline of Science" is -intended to be. The simple "bibliographies" appended to the various -articles will be enough to indicate "first books." Each article is meant -to be an invitation to an intellectual adventure, and the short lists of -books are merely finger-posts for the beginning of the journey. - -We confess to being greatly encouraged by the reception that has been -given to the English serial issue of "The Outline of Science." It has -been very hearty--we might almost say enthusiastic. For we agree with -Professor John Dewey, that "the future of our civilisation depends upon -the widening spread and deepening hold of the scientific habit of mind." -And we hope that this is what "The Outline of Science" makes for. -Information is all to the good; interesting information is better still; -but best of all is the education of the scientific habit of mind. -Another modern philosopher, Professor L. T. Hobhouse, has declared that -the evolutionist's mundane goal is "the mastery by the human mind of the -conditions, internal as well as external, of its life and growth." Under -the influence of this conviction "The Outline of Science" has been -written. For life is not for science, but science for life. And even -more than science, to our way of thinking, is the individual development -of the scientific way of looking at things. Science is our legacy; we -must use it if it is to be our very own. - - - - -CONTENTS - - -INTRODUCTION 3 - -I. THE ROMANCE OF THE HEAVENS 7 - - The scale of the universe--The solar system--Regions of - the sun--The surface of the sun--Measuring the speed of - light--Is the sun dying?--The planets--Venus--Is there - life on Mars?--Jupiter and Saturn--The moon--The - mountains of the moon--Meteors and comets--Millions of - meteorites--A great comet--The stellar universe--The - evolution of stars--The age of stars--The nebular - theory--Spiral nebulae--The birth and death of - stars--The shape of our universe--Astronomical - instruments. - -II. THE STORY OF EVOLUTION 53 - - The beginning of the earth--Making a home for life--The - first living creatures--The first plants--The first - animals--Beginnings of bodies--Evolution of - sex--Beginning of natural death--Procession of life - through the ages--Evolution of land animals--The flying - dragons--The first known bird--Evidences of - evolution--Factors in evolution. - -III. ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT 113 - - The shore of the sea--The open sea--The deep sea--The - fresh waters--The dry land--The air. - -IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE 135 - - Animal and bird mimicry and disguise--Other kinds of - elusiveness. - -V. THE ASCENT OF MAN 153 - - Anatomical proof of man's relationship with a Simian - stock--Physiological proof--Embryological proof--Man's - pedigree--Man's arboreal apprenticeship--Tentative - men--Primitive men--Races of mankind--Steps in human - evolution--Factors in human progress. - -VI. EVOLUTION GOING ON 183 - - Evolutionary prospect for man--The fountain of change; - variability--Evolution of plants--Romance of - wheat--Changes in animal life--Story of the - salmon--Forming new habits--Experiments in locomotion; - new devices. - -VII. THE DAWN OF MIND 205 - - A caution in regard to instinct--A useful law--Senses of - fishes--The mind of a minnow--The mind and senses of - amphibians--The reptilian mind--Mind in - birds--Intelligence co-operating with instinct--The - mind of the mammal--Instinctive aptitudes--Power of - association--Why is there not more intelligence?--The - mind of monkeys--Activity for activity's - sake--Imitation--The mind of man--Body and mind. - -VIII. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNIVERSE 243 - - The world of atoms--The energy of atoms--The discovery of - X-rays--The discovery of radium--The discovery of the - electron--The electron theory--The structure of the - atom--The new view of matter--Other new views--The - nature of electricity--Electric current--The - dynamo--Magnetism--Ether and waves--Light--What the - blue "sky" means--Light without heat--Forms of - energy--What heat is--Substitutes for coal--Dissipation - of energy--What a uniform temperature would - mean--Matter, ether, and Einstein--The tides--Origin of - the moon--The earth slowing down--The day becoming - longer. - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING - PAGE - -THE GREAT SCARLET SOLAR PROMINENCES, WHICH ARE SUCH A - NOTABLE FEATURE OF THE SOLAR PHENOMENA, ARE IMMENSE - OUTBURSTS OF FLAMING HYDROGEN RISING SOMETIMES TO A - HEIGHT OF 500,000 MILES - _Coloured Frontispiece_ - -LAPLACE 10 - -PROFESSOR J. C. ADAMS 10 - Photo: Royal Astronomical Society. - -PROFESSOR EDDINGTON OF CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 10 - Photo: Elliot & Fry, Ltd. - -THE PLANETS, SHOWING THEIR RELATIVE DISTANCES AND - DIMENSIONS 11 - -THE MILKY WAY 14 - Photo: Harvard College Observatory. - -THE MOON ENTERING THE SHADOW CAST BY THE EARTH 14 - -THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA, MESSIER 31 15 - From a photograph taken at the Yerkes Observatory. - -DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MAIN LAYERS OF THE SUN 18 - -SOLAR PROMINENCES SEEN AT TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, MAY 29, - 1919. TAKEN AT SOBRAL, BRAZIL 18 - Photo: Royal Observatory, Greenwich. - -THE VISIBLE SURFACE OF THE SUN 19 - Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory. - -THE SUN PHOTOGRAPHED IN THE LIGHT OF GLOWING HYDROGEN 19 - Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory. - -THE AURORA BOREALIS (_Coloured Illustration_) 20 - Reproduced from _The Forces of Nature_ (Messrs. Macmillan) - -THE GREAT SUN-SPOT OF JULY 17, 1905 22 - Yerkes Observatory. - -SOLAR PROMINENCES 22 - From photographs taken at the Yerkes Observatory. - -MARS, OCTOBER 5, 1909 23 - Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory. - -JUPITER 23 - -SATURN, NOVEMBER 19, 1911 23 - Photo: Professor E. E. Barnard, Yerkes Observatory. - -THE SPECTROSCOPE, AN INSTRUMENT FOR ANALYSING LIGHT; IT - PROVIDES MEANS FOR IDENTIFYING SUBSTANCES (_Coloured - Illustration_) 24 - -THE MOON 28 - -MARS 29 - Drawings by Professor Percival Lowell. - -THE MOON, AT NINE AND THREE QUARTER DAYS 29 - -A MAP OF THE CHIEF PLAINS AND CRATERS OF THE MOON 32 - -A DIAGRAM OF A STREAM OF METEORS SHOWING THE EARTH PASSING - THROUGH THEM 32 - -COMET, SEPTEMBER 29, 1908 33 - Photo: Royal Observatory, Greenwich. - -COMET, OCTOBER 3, 1908 33 - Photo: Royal Observatory, Greenwich. - -TYPICAL SPECTRA 36 - Photo: Harvard College Observatory. - -A NEBULAR REGION SOUTH OF ZETA ORIONIS 37 - Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory. - -STAR CLUSTER IN HERCULES 37 - Photo: Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria, British Columbia. - -THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION 40 - Photo: Yerkes Observatory. - -GIANT SPIRAL NEBULA, MARCH 23, 1914 41 - Photo: Lick Observatory. - -A SPIRAL NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON 44 - Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory. - -100-INCH TELESCOPE, MOUNT WILSON 45 - Photo: H. J. Shepstone. - -THE YERKES 40-INCH REFRACTOR 48 - -THE DOUBLE-SLIDE PLATE-HOLDER ON YERKES 40-INCH REFRACTING - TELESCOPE 49 - Photo: H. J. Shepstone. - -MODERN DIRECT-READING SPECTROSCOPE 49 - By A. Hilger, Ltd. - -CHARLES DARWIN 56 - Photo: Rischgitz Collection. - -LORD KELVIN 56 - Photo: Rischgitz Collection. - -A GIANT SPIRAL NEBULA 57 - Photo: Lick Observatory. - -METEORITE WHICH FELL NEAR SCARBOROUGH AND IS NOW TO BE SEEN - IN THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM 57 - Photo: Natural History Museum. - -A LIMESTONE CANYON 60 - Reproduced from the Smithsonian Report, 1915. - -GEOLOGICAL TREE OF ANIMALS 61 - -DIAGRAM OF AMOEBA 61 - -A PIECE OF A REEF-BUILDING CORAL, BUILT UP BY A LARGE - COLONY OF SMALL SEA-ANEMONE-LIKE POLYPS, EACH OF WHICH - FORMS FROM THE SALTS OF THE SEA A SKELETON OR SHELL OF - LIME 64 - From the Smithsonian Report, 1917. - -A GROUP OF CHALK-FORMING ANIMALS, OR FORAMINIFERA, EACH - ABOUT THE SIZE OF A VERY SMALL PIN'S HEAD 65 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -A COMMON FORAMINIFER (POLYSTOMELLA) SHOWING THE SHELL IN - THE CENTRE AND THE OUTFLOWING NETWORK OF LIVING MATTER, - ALONG WHICH GRANULES ARE CONTINUALLY TRAVELLING, AND BY - WHICH FOOD PARTICLES ARE ENTANGLED AND DRAWN IN 65 - Reproduced by permission of the Natural History Museum - (after Max Schultze). - -A PLANT-LIKE ANIMAL, OR ZOOPHYTE, CALLED OBELIA 68 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -TRYPANOSOMA GAMBIENSE 69 - Reproduced by permission of _The Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ - -VOLVOX 69 - -PROTEROSPONGIA 69 - -GREEN HYDRA 72 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE BEGINNING OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE 72 - -EARTHWORM 72 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -GLASS MODEL OF A SEA-ANEMONE 72 - Reproduced from the Smithsonian Report, 1917. - -THIS DRAWING SHOWS THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN FROM FISH TO - MAN 73 - -OKAPI AND GIRAFFE (_Coloured Illustration_) 74 - -DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE REFLEX ARC IN A BACKBONELESS ANIMAL - LIKE AN EARTHWORM 76 - -THE YUCCA MOTH 76 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -INCLINED PLANE OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 76 - -VENUS' FLY-TRAP 77 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -A SPIDER SUNNING HER EGGS 77 - Reproduced by permission from _The Wonders of Instinct_ by - J. H. Fabre. - -THE HOATZIN INHABITS BRITISH GUIANA 82 - -PERIPATUS 83 - Photograph, from the British Museum (Natural History), of a - drawing by Mr. E. Wilson. - -ROCK KANGAROO CARRYING ITS YOUNG IN A POUCH 83 - Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S. - -PROFESSOR THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY (1825-95) 86 - Photo: Rischgitz. - -BARON CUVIER, 1769-1832 86 - -AN ILLUSTRATION SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF FLYING AND - SWOOPING 87 - -ANIMALS OF THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD 90 - From Knipe's _Nebula to Man_. - -A TRILOBITE 90 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -THE GAMBIAN MUD-FISH, PROTOPTERUS 91 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -THE ARCHAEOPTERYX 91 - After William Leche of Stockholm. - -WING OF A BIRD, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FEATHERS 91 - -PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF STRATA OF THE EARTH'S CRUST, - WITH SUGGESTIONS OF CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS (_Coloured - Illustration_) 92 - -FOSSIL OF A PTERODACTYL OR EXTINCT FLYING DRAGON 94 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -PARIASAURUS: AN EXTINCT VEGETARIAN TRIASSIC REPTILE 94 - From Knipe's _Nebula to Man_. - -TRICERATOPS: A HUGE EXTINCT REPTILE 95 - From Knipe's _Nebula to Man_. - -THE DUCKMOLE OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS OF AUSTRALIA 95 - Photo: _Daily Mail_. - -SKELETON OF AN EXTINCT FLIGHTLESS TOOTHED BIRD, HESPERORNIS 100 - After Marsh. - -SIX STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, SHOWING GRADUAL -INCREASE IN SIZE 101 - After Lull and Matthew. - -DIAGRAM SHOWING SEVEN STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE - FORE-LIMBS AND HIND-LIMBS OF THE ANCESTORS OF THE MODERN - HORSE, BEGINNING WITH THE EARLIEST KNOWN PREDECESSORS OF - THE HORSE AND CULMINATING WITH THE HORSE OF TO-DAY 104 - After Marsh and Lull. - -WHAT IS MEANT BY HOMOLOGY? ESSENTIAL SIMILARITY OF - ARCHITECTURE, THOUGH THE APPEARANCES MAY BE VERY - DIFFERENT 105 - -AN EIGHT-ARMED CUTTLEFISH OR OCTOPUS ATTACKING A SMALL CRAB 116 - -A COMMON STARFISH, WHICH HAS LOST THREE ARMS AND IS - REGROWING THEM 116 - After Professor W. C. McIntosh. - -THE PAPER NAUTILUS (ARGONAUTA), AN ANIMAL OF THE OPEN SEA 117 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -A PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING A STARFISH (_Asterias Forreri_) WHICH - HAS CAPTURED A LARGE FISH 117 - -TEN-ARMED CUTTLEFISH OR SQUID IN THE ACT OF CAPTURING A FISH 118 - -GREENLAND WHALE 118 - -MINUTE TRANSPARENT EARLY STAGE OF A SEA-CUCUMBER 119 - -AN INTRICATE COLONY OF OPEN-SEA ANIMALS (_Physophora - Hydrostatica_) RELATED TO THE PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR 119 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -A SCENE IN THE GREAT DEPTHS 119 - -SEA-HORSE IN SARGASSO WEED 120 - -LARGE MARINE LAMPREYS (_Petromyzon Marinus_) 120 - -THE DEEP-SEA FISH _Chiasmodon Niger_ 120 - -DEEP-SEA FISHES 120 - -FLINTY SKELETON OF VENUS' FLOWER BASKET (_Euplectella_), A - JAPANESE DEEP-SEA SPONGE 121 - -EGG DEPOSITORY OF _Semotilus Atromaculatus_ 121 - -THE BITTERLING (_Rhodeus Amarus_) 124 - -WOOLLY OPOSSUM CARRYING HER FAMILY 124 - Photo: W. S. Berridge. - -SURINAM TOAD (_Pipa Americana_) WITH YOUNG ONES HATCHING - OUT OF LITTLE POCKETS ON HER BACK 125 - -STORM PETREL OR MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN (_Procellaria - Pelagica_) 125 - -ALBATROSS: A CHARACTERISTIC PELAGIC BIRD OF THE SOUTHERN - SEA 128 - -THE PRAYING MANTIS (_Mantis Religiosa_) 138 - -PROTECTIVE COLORATION: A WINTER SCENE IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA 138 - -THE VARIABLE MONITOR (_Varanus_) 139 - Photo: A. A. White. - -BANDED KRAIT: A VERY POISONOUS SNAKE WITH ALTERNATING - YELLOW AND DARK BANDS 140 - Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S. - -THE WARTY CHAMELEON 140 - Photos: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S. - -SEASONAL COLOUR-CHANGE: SUMMER SCENE IN NORTH SCANDINAVIA 141 - -PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE 142 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -WHEN ONLY A FEW DAYS OLD, YOUNG BITTERN BEGIN TO STRIKE THE - SAME ATTITUDE AS THEIR PARENTS, THRUSTING THEIR BILLS - UPWARDS AND DRAWING THEIR BODIES UP SO THAT THEY RESEMBLE - A BUNCH OF REEDS 143 - -PROTECTIVE COLORATION OR CAMOUFLAGING, GIVING ANIMALS A - GARMENT OF INVISIBILITY (_Coloured Illustration_) 144 - -ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION (_Coloured - Illustration_) 144 - -DEAD-LEAF BUTTERFLY (_Kallima Inachis_) FROM INDIA 146 - -PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN A SMALL SPIDER (_to the - left_) AND AN ANT (_to the right_) 146 - -THE WASP BEETLE, WHICH, WHEN MOVING AMONGST THE BRANCHES, - GIVES A WASP-LIKE IMPRESSION 147 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -HERMIT-CRAB WITH PARTNER SEA-ANEMONES 147 - -CUCKOO-SPIT 147 - Photo: G. P. Duffus. - -CHIMPANZEE, SITTING 156 - Photo: New York Zoological Park. - -CHIMPANZEE, ILLUSTRATING WALKING POWERS 156 - Photo: New York Zoological Park. - -SURFACE VIEW OF THE BRAINS OF MAN AND CHIMPANZEE 157 - -SIDE-VIEW OF CHIMPANZEE'S HEAD 157 - Photo: New York Zoological Park. - -PROFILE VIEW OF HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE-MAN, - RECONSTRUCTED FROM THE SKULL-CAP 157 - After a model by J. H. McGregor. - -THE FLIPPER OF A WHALE AND THE HAND OF A MAN 157 - -THE GORILLA, INHABITING THE FOREST TRACT OF THE GABOON IN - AFRICA (_Coloured Illustration_) 158 - -"DARWIN'S POINT" ON HUMAN EAR 160 - -PROFESSOR SIR ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 161 - Photo: J. Russell & Sons. - -SKELETONS OF THE GIBBON, ORANG, CHIMPANZEE, GORILLA, MAN 161 - After T. H. Huxley (by permission of Messrs. Macmillan). - -SIDE-VIEW OF SKULL OF MAN AND GORILLA 164 - -THE SKULL AND BRAIN-CASE OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA - APE-MAN, AS RESTORED BY J. H. MCGREGOR FROM THE SCANTY - REMAINS 164 - -SUGGESTED GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MAN AND ANTHROPOID APES 165 - -THE GIBBON IS LOWER THAN THE OTHER APES AS REGARDS ITS - SKULL AND DENTITION, BUT IT IS HIGHLY SPECIALIZED IN THE - ADAPTATION OF ITS LIMBS TO ARBOREAL LIFE 166 - Photo: New York Zoological Park. - -THE ORANG HAS A HIGH ROUNDED SKULL AND A LONG FACE 166 - Photo: New York Zoological Park. - -COMPARISONS OF THE SKELETONS OF HORSE AND MAN 167 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE JAVA MAN (_Coloured Illustration_) 168 - -PROFILE VIEW OF THE HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA - APE-MAN--AN EARLY OFFSHOOT FROM THE MAIN LINE OF MAN'S - ASCENT 170 - After a model by J. H. McGregor. - -PILTDOWN SKULL 170 - From the reconstruction by J. H. McGregor. - -SAND-PIT AT MAUER, NEAR HEIDELBERG: DISCOVERY SITE OF THE - JAW OF HEIDELBERG MAN 171 - Reproduced by permission from Osborn's - _Men of the Old Stone Age_. - -PAINTINGS ON THE ROOF OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE IN NORTHERN - SPAIN, SHOWING A BISON AND A GALLOPING BOAR (_Coloured - Illustration_) 172 - -PILTDOWN MAN, PRECEDING NEANDERTHAL MAN, PERHAPS 100,000 TO - 150,000 YEARS AGO 174 - After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. - -THE NEANDERTHAL MAN OF LA CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS 175 - After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. - -RESTORATION BY A. FORESTIER OF THE RHODESIAN MAN WHOSE - SKULL WAS DISCOVERED IN 1921 176-177 - -SIDE VIEW OF A PREHISTORIC HUMAN SKULL DISCOVERED IN 1921 - IN BROKEN HILL CAVE, NORTHERN RHODESIA 178 - Photo: British Museum (Natural History). - -A CROMAGNON MAN OR CROMAGNARD, REPRESENTATIVE OF A STRONG - ARTISTIC RACE LIVING IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE IN THE UPPER - PLEISTOCENE, PERHAPS 25,000 YEARS AGO 178 - After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. - -PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING A NARROW PASSAGE IN THE CAVERN OF - FONT-DE-GAUME ON THE BEUNE 179 - Reproduced by permission from Osborn's - _Men of the Old Stone Age_. - -A MAMMOTH DRAWN ON THE WALL OF THE FONT-DE-GAUME CAVERN 179 - -A GRAZING BISON, DELICATELY AND CAREFULLY DRAWN, ENGRAVED - ON A WALL OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE, NORTHERN SPAIN 179 - -PHOTOGRAPH OF A MEDIAN SECTION THROUGH THE SHELL OF THE - PEARLY NAUTILUS 186 - -PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ENTIRE SHELL OF THE PEARLY NAUTILUS 186 - -NAUTILUS 186 - -SHOEBILL 187 - Photo: W. S. Berridge. - -THE WALKING-FISH OR MUD-SKIPPER (_Periophthalmus_), COMMON - AT THE MOUTHS OF RIVERS IN TROPICAL AFRICA, ASIA, AND - NORTH-WEST AUSTRALIA 190 - -THE AUSTRALIAN MORE-PORK OR PODARGUS 190 - Photo: _The Times_. - -PELICAN'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING AND STORING FISHES 191 - -SPOONBILL'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SIFTING THE MUD AND CATCHING - THE SMALL ANIMALS, E.G. FISHES, CRUSTACEANS, INSECT - LARVAE, WHICH LIVE THERE 191 - -AVOCET'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR A CURIOUS SIDEWAYS SCOOPING IN - THE SHORE-POOLS AND CATCHING SMALL ANIMALS 191 - -HORNBILL'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR EXCAVATING A NEST IN A TREE, - AND ALSO FOR SEIZING AND BREAKING DIVERSE FORMS OF FOOD, - FROM MAMMALS TO TORTOISES, FROM ROOTS TO FRUITS 191 - -FALCON'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SEIZING, KILLING, AND TEARING - SMALL MAMMALS AND BIRDS 191 - -PUFFIN'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING SMALL FISHES NEAR THE - SURFACE OF THE SEA, AND FOR HOLDING THEM WHEN CAUGHT AND - CARRYING THEM TO THE NEST 191 - -LIFE-HISTORY OF A FROG 192 - -HIND-LEG OF WHIRLIGIG BEETLE WHICH HAS BECOME BEAUTIFULLY - MODIFIED FOR AQUATIC LOCOMOTION 192 - Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S. - -THE BIG ROBBER-CRAB (_Birgus Latro_), THAT CLIMBS THE - COCONUT PALM AND BREAKS OFF THE NUTS 193 - -EARLY LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON 196 - -THE SALMON LEAPING AT THE FALL IS A MOST FASCINATING SPECTACLE 197 - -DIAGRAM OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE COMMON EEL (_Anguilla - Vulgaris_) 200 - -CASSOWARY 201 - Photo: Gambier Bolton. - -THE KIWI, ANOTHER FLIGHTLESS BIRD, OF REMARKABLE - APPEARANCE, HABITS, AND STRUCTURE 201 - Photo: Gambier Bolton. - -THE AUSTRALIAN FRILLED LIZARD, WHICH IS AT PRESENT TRYING - TO BECOME A BIPED 202 - -A CARPET OF GOSSAMER 202 - -THE WATER SPIDER 203 - -JACKDAW BALANCING ON A GATEPOST 208 - Photo: O. J. Wilkinson. - -TWO OPOSSUMS FEIGNING DEATH 208 - From Ingersoll's _The Wit of the Wild_. - -MALE OF THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK, MAKING A NEST OF - WATER-WEED, GLUED TOGETHER BY VISCID THREADS SECRETED - FROM THE KIDNEYS AT THE BREEDING SEASON 209 - -A FEMALE STICKLEBACK ENTERS THE NEST WHICH THE MALE HAS - MADE, LAYS THE EGGS INSIDE, AND THEN DEPARTS 209 - -HOMING PIGEON 212 - Photo: Imperial War Museum. - -CARRIER PIGEON 212 - Photo: Imperial War Museum. - -YELLOW-CROWNED PENGUIN 213 - Photo: James's Press Agency. - -PENGUINS ARE "A PECULIAR PEOPLE" 213 - Photo: Cagcombe & Co. - -HARPY-EAGLE 216 - Photo: W. S. Berridge. - -THE DINGO OR WILD DOG OF AUSTRALIA, PERHAPS AN INDIGENOUS - WILD SPECIES, PERHAPS A DOMESTICATED DOG THAT HAS GONE - WILD OR FERAL 216 - Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S. - -WOODPECKER HAMMERING AT A COTTON-REEL, ATTACHED TO A TREE 217 - -THE BEAVER 220 - -THE THRUSH AT ITS ANVIL 221 - Photo: F. R. Hinkins & Son. - -ALSATIAN WOLF-DOG 226 - Photo: Lafayette. - -THE POLAR BEAR OF THE FAR NORTH 227 - Photo: W. S. Berridge. - -AN ALLIGATOR "YAWNING" IN EXPECTATION OF FOOD 227 - From the Smithsonian Report, 1914. - -BABY ORANG 232 - Photo: W. P. Dando. - -ORANG-UTAN 232 - Photo: Gambier Bolton. - -CHIMPANZEE 233 - Photo: James's Press Agency. - -BABY ORANG-UTAN 233 - Photo: James's Press Agency. - -ORANG-UTAN 233 - Photo: James's Press Agency. - -BABY CHIMPANZEES 233 - Photo: James's Press Agency. - -CHIMPANZEE 238 - Photo: W. P. Dando. - -YOUNG CHEETAHS, OR HUNTING LEOPARDS 238 - Photo: W. S. Berridge. - -COMMON OTTER 239 - Photo: C. Reid. - -SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD 246 - Photo: Elliott & Fry. - -J. CLERK-MAXWELL 246 - Photo: Rischgitz Collection. - -SIR WILLIAM CROOKES 247 - Photo: Ernest H. Mills. - -PROFESSOR SIR W. H. BRAGG 247 - Photo: Photo Press. - -COMPARATIVE SIZES OF MOLECULES 250 - -INCONCEIVABLE NUMBERS AND INCONCEIVABLY SMALL PARTICLES 250 - -WHAT IS A MILLION? 250 - -THE BROWNIAN MOVEMENT 251 - -A SOAP BUBBLE (_Coloured Illustration_) 252 - Reproduced from _The Forces of Nature_ (Messrs. Macmillan). - -DETECTING A SMALL QUANTITY OF MATTER 254 - From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_. - -THIS X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH IS THAT OF A HAND OF A SOLDIER - WOUNDED IN THE GREAT WAR 254 - Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd. - -AN X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF A GOLF BALL, REVEALING AN IMPERFECT - CORE 254 - Photo: National Physical Laboratory. - -A WONDERFUL X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH 255 - Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd. - -ELECTRIC DISCHARGE IN A VACUUM TUBE 258 - -THE RELATIVE SIZES OF ATOMS AND ELECTRONS 258 - -ELECTRONS STREAMING FROM THE SUN TO THE EARTH 259 - -PROFESSOR SIR J. J. THOMSON 262 - -ELECTRONS PRODUCED BY PASSAGE OF X-RAYS THROUGH AIR 262 - From the Smithsonian Report, 1915. - -MAGNETIC DEFLECTION OF RADIUM RAYS 263 - -PROFESSOR R. A. MILLIKAN'S APPARATUS FOR COUNTING ELECTRONS 263 - Reproduced by permission of _Scientific American_. - -MAKING THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE 266 - -THE THEORY OF ELECTRONS 267 - -ARRANGEMENTS OF ATOMS IN A DIAMOND 267 - -DISINTEGRATION OF ATOMS 270 - -SILK TASSEL ELECTRIFIED 270 - Reproduced by permission from _The Interpretation of Radium_ - (John Murray). - -SILK TASSEL DISCHARGED BY THE RAYS FROM RADIUM 270 - -A HUGE ELECTRIC SPARK 271 - -ELECTRICAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN COMMON OBJECTS 271 - From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_. - -AN ELECTRIC SPARK 274 - Photo: Leadbeater. - -AN ETHER DISTURBANCE AROUND AN ELECTRON CURRENT 275 - From _Scientific Ideas of To-day_. - -LIGHTNING 278 - Photo: H. J. Shepstone. - -LIGHT WAVES 279 - -THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT 279 - -THE MAGNET 279 - -ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS - (_Coloured Illustration_) 280 - -WAVE SHAPES 282 - -THE POWER OF A MAGNET 282 - -THE SPEED OF LIGHT 283 - Photo: The Locomotive Publishing Co., Ltd. - -ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS 283 - -NIAGARA FALLS 286 - -TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY 287 - Photo: Stephen Cribb. - -"BOILING" A KETTLE ON ICE 287 - Photo: Underwood & Underwood. - -THE CAUSE OF TIDES 290 - -THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT 290 - Photo: G. Brocklehurst. - -A BIG SPRING TIDE, THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT 291 - Photo: G. Brocklehurst. - - - - -The Outline of Science - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -There is abundant evidence of a widened and deepened interest in modern -science. How could it be otherwise when we think of the magnitude and -the eventfulness of recent advances? - -But the interest of the general public would be even greater than it is -if the makers of new knowledge were more willing to expound their -discoveries in ways that could be "understanded of the people." No one -objects very much to technicalities in a game or on board a yacht, and -they are clearly necessary for terse and precise scientific description. -It is certain, however, that they can be reduced to a minimum without -sacrificing accuracy, when the object in view is to explain "the gist of -the matter." So this OUTLINE OF SCIENCE is meant for the general reader, -who lacks both time and opportunity for special study, and yet would -take an intelligent interest in the progress of science which is making -the world always new. - -The story of the triumphs of modern science is one of which Man may well -be proud. Science reads the secret of the distant star and anatomises -the atom; foretells the date of the comet's return and predicts the -kinds of chickens that will hatch from a dozen eggs; discovers the laws -of the wind that bloweth where it listeth and reduces to order the -disorder of disease. Science is always setting forth on Columbus -voyages, discovering new worlds and conquering them by understanding. -For Knowledge means Foresight and Foresight means Power. - -The idea of Evolution has influenced all the sciences, forcing us to -think of _everything_ as with a history behind it, for we have travelled -far since Darwin's day. The solar system, the earth, the mountain -ranges, and the great deeps, the rocks and crystals, the plants and -animals, man himself and his social institutions--all must be seen as -the outcome of a long process of Becoming. There are some eighty-odd -chemical elements on the earth to-day, and it is now much more than a -suggestion that these are the outcome of an inorganic evolution, element -giving rise to element, going back and back to some primeval stuff, from -which they were all originally derived, infinitely long ago. No idea has -been so powerful a tool in the fashioning of New Knowledge as this -simple but profound idea of Evolution, that the present is the child of -the past and the parent of the future. And with the picture of a -continuity of evolution from nebula to social systems comes a promise of -an increasing control--a promise that Man will become not only a more -accurate student, but a more complete master of his world. - -It is characteristic of modern science that the whole world is seen to -be more vital than before. Everywhere there has been a passage from the -static to the dynamic. Thus the new revelations of the constitution of -matter, which we owe to the discoveries of men like Professor Sir J. J. -Thomson, Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford, and Professor Frederick Soddy, -have shown the very dust to have a complexity and an activity heretofore -unimagined. Such phrases as "dead" matter and "inert" matter have gone -by the board. - -The new theory of the atom amounts almost to a new conception of the -universe. It bids fair to reveal to us many of nature's hidden secrets. -The atom is no longer the indivisible particle of matter it was once -understood to be. We know now that there is an atom within the -atom--that what we thought was elementary can be dissociated and broken -up. The present-day theories of the atom and the constitution of matter -are the outcome of the comparatively recent discovery of such things as -radium, the X-rays, and the wonderful revelations of such instruments as -the spectroscope and other highly perfected scientific instruments. - -The advent of the electron theory has thrown a flood of light on what -before was hidden or only dimly guessed at. It has given us a new -conception of the framework of the universe. We are beginning to know -and realise of what matter is made and what electric phenomena mean. We -can glimpse the vast stores of energy locked up in matter. The new -knowledge has much to tell us about the origin and phenomena, not only -of our own planet, but other planets, of the stars, and the sun. New -light is thrown on the source of the sun's heat; we can make more than -guesses as to its probable age. The great question to-day is: is there -_one_ primordial substance from which all the varying forms of matter -have been evolved? - -But the discovery of electrons is only one of the revolutionary changes -which give modern science an entrancing interest. - -As in chemistry and physics, so in the science of living creatures there -have been recent advances that have changed the whole prospect. A good -instance is afforded by the discovery of the "hormones," or chemical -messengers, which are produced by ductless glands, such as the thyroid, -the supra-renal, and the pituitary, and are distributed throughout the -body by the blood. The work of physiologists like Professor Starling and -Professor Bayliss has shown that these chemical messengers regulate what -may be called the "pace" of the body, and bring about that regulated -harmony and smoothness of working which we know as health. It is not too -much to say that the discovery of hormones has changed the whole of -physiology. Our knowledge of the human body far surpasses that of the -past generation. - -The persistent patience of microscopists and technical improvements like -the "ultramicroscope" have greatly increased our knowledge of the -invisible world of life. To the bacteria of a past generation have been -added a multitude of microscopic _animal_ microbes, such as that which -causes Sleeping Sickness. The life-histories and the weird ways of many -important parasites have been unravelled; and here again knowledge means -mastery. To a degree which has almost surpassed expectations there has -been a revelation of the intricacy of the stones and mortar of the house -of life, and the microscopic study of germ-cells has wonderfully -supplemented the epoch-making experimental study of heredity which began -with Mendel. It goes without saying that no one can call himself -educated who does not understand the central and simple ideas of -Mendelism and other new departures in biology. - -The procession of life through the ages and the factors in the sublime -movement; the peopling of the earth by plants and animals and the -linking of life to life in subtle inter-relations, such as those between -flowers and their insect-visitors; the life-histories of individual -types and the extraordinary results of the new inquiry called -"experimental embryology"--these also are among the subjects with which -this OUTLINE will deal. - -The behaviour of animals is another fascinating study, leading to a -provisional picture of the dawn of mind. Indeed, no branch of science -surpasses in interest that which deals with the ways and habits--the -truly wonderful devices, adaptations, and instincts--of insects, birds, -and mammals. We no longer deny a degree of intelligence to some members -of the animal world--even the line between intelligence and reason is -sometimes difficult to find. - -Fresh contacts between physiology and the study of man's mental life; -precise studies of the ways of children and wild peoples; and new -methods like those of the psycho-analyst must also receive the attention -they deserve, for they are giving us a "New Psychology" and the claims -of psychical research must also be recognised by the open-minded. - -The general aim of the OUTLINE is to give the reader a clear and concise -view of the essentials of present-day science, so that he may follow -with intelligence the modern advance and share appreciatively in man's -continued conquest of his kingdom. - -J. ARTHUR THOMSON. - - - - -I - -THE ROMANCE OF THE HEAVENS - - - - -THE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE--THE SOLAR SYSTEM - - -Sec. 1 - -The story of the triumphs of modern science naturally opens with -Astronomy. The picture of the Universe which the astronomer offers to us -is imperfect; the lines he traces are often faint and uncertain. There -are many problems which have been solved, there are just as many about -which there is doubt, and notwithstanding our great increase in -knowledge, there remain just as many which are entirely unsolved. - - The problem of the structure and duration of the universe [said the - great astronomer Simon Newcomb] is the most far-reaching with which - the mind has to deal. Its solution may be regarded as the ultimate - object of stellar astronomy, the possibility of reaching which has - occupied the minds of thinkers since the beginning of civilisation. - Before our time the problem could be considered only from the - imaginative or the speculative point of view. Although we can to-day - attack it to a limited extent by scientific methods, it must be - admitted that we have scarcely taken more than the first step toward - the actual solution.... What is the duration of the universe in - time? Is it fitted to last for ever in its present form, or does it - contain within itself the seeds of dissolution? Must it, in the - course of time, in we know not how many millions of ages, be - transformed into something very different from what it now is? This - question is intimately associated with the question whether the - stars form a system. If they do, we may suppose that system to be - permanent in its general features; if not, we must look further for - our conclusions. - - -The Heavenly Bodies - -The heavenly bodies fall into two very distinct classes so far as their -relation to our Earth is concerned; the one class, a very small one, -comprises a sort of colony of which the Earth is a member. These bodies -are called _planets_, or wanderers. There are eight of them, including -the Earth, and they all circle round the sun. Their names, in the order -of their distance from the sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, -Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and of these Mercury, the nearest to -the sun, is rarely seen by the naked eye. Uranus is practically -invisible, and Neptune quite so. These eight planets, together with the -sun, constitute, as we have said, a sort of little colony; this colony -is called the Solar System. - -The second class of heavenly bodies are those which lie _outside_ the -solar system. Every one of those glittering points we see on a starlit -night is at an immensely greater distance from us than is any member of -the Solar System. Yet the members of this little colony of ours, judged -by terrestrial standards, are at enormous distances from one another. If -a shell were shot in a straight line from one side of Neptune's orbit to -the other it would take five hundred years to complete its journey. Yet -this distance, the greatest in the Solar System as now known (excepting -the far swing of some of the comets), is insignificant compared to the -distances of the stars. One of the nearest stars to the earth that we -know of is Alpha Centauri, estimated to be some twenty-five million -millions of miles away. Sirius, the brightest star in the firmament, is -double this distance from the earth. - -We must imagine the colony of planets to which we belong as a compact -little family swimming in an immense void. At distances which would take -our shell, not hundreds, but millions of years to traverse, we reach -the stars--or rather, a star, for the distances between stars are as -great as the distance between the nearest of them and our Sun. The -Earth, the planet on which we live, is a mighty globe bounded by a crust -of rock many miles in thickness; the great volumes of water which we -call our oceans lie in the deeper hollows of the crust. Above the -surface an ocean of invisible gas, the atmosphere, rises to a height of -about three hundred miles, getting thinner and thinner as it ascends. - -[Illustration: LAPLACE - -One of the greatest mathematical astronomers of all time and the -originator of the nebular theory.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Royal Astronomical Society._ - -PROFESSOR J. C. ADAMS - -who, anticipating the great French mathematician, Le Verrier, discovered -the planet Neptune by calculations based on the irregularities of the -orbit of Uranus. One of the most dramatic discoveries in the history of -Science.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Elliott & Fry, Ltd._ - -PROFESSOR EDDINGTON - -Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge. The most famous of the English -disciples of Einstein.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--DIAGRAMS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM - -THE COMPARATIVE DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS - -(Drawn approximately to scale) - -The isolation of the Solar System is very great. On the above scale the -_nearest_ star (at a distance of 25 trillions of miles) would be over -_one half mile_ away. The hours, days, and years are the measures of -time as we use them; that is: Jupiter's "Day" (one rotation of the -planet) is made in ten of _our hours_; Mercury's "Year" (one revolution -of the planet around the Sun) is eighty-eight of _our days_. Mercury's -"Day" and "Year" are the same. This planet turns always the same side to -the Sun.] - -[Illustration: THE COMPARATIVE SIZES OF THE SUN AND THE PLANETS (Drawn -approximately to scale) - -On this scale the Sun would be 17-1/2 inches in diameter; it is far -greater than all the planets put together. Jupiter, in turn, is greater -than all the other planets put together.] - -Except when the winds rise to a high speed, we seem to live in a very -tranquil world. At night, when the glare of the sun passes out of our -atmosphere, the stars and planets seem to move across the heavens with a -stately and solemn slowness. It was one of the first discoveries of -modern astronomy that this movement is only apparent. The apparent -creeping of the stars across the heavens at night is accounted for by -the fact that the earth turns upon its axis once in every twenty-four -hours. When we remember the size of the earth we see that this implies a -prodigious speed. - -In addition to this the earth revolves round the sun at a speed of more -than a thousand miles a minute. Its path round the sun, year in year -out, measures about 580,000,000 miles. The earth is held closely to this -path by the gravitational pull of the sun, which has a mass 333,432 -times that of the earth. If at any moment the sun ceased to exert this -pull the earth would instantly fly off into space straight in the -direction in which it was moving at the time, that is to say, at a -tangent. This tendency to fly off at a tangent is continuous. It is the -balance between it and the sun's pull which keeps the earth to her -almost circular orbit. In the same way the seven other planets are held -to their orbits. - -Circling round the earth, in the same way as the earth circles round the -sun, is our moon. Sometimes the moon passes directly between us and the -sun, and cuts off the light from us. We then have a total or partial -eclipse of the sun. At other times the earth passes directly between the -sun and the moon, and causes an eclipse of the moon. The great ball of -the earth naturally trails a mighty shadow across space, and the moon is -"eclipsed" when it passes into this. - -The other seven planets, five of which have moons of their own, circle -round the sun as the earth does. The sun's mass is immensely larger than -that of all the planets put together, and all of them would be drawn -into it and perish if they did not travel rapidly round it in gigantic -orbits. So the eight planets, spinning round on their axes, follow their -fixed paths round the sun. The planets are secondary bodies, but they -are most important, because they are the only globes in which there can -be life, as we know life. - -If we could be transported in some magical way to an immense distance in -space above the sun, we should see our Solar System as it is drawn in -the accompanying diagram (Fig. 1), except that the planets would be mere -specks, faintly visible in the light which they receive from the sun. -(This diagram is drawn approximately to scale.) If we moved still -farther away, trillions of miles away, the planets would fade entirely -out of view, and the sun would shrink into a point of fire, a star. And -here you begin to realize the nature of the universe. _The sun is a -star. The stars are suns._ Our sun looks big simply because of its -comparative nearness to us. The universe is a stupendous collection of -millions of stars or suns, many of which may have planetary families -like ours. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Scale of the Universe - -How many stars are there? A glance at a photograph of star-clouds will -tell at once that it is quite impossible to count them. The fine -photograph reproduced in Figure 2 represents a very small patch of that -pale-white belt, the Milky Way, which spans the sky at night. It is true -that this is a particularly rich area of the Milky Way, but the entire -belt of light has been resolved in this way into masses or clouds of -stars. Astronomers have counted the stars in typical districts here and -there, and from these partial counts we get some idea of the total -number of stars. There are estimated to be between two and three -thousand million stars. - -Yet these stars are separated by inconceivable distances from each -other, and it is one of the greatest triumphs of modern astronomy to -have mastered, so far, the scale of the universe. For several centuries -astronomers have known the relative distances from each other of the sun -and the planets. If they could discover the actual distance of any one -planet from any other, they could at once tell all the distances within -the Solar System. - -The sun is, on the latest measurements, at an average distance of -92,830,000 miles from the earth, for as the orbit of the earth is not a -true circle, this distance varies. This means that in six months from -now the earth will be right at the opposite side of its path round the -sun, or 185,000,000 miles away from where it is now. Viewed or -photographed from two positions so wide apart, the nearest stars show a -tiny "shift" against the background of the most distant stars, and that -is enough for the mathematician. He can calculate the distance of any -star near enough to show this "shift." We have found that the nearest -star to the earth, a recently discovered star, is twenty-five trillion -miles away. Only thirty stars are known to be within a hundred trillion -miles of us. - -This way of measuring does not, however, take us very far away in the -heavens. There are only a few hundred stars within five hundred trillion -miles of the earth, and at that distance the "shift" of a star against -the background (parallax, the astronomer calls it) is so minute that -figures are very uncertain. At this point the astronomer takes up a new -method. He learns the different types of stars, and then he is able to -deduce more or less accurately the distance of a star of a known type -from its faintness. He, of course, has instruments for gauging their -light. As a result of twenty years work in this field, it is now known -that the more distant stars of the Milky Way are at least a hundred -thousand trillion (100,000,000,000,000,000) miles away from the sun. - -Our sun is in a more or less central region of the universe, or a few -hundred trillion miles from the actual centre. The remainder of the -stars, which are all outside our Solar System, are spread out, -apparently, in an enormous disc-like collection, so vast that even a ray -of light, which travels at the rate of 186,000 miles a second, would -take 50,000 years to travel from one end of it to the other. This, then -is what we call our universe. - - -Are there other Universes? - -Why do we say "our universe"? Why not _the_ universe? It is now believed -by many of our most distinguished astronomers that our colossal family -of stars is only one of many universes. By a universe an astronomer -means any collection of stars which are close enough to control each -other's movements by gravitation; and it is clear that there might be -many universes, in this sense, separated from each other by profound -abysses of space. Probably there are. - -For a long time we have been familiar with certain strange objects in -the heavens which are called "spiral nebulae" (Fig 4). We shall see at a -later stage what a nebula is, and we shall see that some astronomers -regard these spiral nebulae as worlds "in the making." But some of the -most eminent astronomers believe that they are separate -universes--"island-universes" they call them--or great collections of -millions of stars like our universe. There are certain peculiarities in -the structure of the Milky Way which lead these astronomers to think -that our universe may be a spiral nebula, and that the other spiral -nebulae are "other universes." - -[Illustration: _Photo: Harvard College Observatory._ - -FIG. 2.--THE MILKY WAY - -Note the cloud-like effect.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3--THE MOON ENTERING THE SHADOW CAST BY THE EARTH - -The diagram shows the Moon partially eclipsed.] - -[Illustration: _From a photograph taken at the Yerkes Observatory_ - -FIG. 4.--THE GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA, MESSIER 31] - -Vast as is the Solar System, then, it is excessively minute in -comparison with the Stellar System, the universe of the Stars, which is -on a scale far transcending anything the human mind can apprehend. - - -THE SOLAR SYSTEM - -THE SUN - - -Sec. 1 - -But now let us turn to the Solar System, and consider the members of our -own little colony. - -Within the Solar System there are a large number of problems that -interest us. What is the size, mass, and distance of each of the -planets? What satellites, like our Moon, do they possess? What are their -temperatures? And those other, sporadic members of our system, comets -and meteors, what are they? What are their movements? How do they -originate? And the Sun itself, what is its composition, what is the -source of its heat, how did it originate? Is it running down? - -These last questions introduce us to a branch of astronomy which is -concerned with the physical constitution of the stars, a study which, -not so very many years ago, may well have appeared inconceivable. But -the spectroscope enables us to answer even these questions, and the -answer opens up questions of yet greater interest. We find that the -stars can be arranged in an order of development--that there are stars -at all stages of their life-history. The main lines of the evolution of -the stellar universe can be worked out. In the sun and stars we have -furnaces with temperatures enormously high; it is in such conditions -that substances are resolved into their simplest forms, and it is thus -we are enabled to obtain a knowledge of the most primitive forms of -matter. It is in this direction that the spectroscope (which we shall -refer to immediately) has helped us so much. It is to this wonderful -instrument that we owe our knowledge of the composition of the sun and -stars, as we shall see. - - "That the spectroscope will detect the millionth of a milligram of - matter, and on that account has discovered new elements, commands - our admiration; but when we find in addition that it will detect the - nature of forms of matter trillions of miles away, and moreover, - that it will measure the velocities with which these forms of matter - are moving with an absurdly small per cent. of possible error, we - can easily acquiesce in the statement that it is the greatest - instrument ever devised by the brain and hand of man." - -Such are some of the questions with which modern astronomy deals. To -answer them requires the employment of instruments of almost incredible -refinement and exactitude and also the full resources of mathematical -genius. Whether astronomy be judged from the point of view of the -phenomena studied, the vast masses, the immense distances, the aeons of -time, or whether it be judged as a monument of human ingenuity, -patience, and the rarest type of genius, it is certainly one of the -grandest, as it is also one of the oldest, of the sciences. - - -The Solar System - -In the Solar System we include all those bodies dependent on the sun -which circulate round it at various distances, deriving their light and -heat from the sun--the planets and their moons, certain comets and a -multitude of meteors: in other words, all bodies whose movements in -space are determined by the gravitational pull of the sun. - - -The Sun - -Thanks to our wonderful modern instruments and the ingenious methods -used by astronomers, we have to-day a remarkable knowledge of the sun. - -Look at the figure of the sun in the frontispiece. The picture -represents an eclipse of the sun; the dark body of the moon has screened -the sun's shining disc and taken the glare out of our eyes; we see a -silvery halo surrounding the great orb on every side. It is the sun's -atmosphere, or "crown" (corona), stretching for millions of miles into -space in the form of a soft silvery-looking light; probably much of its -light is sunlight reflected from particles of dust, although the -spectroscope shows an element in the corona that has not so far been -detected anywhere else in the universe and which in consequence has been -named Coronium. - -We next notice in the illustration that at the base of the halo there -are red flames peeping out from the edges of the hidden disc. When one -remembers that the sun is 866,000 miles in diameter, one hardly needs to -be told that these flames are really gigantic. We shall see what they -are presently. - - -Regions of the Sun - -The astronomer has divided the sun into definite concentric regions or -layers. These layers envelop the nucleus or central body of the sun -somewhat as the atmosphere envelops our earth. It is through these -vapour layers that the bright white body of the sun is seen. Of the -innermost region, the heart or nucleus of the sun, we know almost -nothing. The central body or nucleus is surrounded by a brilliantly -luminous envelope or layer of vaporous matter which is what we see when -we look at the sun and which the astronomer calls the photosphere. - -Above--that is, overlying--the photosphere there is a second layer of -glowing gases, which is known as the reversing layer. This layer is -cooler than the underlying photosphere; it forms a veil of smoke-like -haze and is of from 500 to 1,000 miles in thickness. - -A third layer or envelope immediately lying over the last one is the -region known as the chromosphere. The chromosphere extends from 5,000 -to 10,000 miles in thickness--a "sea" of red tumultuous surging fire. -Chief among the glowing gases is the vapour of hydrogen. The intense -white heat of the photosphere beneath shines through this layer, -overpowering its brilliant redness. From the uppermost portion of the -chromosphere great fiery tongues of glowing hydrogen and calcium vapour -shoot out for many thousands of miles, driven outward by some prodigious -expulsive force. It is these red "prominences" which are such a notable -feature in the picture of the eclipse of the sun already referred to. - -During the solar eclipse of 1919 one of these red flames rose in less -than seven hours from a height of 130,000 miles to more than 500,000 -miles above the sun's surface. This immense column of red-hot gas, four -or five times the thickness of the earth, was soaring upward at the rate -of 60,000 miles an hour. - -These flaming jets or prominences shooting out from the chromosphere are -not to be seen every day by the naked eye; the dazzling light of the sun -obscures them, gigantic as they are. They can be observed, however, by -the spectroscope any day, and they are visible to us for a very short -time during an eclipse of the sun. Some extraordinary outbursts have -been witnessed. Thus the late Professor Young described one on September -7, 1871, when he had been examining a prominence by the spectroscope: - - It had remained unchanged since noon of the previous day--a long, - low, quiet-looking cloud, not very dense, or brilliant, or in any - way remarkable except for its size. At 12:30 p.m. the Professor left - the spectroscope for a short time, and on returning half an hour - later to his observations, he was astonished to find the gigantic - Sun flame shattered to pieces. The solar atmosphere was filled with - flying debris, and some of these portions reached a height of - 100,000 miles above the solar surface. Moving with a velocity which, - even at the distance of 93,000,000 miles, was almost perceptible to - the eye, these fragments doubled their height in ten minutes. On - January 30, 1885, another distinguished solar observer, the late - Professor Tacchini of Rome, observed one of the greatest prominences - ever seen by man. Its height was no less than 142,000 - miles--eighteen times the diameter of the earth. Another mighty - flame was so vast that supposing the eight large planets of the - solar system ranged one on top of the other, the prominence would - still tower above them.[1] - - [1] _The Romance of Astronomy_, by H. Macpherson. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MAIN LAYERS OF THE SUN - -Compare with frontispiece.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Royal Observatory, Greenwich._ - -FIG. 6.--SOLAR PROMINENCES SEEN AT TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, May 29, 1919. -TAKEN AT SOBRAL, BRAZIL. - -The small Corona is also visible.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE VISIBLE SURFACE OF THE SUN - -A photograph taken at the Mount Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie -Institution at Washington.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--THE SUN - -Photographed in the light of glowing hydrogen, at the Mount Wilson -Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington: vortex phenomena -near the spots are especially prominent.] - -The fourth and uppermost layer or region is that of the corona, of -immense extent and fading away into the surrounding sky--this we have -already referred to. The diagram (Fig. 5) shows the dispositions of -these various layers of the sun. It is through these several transparent -layers that we see the white light body of the sun. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Surface of the Sun - -Here let us return to and see what more we know about the -photosphere--the sun's surface. It is from the photosphere that we have -gained most of our knowledge of the composition of the sun, which is -believed not to be a solid body. Examination of the photosphere shows -that the outer surface is never at rest. Small bright cloudlets come and -go in rapid succession, giving the surface, through contrasts in -luminosity, a granular appearance. Of course, to be visible at all at -92,830,000 miles the cloudlets cannot be small. They imply enormous -activity in the photosphere. If we might speak picturesquely the sun's -surface resembles a boiling ocean of white-hot metal vapours. We have -to-day a wonderful instrument, which will be described later, which -dilutes, as it were, the general glare of the sun, and enables us to -observe these fiery eruptions at any hour. The "oceans" of red-hot gas -and white-hot metal vapour at the sun's surface are constantly driven by -great storms. Some unimaginable energy streams out from the body or -muscles of the sun and blows its outer layers into gigantic shreds, as -it were. - -The actual temperature at the sun's surface, or what appears to us to be -the surface--the photosphere--is, of course, unknown, but careful -calculation suggests that it is from 5,000 deg. C. to 7,000 deg. C. The interior -is vastly hotter. We can form no conception of such temperatures as must -exist there. Not even the most obdurate solid could resist such -temperatures, but would be converted almost instantaneously into gas. -But it would not be gas as we know gases on the earth. The enormous -pressures that exist on the sun must convert even gases into thick -treacly fluids. We can only infer this state of matter. It is beyond our -power to reproduce it. - - -Sun-spots - -It is in the brilliant photosphere that the dark areas known as -sun-spots appear. Some of these dark spots--they are dark only by -contrast with the photosphere surrounding them--are of enormous size, -covering many thousands of square miles of surface. What they are we -cannot positively say. They look like great cavities in the sun's -surface. Some think they are giant whirlpools. Certainly they seem to be -great whirling streams of glowing gases with vapours above them and -immense upward and downward currents within them. Round the edges of the -sun-spots rise great tongues of flame. - -Perhaps the most popularly known fact about sun-spots is that they are -somehow connected with what we call magnetic storms on earth. These -magnetic storms manifest themselves in interruptions of our telegraphic -and telephonic communications, in violent disturbances of the mariner's -compass, and in exceptional auroral displays. The connection between the -two sets of phenomena cannot be doubted, even although at times there -may be a great spot on the sun without any corresponding "magnetic -storm" effects on the earth. - -A surprising fact about sun-spots is that they show definite periodic -variations in number. The best-defined period is one of about eleven -years. During this period the spots increase to a maximum in number and -then diminish to a minimum, the variation being more or less regular. -Now this can only mean one thing. To be periodic the spots must have -some deep-seated connection with the fundamental facts of the sun's -structure and activities. Looked at from this point of view their -importance becomes great. - -[Illustration: _Reproduction from "The Forces of Nature"_ (_Messrs. -Macmillan_) - -THE AURORA BOREALIS - -The aurora borealis is one of the most beautiful spectacles in the sky. -The colours and shape change every instant; sometimes a fan-like cluster -of rays, at other times long golden draperies gliding one over the -other. Blue, green, yellow, red, and white combine to give a glorious -display of colour. The theory of its origin is still, in part, obscure, -but there can be no doubt that the aurora is related to the magnetic -phenomena of the earth and therefore is connected with the electrical -influence of the sun.] - -It is from the study of sun-spots that we have learned that the sun's -surface does not appear to rotate all at the same speed. The -"equatorial" regions are rotating quicker than regions farther north or -south. A point forty-five degrees from the equator seems to take about -two and a half days longer to complete one rotation than a point on the -equator. This, of course, confirms our belief that the sun cannot be a -solid body. - -What is its composition? We know that there are present, in a gaseous -state, such well-known elements as sodium, iron, copper, zinc, and -magnesium; indeed, we know that there is practically every element in -the sun that we know to be in the earth. How do we know? - -It is from the photosphere, as has been said, that we have won most of -our knowledge of the sun. The instrument used for this purpose is the -spectroscope; and before proceeding to deal further with the sun and the -source of its energy it will be better to describe this instrument. - - -A WONDERFUL INSTRUMENT AND WHAT IT REVEALS - -The spectroscope is an instrument for analysing light. So important is -it in the revelations it has given us that it will be best to describe -it fully. Every substance to be examined must first be made to glow, -made luminous; and as nearly everything in the heavens _is_ luminous the -instrument has a great range in Astronomy. And when we speak of -analysing light, we mean that the light may be broken up into waves of -different lengths. What we call light is a series of minute waves in -ether, and these waves are--measuring them from crest to crest, so to -say--of various lengths. Each wave-length corresponds to a colour of the -rainbow. The shortest waves give us a sensation of violet colour, and -the largest waves cause a sensation of red. The rainbow, in fact, is a -sort of natural spectrum. (The meaning of the rainbow is that the -moisture-laden air has sorted out these waves, in the sun's light, -according to their length.) Now the simplest form of spectroscope is a -glass prism--a triangular-shaped piece of glass. If white light -(sunlight, for example) passes through a glass prism, we see a series of -rainbow-tinted colours. Anyone can notice this effect when sunlight is -shining through any kind of cut glass--the stopper of a wine decanter, -for instance. If, instead of catching with the eye the coloured lights -as they emerge from the glass prism, we allow them to fall on a screen, -we shall find that they pass, by continuous gradations, from red at the -one end of the screen, through orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo, -to violet at the other end. _In other words, what we call white light is -composed of rays of these several colours. They go to make up the effect -which we call white._ And now just as water can be split up into its two -elements, oxygen and hydrogen, so sunlight can be broken up into its -primary colours, which are those we have just mentioned. - -This range of colours, produced by the spectroscope, we call the solar -spectrum, and these are, from the spectroscopic point of view, primary -colours. Each shade of colour has its definite position in the spectrum. -That is to say, the light of each shade of colour (corresponding to its -wave-length) is reflected through a certain fixed angle on passing -through the glass prism. Every possible kind of light has its definite -position, and is denoted by a number which gives the wave-length of the -vibrations constituting that particular kind of light. - -Now, other kinds of light besides sunlight can be analysed. Light -from any substance which has been made incandescent may be observed with -the spectroscope in the same way, and each element can be thus -separated. It is found that each substance (in the same conditions of -pressure, etc.) gives a constant spectrum of its own. _Each metal -displays its own distinctive colour. It is obvious, therefore, that the -spectrum provides the means for identifying a particular substance._ It -was by this method that we discovered in the sun the presence of such -well-known elements as sodium, iron, copper, zinc, and magnesium. - -[Illustration: _Yerkes Observatory._ - -FIG. 9.--THE GREAT SUN-SPOT OF JULY 17, 1905] - -[Illustration: _From photographs taken at the Yerkes Observatory._ - -FIG. 10.--SOLAR PROMINENCES - -These are about 60,000 miles in height. The two photographs show the -vast changes occurring in ten minutes. October 10, 1910.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory._ - -FIG. 11.--MARS, October 5, 1909 - -Showing the dark markings and the Polar Cap.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--JUPITER - -Showing the belts which are probably cloud formations.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Professor E. E. Barnard, Yerkes Observatory._ - -FIG. 13.--SATURN, November 19, 1911 - -Showing the rings, mighty swarms of meteorites.] - -Every chemical element known, then, has a distinctive spectrum of its -own when it is raised to incandescence, and this distinctive spectrum is -as reliable a means of identification for the element as a human face is -for its owner. Whether it is a substance glowing in the laboratory or in -a remote star makes no difference to the spectroscope; if the light of -any substance reaches it, that substance will be recognised and -identified by the characteristic set of waves. - -The spectrum of a glowing mass of gas will consist in a number of bright -lines of various colours, and at various intervals; corresponding to -each kind of gas, there will be a peculiar and distinctive arrangement -of bright lines. But if the light from such a mass of glowing gas be -made to pass through a cool mass of the _same_ gas it will be found that -dark lines replace the bright lines in the spectrum, the reason for this -being that the cool gas absorbs the rays of light emitted by the hot -gas. Experiments of this kind enable us to reach the important general -statement that every gas, when cold, absorbs the same rays of light -which it emits when hot. - -Crossing the solar spectrum are hundreds and hundreds of dark lines. -These could not at first be explained, because this fact of -discriminative absorption was not known. We understand now. The sun's -white light comes from the photosphere, but between us and the -photosphere there is, as we have seen, another solar envelope of -relatively cooler vapours--the reversing layer. Each constituent -element in this outer envelope stops its own kind of light, that is, the -kind of light made by incandescent atoms of the same element in the -photosphere. The "stoppages" register themselves in the solar spectrum -as dark lines placed exactly where the corresponding bright lines would -have been. The explanation once attained, dark lines became as -significant as bright lines. The secret of the sun's composition was -out. We have found practically every element in the sun that we know to -be in the earth. We have identified an element in the sun before we were -able to isolate it on the earth. We have been able even to point to the -coolest places on the sun, the centres of sun-spots, where alone the -temperature seems to have fallen sufficiently low to allow chemical -compounds to form. - -It is thus we have been able to determine what the stars, comets, or -nebulae are made of. - - -A Unique Discovery - -In 1868 Sir Norman Lockyer detected a light coming from the prominences -of the sun which was not given by any substance known on earth, and -attributed this to an unknown gas which he called helium, from the Greek -_helios_, the sun. _In 1895 Sir William Ramsay discovered in certain -minerals the same gas identified by the spectroscope._ We can say, -therefore, that this gas was discovered in the sun nearly thirty years -before it was found on earth; this discovery of the long-lost heir is as -thrilling a chapter in the detective story of science as any in the -sensational stories of the day, and makes us feel quite certain that our -methods really tell us of what elements sun and stars are built up. The -light from the corona of the sun, as we have mentioned indicates a gas -still unknown on earth, which has been christened Coronium. - - -Measuring the Speed of Light - -But this is not all; soon a new use was found for the spectroscope. We -found that we could measure with it the most difficult of all speeds -to measure, speed in the line of sight. Movement at right angles to the -direction in which one is looking is, if there is sufficient of it, easy -to detect, and, if the distance of the moving body is known, easy to -measure. But movement in the line of vision is both difficult to detect -and difficult to measure. Yet, even at the enormous distances with which -astronomers have to deal, the spectroscope can detect such movement and -furnish data for its measurement. If a luminous body containing, say, -sodium is moving rapidly towards the spectroscope, it will be found that -the sodium lines in the spectrum have moved slightly from their usual -definite positions towards the violet end of the spectrum, the amount of -the change of position increasing with the speed of the luminous body. -If the body is moving away from the spectroscope the shifting of the -spectral lines will be in the opposite direction, towards the red end of -the spectrum. In this way we have discovered and measured movements that -otherwise would probably not have revealed themselves unmistakably to us -for thousands of years. In the same way we have watched, and measured -the speed of, tremendous movements on the sun, and so gained proof that -the vast disturbances we should expect there actually do occur. - -[Illustration: THE SPECTROSCOPE IS AN INSTRUMENT FOR ANALYSING LIGHT; IT -PROVIDES THE MEANS FOR IDENTIFYING DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES - -This pictorial diagram illustrates the principal of Spectrum Analysis, -showing how sunlight is decomposed into its primary colours. What we -call white light is composed of seven different colours. The diagram is -relieved of all detail which would unduly obscure the simple process by -which a ray of light is broken up by a prism into different -wave-lengths. The spectrum rays have been greatly magnified.] - - -IS THE SUN DYING? - -Sec. 3 - -Now let us return to our consideration of the sun. - -To us on the earth the most patent and most astonishing fact about the -sun is its tremendous energy. Heat and light in amazing quantities pour -from it without ceasing. - -Where does this energy come from? Enormous jets of red glowing gases can -be seen shooting outwards from the sun, like flames from a fire, for -thousands of miles. Does this argue fire, as we know fire on the earth? -On this point the scientist is sure. The sun is not burning, and -combustion is not the source of its heat. Combustion is a chemical -reaction between atoms. The conditions that make it possible are known -and the results are predictable and measurable. But no chemical reaction -of the nature of combustion as we know it will explain the sun's energy, -nor indeed will any ordinary chemical reaction of any kind. If the sun -were composed of combustible material throughout and the conditions of -combustion as we understand them were always present, the sun would burn -itself out in some thousands of years, with marked changes in its heat -and light production as the process advanced. There is no evidence of -such changes. There is, instead, strong evidence that the sun has been -emitting light and heat in prodigious quantities, not for thousands, but -for millions of years. Every addition to our knowledge that throws light -on the sun's age seems to make for increase rather than decrease of its -years. This makes the wonder of its energy greater. - -And we cannot avoid the issue of the source of the energy by saying -merely that the sun is gradually radiating away an energy that -originated in some unknown manner, away back at the beginning of things. -Reliable calculations show that the years required for the mere cooling -of a globe like the sun could not possibly run to millions. In other -words, the sun's energy must be subject to continuous and more or less -steady renewal. However it may have acquired its enormous energy in the -past, it must have some source of energy in the present. - -The best explanation that we have to-day of this continuous accretion of -energy is that it is due to shrinkage of the sun's bulk under the force -of gravity. Gravity is one of the most mysterious forces of nature, but -it is an obvious fact that bodies behave as if they attracted one -another, and Newton worked out the law of this attraction. We may say, -without trying to go too deeply into things, that every particle of -matter attracts every other throughout the universe. If the diameter of -the sun were to shrink by one mile all round, this would mean that all -the millions of tons in the outer one-mile thickness would have a -straight drop of one mile towards the centre. And that is not all, -because obviously the layers below this outer mile would also drop -inwards, each to a less degree than the one above it. What a tremendous -movement of matter, however slowly it might take place! And what a -tremendous energy would be involved! Astronomers calculate that the -above shrinkage of one mile all round would require fifty years for its -completion, assuming, reasonably, that there is close and continuous -relationship between loss of heat by radiation and shrinkage. Even if -this were true we need not feel over-anxious on this theory; before the -sun became too cold to support life many millions of years would be -required. - -It was suggested at one time that falls of meteoric matter into the sun -would account for the sun's heat. This position is hardly tenable now. -The mere bulk of the meteoric matter required by the hypothesis, apart -from other reasons, is against it. There is undoubtedly an enormous -amount of meteoric matter moving about within the bounds of the solar -system, but most of it seems to be following definite routes round the -sun like the planets. The stray erratic quantities destined to meet -their doom by collision with the sun can hardly be sufficient to account -for the sun's heat. - -Recent study of radio-active bodies has suggested another factor that -may be working powerfully along with the force of gravitation to -maintain the sun's store of heat. In radio-active bodies certain atoms -seem to be undergoing disintegration. These atoms appear to be splitting -up into very minute and primitive constituents. But since matter may be -split up into such constituents, may it not be built up from them? - -The question is whether these "radio-active" elements are undergoing -disintegration, or formation, in the sun. If they are undergoing -disintegration--and the sun itself is undoubtedly radio-active--then we -have another source of heat for the sun that will last indefinitely. - - - - -THE PLANETS - -LIFE IN OTHER WORLDS? - -Sec. 1 - -It is quite clear that there cannot be life on the stars. Nothing solid -or even liquid can exist in such furnaces as they are. Life exists only -on planets, and even on these its possibilities are limited. Whether all -the stars, or how many of them, have planetary families like our sun, we -cannot positively say. If they have, such planets would be too faint and -small to be visible tens of trillions of miles away. Some astronomers -think that our sun may be exceptional in having planets, but their -reasons are speculative and unconvincing. Probably a large proportion at -least of the stars have planets, and we may therefore survey the globes -of our own solar system and in a general way extend the results to the -rest of the universe. - -In considering the possibility of life as we know it we may at once rule -out the most distant planets from the sun, Uranus and Neptune. They are -probably intrinsically too hot. We may also pass over the nearest planet -to the sun, Mercury. We have reason to believe that it turns on its axis -in the same period as it revolves round the sun, and it must therefore -always present the same side to the sun. This means that the heat on the -sunlit side of Mercury is above boiling-point, while the cold on the -other side must be between two and three hundred degrees below -freezing-point. - - -The Planet Venus - -The planet Venus, the bright globe which is known to all as the morning -and evening "star," seems at first sight more promising as regards the -possibility of life. It is of nearly the same size as the earth, and it -has a good atmosphere, but there are many astronomers who believe that, -like Mercury, it always presents the same face to the sun, and it would -therefore have the same disadvantage--a broiling heat on the sunny side -and the cold of space on the opposite side. We are not sure. The -surface of Venus is so bright--the light of the sun is reflected to us -by such dense masses of cloud and dust--that it is difficult to trace -any permanent markings on it, and thus ascertain how long it takes to -rotate on its axis. Many astronomers believe that they have succeeded, -and that the planet always turns the same face to the sun. If it does, -we can hardly conceive of life on its surface, in spite of the -cloud-screen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE MOON - -Showing a great plain and some typical craters. There are thousands of -these craters, and some theories of their origin are explained on page -34.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--MARS - - 1} Drawings by Prof. Lowell to accompany actual photographs of Mars - showing many of the - 2} canals. Taken in 1907 by Mr. E. C. Slipher of the Lowell Observatory. - 3 Drawing by Prof. Lowell made January 6, 1914. - 4 Drawing by Prof. Lowell made January 21, 1914. - -Nos. 1 and 2 show the effect of the planet's rotation. Nos. 3 and 4 -depict quite different sections. Note the change in the polar snow-caps -in the last two.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE MOON, AT NINE AND THREE-QUARTER DAYS - -Note the mysterious "rays" diverging from the almost perfectly circular -craters indicated by the arrows (Tycho, upper; Copernicus, lower), and -also the mountains to the right with the lunar dawn breaking on them.] - -We turn to Mars; and we must first make it clear why there is so much -speculation about life on Mars, and why it is supposed that, if there -_is_ life on Mars, it must be more advanced than life on the earth. - - -Is there Life on Mars? - -The basis of this belief is that if, as we saw, all the globes in our -solar system are masses of metal that are cooling down, the smaller will -have cooled down before the larger, and will be further ahead in their -development. Now Mars is very much smaller than the earth, and must have -cooled at its surface millions of years before the earth did. Hence, if -a story of life began on Mars at all, it began long before the story of -life on the earth. We cannot guess what sort of life-forms would be -evolved in a different world, but we can confidently say that they would -tend toward increasing intelligence; and thus we are disposed to look -for highly intelligent beings on Mars. - -But this argument supposes that the conditions of life, namely air and -water, are found on Mars, and it is disputed whether they are found -there in sufficient quantity. The late Professor Percival Lowell, who -made a lifelong study of Mars, maintained that there are hundreds of -straight lines drawn across the surface of the planet, and he claimed -that they are beds of vegetation marking the sites of great channels or -pipes by means of which the "Martians" draw water from their polar -ocean. Professor W. H. Pickering, another high authority, thinks that -the lines are long, narrow marshes fed by moist winds from the poles. -There are certainly white polar caps on Mars. They seem to melt in the -spring, and the dark fringe round them grows broader. - -Other astronomers, however, say that they find no trace of water-vapour -in the atmosphere of Mars, and they think that the polar caps may be -simply thin sheets of hoar-frost or frozen gas. They point out that, as -the atmosphere of Mars is certainly scanty, and the distance from the -sun is so great, it may be too cold for the fluid water to exist on the -planet. - -If one asks why our wonderful instruments cannot settle these points, -one must be reminded that Mars is never nearer than 34,000,000 miles -from the earth, and only approaches to this distance once in fifteen or -seventeen years. The image of Mars on the photographic negative taken in -a big telescope is very small. Astronomers rely to a great extent on the -eye, which is more sensitive than the photographic plate. But it is easy -to have differences of opinion as to what the eye sees, and so there is -a good deal of controversy. - -In August, 1924, the planet will again be well placed for observation, -and we may learn more about it. Already a few of the much-disputed -lines, which people wrongly call "canals," have been traced on -photographs. Astronomers who are sceptical about life on Mars are often -not fully aware of the extraordinary adaptability of life. There was a -time when the climate of the whole earth, from pole to pole, was -semi-tropical for millions of years. No animal could then endure the -least cold, yet now we have plenty of Arctic plants and animals. If the -cold came slowly on Mars, as we have reason to suppose, the population -could be gradually adapted to it. On the whole, it is possible that -there is advanced life on Mars, and it is not impossible, in spite of -the very great difficulties of a code of communication, that our "elder -brothers" may yet flash across space the solution of many of our -problems. - - -Sec. 2 - -Jupiter and Saturn - -Next to Mars, going outward from the sun, is Jupiter. Between Mars and -Jupiter, however, there are more than three hundred million miles of -space, and the older astronomers wondered why this was not occupied by a -planet. We now know that it contains about nine hundred "planetoids," or -small globes of from five to five hundred miles in diameter. It was at -one time thought that a planet might have burst into these fragments (a -theory which is not mathematically satisfactory), or it may be that the -material which is scattered in them was prevented by the nearness of the -great bulk of Jupiter from uniting into one globe. - -For Jupiter is a giant planet, and its gravitational influence must -extend far over space. It is 1,300 times as large as the earth, and has -nine moons, four of which are large, in attendance on it. It is -interesting to note that the outermost moons of Jupiter and Saturn -revolve round these planets in a direction contrary to the usual -direction taken by moons round planets, and by planets round the sun. -But there is no life on Jupiter. - -The surface which we see in photographs (Fig. 12) is a mass of cloud or -steam which always envelops the body of the planet. It is apparently -red-hot. A red tinge is seen sometimes at the edges of its cloud-belts, -and a large red region (the "red spot"), 23,000 miles in length, has -been visible on it for half a century. There may be a liquid or solid -core to the planet, but as a whole it is a mass of seething vapours -whirling round on its axis once in every ten hours. As in the case of -the sun, however, different latitudes appear to rotate at different -rates. The interior of Jupiter is very hot, but the planet is not -self-luminous. The planets Venus and Jupiter shine very brightly, but -they have no light of their own; they reflect the sunlight. - -Saturn is in the same interesting condition. The surface in the -photograph (Fig. 13) is steam, and Saturn is so far away from the sun -that the vaporisation of its oceans must necessarily be due to its own -internal heat. It is too hot for water to settle on its surface. Like -Jupiter, the great globe turns on its axis once in ten hours--a -prodigious speed--and must be a swirling, seething mass of metallic -vapours and gases. It is instructive to compare Jupiter and Saturn in -this respect with the sun. They are smaller globes and have cooled down -more than the central fire. - -Saturn is a beautiful object in the telescope because it has ten moons -(to include one which is disputed) and a wonderful system of "rings" -round it. The so-called rings are a mighty swarm of meteorites--pieces -of iron and stone of all sorts and sizes, which reflect the light of the -sun to us. This ocean of matter is some miles deep, and stretches from a -few thousand miles from the surface of the planet to 172,000 miles out -in space. Some astronomers think that this is volcanic material which -has been shot out of the planet. Others regard it as stuff which would -have combined to form an eleventh moon but was prevented by the nearness -of Saturn itself. There is no evidence of life on Saturn. - - -THE MOON - -Mars and Venus are therefore the only planets, besides the earth, on -which we may look for life; and in the case of Venus, the possibility is -very faint. But what about the moons which attend the planets? They -range in size from the little ten-miles-wide moons of Mars, to Titan, a -moon of Saturn, and Ganymede, a satellite of Jupiter, which are about -3,000 miles in diameter. May there not be life on some of the larger of -these moons? We will take our own moon as a type of the class. - - -A Dead World - -The moon is so very much nearer to us than any other heavenly body that -we have a remarkable knowledge of it. In Fig. 14 you have a photograph, -taken in one of our largest telescopes, of part of its surface. In a -sense such a telescope brings the moon to within about fifty miles of -us. We should see a city like London as a dark, sprawling blotch on the -globe. We could just detect a Zeppelin or a Diplodocus as a moving speck -against the surface. But we find none of these things. It is true that a -few astronomers believe that they see signs of some sort of feeble life -or movement on the moon. Professor Pickering thinks that he can trace -some volcanic activity. He believes that there are areas of vegetation, -probably of a low order, and that the soil of the moon may retain a -certain amount of water in it. He speaks of a very thin atmosphere, and -of occasional light falls of snow. He has succeeded in persuading some -careful observers that there probably are slight changes of some kind -taking place on the moon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A MAP OF THE CHIEF PLAINS AND CRATERS OF THE -MOON - -The plains were originally supposed to be seas: hence the name "Mare."] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--A DIAGRAM OF A STREAM OF METEORS SHOWING THE -EARTH PASSING THROUGH THEM] [Illustration: _Photo: Royal Observatory, -Greenwich._ - -FIG. 19.--COMET, September 29, 1908 - -Notice the tendency to form a number of tails. (See photograph below.)] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Royal Observatory, Greenwich._ - -FIG. 20.--COMET, October 3, 1908 - -The process has gone further and a number of distinct tails can now be -counted.] - -But there are many things that point to absence of air on the moon. Even -the photographs we reproduce tell the same story. The edges of the -shadows are all hard and black. If there had been an appreciable -atmosphere it would have scattered the sun's light on to the edges and -produced a gradual shading off such as we see on the earth. This -relative absence of air must give rise to some surprising effects. There -will be no sounds on the moon, because sounds are merely air waves. Even -a meteor shattering itself to a violent end against the surface of the -moon would make no noise. Nor would it herald its coming by glowing into -a "shooting star," as it would on entering the earth's atmosphere. There -will be no floating dust, no scent, no twilight, no blue sky, no -twinkling of the stars. The sky will be always black and the stars will -be clearly visible by day as by night. The sun's wonderful corona, which -no man on earth, even by seizing every opportunity during eclipses, can -hope to see for more than two hours in all in a long lifetime, will be -visible all day. So will the great red flames of the sun. Of course, -there will be no life, and no landscape effects and scenery effects due -to vegetation. - -The moon takes approximately twenty-seven of our days to turn once on -its axis. So for fourteen days there is continuous night, when the -temperature must sink away down towards the absolute cold of space. This -will be followed without an instant of twilight by full daylight. For -another fourteen days the sun's rays will bear straight down, with no -diffusion or absorption of their heat, or light, on the way. It does not -follow, however, that the temperature of the moon's surface must rise -enormously. It may not even rise to the temperature of melting ice. -Seeing there is no air there can be no check on radiation. The heat that -the moon gets will radiate away immediately. We know that amongst the -coldest places on the earth are the tops of very high mountains, the -points that have reared themselves nearest to the sun but farthest out -of the sheltering blanket of the earth's atmosphere. The actual -temperature of the moon's surface by day is a moot point. It may be -below the freezing-point or above the boiling-point of water. - - -The Mountains of the Moon - -The lack of air is considered by many astronomers to furnish the -explanation of the enormous number of "craters" which pit the moon's -surface. There are about a hundred thousand of these strange rings, and -it is now believed by many that they are spots where very large -meteorites, or even planetoids, splashed into the moon when its surface -was still soft. Other astronomers think that they are the remains of -gigantic bubbles which were raised in the moon's "skin," when the globe -was still molten, by volcanic gases from below. A few astronomers think -that they are, as is popularly supposed, the craters of extinct -volcanoes. Our craters, on the earth, are generally deep cups, whereas -these ring-formations on the moon are more like very shallow and broad -saucers. Clavius, the largest of them, is 123 miles across the interior, -yet its encircling rampart is not a mile high. - -The mountains on the moon (Fig. 16) rise to a great height, and are -extraordinarily gaunt and rugged. They are like fountains of lava, -rising in places to 26,000 and 27,000 feet. The lunar Apennines have -three thousand steep and weird peaks. Our terrestrial mountains are -continually worn down by frost acting on moisture and by ice and water, -but there are none of these agencies operating on the moon. Its -mountains are comparatively "everlasting hills." - -The moon is interesting to us precisely because it is a dead world. It -seems to show how the earth, or any cooling metal globe, will evolve in -the remote future. We do not know if there was ever life on the moon, -but in any case it cannot have proceeded far in development. At the most -we can imagine some strange lowly forms of vegetation lingering here and -there in pools of heavy gas, expanding during the blaze of the sun's -long day, and frozen rigid during the long night. - - -METEORS AND COMETS - -We may conclude our survey of the solar system with a word about -"shooting stars," or meteors, and comets. There are few now who do not -know that the streak of fire which suddenly lights the sky overhead at -night means that a piece of stone or iron has entered our atmosphere -from outer space, and has been burned up by friction. It was travelling -at, perhaps, twenty or thirty miles a second. At seventy or eighty miles -above our heads it began to glow, as at that height the air is thick -enough to offer serious friction and raise it to a white heat. By the -time the meteor reached about twenty miles or so from the earth's -surface it was entirely dissipated, as a rule in fiery vapour. - - -Millions of Meteorites - -It is estimated that between ten and a hundred million meteorites enter -our atmosphere and are cremated, every day. Most of them weigh only an -ounce or two, and are invisible. Some of them weigh a ton or more, but -even against these large masses the air acts as a kind of "torpedo-net." -They generally burst into fragments and fall without doing damage. - -It is clear that "empty space" is, at least within the limits of our -solar system, full of these things. They swarm like fishes in the seas. -Like the fishes, moreover, they may be either solitary or gregarious. -The solitary bit of cosmic rubbish is the meteorite, which we have just -examined. A "social" group of meteorites is the essential part of a -comet. The nucleus, or bright central part, of the head of a comet (Fig. -19) consists of a swarm, sometimes thousands of miles wide, of these -pieces of iron or stone. This swarm has come under the sun's -gravitational influence, and is forced to travel round it. From some -dark region of space it has moved slowly into our system. It is not then -a comet, for it has no tail. But as the crowded meteors approach the -sun, the speed increases. They give off fine vapour-like matter and the -fierce flood of light from the sun sweeps this vapour out in an -ever-lengthening tail. Whatever way the comet is travelling, the tail -always points away from the sun. - - -A Great Comet - -The vapoury tail often grows to an enormous length as the comet -approaches the sun. The great comet of 1843 had a tail two hundred -million miles long. It is, however, composed of the thinnest vapours -imaginable. Twice during the nineteenth century the earth passed through -the tail of a comet, and nothing was felt. The vapours of the tail are, -in fact, so attenuated that we can hardly imagine them to be white-hot. -They may be lit by some electrical force. However that may be, the comet -dashes round the sun, often at three or four hundred miles a second, -then may pass gradually out of our system once more. It may be a -thousand years, or it may be fifty years, before the monarch of the -system will summon it again to make its fiery journey round his throne. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Harvard College Observatory._ - -FIG. 21.--TYPICAL SPECTRA - -Six main types of stellar spectra. Notice the lines they have in common, -showing what elements are met with in different types of stars. Each of -these spectra corresponds to a different set of physical and chemical -conditions.] [Illustration: _Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory._ - -FIG. 22.--A NEBULAR REGION SOUTH OF ZETA ORIONIS - -Showing a great projection of "dark matter" cutting off the light from -behind.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria, British -Columbia._ - -FIG. 23.--STAR CLUSTER IN HERCULES - -A wonderful cluster of stars. It has been estimated that the distance of -this cluster is such that it would take light more than 100,000 years to -reach us.] - - -THE STELLAR UNIVERSE - -Sec. 1 - -The immensity of the Stellar Universe, as we have seen, is beyond our -apprehension. The sun is nothing more than a very ordinary star, perhaps -an insignificant one. There are stars enormously greater than the sun. -One such, Betelgeux, has recently been measured, and its diameter is -more than 300 times that of the sun. - - -The Evolution of Stars - -The proof of the similarity between our sun and the stars has come to us -through the spectroscope. The elements that we find by its means in the -sun are also found in the same way in the stars. Matter, says the -spectroscope, is essentially the same everywhere, in the earth and the -sun, in the comet that visits us once in a thousand years, in the star -whose distance is incalculable, and in the great clouds of "fire-mist" -that we call nebulae. - -In considering the evolution of the stars let us keep two points clearly -in mind. The starting-point, the nebula, is no figment of the scientific -imagination. Hundreds of thousands of nebulae, besides even vaster -irregular stretches of nebulous matter, exist in the heavens. But the -stages of the evolution of this stuff into stars are very largely a -matter of speculation. Possibly there is more than one line of -evolution, and the various theories may be reconciled. And this applies -also to the theories of the various stages through which the stars -themselves pass on their way to extinction. - -The light of about a quarter of a million stars has been analysed in the -spectroscope, and it is found that they fall into about a dozen classes -which generally correspond to stages in their evolution (Fig. 21). - - -The Age of Stars - -In its main lines the spectrum of a star corresponds to its colour, and -we may roughly group the stars into red, yellow, and white. This is also -the order of increasing temperature, the red stars being the coolest and -the white stars the hottest. We might therefore imagine that the white -stars are the youngest, and that as they grow older and cooler they -become yellowish, then red, and finally become invisible--just as a -cooling white-hot iron would do. But a very interesting recent research -shows that there are two kinds of red stars; some of them are amongst -the oldest stars and some are amongst the youngest. The facts appear to -be that when a star is first formed it is not very hot. It is an immense -mass of diffuse gas glowing with a dull-red heat. It contracts under the -mutual gravitation of its particles, and as it does so it grows hotter. -It acquires a yellowish tinge. As it continues to contract it grows -hotter and hotter until its temperature reaches a maximum as a white -star. At this point the contraction process does not stop, but the -heating process does. Further contraction is now accompanied by cooling, -and the star goes through its colour changes again, but this time in the -inverse order. It contracts and cools to yellow and finally to red. But -when it again becomes a red star it is enormously denser and smaller -than when it began as a red star. Consequently the red stars are divided -into two classes called, appropriately, Giants and Dwarfs. This theory, -which we owe to an American astronomer, H. N. Russell, has been -successful in explaining a variety of phenomena, and there is -consequently good reason to suppose it to be true. But the question as -to how the red giant stars were formed has received less satisfactory -and precise answers. - -The most commonly accepted theory is the nebular theory. - - -THE NEBULAR THEORY - -Sec. 2 - -Nebulae are dim luminous cloud-like patches in the heavens, more like -wisps of smoke in some cases than anything else. Both photography and -the telescope show that they are very numerous, hundreds of thousands -being already known and the number being continually added to. They are -not small. Most of them are immensely large. Actual dimensions cannot be -given, because to estimate these we must first know definitely the -distance of the nebulae from the earth. The distances of some nebulae are -known approximately, and we can therefore form some idea of size in -these cases. The results are staggering. The mere visible surface of -some nebulae is so large that the whole stretch of the solar system would -be too small to form a convenient unit for measuring it. A ray of light -would require to travel for years to cross from side to side of such a -nebula. Its immensity is inconceivable to the human mind. - -There appear to be two types of nebulae, and there is evidence suggesting -that the one type is only an earlier form of the other; but this again -we do not know. - -The more primitive nebulae would seem to be composed of gas in an -extremely rarified form. It is difficult to convey an adequate idea of -the rarity of nebular gases. The residual gases in a vacuum tube are -dense by comparison. A cubic inch of air at ordinary pressure would -contain more matter than is contained in millions of cubic inches of the -gases of nebulae. The light of even the faintest stars does not seem to -be dimmed by passing through a gaseous nebula, although we cannot be -sure on this point. The most remarkable physical fact about these gases -is that they are luminous. Whence they derive their luminosity we do not -know. It hardly seems possible to believe that extremely thin gases -exposed to the terrific cold of space can be so hot as to be luminous -and can retain their heat and their luminosity indefinitely. A cold -luminosity due to electrification, like that of the aurora borealis, -would seem to fit the case better. - -Now the nebular theory is that out of great "fire-mists," such as we -have described, stars are born. We do not know whether gravitation is -the only or even the main force at work in a nebula, but it is supposed -that under the action of gravity the far-flung "fire-mists" would begin -to condense round centres of greatest density, heat being evolved in the -process. Of course the condensation would be enormously slow, although -the sudden irruption of a swarm of meteors or some solid body might -hasten matters greatly by providing large, ready-made centres of -condensation. - - -Spiral Nebulae - -It is then supposed that the contracting mass of gas would begin to -rotate and to throw off gigantic streamers, which would in their turn -form centres of condensation. The whole structure would thus form a -spiral, having a dense region at its centre and knots or lumps of -condensed matter along its spiral arms. Besides the formless gaseous -nebulae there are hundreds of thousands of "spiral" nebulae such as we -have just mentioned in the heavens. They are at all stages of -development, and they are visible to us at all angles--that is to say, -some of them face directly towards us, others are edge on, and some are -in intermediate positions. It appears, therefore, that we have here a -striking confirmation of the nebular hypothesis. But we must not go so -fast. There is much controversy as to the nature of these spiral nebulae. -Some eminent astronomers think they are other stellar universes, -comparable in size with our own. In any case they are vast structures, -and if they represent stars in process of condensation, they must be -giving birth to huge agglomerations of stars--to star clusters at least. -These vast and enigmatic objects do not throw much light on the origin -of our own solar system. The nebular hypothesis, which was invented -by Laplace to explain the origin of our solar system, has not yet met -with universal acceptance. The explanation offers grave difficulties, -and it is best while the subject is still being closely investigated, to -hold all opinions with reserve. It may be taken as probable, however, -that the universe has developed from masses of incandescent gas. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Yerkes Observatory._ - -FIG. 24.--THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION - -The most impressive nebula in the heavens. It is inconceivably greater -in dimensions than the whole solar system.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Lick Observatory._ - -FIG. 25--GIANT SPIRAL NEBULA, March 23, 1914 - -This spiral nebula is seen full on. Notice the central nucleus and the -two spiral arms emerging from its opposite directions. Is matter flowing -out of the nucleus into the arms or along the arms into the nucleus? In -either case we should get two streams in opposite directions within the -nucleus.] - - -THE BIRTH AND DEATH OF STARS - -Sec. 3 - -Variable, New, and Dark Stars: Dying Suns - -Many astronomers believe that in "variable stars" we have another star, -following that of the dullest red star, in the dying of suns. The light -of these stars varies periodically in so many days, weeks, or years. It -is interesting to speculate that they are slowly dying suns, in which -the molten interior periodically bursts through the shell of thick -vapours that is gathering round them. What we saw about our sun seems to -point to some such stage in the future. That is, however, not the -received opinion about variable stars. It may be that they are stars -which periodically pass through a great swarm of meteors or a region of -space that is rich in cosmic dust of some sort, when, of course, a great -illumination would take place. - -One class of these variable stars, which takes its name from the star -Algol, is of special interest. Every third night Algol has its light -reduced for several hours. Modern astronomy has discovered that in this -case there are really two stars, circulating round a common centre, and -that every third night the fainter of the two comes directly between us -and its companion and causes an "eclipse." This was until recently -regarded as a most interesting case in which a dead star revealed itself -to us by passing before the light of another star. But astronomers have -in recent years invented something, the "selenium-cell," which is even -more sensitive than the photographic plate, and on this the supposed -dead star registers itself as very much alive. Algol is, however, -interesting in another way. The pair of stars which we have discovered -in it are hundreds of trillions of miles away from the earth, yet we -know their masses and their distances from each other. - - -The Death and Birth of Stars - -We have no positive knowledge of dead stars; which is not surprising -when we reflect that a dead star means an invisible star! But when we -see so many individual stars tending toward death, when we behold a vast -population of all conceivable ages, we presume that there are many -already dead. On the other hand, there is no reason to suppose that the -universe as a whole is "running down." Some writers have maintained -this, but their argument implies that we know a great deal more about -the universe than we actually do. The scientific man does not know -whether the universe is finite or infinite, temporal or eternal; and he -declines to speculate where there are no facts to guide him. He knows -only that the great gaseous nebulae promise myriads of worlds in the -future, and he concedes the possibility that new nebulae may be forming -in the ether of space. - -The last, and not the least interesting, subject we have to notice is -the birth of a "new star." This is an event which astronomers now -announce every few years; and it is a far more portentous event than the -reader imagines when it is reported in his daily paper. The story is -much the same in all cases. We say that the star appeared in 1901, but -you begin to realise the magnitude of the event when you learn that the -distant "blaze" had really occurred about the time of the death of -Luther! The light of the conflagration had been speeding toward us -across space at 186,000 miles a second, yet it has taken nearly three -centuries to reach us. To be visible at all to us at that distance the -fiery outbreak must have been stupendous. If a mass of petroleum ten -times the size of the earth were suddenly fired it would not be seen at -such a distance. The new star had increased its light many hundredfold -in a few days. - -There is a considerable fascination about the speculation that in such -cases we see the resurrection of a dead world, a means of renewing the -population of the universe. What happens is that in some region of the -sky where no star, or only a very faint star, had been registered on our -charts, we almost suddenly perceive a bright star. In a few days it may -rise to the highest brilliancy. By the spectroscope we learn that this -distant blaze means a prodigious outpour of white-hot hydrogen at -hundreds of miles a second. But the star sinks again after a few months, -and we then find a nebula round it on every side. It is natural to -suppose that a dead or dying sun has somehow been reconverted in whole -or in part into a nebula. A few astronomers think that it may have -partially collided with another star, or approached too closely to -another, with the result we described on an earlier page. The general -opinion now is that a faint or dead star had rushed into one of those -regions of space in which there are immense stretches of nebulous -matter, and been (at least in part) vaporised by the friction. - -But the difficulties are considerable, and some astronomers prefer to -think that the blazing star may merely have lit up a dark nebula which -already existed. It is one of those problems on which speculation is -most tempting but positive knowledge is still very incomplete. We may be -content, even proud, that already we can take a conflagration that has -occurred more than a thousand trillion miles away and analyse it -positively into an outflame of glowing hydrogen gas at so many miles a -second. - - -THE SHAPE OF OUR UNIVERSE - -Sec. 4 - -Our Universe a Spiral Nebula - -What is the shape of our universe, and what are its dimensions? This is -a tremendous question to ask. It is like asking an intelligent insect, -living on a single leaf in the midst of a great Brazilian forest, to say -what is the shape and size of the forest. Yet man's ingenuity has proved -equal to giving an answer even to this question, and by a method exactly -similar to that which would be adopted by the insect. Suppose, for -instance, that the forest was shaped as an elongated oval, and the -insect lived on a tree near the centre of the oval. If the trees were -approximately equally spaced from one another they would appear much -denser along the length of the oval than across its width. This is the -simple consideration that has guided astronomers in determining the -shape of our stellar universe. There is one direction in the heavens -along which the stars appear denser than in the directions at right -angles to it. That direction is the direction in which we look towards -the Milky Way. If we count the number of stars visible all over the -heavens, we find they become more and more numerous as we approach the -Milky Way. As we go farther and farther from the Milky Way the stars -thin out until they reach a maximum sparseness in directions at right -angles to the plane of the Milky Way. We may consider the Milky Way to -form, as it were, the equator of our system, and the line at right -angles to point to the north and south poles. - -Our system, in fact, is shaped something like a lens, and our sun is -situated near the centre of this lens. In the remoter part of this lens, -near its edge, or possibly outside it altogether, lies the great series -of star clouds which make up the Milky Way. All the stars are in motion -within this system, but the very remarkable discovery has been made that -these motions are not entirely random. The great majority of the stars -whose motions can be measured fall into two groups drifting past one -another in opposite directions. The velocity of one stream relative to -the other is about twenty-five miles per second. The stars forming these -two groups are thoroughly well mixed; it is not a case of an inner -stream going one way and an outer stream the other. But there are not -quite as many stars going one way as the other. For every two stars in -one stream there are three in the other. Now, as we have said, some -eminent astronomers hold that the spiral nebulae are universes like our -own, and if we look at the two photographs (Figs. 25 and 26) we see that -these spirals present features which, in the light of what we have just -said about our system, are very remarkable. The nebula in Coma Berenices -is a spiral edge-on to us, and we see that it has precisely the -lens-shaped middle and the general flattened shape that we have found in -our own system. The nebula in Canes Venatici is a spiral facing towards -us, and its shape irresistibly suggests motions along the spiral arms. -This motion, whether it is towards or away from the central, lens-shaped -portion, would cause a double streaming motion in that central portion -of the kind we have found in our own system. Again, and altogether apart -from these considerations, there are good reasons for supposing our -Milky Way to possess a double-armed spiral structure. And the great -patches of dark absorbing matter which are known to exist in the Milky -Way (see Fig. 22) would give very much the mottled appearance we notice -in the arms (which we see edge-on) of the nebula in Coma Berenices. The -hypothesis, therefore, that our universe is a spiral nebula has much to -be said for it. If it be accepted it greatly increases our estimate of -the size of the material universe. For our central, lens-shaped system -is calculated to extend towards the Milky Way for more than twenty -thousand times a million million miles, and about a third of this -distance towards what we have called the poles. If, as we suppose, each -spiral nebula is an independent stellar universe comparable in size with -our own, then, since there are hundreds of thousands of spiral nebulae, -we see that the size of the whole material universe is indeed beyond our -comprehension. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Mount Wilson Observatory._ - -FIG. 26.--A SPIRAL NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON - -Notice the lens-shaped formation of the nucleus and the arm stretching -as a band across it. See reference in the text to the resemblance -between this and our stellar universe.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: H. J. Shepstone._ - -100-INCH TELESCOPE, MOUNT WILSON - -A reflecting telescope: the largest in the world. The mirror is situated -at the base of the telescope.] - -[Illustration: - - ________________________________________________________________ - | | - | THE SOLAR SYSTEM | - |________________________________________________________________| - | | | | | | - | | MEAN DISTANCE | PERIOD OF | | | - | NAME | FROM SUN (IN | REVOLUTION | DIAMETER | NUMBER OF | - | | MILLIONS OF | AROUND SUN | (IN MILES) | SATELLITES | - | | MILES) | (IN YEARS) | | | - |_________|_______________|____________|____________|____________| - | | | | | | - | MERCURY | 36.0 | 0.24 | 3030 | 0 | - | VENUS | 67.2 | 0.62 | 7700 | 0 | - | EARTH | 92.9 | 1.00 | 7918 | 1 | - | MARS | 141.5 | 1.88 | 4230 | 2 | - | JUPITER | 483.3 | 11.86 | 86500 | 9 | - | SATURN | 886.0 | 29.46 | 73000 | 10 | - | URANUS | 1781.9 | 84.02 | 31900 | 4 | - | NEPTUNE | 2971.6 | 164.78 | 34800 | 1 | - | SUN | ------ | ------ | 866400 | -- | - | MOON | ------ | ------ | 2163 | -- | - |_________|_______________|____________|____________|____________| - -FIG. 27] - -[Illustration: - - ______________________________________ - | | - | STAR DISTANCES | - |______________________________________| - | | - | DISTANCE IN | - | STAR LIGHT-YEARS | - | | - | POLARIS 76 | - | CAPELLA 49.4 | - | RIGEL 466 | - | SIRIUS 8.7 | - | PROCYON 10.5 | - | REGULUS 98.8 | - | ARCTURUS 43.4 | - | [ALPHA] CENTAURI 4.29 | - | VEGA 34.7 | - |______________________________________| - | | - | SMALLER MAGELLANIC CLOUD 32,600[A] | - | GREAT CLUSTER IN HERCULES 108,600[A] | - |______________________________________| - -[A] ESTIMATED - -FIG. 28 - -The above distances are merely approximate and are subject to further -revision. A "light-year" is the distance that light, travelling at the -rate of 186,000 miles per second, would cover in one year.] - -In this simple outline we have not touched on some of the more debatable -questions that engage the attention of modern astronomers. Many of these -questions have not yet passed the controversial stage; out of these will -emerge the astronomy of the future. But we have seen enough to convince -us that, whatever advances the future holds in store, the science of the -heavens constitutes one of the most important stones in the wonderful -fabric of human knowledge. - - -ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS - -Sec. 1 - -The Telescope - -The instruments used in modern astronomy are amongst the finest triumphs -of mechanical skill in the world. In a great modern observatory the -different instruments are to be counted by the score, but there are two -which stand out pre-eminent as the fundamental instruments of modern -astronomy. These instruments are the telescope and the spectroscope, and -without them astronomy, as we know it, could not exist. - -There is still some dispute as to where and when the first telescope was -constructed; as an astronomical instrument, however, it dates from the -time of the great Italian scientist Galileo, who, with a very small and -imperfect telescope of his own invention, first observed the spots on -the sun, the mountains of the moon, and the chief four satellites of -Jupiter. A good pair of modern binoculars is superior to this early -instrument of Galileo's, and the history of telescope construction, from -that primitive instrument to the modern giant recently erected on Mount -Wilson, California, is an exciting chapter in human progress. But the -early instruments have only an historic interest: the era of modern -telescopes begins in the nineteenth century. - -During the last century telescope construction underwent an -unprecedented development. An immense amount of interest was taken in -the construction of large telescopes, and the different countries of the -world entered on an exciting race to produce the most powerful possible -instruments. Besides this rivalry of different countries there was a -rivalry of methods. The telescope developed along two different lines, -and each of these two types has its partisans at the present day. These -types are known as _refractors_ and _reflectors_, and it is necessary to -mention, briefly, the principles employed in each. The _refractor_ is -the ordinary, familiar type of telescope. It consists, essentially, of a -large lens at one end of a tube, and a small lens, called the eye-piece, -at the other. The function of the large lens is to act as a sort of -gigantic eye. It collects a large amount of light, an amount -proportional to its size, and brings this light to a focus within the -tube of the telescope. It thus produces a small but bright image, and -the eye-piece magnifies this image. In the _reflector_, instead of a -large lens at the top of the tube, a large mirror is placed at the -bottom. This mirror is so shaped as to reflect the light that falls on -it to a focus, whence the light is again led to an eye-piece. Thus the -refractor and the reflector differ chiefly in their manner of gathering -light. The powerfulness of the telescope depends on the size of the -light-gatherer. A telescope with a lens four inches in diameter is four -times as powerful as the one with a lens two inches in diameter, for the -amount of light gathered obviously depends on the _area_ of the lens, -and the area varies as the _square_ of the diameter. - -The largest telescopes at present in existence are _reflectors_. It is -much easier to construct a very large mirror than to construct a very -large lens; it is also cheaper. A mirror is more likely to get out of -order than is a lens, however, and any irregularity in the shape of a -mirror produces a greater distorting effect than in a lens. A refractor -is also more convenient to handle than is a reflector. For these reasons -great refractors are still made, but the largest of them, the great -Yerkes' refractor, is much smaller than the greatest reflector, the one -on Mount Wilson, California. The lens of the Yerkes' refractor measures -three feet four inches in diameter, whereas the Mount Wilson reflector -has a diameter of no less than eight feet four inches. - -[Illustration: THE YERKES 40-INCH REFRACTOR - -(The largest _refracting_ telescope in the world. Its big lens weighs -1,000 pounds, and its mammoth tube, which is 62 feet long, weighs about -12,000 pounds. The parts to be moved weigh approximately 22 tons. - -The great _100-inch reflector_ of the Mount Wilson reflecting -telescope--the largest _reflecting_ instrument in the world--weighs -nearly 9,000 pounds and the moving parts of the telescope weigh about -100 tons. - -The new _72-inch reflector_ at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, -near Victoria, B. C., weighs nearly 4,500 pounds, and the moving parts -about 35 tons.)] - -[Illustration: _Photo: H. J. Shepstone._ - -THE DOUBLE-SLIDE PLATE HOLDER ON YERKES 40-INCH REFRACTING TELESCOPE - -The smaller telescope at the top of the picture acts as a "finder"; the -field of view of the large telescope is so restricted that it is -difficult to recognise, as it were, the part of the heavens being -surveyed. The smaller telescope takes in a larger area and enables the -precise object to be examined to be easily selected.] - -[Illustration: MODERN DIRECT-READING SPECTROSCOPE - -(_By A. Hilger, Ltd._) - -The light is brought through one telescope, is split up by the prism, -and the resulting spectrum is observed through the other telescope.] - -But there is a device whereby the power of these giant instruments, -great as it is, can be still further heightened. That device is the -simple one of allowing the photographic plate to take the place of the -human eye. Nowadays an astronomer seldom spends the night with his eye -glued to the great telescope. He puts a photographic plate there. The -photographic plate has this advantage over the eye, that it builds up -impressions. However long we stare at an object too faint to be seen, we -shall never see it. With the photographic plate, however, faint -impressions go on accumulating. As hour after hour passes, the star -which was too faint to make a perceptible impression on the plate goes -on affecting it until finally it makes an impression which can be made -visible. In this way the photographic plate reveals to us phenomena in -the heavens which cannot be seen even through the most powerful -telescopes. - -Telescopes of the kind we have been discussing, telescopes for exploring -the heavens, are mounted _equatorially_; that is to say, they are -mounted on an inclined pillar parallel to the axis of the earth so that, -by rotating round this pillar, the telescope is enabled to follow the -apparent motion of a star due to the rotation of the earth. This motion -is effected by clock-work, so that, once adjusted on a star, and the -clock-work started, the telescope remains adjusted on that star for any -length of time that is desired. But a great official observatory, such -as Greenwich Observatory or the Observatory at Paris, also has _transit_ -instruments, or telescopes smaller than the equatorials and without the -same facility of movement, but which, by a number of exquisite -refinements, are more adapted to accurate measurements. It is these -instruments which are chiefly used in the compilation of the _Nautical -Almanac_. They do not follow the apparent motions of the stars. Stars -are allowed to drift across the field of vision, and as each star -crosses a small group of parallel wires in the eye-piece its precise -time of passage is recorded. Owing to their relative fixity of position -these instruments can be constructed to record the _positions_ of stars -with much greater accuracy than is possible to the more general and -flexible mounting of equatorials. The recording of transit is -comparatively dry work; the spectacular element is entirely absent; -stars are treated merely as mathematical points. But these observations -furnish the very basis of modern mathematical astronomy, and without -them such publications as the _Nautical Almanac_ and the _Connaissance -du Temps_ would be robbed of the greater part of their importance. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Spectroscope - -We have already learnt something of the principles of the spectroscope, -the instrument which, by making it possible to learn the actual -constitution of the stars, has added a vast new domain to astronomy. In -the simplest form of this instrument the analysing portion consists of a -single prism. Unless the prism is very large, however, only a small -degree of dispersion is obtained. It is obviously desirable, for -accurate analytical work, that the dispersion--that is, the separation -of the different parts of the spectrum--should be as great as possible. -The dispersion can be increased by using a large number of prisms, the -light emerging from the first prism, entering the second, and so on. In -this way each prism produces its own dispersive effect and, when a -number of prisms are employed, the final dispersion is considerable. A -considerable amount of light is absorbed in this way, however, so that -unless our primary source of light is very strong, the final spectrum -will be very feeble and hard to decipher. - -Another way of obtaining considerable dispersion is by using a -_diffraction grating_ instead of a prism. This consists essentially of a -piece of glass on which lines are ruled by a diamond point. When the -lines are sufficiently close together they split up light falling on -them into its constituents and produce a spectrum. The modern -diffraction grating is a truly wonderful piece of work. It contains -several thousands of lines to the inch, and these lines have to be -spaced with the greatest accuracy. But in this instrument, again, there -is a considerable loss of light. - -We have said that every substance has its own distinctive spectrum, and -it might be thought that, when a list of the spectra of different -substances has been prepared, spectrum analysis would become perfectly -straightforward. In practice, however, things are not quite so simple. -The spectrum emitted by a substance is influenced by a variety of -conditions. The pressure, the temperature, the state of motion of the -object we are observing, all make a difference, and one of the most -laborious tasks of the modern spectroscopist is to disentangle these -effects from one another. Simple as it is in its broad outlines, -spectroscopy is, in reality, one of the most intricate branches of -modern science. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - -(The following list of books may be useful to readers wishing to pursue -further the study of Astronomy.) - - BALL, _The Story of the Heavens_. - BALL, _The Story of the Sun_. - FORBES, _History of Astronomy_. - HINCKS, _Astronomy_. - KIPPAX, _Call of the Stars_. - LOWELL, _Mars and Its Canals_. - LOWELL, _Evolution of Worlds_. - MCKREADY, _A Beginner's Star-Book_. - NEWCOMB, _Popular Astronomy_. - NEWCOMB, _The Stars: A Study of the Universe_. - OLCOTT, _Field Book of the Stars_. - PRICE, _Essence of Astronomy_. - SERVISS, _Curiosities of the Skies_. - WEBB, _Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes_. - YOUNG, _Text-Book of General Astronomy_. - - - - -II - -THE STORY OF EVOLUTION - - - - -INTRODUCTORY - -THE BEGINNING OF THE EARTH--MAKING A HOME FOR LIFE--THE FIRST LIVING -CREATURES - - -Sec. 1 - -The Evolution-idea is a master-key that opens many doors. It is a -luminous interpretation of the world, throwing the light of the past -upon the present. Everything is seen to be an antiquity, with a history -behind it--a _natural history_, which enables us to understand in some -measure how it has come to be as it is. We cannot say more than -"understand in some measure," for while the _fact_ of evolution is -certain, we are only beginning to discern the _factors_ that have been -at work. - -The evolution-idea is very old, going back to some of the Greek -philosophers, but it is only in modern times that it has become an -essential part of our mental equipment. It is now an everyday -intellectual tool. It was applied to the origin of the solar system and -to the making of the earth before it was applied to plants and animals; -it was extended from these to man himself; it spread to language, to -folk-ways, to institutions. Within recent years the evolution-idea has -been applied to the chemical elements, for it appears that uranium may -change into radium, that radium may produce helium, and that lead is the -final stable result when the changes of uranium are complete. Perhaps -all the elements may be the outcome of an inorganic evolution. Not less -important is the extension of the evolution-idea to the world within as -well as to the world without. For alongside of the evolution of bodies -and brains is the evolution of feelings and emotions, ideas and -imagination. - -Organic evolution means that the present is the child of the past and -the parent of the future. It is not a power or a principle; it is a -process--a process of becoming. It means that the present-day animals -and plants and all the subtle inter-relations between them have arisen -in a natural knowable way from a preceding state of affairs on the whole -somewhat simpler, and that again from forms and inter-relations simpler -still, and so on backwards and backwards for millions of years till we -lose all clues in the thick mist that hangs over life's beginnings. - -Our solar system was once represented by a nebula of some sort, and we -may speak of the evolution of the sun and the planets. But since it has -been _the same material throughout_ that has changed in its distribution -and forms, it might be clearer to use some word like genesis. Similarly, -our human institutions were once very different from what they are now, -and we may speak of the evolution of government or of cities. But Man -works with a purpose, with ideas and ideals in some measure controlling -his actions and guiding his achievements, so that it is probably clearer -to keep the good old word history for all processes of social becoming -in which man has been a conscious agent. Now between the genesis of the -solar system and the history of civilisation there comes the vast -process of organic evolution. The word development should be kept for -the becoming of the individual, the chick out of the egg, for instance. - -Organic evolution is a continuous natural process of racial change, by -successive steps in a definite direction, whereby distinctively new -individualities arise, take root, and flourish, sometimes alongside of, -and sometimes, sooner or later, in place of, the originative stock. Our -domesticated breeds of pigeons and poultry are the results of -evolutionary change whose origins are still with us in the Rock Dove and -the Jungle Fowl; but in most cases in Wild Nature the ancestral stocks -of present-day forms are long since extinct, and in many cases they are -unknown. Evolution is a long process of coming and going, appearing and -disappearing, a long-drawn-out sublime process like a great piece of -music. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Rischgitz Collection._ - -CHARLES DARWIN - -Greatest of naturalists, who made the idea of evolution current -intellectual coin, and in his _Origin of Species_ (1859) made the whole -world new.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Rischgitz Collection._ - -LORD KELVIN - -One of the greatest physicists of the nineteenth century. He estimated -the age of the earth at 20,000,000 years. He had not at his disposal, -however, the knowledge of recent discoveries, which have resulted in -this estimate being very greatly increased.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Lick Observatory._ - -A GIANT SPIRAL NEBULA - -Laplace's famous theory was that the planets and the earth were formed -from great whirling nebulae.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Natural History Museum._ - -METEORITE WHICH FELL NEAR SCARBOROUGH, AND IS NOW TO BE SEEN IN THE -NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM - -It weighs about 56 lb., and is a "stony" meteorite, i.e., an aerolite.] - - -Sec. 2 - -The Beginning of the Earth - -When we speak the language of science we cannot say "In the beginning," -for we do not know of and cannot think of any condition of things that -did not arise from something that went before. But we may qualify the -phrase, and legitimately inquire into the beginning of the earth within -the solar system. If the result of this inquiry is to trace the sun and -the planets back to a nebula we reach only a relative beginning. The -nebula has to be accounted for. And even before matter there may have -been a pre-material world. If we say, as was said long ago, "In the -beginning was Mind," we may be expressing or trying to express a great -truth, but we have gone BEYOND SCIENCE. - - -The Nebular Hypothesis - -One of the grandest pictures that the scientific mind has ever thrown -upon the screen is that of the Nebular Hypothesis. According to -Laplace's famous form of this theory (1796), the solar system was once a -gigantic glowing mass, spinning slowly and uniformly around its centre. -As the incandescent world-cloud of gas cooled and its speed of rotation -increased the shrinking mass gave off a separate whirling ring, which -broke up and gathered together again as the first and most distant -planet. The main mass gave off another ring and another till all the -planets, including the earth, were formed. The central mass persisted as -the sun. - -Laplace spoke of his theory, which Kant had anticipated forty-one years -before, with scientific caution: "conjectures which I present with all -the distrust which everything not the result of observation or of -calculation ought to inspire." Subsequent research justified his -distrust, for it has been shown that the original nebula need not have -been hot and need not have been gaseous. Moreover, there are great -difficulties in Laplace's theory of the separation of successive rings -from the main mass, and of the condensation of a whirling gaseous ring -into a planet. - -So it has come about that the picture of a hot gaseous nebula revolving -as a unit body has given place to other pictures. Thus Sir Norman -Lockyer pointed out (1890) that the earth is gathering to itself -millions of meteorites every day; this has been going on for millions of -years; in distant ages the accretion may have been vastly more rapid and -voluminous; and so the earth has grown! Now the meteoritic contributions -are undoubted, but they require a centre to attract them, and the -difficulty is to account for the beginning of a collecting centre or -planetary nucleus. Moreover, meteorites are sporadic and erratic, -scattered hither and thither rather than collecting into unit-bodies. As -Professor Chamberlin says, "meteorites have rather the characteristics -of the wreckage of some earlier organisation than of the parentage of -our planetary system." Several other theories have been propounded to -account for the origin of the earth, but the one that has found most -favour in the eyes of authorities is that of Chamberlin and Moulton. -According to this theory a great nebular mass condensed to form the sun, -from which under the attraction of passing stars planet after planet, -the earth included, was heaved off in the form of knotted spiral nebulae, -like many of those now observed in the heavens. - -Of great importance were the "knots," for they served as collecting -centres drawing flying matter into their clutches. Whatever part of the -primitive bolt escaped and scattered was drawn out into independent -orbits round the sun, forming the "planetesimals" which behave like -minute planets. These planetesimals formed the food on which the knots -subsequently fed. - - -The Growth of the Earth - -It has been calculated that the newborn earth--the "earth-knot" of -Chamberlin's theory--had a diameter of about 5,500 miles. But it grew -by drawing planetesimals into itself until it had a diameter of over -8,100 miles at the end of its growing period. Since then it has shrunk, -by periodic shrinkages which have meant the buckling up of successive -series of mountains, and it has now a diameter of 7,918 miles. But -during the shrinking the earth became more varied. - -A sort of slow boiling of the internally hot earth often forced molten -matter through the cold outer crust, and there came about a gradual -assortment of lighter materials nearer the surface and heavier materials -deeper down. The continents are built of the lighter materials, such as -granites, while the beds of the great oceans are made of the heavier -materials such as basalts. In limited areas land has often become sea, -and sea has often given place to land, but the probability is that the -distinction of the areas corresponding to the great continents and -oceans goes back to a very early stage. - -The lithosphere is the more or less stable crust of the earth, which may -have been, to begin with, about fifty miles in thickness. It seems that -the young earth had no atmosphere, and that ages passed before water -began to accumulate on its surface--before, in other words, there was -any hydrosphere. The water came from the earth itself, to begin with, -and it was long before there was any rain dissolving out saline matter -from the exposed rocks and making the sea salt. The weathering of the -high grounds of the ancient crust by air and water furnished the -material which formed the sandstones and mudstones and other sedimentary -rocks, which are said to amount to a thickness of over fifty miles in -all. - - -Sec. 3 - -Making a Home for Life - -It is interesting to inquire how the callous, rough-and-tumble -conditions of the outer world in early days were replaced by others that -allowed of the germination and growth of that tender plant we call -LIFE. There are very tough living creatures, but the average organism is -ill suited for violence. Most living creatures are adapted to mild -temperatures and gentle reactions. Hence the fundamental importance of -the early atmosphere, heavy with planetesimal dust, in blanketing the -earth against intensities of radiance from without, as Chamberlin says, -and inequalities of radiance from within. This was the first preparation -for life, but it was an atmosphere without free oxygen. Not less -important was the appearance of pools and lakelets, of lakes and seas. -Perhaps the early waters covered the earth. And water was the second -preparation for life--water, that can dissolve a larger variety of -substances in greater concentration than any other liquid; water, that -in summer does not readily evaporate altogether from a pond, nor in -winter freeze throughout its whole extent; water, that is such a mobile -vehicle and such a subtle cleaver of substances; water, that forms over -80 per cent. of living matter itself. - -Of great significance was the abundance of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen -(in the form of carbonic acid and water) in the atmosphere of the -cooling earth, for these three wonderful elements have a unique -_ensemble_ of properties--ready to enter into reactions and relations, -making great diversity and complexity possible, favouring the formation -of the plastic and permeable materials that build up living creatures. -We must not pursue the idea, but it is clear that the stones and mortar -of the inanimate world are such that they built a friendly home for -life. - - -Origin of Living Creatures upon the Earth - -During the early chapters of the earth's history, no living creature -that we can imagine could possibly have lived there. The temperature was -too high; there was neither atmosphere nor surface water. Therefore it -follows that at some uncertain, but inconceivably distant date, living -creatures appeared upon the earth. No one knows how, but it is -interesting to consider possibilities. - -[Illustration: _Reproduced from the Smithsonian Report, 1915._ - -A LIMESTONE CANYON - -Many fossils of extinct animals have been found in such rock -formations.] - -[Illustration: GENEALOGICAL TREE OF ANIMALS - -Showing in order of evolution the general relations of the chief classes -into which the world of living things is divided. This scheme represents -the present stage of our knowledge, but is admittedly provisional.] - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF AMOEBA - -(Greatly magnified.) - -The amoeba is one of the simplest of all animals, and gives us a hint -of the original ancestors. It looks like a tiny irregular speck of -greyish jelly, about 1/100th of an inch in diameter. It is commonly -found gliding on the mud or weeds in ponds, where it engulfs its -microscopic food by means of out-flowing lobes (PS). The food vacuole -(FV) contains ingested food. From the contractile vacuole (CV) the waste -matter is discharged. N is the nucleus, GR, granules.] - -From ancient times it has been a favourite answer that the dust of the -earth may have become living in a way which is outside scientific -description. This answer forecloses the question, and it is far too soon -to do that. Science must often say "Ignoramus": Science should be slow -to say "Ignorabimus." - -A second position held by Helmholtz, Lord Kelvin, and others, suggests -that minute living creatures may have come to the earth from elsewhere, -in the cracks of a meteorite or among cosmic dust. It must be remembered -that seeds can survive prolonged exposure to very low temperatures; that -spores of bacteria can survive high temperature; that seeds of plants -and germs of animals in a state of "latent life" can survive prolonged -drought and absence of oxygen. It is possible, according to Berthelot, -that as long as there is not molecular disintegration vital activities -may be suspended for a time, and may afterwards recommence when -appropriate conditions are restored. Therefore, one should be slow to -say that a long journey through space is impossible. The obvious -limitation of Lord Kelvin's theory is that it only shifts the problem of -the origin of organisms (i.e. living creatures) from the earth to -elsewhere. - -The third answer is that living creatures of a very simple sort may have -emerged on the earth's surface from not-living material, e.g. from some -semi-fluid carbon compounds activated by ferments. The tenability of -this view is suggested by the achievements of the synthetic chemists, -who are able artificially to build up substances such as oxalic acid, -indigo, salicylic acid, caffeine, and grape-sugar. We do not know, -indeed, what in Nature's laboratory would take the place of the clever -synthetic chemist, but there seems to be a tendency to complexity. -Corpuscles form atoms, atoms form molecules, small molecules large -ones. - -Various concrete suggestions have been made in regard to the possible -origin of living matter, which will be dealt with in a later chapter. So -far as we know of what goes on to-day, there is no evidence of -spontaneous generation; organisms seem always to arise from pre-existing -organisms of the same kind; where any suggestion of the contrary has -been fancied, there have been flaws in the experimenting. But it is one -thing to accept the verdict "omne vivum e vivo" as a fact to which -experiment has not yet discovered an exception and another thing to -maintain that this must always have been true or must always remain -true. - -If the synthetic chemists should go on surpassing themselves, if -substances like white of egg should be made artificially, and if we -should get more light on possible steps by which simple living creatures -may have arisen from not-living materials, this would not greatly affect -our general outlook on life, though it would increase our appreciation -of what is often libelled as "inert" matter. If the dust of the earth -did naturally give rise very long ago to living creatures, if they are -in a real sense born of her and of the sunshine, then the whole world -becomes more continuous and more vital, and all the inorganic groaning -and travailing becomes more intelligible. - - -Sec. 4 - -The First Organisms upon the Earth - -We cannot have more than a speculative picture of the first living -creatures upon the earth or, rather, in the waters that covered the -earth. A basis for speculation is to be found, however, in the simplest -creatures living to-day, such as some of the bacteria and one-celled -animalcules, especially those called Protists, which have not taken any -very definite step towards becoming either plants or animals. No one can -be sure, but there is much to be said for the theory that the first -creatures were microscopic globules of living matter, not unlike the -simplest bacteria of to-day, but able to live on air, water, and -dissolved salts. From such a source may have originated a race of -one-celled marine organisms which were able to manufacture chlorophyll, -or something like chlorophyll, that is to say, the green pigment which -makes it possible for plants to utilise the energy of the sunlight in -breaking up carbon dioxide and in building up (photosynthesis) carbon -compounds like sugars and starch. These little units were probably -encased in a cell-wall of cellulose, but their boxed-in energy expressed -itself in the undulatory movement of a lash or flagellum, by means of -which they propelled themselves energetically through the water. There -are many similar organisms to-day, mostly in water, but some of -them--simple one-celled plants--paint the tree-stems and even the -paving-stones green in wet weather. According to Prof. A. H. Church -there was a long chapter in the history of the earth when the sea that -covered everything teemed with these green flagellates--the originators -of the Vegetable Kingdom. - -On another tack, however, there probably evolved a series of simple -predatory creatures, not able to build up organic matter from air, -water, and salts, but devouring their neighbours. These units were not -closed in with cellulose, but remained naked, with their living matter -or protoplasm flowing out in changeful processes, such as we see in the -Amoebae in the ditch or in our own white blood corpuscles and other -amoeboid cells. These were the originators of the animal kingdom. Thus -from very simple Protists the first animals and the first plants may -have arisen. All were still very minute, and it is worth remembering -that had there been any scientific spectator after our kind upon the -earth during these long ages, he would have lamented the entire absence -of life, although the seas were teeming. The simplest forms of life and -the protoplasm which Huxley called the physical basis of life will be -dealt with in the chapter on Biology in a later section of this work. - - -FIRST GREAT STEPS IN EVOLUTION - -THE FIRST PLANTS--THE FIRST ANIMALS--BEGINNINGS OF BODIES--EVOLUTION OF -SEX--BEGINNING OF NATURAL DEATH - -Sec. 1 - -The Contrast between Plants and Animals - -However it may have come about, there is no doubt at all that one of the -first great steps in Organic Evolution was the forking of the -genealogical tree into Plants and Animals--the most important parting of -the ways in the whole history of Nature. - -Typical plants have chlorophyll; they are able to feed at a low chemical -level on air, water, and salts, using the energy of the sunlight in -their photosynthesis. They have their cells boxed in by cellulose walls, -so that their opportunities for motility are greatly restricted. They -manufacture much more nutritive material than they need, and live far -below their income. They have no ready way of getting rid of any -nitrogenous waste matter that they may form, and this probably helps to -keep them sluggish. - -Animals, on the other hand, feed at a high chemical level, on the -carbohydrates (e.g. starch and sugar), fats, and proteins (e.g. gluten, -albumin, casein) which are manufactured by other animals, or to begin -with, by plants. Their cells have not cellulose walls, nor in most cases -much wall of any kind, and motility in the majority is unrestricted. -Animals live much more nearly up to their income. If we could make for -an animal and a plant of equal weight two fractions showing the ratio of -the upbuilding, constructive, chemical processes to the down-breaking, -disruptive, chemical processes that go on in their respective bodies, -the ratio for the plant would be much greater than the corresponding -ratio for the animal. In other words, animals take the munitions which -plants laboriously manufacture and explode them in locomotion and -work; and the entire system of animate nature depends upon the -photosynthesis that goes on in green plants. - -[Illustration: _From the Smithsonian Report, 1917_ - -A PIECE OF A REEF-BUILDING CORAL, BUILT UP BY A LARGE COLONY OF SMALL -SEA-ANEMONE-LIKE POLYPS, EACH OF WHICH FORMS FROM THE SALTS OF THE SEA A -SKELETON OR SHELL OF LIME - -The wonderful mass of corals, which are very beautiful, are the skeleton -remains of hundreds of these little creatures.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -THE INSET CIRCLE SHOWS A GROUP OF CHALK-FORMING ANIMALS, OR -FORAMINIFERA, EACH ABOUT THE SIZE OF A VERY SMALL PIN'S HEAD - -They form a great part of the chalk cliffs of Dover and similar deposits -which have been raised from the floor of an ancient sea. - -THE ENORMOUSLY ENLARGED ILLUSTRATION IS THAT OF A COMMON FORAMINIFER -(POLYSTOMELLA) SHOWING THE SHELL IN THE CENTRE AND THE OUTFLOWING -NETWORK OF LIVING MATTER, ALONG WHICH GRANULES ARE CONTINUALLY -TRAVELLING, AND BY WHICH FOOD PARTICLES ARE ENTANGLED AND DRAWN IN - -_Reproduced by permission of the Natural History Museum_ (_after Max -Schultze_).] - -As the result of much more explosive life, animals have to deal with -much in the way of nitrogenous waste products, the ashes of the living -fire, but these are usually got rid of very effectively, e.g. in the -kidney filters, and do not clog the system by being deposited as -crystals and the like, as happens in plants. Sluggish animals like -sea-squirts which have no kidneys are exceptions that prove the rule, -and it need hardly be said that the statements that have been made in -regard to the contrasts between plants and animals are general -statements. There is often a good deal of the plant about the animal, as -in sedentary sponges, zoophytes, corals, and sea-squirts, and there is -often a little of the animal about the plant, as we see in the movements -of all shoots and roots and leaves, and occasionally in the parts of the -flower. But the important fact is that on the early forking of the -genealogical tree, i.e. the divergence of plants and animals, there -depended and depends all the higher life of the animal kingdom, not to -speak of mankind. The continuance of civilisation, the upkeep of the -human and animal population of the globe, and even the supply of oxygen -to the air we breathe, depend on the silent laboratories of the green -leaves, which are able with the help of the sunlight to use carbonic -acid, water, and salts to build up the bread of life. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Beginnings of Land Plants - -It is highly probable that for long ages the waters covered the earth, -and that all the primeval vegetation consisted of simple Flagellates in -the universal Open Sea. But contraction of the earth's crust brought -about elevations and depressions of the sea-floor, and in places the -solid substratum was brought near enough the surface to allow the -floating plants to begin to settle down without getting out of the -light. This is how Professor Church pictures the beginning of a fixed -vegetation--a very momentous step in evolution. It was perhaps among -this early vegetation that animals had their first successes. As the -floor of the sea in these shallow areas was raised higher and higher -there was a beginning of dry land. The sedentary plants already spoken -of were the ancestors of the shore seaweeds, and there is no doubt that -when we go down at the lowest tide and wade cautiously out among the -jungle of vegetation only exposed on such occasions we are getting a -glimpse of very ancient days. _This_ is the forest primeval. - - -The Protozoa - -Animals below the level of zoophytes and sponges are called Protozoa. -The word obviously means "First Animals," but all that we can say is -that the very simplest of them may give us some hint of the simplicity -of the original first animals. For it is quite certain that the vast -majority of the Protozoa to-day are far too complicated to be thought of -as primitive. Though most of them are microscopic, each is an animal -complete in itself, with the same fundamental bodily attributes as are -manifested in ourselves. They differ from animals of higher degree in -not being built up of the unit areas or corpuscles called cells. They -have no cells, no tissues, no organs, in the ordinary acceptation of -these words, but many of them show a great complexity of internal -structure, far exceeding that of the ordinary cells that build up the -tissues of higher animals. They are complete living creatures which have -not gone in for body-making. - -In the dim and distant past there was a time when the only animals were -of the nature of Protozoa, and it is safe to say that one of the great -steps in evolution was the establishment of three great types of -Protozoa: (_a_) Some were very active, the Infusorians, like the slipper -animalcule, the night-light (Noctiluca), which makes the seas -phosphorescent at night, and the deadly Trypanosome, which causes -Sleeping Sickness. (_b_) Others were very sluggish, the parasitic -Sporozoa, like the malaria organism which the mosquito introduces into -man's body. (_c_) Others were neither very active nor very passive, the -Rhizopods, with out-flowing processes of living matter. This amoeboid -line of evolution has been very successful; it is represented by the -Rhizopods, such as Amoebae and the chalk-forming Foraminifera and the -exquisitely beautiful flint-shelled Radiolarians of the open sea. They -have their counterparts in the amoeboid cells of most multicellular -animals, such as the phagocytes which migrate about in the body, -engulfing and digesting intruding bacteria, serving as sappers and -miners when something has to be broken down and built up again, and -performing other useful offices. - - -Sec. 3 - -The Making of a Body - -The great naturalist Louis Agassiz once said that the biggest gulf in -Organic Nature was that between the unicellular and the multicellular -animals (Protozoa and Metazoa). But the gulf was bridged very long ago -when sponges, stinging animals, and simple worms were evolved, and -showed, for the first time, a "body." What would one not give to be able -to account for the making of a body, one of the great steps in -evolution! No one knows, but the problem is not altogether obscure. - -When an ordinary Protozoon or one-celled animal divides into two or -more, which is its way of multiplying, the daughter-units thus formed -float apart and live independent lives. But there are a few Protozoa in -which the daughter-units are not quite separated off from one another, -but remain coherent. Thus Volvox, a beautiful green ball, found in some -canals and the like, is a colony of a thousand or even ten thousand -cells. It has almost formed a body! But in this "colony-making" -Protozoon, and in others like it, the component cells are all of one -kind, whereas in true multicellular animals there are different kinds -of cells, showing division of labour. There are some other Protozoa in -which the nucleus or kernel divides into many nuclei within the cell. -This is seen in the Giant Amoeba (Pelomyxa), sometimes found in -duck-ponds, or the beautiful Opalina, which always lives in the hind -part of the frog's food-canal. If a portion of the living matter of -these Protozoa should gather round each of the nuclei, then _that would -be the beginning of a body_. It would be still nearer the beginning of a -body if division of labour set in, and if there was a setting apart of -egg-cells and sperm-cells distinct from body-cells. - -It was possibly in some such way that animals and plants with a body -were first evolved. Two points should be noticed, that body-making is -not essentially a matter of size, though it made large size possible. -For the body of a many-celled Wheel Animalcule or Rotifer is no bigger -than many a Protozoon. Yet the Rotifer--we are thinking of Hydatina--has -nine hundred odd cells, whereas the Protozoon has only one, except in -forms like Volvox. Secondly, it is a luminous fact that _every -many-celled animal from sponge to man that multiplies in the ordinary -way begins at the beginning again as a "single cell,"_ the fertilised -egg-cell. It is, of course, not an ordinary single cell that develops -into an earthworm or a butterfly, an eagle, or a man; it is a cell in -which a rich inheritance, the fruition of ages, is somehow condensed; -but it is interesting to bear in mind the elementary fact that every -many-celled creature, reproduced in the ordinary way and not by budding -or the like, starts as a fertilised egg-cell. The coherence of the -daughter-cells into which the fertilised egg-cell divides is a -reminiscence, as it were, of the primeval coherence of daughter-units -that made the first body possible. - - -The Beginning of Sexual Reproduction - -A freshwater Hydra, growing on the duckweed usually multiplies by -budding. It forms daughter-buds, living images of itself; a check comes -to nutrition and these daughter-buds go free. A big sea-anemone may -divide in two or more parts, which become separate animals. This is -asexual reproduction, which means that the multiplication takes place by -dividing into two or many portions, and not by liberating egg-cells and -sperm-cells. Among animals as among plants, asexual reproduction is very -common. But it has great disadvantages, for it is apt to be -physiologically expensive, and it is beset with difficulties when the -body shows great division of labour, and is very intimately bound into -unity. Thus, no one can think of a bee or a bird multiplying by division -or by budding. Moreover, if the body of the parent has suffered from -injury or deterioration, the result of this is bound to be handed on to -the next generation if asexual reproduction is the only method. - -[Illustration: _Photos: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -A PLANT-LIKE ANIMAL, OR ZOOPHYTE, CALLED OBELIA - -Consisting of a colony of small polyps, whose stinging tentacles are -well shown greatly enlarged in the lower photograph.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of "The Quart. Journ. Mic. -Sci."_ - -TRYPANOSOMA GAMBIENSE - -(Very highly magnified.) - -The microscopic animal Trypanosome, which causes Sleeping Sickness. The -study of these organisms has of late years acquired an immense -importance on account of the widespread and dangerous maladies to which -some of them give rise. It lives in the blood of man, who is infected by -the bite of a Tse-tse fly which carries the parasite from some other -host.] - -[Illustration: VOLVOX - -The Volvox is found in some canals and the like. It is one of the first -animals to suggest the beginning of a body. It is a colony of a thousand -or even ten thousand cells, but they are all cells of one kind. In -_multicellular_ animals the cells are of _different_ kinds with -different functions. Each of the ordinary cells (marked 5) has two -lashes or flagella. Daughter colonies inside the Parent colony are being -formed at 3, 4, and 2. The development of germ-cells is shown at 1.] - -[Illustration: PROTEROSPONGIA - -One of the simplest multicellular animals, illustrating the beginning of -a body. There is a setting apart of egg-cells and sperm-cells, distinct -from body-cells; the collared lashed cells on the margin are different -in kind from those farther in. Thus, as in indubitable multicellular -animals, division of labour has begun.] - -Splitting into two or many parts was the old-fashioned way of -multiplying, but one of the great steps in evolution was the discovery -of a better method, namely, sexual reproduction. The gist of this is -simply that during the process of body-building (by the development of -the fertilised egg-cell) certain units, _the germ-cells_, do not share -in forming ordinary tissues or organs, but remain apart, continuing the -full inheritance which was condensed in the fertilised egg-cell. _These -cells kept by themselves are the originators of the future reproductive -cells of the mature animal_; they give rise to the egg-cells and the -sperm-cells. - -The advantages of this method are great. (1) The new generation is -started less expensively, for it is easier to shed germ-cells into the -cradle of the water than to separate off half of the body. (2) It is -possible to start a great many new lives at once, and this may be of -vital importance when the struggle for existence is very keen, and when -parental care is impossible. (3) The germ-cells are little likely to be -prejudicially affected by disadvantageous dints impressed on the body of -the parent--little likely unless the dints have peculiarly penetrating -consequences, as in the case of poisons. (4) A further advantage is -implied in the formation of two kinds of germ-cells--the ovum or -egg-cell, with a considerable amount of building material and often with -a legacy of nutritive yolk; the spermatozoon or sperm-cell, adapted to -move in fluids and to find the ovum from a distance, thus securing -change-provoking cross-fertilisation. - - -Sec. 4 - -The Evolution of Sex - -Another of the great steps in organic evolution was the differentiation -of two different physiological types, the male or sperm-producer and the -female or egg-producer. It seems to be a deep-seated difference in -constitution, which leads one egg to develop into a male, and another, -lying beside it in the nest, into a female. In the case of pigeons it -seems almost certain, from the work of Professor Oscar Riddle, that -there are two kinds of egg, a male-producing egg and a female-producing -egg, which differ in their yolk-forming and other physiological -characters. - -In sea-urchins we often find two creatures superficially -indistinguishable, but the one is a female with large ovaries and the -other is a male with equally large testes. Here the physiological -difference does not affect the body as a whole, but the reproductive -organs or gonads only, though more intimate physiology would doubtless -discover differences in the blood or in the chemical routine -(metabolism). In a large number of cases, however, there are marked -superficial differences between the sexes, and everyone is familiar with -such contrasts as peacock and peahen, stag and hind. In such cases the -physiological difference between the sperm-producer and the -ovum-producer, for this is the essential difference, saturates through -the body and expresses itself in masculine and feminine structures and -modes of behaviour. The expression of the masculine and feminine -characters is in some cases under the control of hormones or chemical -messengers which are carried by the blood from the reproductive organs -throughout the body, and pull the trigger which brings about the -development of an antler or a wattle or a decorative plume or a capacity -for vocal and saltatory display. In some cases it is certain that the -female carries in a latent state the masculine features, but these are -kept from expressing themselves by other chemical messengers from the -ovary. Of these chemical messengers more must be said later on. - -Recent research has shown that while the difference between male and -female is very deep-rooted, corresponding to a difference in gearing, it -is not always clear-cut. Thus a hen-pigeon may be very masculine, and a -cock-pigeon very feminine. The difference is in degree, not in kind. - - -Sec. 5 - -What is the meaning of the universal or almost universal inevitableness -of death? A Sequoia or "Big Tree" of California has been known to live -for over two thousand years, but eventually it died. A centenarian -tortoise has been known, and a sea-anemone sixty years of age; but -eventually they die. What is the meaning of this apparently inevitable -stoppage of bodily life? - - -The Beginning of Natural Death - -There are three chief kinds of death, (_a_) The great majority of -animals come to a violent end, being devoured by others or killed by -sudden and extreme changes in their surroundings. (_b_) When an animal -enters a new habitat, or comes into new associations with other -organisms, it may be invaded by a microbe or by some larger parasite to -which it is unaccustomed and to which it can offer no resistance. With -many parasites a "live-and-let-live" compromise is arrived at, but new -parasites are apt to be fatal, as man knows to his cost when he is -bitten by a tse-tse fly which infects him with the microscopic animal (a -Trypanosome) that causes Sleeping Sickness. In many animals the -parasites are not troublesome as long as the host is vigorous, but if -the host is out of condition the parasites may get the upper hand, as in -the so-called "grouse disease," and become fatal. (_c_) But besides -violent death and microbic (or parasitic) death, there is natural death. -This is in great part to be regarded as the price paid for a body. A -body worth having implies complexity or division of labour, and this -implies certain internal furnishings of a more or less stable kind in -which the effects of wear and tear are apt to accumulate. It is not the -living matter itself that grows old so much as the framework in which it -works--the furnishings of the vital laboratory. There are various -processes of rejuvenescence, e.g. rest, repair, change, reorganisation, -which work against the inevitable processes of senescence, but sooner or -later the victory is with ageing. Another deep reason for natural death -is to be found in the physiological expensiveness of reproduction, for -many animals, from worms to eels, illustrate natural death as the -nemesis of starting new lives. Now it is a very striking fact that to a -large degree the simplest animals or Protozoa are exempt from natural -death. They are so relatively simple that they can continually -recuperate by rest and repair; they do not accumulate any bad debts. -Moreover, their modes of multiplying, by dividing into two or many -units, are very inexpensive physiologically. It seems that in some -measure this bodily immortality of the Protozoa is shared by some simple -many-celled animals like the freshwater Hydra and Planarian worms. Here -is an interesting chapter in evolution, the evolution of means of -evading or staving off natural death. Thus there is the well-known case -of the Paloloworm of the coral-reefs where the body breaks up in -liberating the germ-cells, but the head-end remains fixed in a crevice -of the coral, and buds out a new body at leisure. - -Along with the evolution of the ways of avoiding death should be -considered also the gradual establishment of the length of life best -suited to the welfare of the species, and the punctuation of the -life-history to suit various conditions. - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -GREEN HYDRA - -A little freshwater polyp, about half an inch long, with a crown of -tentacles round the mouth. It is seen giving off a bud, a clear -illustration of asexual reproduction. When a tentacle touches some small -organism the latter is paralysed and drawn into the mouth.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -EARTHWORM - -Earthworms began the profitable habit of moving with one end of the body -always in front, and from worms to man the great majority of animals -have bilateral symmetry.] - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE BEGINNING OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE - -1. An immature _sperm_-cell, with 4 chromosomes (nuclear bodies) -represented as rods. - -2. A mature sperm-cell, with 2 chromosomes. - -3. An immature _egg_-cell, with 4 chromosomes represented as curved -bodies. - -4. A mature egg-cell, with 2 chromosomes. - -5. The spermatozoon fertilises the ovum, introducing 2 chromosomes. - -6. The fertilised ovum, with 4 chromosomes, 2 of paternal origin and 2 -of maternal origin. - -7. The chromosomes lie at the equator, and each is split longitudinally. -The centrosome introduced by the spermatozoon has divided into two -centrosomes, one at each pole of the nucleus. These play an important -part in the division or segmentation of the egg. - -8. The fertilised egg has divided into two cells. Each cell has 2 -paternal and 2 maternal chromosomes.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced from the Smithsonian Report, 1917._ - -GLASS MODEL OF A SEA-ANEMONE - -A long tubular sea-anemone, with a fine crown of tentacles around the -mouth. The suggestion of a flower is very obvious. By means of stinging -lassoes on the tentacles minute animals on which it feeds are paralysed -and captured for food.] - -[Illustration: THIS DRAWING SHOWS THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN FROM FISH -TO MAN - -The Cerebrum, the seat of intelligence, increases in proportion to the -other parts. In mammals it becomes more and more convoluted. The brain, -which lies in one plane in fishes, becomes gradually curved on itself. -In birds it is more curved than the drawing shows.] - - -Sec. 6 - -Great Acquisitions - -In animals like sea-anemones and jellyfishes the general symmetry of the -body is radial; that is to say, there is no right or left, and the body -might be halved along many planes. It is a kind of symmetry well suited -for sedentary or for drifting life. But worms began the profitable habit -of moving with one end of the body always in front, and from worms to -man the great majority of animals have bilateral symmetry. They have a -right and a left side, and there is only one cut that halves the body. -This kind of symmetry is suited for a more strenuous life than radial -animals show; it is suited for pursuing food, for avoiding enemies, for -chasing mates. And _with the establishment of bilateral symmetry must be -associated the establishment of head-brains_, the beginning of which is -to be found in some simple worm-types. - -Among the other great acquisitions gradually evolved we may notice: a -well-developed head with sense-organs, the establishment of large -internal surfaces such as the digestive and absorptive wall of the -food-canal, the origin of quickly contracting striped muscle and of -muscular appendages, the formation of blood as a distributing medium -throughout the body, from which all the parts take what they need and to -which they also contribute. - -Another very important acquisition, almost confined (so far as is known) -to backboned animals, was the evolution of what are called glands of -internal secretion, such as the thyroid and the supra-renal. These -manufacture subtle chemical substances which are distributed by the -blood throughout the body, and have a manifold influence in regulating -and harmonising the vital processes. Some of these chemical messengers -are called hormones, which stimulate organs and tissues to greater -activity; others are called chalones, which put on a brake. Some -regulate growth and others rapidly alter the pressure and composition -of the blood. Some of them call into active development certain parts of -the body which have been, as it were, waiting for an appropriate -trigger-pulling. Thus, at the proper time, the milk-glands of a -mammalian mother are awakened from their dormancy. This very interesting -outcome of evolution will be dealt with in another portion of this work. - - -THE INCLINED PLANE OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR - -Sec. 1 - -Before passing to a connected story of the gradual emergence of higher -and higher forms of life in the course of the successive ages--the -procession of life, as it may be called--it will be useful to consider -the evolution of animal behaviour. - - -Evolution of Mind - -A human being begins as a microscopic fertilised egg-cell, within which -there is condensed the long result of time--Man's inheritance. The long -period of nine months before birth, with its intimate partnership -between mother and offspring, is passed as it were in sleep, and no one -can make any statement in regard to the mind of the unborn child. Even -after birth the dawn of mind is as slow as it is wonderful. To begin -with, there is in the ovum and early embryo no nervous system at all, -and it develops very gradually from simple beginnings. Yet as mentality -cannot come in from outside, we seem bound to conclude that the -potentiality of it--whatever that means--resides in the individual from -the very first. The particular kind of activity known to us as thinking, -feeling, and willing is the most intimate part of our experience, known -to us directly apart from our senses, and the possibility of that must -be implicit in the germ-cell just as the genius of Newton was implicit -in a very miserable specimen of an infant. Now what is true of the -individual is true also of the race--there is a gradual evolution of -that aspect of the living creature's activity which we call mind. We -cannot put our finger on any point and say: Before this stage there was -no mind. Indeed, many facts suggest the conclusion that wherever there -is life there is some degree of mind--even in the plants. Or it might be -more accurate to put the conclusion in another way, that the activity we -call life has always in some degree an inner or mental aspect. - -[Illustration: OKAPI AND GIRAFFE - -The Okapi is one of the great zooelogical discoveries. It gives a good -idea of what the Giraffe's ancestors were like. The Okapi was unknown -until discovered in 1900 by Sir Harry Johnston in Central Africa, where -these strange animals have probably lived in dense forests from time -immemorial.] - -In another part of this book there is an account of the dawn of mind in -backboned animals; what we aim at here is an outline of what may be -called the inclined plane of animal behaviour. - -A very simple animal accumulates a little store of potential energy, and -it proceeds to expend this, like an explosive, by acting on its -environment. It does so in a very characteristic self-preservative -fashion, so that it burns without being consumed and explodes without -being blown to bits. It is characteristic of the organism that it -remains a going concern for a longer or shorter period--its length of -life. Living creatures that expended their energy ineffectively or -self-destructively would be eliminated in the struggle for existence. -When a simple one-celled organism explores a corner of the field seen -under a microscope, behaving to all appearance very like a dog scouring -a field seen through a telescope, it seems permissible to think of -something corresponding to mental endeavour associated with its -activity. This impression is strengthened when an amoeba pursues -another amoeba, overtakes it, engulfs it, loses it, pursues it again, -recaptures it, and so on. What is quite certain is that the behaviour of -the animalcule is not like that of a potassium pill fizzing about in a -basin of water, nor like the lurching movements of a gun that has got -loose and "taken charge" on board ship. Another feature is that the -locomotor activity of an animalcule often shows a distinct -individuality: it may swim, for instance, in a loose spiral. - -But there is another side to vital activity besides acting upon the -surrounding world; the living creature is acted on by influences from -without. The organism acts on its environment; that is the one side of -the shield: the environment acts upon the organism; that is the other -side. If we are to see life whole we must recognise these two sides of -what we call living, and it is missing an important part of the history -of animal life if we fail to see that evolution implies becoming more -advantageously sensitive to the environment, making more of its -influences, shutting out profitless stimuli, and opening more gateways -to knowledge. The bird's world is a larger and finer world than an -earthworm's; the world means more to the bird than to the worm. - - -The Trial and Error Method - -Simple creatures act with a certain degree of spontaneity on their -environment, and they likewise react effectively to surrounding stimuli. -Animals come to have definite "answers back," sometimes several, -sometimes only one, as in the case of the Slipper Animalcule, which -reverses its cilia when it comes within the sphere of some disturbing -influence, retreats, and, turning upon itself tentatively, sets off -again in the same general direction as before, but at an angle to the -previous line. If it misses the disturbing influence, well and good; if -it strikes it again, the tactics are repeated until a satisfactory way -out is discovered or the stimulation proves fatal. - -It may be said that the Slipper Animalcule has but one answer to every -question, but there are many Protozoa which have several enregistered -reactions. When there are alternative reactions which are tried one -after another, the animal is pursuing what is called the trial-and-error -method, and a higher note is struck. - -There is an endeavour after satisfaction, and a trial of answers. When -the creature profits by experience to the extent of giving the right -answer first, there is the beginning of learning. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE REFLEX ARC IN A BACKBONELESS ANIMAL -LIKE AN EARTHWORM - -1. A sensory nerve-cell (S.C.) on the surface receives a stimulus. - -2. The stimulus travels along the sensatory nerve-fibre (S.F.) - -3. The sensory nerve-fibre branches in the nerve-cord. - -4. Its branches come into close contact (SY^{1}) with those of an -associative or communicating nerve-cell (A.C.). - -5. Other branches of the associative cell come into close contact -(SY^{2}) with the branches or dendrites of a motor nerve-cell (M.C.). - -6. An impulse or command travels along the motor nerve-fibre or axis -cylinder of the motor nerve-cell. - -7. The motor nerve-fibre ends on a muscle-fibre (M.F.) near the surface. -This moves and the reflex action is complete.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum_ (_Natural History_). - -THE YUCCA MOTH - -The Yucca Moth, emerging from her cocoon, flies at night to a Yucca -flower and collects pollen from the stamens, holding a little ball of it -in her mouth-parts. She then visits another flower and lays an egg in -the seed-box. After this she applies the pollen to the tip of the -pistil, thus securing the fertilisation of the flower and the growth of -the ovules in the pod. Yucca flowers in Britain do not produce seeds -because there are no Yucca Moths.] - -[Illustration: INCLINED PLANE OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR - -Diagram illustrating animal behaviour. The main line represents the -general life of the creature. On the upper side are activities implying -initiative; on the lower side actions which are almost automatic. - -_Upper Side._--I. Energetic actions. II. Simple tentatives. III. -Trial-and-error methods. IV. Non-intelligent experiments. V. -Experiential "learning." VI. Associative "learning." VII. Intelligent -behaviour. VIII. Rational conduct (man). - -_Lower Side._--1. Reactions to environment. 2. Enregistered reactions. -3. Simple reflex actions. 4. Compound reflex actions. 5. Tropisms. 6. -Enregistered rhythms. 7. Simple instincts. 8. Chain instincts. 9. -Instinctive activities influenced by intelligence. 10. Subconscious -cerebration at a high level (man).] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -VENUS' FLY-TRAP - -One of the most remarkable plants in the world, which captures its prey -by means of a trap formed from part of its leaf. It has been induced to -snap at and hold a bristle. If an insect lighting on the leaf touches -one of six very sensitive hairs, which pull the trigger of the movement, -the two halves of the leaf close rapidly and the fringing teeth on the -margin interlock, preventing the insect's escape. Then follows an -exudation of digestive juice.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission from "The Wonders of Instinct" -by J. H. Fabre._ - -A SPIDER SUNNING HER EGGS - -A kind of spider, called Lycosa, lying head downwards at the edge of her -nest, and holding her silken cocoon--the bag containing the eggs--up -towards the sun in her hindmost pair of legs. This extraordinary -proceeding is believed to assist in the hatching.] - - -Reflex Actions - -Among simple multicellular animals, such as sea-anemones, we find the -beginnings of reflex actions, and a considerable part of the behaviour -of the lower animals is reflex. That is to say, there are laid down in -the animal in the course of its development certain pre-arrangements of -nerve-cells and muscle-cells which secure that a fit and proper answer -is given to a frequently recurrent stimulus. An earthworm half out of -its burrow becomes aware of the light tread of a thrush's foot, and -jerks itself back into its hole before anyone can say "reflex action." -What is it that happens? - -Certain sensory nerve-cells in the earthworm's skin are stimulated by -vibrations in the earth; the message travels down a sensory nerve-fibre -from each of the stimulated cells and enters the nerve-cord. The sensory -fibres come into vital connection with branches of intermediary, -associative, or communicating cells, which are likewise connected with -motor nerve-cells. To these the message is thus shunted. From the motor -nerve-cells an impulse or command travels by motor nerve-fibres, one -from each cell, to the muscles, which contract. If this took as long to -happen as it takes to describe, even in outline, it would not be of much -use to the earthworm. But the motor answer follows the sensory stimulus -almost instantaneously. The great advantage of establishing or -enregistering these reflex chains is that the answers are practically -ready-made or inborn, not requiring to be learned. It is not necessary -that the brain should be stimulated if there is a brain; nor does the -animal will to act, though in certain cases it may by means of higher -controlling nerve-centres keep the natural reflex response from being -given, as happens, for instance, when we control a cough or a sneeze on -some solemn occasion. The evolutionary method, if we may use the -expression, has been to enregister ready-made responses; and as we -ascend the animal kingdom, we find reflex actions becoming complicated -and often linked together, so that the occurrence of one pulls the -trigger of another, and so on in a chain. The behaviour of the -insectivorous plant called Venus's fly-trap when it shuts on an insect -is like a reflex action in an animal, but plants have no definite -nervous system. - - -What are Called Tropisms - -A somewhat higher level on the inclined plane is illustrated by what are -called "tropisms," obligatory movements which the animal makes, -adjusting its whole body so that physiological equilibrium results in -relation to gravity, pressure, currents, moisture, heat, light, -electricity, and surfaces of contact. A moth is flying past a candle; -the eye next the light is more illumined than the other; a physiological -inequilibrium results, affecting nerve-cells and muscle-cells; the -outcome is that the moth automatically adjusts its flight so that both -eyes become equally illumined; in doing this it often flies into the -candle. - -It may seem bad business that the moth should fly into the candle, but -the flame is an utterly artificial item in its environment to which no -one can expect it to be adapted. These tropisms play an important role -in animal behaviour. - - -Sec. 2 - -Instinctive Behaviour - -On a higher level is instinctive behaviour, which reaches such -remarkable perfection in ants, bees, and wasps. In its typical -expression instinctive behaviour depends on inborn capacities; it does -not require to be learned; it is independent of practice or experience, -though it may be improved by both; it is shared equally by all members -of the species of the same sex (for the female's instincts are often -different from the male's); it refers to particular conditions of life -that are of vital importance, though they may occur only once in a -lifetime. The female Yucca Moth emerges from the cocoon when the Yucca -flower puts forth its bell-like blossoms. She flies to a flower, -collects some pollen from the stamens, kneads it into a pill-like ball, -and stows this away under her chin. She flies to an older Yucca flower -and lays her eggs in some of the ovules within the seed-box, but before -she does so she has to deposit on the stigma the ball of pollen. From -this the pollen-tubes grow down and the pollen-nucleus of a tube -fertilises the egg-cell in an ovule, so that the possible seeds become -real seeds, for it is only a fraction of them that the Yucca Moth has -destroyed by using them as cradles for her eggs. Now it is plain that -the Yucca Moth has no individual experience of Yucca flowers, yet she -secures the continuance of her race by a concatenation of actions which -form part of her instinctive repertory. - -From a physiological point of view instinctive behaviour is like a chain -of compound reflex actions, but in some cases, at least, there is reason -to believe that the behaviour is suffused with awareness and backed by -endeavour. This is suggested in exceptional cases where the stereotyped -routine is departed from to meet exceptional conditions. It should also -be noted that just as ants, hive bees, and wasps exhibit in most cases -purely instinctive behaviour, but move on occasion on the main line of -trial and error or of experimental initiative, so among birds and -mammals the intelligent behaviour is sometimes replaced by instinctive -routine. Perhaps there is no instinctive behaviour without a spice of -intelligence, and no intelligent behaviour without an instinctive -element. The old view that instinctive behaviour was originally -intelligent, and that instinct is "lapsed intelligence," is a tempting -one, and is suggested by the way in which habitual intelligent actions -cease in the individual to require intelligent control, but it rests on -the unproved hypothesis that the acquisitions of the individual can be -entailed on the race. It is almost certain that instinct is on a line of -evolution quite different from intelligence, and that it is nearer to -the inborn inspirations of the calculating boy or the musical genius -than to the plodding methods of intelligent learning. - - -Animal Intelligence - -The higher reaches of the inclined plane of behaviour show intelligence -in the strict sense. They include those kinds of behaviour which cannot -be described without the suggestion that the animal makes some sort of -perceptual inference, not only profiting by experience but learning by -ideas. Such intelligent actions show great individual variability; they -are plastic and adjustable in a manner rarely hinted at in connection -with instincts where routine cannot be departed from without the -creature being nonplussed; they are not bound up with particular -circumstances as instinctive actions are, but imply an appreciative -awareness of relations. - -When there is an experimenting with general ideas, when there is -_conceptual_ as contrasted with _perceptual_ inference, we speak of -Reason, but there is no evidence of this below the level of man. It is -not, indeed, always that we can credit man with rational conduct, but he -has the possibility of it ever within his reach. - -Animal instinct and intelligence will be illustrated in another part of -this work. We are here concerned simply with the general question of the -evolution of behaviour. There is a main line of tentative experimental -behaviour both below and above the level of intelligence, and it has -been part of the tactics of evolution to bring about the hereditary -enregistration of capacities of effective response, the advantages being -that the answers come more rapidly and that the creature is left free, -if it chooses, for higher adventures. - -There is no doubt as to the big fact that in the course of evolution -animals have shown an increasing complexity and masterfulness of -behaviour, that they have become at once more controlled and more -definitely free agents, and that the inner aspect of the -behaviour--experimenting, learning, thinking, feeling, and willing--has -come to count for more and more. - - -Sec. 3 - -Evolution of Parental Care - -Mammals furnish a crowning instance of a trend of evolution which -expresses itself at many levels--the tendency to bring forth the young -at a well-advanced stage and to an increase of parental care associated -with a decrease in the number of offspring. There is a British starfish -called _Luidia_ which has two hundred millions of eggs in a year, and -there are said to be several millions of eggs in conger-eels and some -other fishes. These illustrate the spawning method of solving the -problem of survival. Some animals are naturally prolific, and the number -of eggs which they sow broadcast in the waters allows for enormous -infantile mortality and obviates any necessity for parental care. - -But some other creatures, by nature less prolific, have found an -entirely different solution of the problem. They practise parental care -and they secure survival with greatly economised reproduction. This is a -trend of evolution particularly characteristic of the higher animals. So -much so that Herbert Spencer formulated the generalisation that the size -and frequency of the animal family is inverse ratio to the degree of -evolution to which the animal has attained. - -Now there are many different methods of parental care which secure the -safety of the young, and one of these is called viviparity. The young -ones are not liberated from the parent until they are relatively well -advanced and more or less able to look after themselves. This gives the -young a good send-off in life, and their chances of death are greatly -reduced. In other words, the animals that have varied in the direction -of economised reproduction may keep their foothold in the struggle for -existence if they have varied at the same time in the direction of -parental care. In other cases it may have worked the other way round. - -In the interesting archaic animal called _Peripatus_, which has to face -a modern world too severe for it, one of the methods of meeting the -environing difficulties is the retention of the offspring for many -months within the mother, so that it is born a fully-formed creature. -There are only a few offspring at a time, and, although there are -exceptional cases like the summer green-flies, which are very prolific -though viviparous, the general rule is that viviparity is associated -with a very small family. The case of flowering plants stands by itself, -for although they illustrate a kind of viviparity, the seed being -embryos, an individual plant may have a large number of flowers and -therefore a huge family. - -Viviparity naturally finds its best illustrations among terrestrial -animals, where the risks to the young life are many, and it finds its -climax among mammals. - -Now it is an interesting fact that the three lowest mammals, the -Duckmole and two Spiny Ant-eaters, lay eggs, i.e. are oviparous; that -the Marsupials, on the next grade, bring forth their young, as it were, -prematurely, and in most cases stow them away in an external pouch; -while all the others--the Placentals--show a more prolonged ante-natal -life and an intimate partnership between the mother and the unborn -young. - - -Sec. 4 - -There is another way of looking at the sublime process of evolution. It -has implied a mastery of all the possible haunts of life; it has been a -progressive conquest of the environment. - -1. It is highly probable that living organisms found their foothold in -the stimulating conditions of the shore of the sea--the shallow water, -brightly illumined, seaweed-growing shelf fringing the Continents. This -littoral zone was a propitious environment where sea and fresh water, -earth and air all meet, where there is stimulating change, abundant -oxygenation and a copious supply of nutritive material in what the -streams bring down and in the rich seaweed vegetation. - -[Illustration: THE HOATZIN INHABITS BRITISH GUIANA - -The newly hatched bird has claws on its thumb and first finger and so is -enabled to climb on the branches of trees with great dexterity until -such time as the wings are strong enough to sustain it in flight.] - -[Illustration: _Photograph, from the British Museum (Natural History), -of a drawing by Mr. E. Wilson._ - -PERIPATUS - -A widely distributed old-fashioned type of animal, somewhat like a -permanent caterpillar. It has affinities both with worms and with -insects. It has a velvety skin, minute diamond-like eyes, and short -stump-like legs. A defenceless, weaponless animal, it comes out at -night, and is said to capture small insects by squirting jets of slime -from its mouth.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S._ - -ROCK KANGAROO CARRYING ITS YOUNG IN A POUCH - -The young are born so helpless that they cannot even suck. The mother -places them in the external pouch, and fitting their mouths on the teats -injects the milk. After a time the young ones go out and in as they -please.] - -It is not an easy haunt of life, but none the worse for that, and it is -tenanted to-day by representatives of practically every class of animals -from infusorians to seashore birds and mammals. - - -The Cradle of the Open Sea - -2. The open-sea or pelagic haunt includes all the brightly illumined -surface waters beyond the shallow water of the shore area. - -It is perhaps the easiest of all the haunts of life, for there is no -crowding, there is considerable uniformity, and an abundance of food for -animals is afforded by the inexhaustible floating "sea-meadows" of -microscopic Algae. These are reincarnated in minute animals like the -open-sea crustaceans, which again are utilised by fishes, these in turn -making life possible for higher forms like carnivorous turtles and -toothed whales. It is quite possible that the open sea was the original -cradle of life and perhaps Professor Church is right in picturing a long -period of pelagic life before there was any sufficiently shallow water -to allow the floating plants to anchor. It is rather in favour of this -view that many shore animals such as crabs and starfishes, spend their -youthful stages in the relatively safe cradle of the open sea, and only -return to the more strenuous conditions of their birthplace after they -have gained considerable strength of body. It is probably safe to say -that the honour of being the original cradle of life lies between the -shore of the sea and the open sea. - - -The Great Deeps - -3. A third haunt of life is the floor of the Deep Sea, the abyssal area, -which occupies more than a half of the surface of the globe. It is a -region of extreme cold--an eternal winter; of utter darkness--an eternal -night--relieved only by the fitful gleams of "phosphorescent" animals; -of enormous pressure--2-1/2 tons on the square inch at a depth of 2,500 -fathoms; of profound calm, unbroken silence, immense monotony. And as -there are no plants in the great abysses, the animals must live on one -another, and, in the long run, on the rain of moribund animalcules which -sink from the surface through the miles of water. It seems a very -unpromising haunt of life, but it is abundantly tenanted, and it gives -us a glimpse of the insurgent nature of the living creature that the -difficulties of the Deep Sea should have been so effectively conquered. -It is probable that the colonising of the great abysses took place in -relatively recent times, for the fauna does not include many very -antique types. It is practically certain that the colonisation was due -to littoral animals which followed the food-debris, millennium after -millennium, further and further down the long slope from the shore. - - -The Freshwaters - -4. A fourth haunt of life is that of the freshwaters, including river -and lake, pond and pool, swamp and marsh. It may have been colonised by -gradual migration up estuaries and rivers, or by more direct passage -from the seashore into the brackish swamp. Or it may have been in some -cases that partially landlocked corners of ancient seas became gradually -turned into freshwater basins. The animal population of the freshwaters -is very representative, and is diversely adapted to meet the -characteristic contingencies--the risk of being dried up, the risk of -being frozen hard in winter, and the risk of being left high and dry -after floods or of being swept down to the sea. - - -Conquest of the Dry Land - -5. The terrestrial haunt has been invaded age after age by contingents -from the sea or from the freshwaters. We must recognise the worm -invasion, which led eventually to the making of the fertile soil, the -invasion due to air-breathing Arthropods, which led eventually to the -important linkage between flowers and their insect visitors, and the -invasion due to air-breathing Amphibians, which led eventually to the -higher terrestrial animals and to the development of intelligence and -family affection. Besides these three great invasions, there were minor -ones such as that leading to land-snails, for there has been a -widespread and persistent tendency among aquatic animals to try to -possess the dry land. - -Getting on to dry land had a manifold significance. - -It implied getting into a medium with a much larger supply of oxygen -than there is dissolved in the water. But the oxygen of the air is more -difficult to capture, especially when the skin becomes hard or well -protected, as it is almost bound to become in animals living on dry -ground. Thus this leads to the development of _internal surfaces_, such -as those of lungs, where the oxygen taken into the body may be absorbed -by the blood. In most animals the blood goes to the surface of -oxygen-capture; but in insects and their relatives there is a different -idea--of taking the air to the blood or in greater part to the area of -oxygen-combustion, the living tissues. A system of branching air-tubes -takes air into every hole and corner of the insect's body, and this -thorough aeration is doubtless in part the secret of the insect's -intense activity. The blood never becomes impure. - -The conquest of the dry land also implied a predominance of that kind of -locomotion which may be compared to punting, when the body is pushed -along by pressing a lever against a hard substratum. And it also -followed that with few exceptions the body of the terrestrial animal -tended to be compact, readily lifted off the ground by the limbs or -adjusted in some other way so that there may not be too large a surface -trailing on the ground. An animal like a jellyfish, easily supported in -the water, would be impossible on land. Such apparent exceptions as -earthworms, centipedes, and snakes are not difficult to explain, for the -earthworm is a burrower which eats its way through the soil, the -centipede's long body is supported by numerous hard legs, and the snake -pushes itself along by means of the large ventral scales to which the -lower ends of very numerous ribs are attached. - - -Methods of Mastering the Difficulties of Terrestrial Life - -A great restriction attendant on the invasion of the dry land is that -locomotion becomes limited to one plane, namely, the surface of the -earth. This is in great contrast to what is true in the water, where the -animal can move up or down, to right or to left, at any angle and in -three dimensions. It surely follows from this that the movements of land -animals must be rapid and precise, unless, indeed, safety is secured in -some other way. Hence it is easy to understand why most land animals -have very finely developed striped muscles, and why a beetle running on -the ground has far more numerous muscles than a lobster swimming in the -sea. - -Land animals were also handicapped by the risks of drought and of frost, -but these were met by defences of the most diverse description, from the -hairs of woolly caterpillars to the fur of mammals, from the carapace of -tortoises to the armour of armadillos. In other cases, it is hardly -necessary to say, the difficulties may be met in other ways, as frogs -meet the winter by falling into a lethargic state in some secluded -retreat. - -Another consequence of getting on to dry land is that the eggs or young -can no longer be set free anyhow, as is possible when the animal is -surrounded by water, which is in itself more or less of a cradle. If the -eggs were laid or the young liberated on dry ground, the chances are -many that they would be dried up or devoured. So there are numerous ways -in which land animals secure the safety of their young, e.g. by burying -them in the ground, or by hiding them in nests, or by carrying them -about for a prolonged period either before or after birth. This may mean -great safety for the young, this may make it possible to have only a -small family, and this may tend to the evolution of parental care and -the kindly emotions. Thus it may be understood that from the conquest of -the land many far-reaching consequences have followed. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Rischgitz._ - -PROFESSOR THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY (1825-95) - -One of the most distinguished of zoologists, with unsurpassed gifts as a -teacher and expositor. He did great service in gaining a place for -science in ordinary education and in popular estimation. No one -championed Evolutionism with more courage and skill.] - -[Illustration: BARON CUVIER, 1769-1832 - -One of the founders of modern Comparative Anatomy. A man of gigantic -intellect, who came to Paris as a youth from the provinces, and became -the director of the higher education of France and a peer of the Empire. -He was opposed to Evolutionist ideas, but he had anatomical genius.] - -[Illustration: AN ILLUSTRATION SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF FLYING AND -SWOOPING - -Gull, with a feather-wing, a true flier. Fox-bat, with a skin-wing, a -true flier. Flying Squirrel, with a parachute of skin, able to swoop -from tree to tree, but not to fly. Flying Fish, with pectoral fins used -as volplanes in a great leap due to the tail. To some extent able to -sail in albatros fashion.] - -Finally, it is worth dwelling on the risks of terrestrial life, because -they enable us better to understand why so many land animals have become -burrowers and others climbers of trees, why some have returned to the -water and others have taken to the air. It may be asked, perhaps, why -the land should have been colonised at all when the risks and -difficulties are so great. The answer must be that necessity and -curiosity are the mother and father of invention. Animals left the water -because the pools dried up, or because they were overcrowded, or because -of inveterate enemies, but also because of that curiosity and spirit of -adventure which, from first to last, has been one of the spurs of -progress. - - -Conquering the Air - -6. The last great haunt of life is the air, a mastery of which must be -placed to the credit of insects, Pterodactyls, birds, and bats. These -have been the successes, but it should be noted that there have been -many brilliant failures, which have not attained to much more than -parachuting. These include the Flying Fishes, which take leaps from the -water and are carried for many yards and to considerable heights, -holding their enlarged pectoral fins taut or with little more than a -slight fluttering. There is a so-called Flying Frog (_Rhacophorus_) that -skims from branch to branch, and the much more effective Flying Dragon -(_Draco volans_) of the Far East, which has been mentioned already. -Among mammals there are Flying Phalangers, Flying Lemurs, and more -besides, all attaining to great skill as parachutists, and illustrating -the endeavour to master the air which man has realised in a way of his -own. - -The power of flight brings obvious advantages. A bird feeding on the -ground is able to evade the stalking carnivore by suddenly rising into -the air; food and water can be followed rapidly and to great distances; -the eggs or the young can be placed in safe situations; and birds in -their migrations have made a brilliant conquest both of time and space. -Many of them know no winter in their year, and the migratory flight of -the Pacific Golden Plover from Hawaii to Alaska and back again does not -stand alone. - - -THE PROCESSION OF LIFE THROUGH THE AGES - -Sec. 1 - -The Rock Record - -How do we know when the various classes of animals and plants were -established on the earth? How do we know the order of their appearance -and the succession of their advances? The answer is: by reading the Rock -Record. In the course of time the crust of the earth has been elevated -into continents and depressed into ocean-troughs, and the surface of the -land has been buckled up into mountain ranges and folded in gentler -hills and valleys. The high places of the land have been weathered by -air and water in many forms, and the results of the weathering have been -borne away by rivers and seas, to be laid down again elsewhere as -deposits which eventually formed sandstones, mudstones, and similar -sedimentary rocks. Much of the material of the original crust has thus -been broken down and worked up again many times over, and if the total -thickness of the sedimentary rocks is added up it amounts, according to -some geologists, to a total of 67 miles. In most cases, however, only a -small part of this thickness is to be seen in one place, for the -deposits were usually formed in limited areas at any one time. - - -The Use of Fossils - -When the sediments were accumulating age after age, it naturally came -about that remains of the plants and animals living at the time were -buried, and these formed the fossils by the aid of which it is possible -to read the story of the past. By careful piecing together of evidence -the geologist is able to determine the order in which the different -sedimentary rocks were laid down, and thus to say, for instance, that -the Devonian period was the time of the origin of Amphibians. In other -cases the geologist utilises the fossils in his attempt to work out the -order of the strata when these have been much disarranged. For the -simpler fossil forms of any type must be older than those that are more -complex. There is no vicious circle here, for the general succession of -strata is clear, and it is quite certain that there were fishes before -there were amphibians, and amphibians before there were reptiles, and -reptiles before there were birds and mammals. In certain cases, e.g. of -fossil horses and elephants, the actual historical succession has been -clearly worked out. - -If the successive strata contained good samples of all the plants and -animals living at the time when the beds were formed, then it would be -easy to read the record of the rocks, but many animals were too soft to -become satisfactory fossils, many were eaten or dissolved away, many -were destroyed by heat and pressure, so that the rock record is like a -library very much damaged by fire and looting and decay. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Geological Time-table - -The long history of the earth and its inhabitants is conveniently -divided into eras. Thus, just as we speak of the ancient, mediaeval, and -modern history of mankind, so we may speak of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and -Cenozoic eras in the history of the earth as a whole. - -Geologists cannot tell us except in an approximate way how long the -process of evolution has taken. One of the methods is to estimate how -long has been required for the accumulation of the salts of the sea, -for all these have been dissolved out of the rocks since rain began to -fall on the earth. Dividing the total amount of saline matter by what is -contributed every year in modern times, we get about a hundred million -years as the age of the sea. But as the present rate of -salt-accumulation is probably much greater than it was during many of -the geological periods, the prodigious age just mentioned is in all -likelihood far below the mark. Another method is to calculate how long -it would take to form the sedimentary rocks, like sandstones and -mudstones, which have a _total_ thickness of over fifty miles, though -the _local_ thickness is rarely over a mile. As most of the materials -have come from the weathering of the earth's crust, and as the annual -amount of weathering now going on can be estimated, the time required -for the formation of the sedimentary rocks of the world can be -approximately calculated. There are some other ways of trying to tell -the earth's age and the length of the successive periods, but no -certainty has been reached. - -The eras marked on the table (page 92) as _before the Cambrian_ -correspond to about thirty-two miles of thickness of strata; and all the -subsequent eras with fossil-bearing rocks to a thickness of about -twenty-one miles--in itself an astounding fact. Perhaps thirty million -years must be allotted to the Pre-Cambrian eras, eighteen to the -Palaeozoic, nine to the Mesozoic, three to the Cenozoic, making a grand -total of sixty millions. - - -The Establishment of Invertebrate Stocks - -It is an astounding fact that at least half of geological time (the -Archaeozoic and Proterozoic eras) passed before there were living -creatures with parts sufficiently hard to form fossils. In the latter -part of the Proterozoic era there are traces of one-celled marine -animals (Radiolarians) with shells of flint, and of worms that wallowed -in the primal mud. It is plain that as regards the most primitive -creatures the rock record tells us little. - -[Illustration: _From Knipe's "Nebula to Man."_ - -ANIMALS OF THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD e.g. Sponges, Jellyfish, Starfish, -Sea-lilies, Water-fleas, and Trilobites] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -A TRILOBITE - -Trilobites were ancient seashore animals, abundant from the Upper -Cambrian to the Carboniferous eras. They have no direct descendants -to-day. They were jointed-footed animals, allied to Crustaceans and -perhaps also to King-crabs. They were able to roll themselves up in -their ring-armour.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum (Natural History)._ - -THE GAMBIAN MUD-FISH, PROTOPTERUS - -It can breathe oxygen dissolved in water by its gills; it can also -breathe dry air by means of its swim-bladder, which has become a lung. -It is a _double-breather_, showing evolution in process. For seven -months of the year, the dry season, it can remain inert in the mud, -getting air through an open pipe to the surface. When water fills the -pools it can use its gills again. Mud-nests or mud encasements with the -lung-fish inside have often been brought to Britain and the fish when -liberated were quite lively.] - -[Illustration: THE ARCHAEOPTERYX - -(_After William Leche of Stockholm._) - -A good restoration of the oldest known bird, Archaeopteryx (Jurassic -Era). It was about the size of a crow; it had teeth on both jaws; it had -claws on the thumb and two fingers; and it had a long lizard-like tail. -But it had feathers, proving itself a true bird.] - -[Illustration: WING OF A BIRD, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FEATHERS - -The longest feathers or primaries (PR) are borne by the two fingers (2 -and 3), and their palm-bones (CMC); the second longest or secondaries -are borne by the ulna bone (U) of the fore-arm; there is a separate tuft -(AS) on the thumb (TH).] - -The rarity of direct traces of life in the oldest rocks is partly due to -the fact that the primitive animals would be of delicate build, but it -must also be remembered that the ancient rocks have been profoundly and -repeatedly changed by pressure and heat, so that the traces which did -exist would be very liable to obliteration. And if it be asked what -right we have to suppose the presence of living creatures in the absence -or extreme rarity of fossils, we must point to great accumulations of -limestone which indicate the existence of calcareous algae, and to -deposits of iron which probably indicate the activity of iron-forming -Bacteria. Ancient beds of graphite similarly suggest that green plants -flourished in these ancient days. - - -Sec. 3 - -The Era of Ancient Life (Palaeozoic) - -The _Cambrian_ period was the time of the establishment of the chief -stocks of backboneless animals such as sponges, jellyfishes, worms, -sea-cucumbers, lamp-shells, trilobites, crustaceans, and molluscs. There -is something very eloquent in the broad fact that the peopling of the -seas had definitely begun some thirty million years ago, for Professor -H. F. Osborn points out that in the Cambrian period there was already a -colonisation of the shore of the sea, the open sea, and the deep waters. - -The _Ordovician_ period was marked by abundant representation of the -once very successful class of Trilobites--jointed-footed, -antenna-bearing, segmented marine animals, with numerous appendages and -a covering of chitin. They died away entirely with the end of the -Palaeozoic era. Also very notable was the abundance of predatory -cuttlefishes, the bullies of the ancient seas. But it was in this period -that the first backboned animals made their appearance--an epoch-making -step in evolution. In other words, true fishes were evolved--destined in -the course of ages to replace the cuttlefishes (which are mere molluscs) -in dominating the seas. - - _______________________________________________________________________ - - _RECENT TIMES_ Human civilisation. - _______________________________________________________________________ - - {PLEISTOCENE OR GLACIAL TIME Last great Ice Age. - _CENOZOIC ERA_ {MIOCENE AND PLIOCENE TIMES Emergence of Man. - {EOCENE AND OLIGOCENE TIMES Rise of higher mammals. - _______________________________________________________________________ - - {CRETACEOUS PERIOD Rise of primitive mammals, - { flowering plants, - { and higher insects. - _MESOZOIC ERA_ {JURASSIC PERIOD Rise of birds and flying - { reptiles. - {TRIASSIC PERIOD Rise of dinosaur reptiles. - _______________________________________________________________________ - - {PERMIAN PERIOD Rise of reptiles. - {CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD Rise of insects. - {DEVONIAN PERIOD First amphibians. - _PALAEOZOIC ERA_ {SILURIAN PERIOD Land animals began. - {ORDOVICIAN PERIOD First fishes. - {CAMBRIAN PERIOD Peopling of the sea. - _______________________________________________________________________ - - _PROTEROZOIC AGES_ Many of the Backboneless stocks began. - _ARCHAEOZOIC AGES_ Living creatures began to be upon the earth. - _______________________________________________________________________ - - {Making of continents and ocean-basins. - {Beginnings of atmosphere and hydrosphere. - _FORMATIVE TIMES_ {Cooling of the earth. - {Establishment of the solar system. - _______________________________________________________________________ - -In the _Silurian_ period in which the peopling of the seas went on -apace, there was the first known attempt at colonising the dry land. For -in Silurian rocks there are fossil scorpions, and that implies ability -to breathe dry air--by means of internal surfaces, in this case known as -lungbooks. It was also towards the end of the Silurian, when a period of -great aridity set in, that fishes appeared related to our mud-fishes or -double-breathers (Dipnoi), which have lungs as well as gills. This, -again, meant utilising dry air, just as the present-day mud-fishes do -when the water disappears from the pools in hot weather. The lung-fishes -or mud-fishes of to-day are but three in number, one in Queensland, one -in South America, and one in Africa, but they are extremely -interesting "living fossils," binding the class of fishes to that of -amphibians. It is highly probable that the first invasion of the dry -land should be put to the credit of some adventurous worms, but the -second great invasion was certainly due to air-breathing Arthropods, -like the pioneer scorpion we mentioned. - -[Illustration: PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF THE SUCCESSIVE STRATA OF THE -EARTH'S CRUST, WITH SUGGESTIONS OF CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS - -E.g. Fish and Trilobite in the Devonian (red), a large Amphibian in the -Carboniferous (blue), Reptiles in Permian (light red), the first Mammal -in the Triassic (blue), the first Bird in the Jurassic (yellow), Giant -Reptiles in the Cretaceous (white), then follow the Tertiary strata with -progressive mammals, and Quaternary at the top with man and mammoth.] - -The _Devonian_ period, including that of the Old Red Sandstone, was one -of the most significant periods in the earth's history. For it was the -time of the establishment of flowering plants upon the earth and of -terrestrial backboned animals. One would like to have been the -discoverer of the Devonian foot-print of _Thinopus_, the first known -Amphibian foot-print--an eloquent vestige of the third great invasion of -the dry land. It was probably from a stock of Devonian lung-fishes that -the first Amphibians sprang, but it was not till the next period that -they came to their own. While they were still feeling their way, there -was a remarkable exuberance of shark-like and heavily armoured fishes in -the Devonian seas. - - -EVOLUTION OF LAND ANIMALS - -Sec. 1 - -Giant Amphibians and Coal-measures - -The _Carboniferous_ period was marked by a mild moist climate and a -luxuriant vegetation in the swampy low grounds. It was a much less -strenuous time than the Devonian period; it was like a very long summer. -There were no trees of the type we see now, but there were forests of -club-mosses and horsetails which grew to a gigantic size compared with -their pigmy representatives of to-day. In these forests the -jointed-footed invaders of the dry land ran riot in the form of -centipedes, spiders, scorpions, and insects, and on these the primeval -Amphibians fed. The appearance of insects made possible a new linkage of -far-reaching importance, namely, the cross-fertilisation of flowering -plants by their insect visitors, and from this time onwards it may be -said that flowers and their visitors have evolved hand in hand. -Cross-fertilisation is much surer by insects than by the wind, and -cross-fertilisation is more advantageous than self-fertilisation because -it promotes both fertility and plasticity. It was probably in this -period that _coloured_ flowers--attractive to insect-visitors--began to -justify themselves as beauty became useful, and began to relieve the -monotonous green of the horsetail and club-moss forests, which covered -great tracts of the earth for millions of years. In the Carboniferous -forests there were also land-snails, representing one of the minor -invasions of the dry land, tending on the whole to check vegetation. -They, too, were probably preyed upon by the Amphibians, some of which -attained a large size. Each age has had its giants, and those of the -Carboniferous were Amphibians called Labyrinthodonts, some of which were -almost as big as donkeys. It need hardly be said that it was in this -period that most of the Coal-measures were laid down by the immense -accumulation of the spores and debris of the club-moss forests. Ages -afterwards, it was given to man to tap this great source of -energy--traceable back to the sunshine of millions of years ago. Even -then it was true that no plant or animal lives or dies to itself! - - -The Acquisitions of Amphibians. - -As Amphibians had their Golden Age in the Carboniferous period we may -fitly use this opportunity of indicating the advances in evolution which -the emergence of Amphibians implied. (1) In the first place the passage -from water to dry land was the beginning of a higher and more promiseful -life, taxed no doubt by increased difficulties. The natural question -rises why animals should have migrated from water to dry land at all -when great difficulties were involved in the transition. The answers -must be: (_a_) that local drying up of water-basins or elevations of the -land surface often made the old haunts untenable; (_b_) that there may -have been great congestion and competition in the old quarters; and -(_c_) that there has been an undeniable endeavour after well-being -throughout the history of animal life. In the same way with mankind, -migrations were prompted by the setting in of prolonged drought, by -over-population, and by the spirit of adventure. (2) In Amphibians for -the first time the non-digitate paired fins of fishes were replaced by -limbs with fingers and toes. This implied an advantageous power of -grasping, of holding firm, of putting food into the mouth, of feeling -things in three dimensions. (3) We cannot be positive in regard to the -soft parts of the ancient Amphibians known only as fossils, but if they -were in a general way like the frogs and toads, newts and salamanders of -the present day, we may say that they made among other acquisitions the -following: true ventral lungs, a three-chambered heart, a movable -tongue, a drum to the ear, and lids to the eyes. It is very interesting -to find that though the tongue of the tadpole has some muscle-fibres in -it, they are not strong enough to effect movement, recalling the tongue -of fishes, which has not any muscles at all. Gradually, as the tadpole -becomes a frog, the muscle-fibres grow in strength, and make it possible -for the full-grown creature to shoot out its tongue upon insects. This -is probably a recapitulation of what was accomplished in the course of -millennia in the history of the Amphibian race. (4) Another acquisition -made by Amphibians was a voice, due, as in ourselves, to the rapid -passage of air over taut membranes (vocal cords) stretched in the -larynx. It is an interesting fact that for millions of years there was -upon the earth no sound of life at all, only the noise of wind and wave, -thunder and avalanche. Apart from the instrumental music of some -insects, perhaps beginning in the Carboniferous, the first vital sounds -were due to Amphibians, and theirs certainly was the first voice--surely -one of the great steps in organic evolution. - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum (Natural History)._ - -FOSSIL OF A PTERODACTYL OR EXTINCT FLYING DRAGON - -The wing is made of a web of skin extended on the enormously elongated -outermost finger. The long tail served for balancing and steering. The -Pterodactyls varied from the size of sparrows to a wing-span of fifteen -feet--the largest flying creatures.] - -[Illustration: _From Knipe's "Nebula to Man."_ - -PARIASAURUS: AN EXTINCT VEGETARIAN TRIASSIC REPTILE - -Total length about 9 feet. (Remains found in Cape Colony, South -Africa.)] - -[Illustration: _From Knipe's "Nebula to Man."_ - -TRICERATOPS: A HUGE EXTINCT REPTILE - -(From remains found in Cretaceous strata of Wyoming, U.S.A.) - -This Dinosaur, about the size of a large rhinoceros, had a huge -three-horned skull with a remarkable bony collar over the neck. But, as -in many other cases, its brain was so small that it could have passed -down the spinal canal in which the spinal cord lies. Perhaps this partly -accounts for the extinction of giant reptiles.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: "Daily Mail."_ - -THE DUCKMOLE OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS OF AUSTRALIA - -The Duckmole or Duck-billed Platypus of Australia is a survivor of the -most primitive mammals. It harks back to reptiles, e.g. in being an -egg-layer, in having comparatively large eggs, and in being imperfectly -warm-blooded. It swims well and feeds on small water-animals. It can -also burrow.] - - -Evolution of the Voice - -The first use of the voice was probably that indicated by our frogs and -toads--it serves as a sex-call. That is the meaning of the trumpeting -with which frogs herald the spring, and it is often only in the males -that the voice is well developed. But if we look forward, past -Amphibians altogether, we find the voice becoming a maternal call -helping to secure the safety of the young--a use very obvious when young -birds squat motionless at the sound of the parent's danger-note. Later -on, probably, the voice became an infantile call, as when the unhatched -crocodile pipes from within the deeply buried egg, signalling to the -mother that it is time to be unearthed. Higher still the voice expresses -emotion, as in the song of birds, often outside the limits of the -breeding time. Later still, particular sounds become words, signifying -particular things or feelings, such as "food," "danger," "home," -"anger," and "joy." Finally words become a medium of social intercourse -and as symbols help to make it possible for man to reason. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Early Reptiles - -In the _Permian_ period reptiles appeared, or perhaps one should say, -began to assert themselves. That is to say, there was an emergence of -backboned animals which were free from water and relinquished the method -of breathing by gills, which Amphibians retained in their young stages -at least. The unhatched or unborn reptile breathes by means of a -vascular hood spread underneath the egg-shell and absorbing dry air from -without. It is an interesting point that this vascular hood, called the -allantois, is represented in the Amphibians by an unimportant bladder -growing out from the hind end of the food-canal. A great step in -evolution was implied in the origin of this ante-natal hood or foetal -membrane and another one--of protective significance--called the amnion, -which forms a water-bag over the delicate embryo. The step meant total -emancipation from the water and from gill-breathing, and the two -foetal membranes, the amnion and the allantois, persist not only in -all reptiles but in birds and mammals as well. These higher Vertebrates -are therefore called Amniota in contrast to the Lower Vertebrates or -Anamnia (the Amphibians, Fishes, and primitive types). - -It is a suggestive fact that the embryos of all reptiles, birds, and -mammals show gill-clefts--_a tell-tale evidence of their distant aquatic -ancestry_. But these embryonic gill-clefts are not used for respiration -and show no trace of gills except in a few embryonic reptiles and birds -where their dwindled vestiges have been recently discovered. As to the -gill-clefts, they are of no use in higher Vertebrates except that the -first becomes the Eustachian tube leading from the ear-passage to the -back of the mouth. The reason why they persist when only one is of any -use, and that in a transformed guise, would be difficult to interpret -except in terms of the Evolution theory. They illustrate the lingering -influence of a long pedigree, the living hand of the past, the tendency -that individual development has to recapitulate racial evolution. In a -condensed and telescoped manner, of course, for what took the race a -million years may be recapitulated by the individual in a week! - -In the Permian period the warm moist climate of most of the -Carboniferous period was replaced by severe conditions, culminating in -an Ice Age which spread from the Southern Hemisphere throughout the -world. With this was associated a waning of the Carboniferous flora, and -the appearance of a new one, consisting of ferns, conifers, ginkgos, and -cycads, which persisted until near the end of the Mesozoic era. The -Permian Ice Age lasted for millions of years, and was most severe in the -Far South. Of course, it was a very different world then, for North -Europe was joined to North America, Africa to South America, and -Australia to Asia. It was probably during the Permian Ice Age that many -of the insects divided their life-history into two main chapters--the -feeding, growing, moulting, immature, larval stages, e.g. caterpillars, -and the more ascetic, non-growing, non-moulting, winged phase, adapted -for reproduction. Between these there intervened the quiescent, -well-protected pupa stage or chrysalis, probably adapted to begin with -as a means of surviving the severe winter. For it is easier for an -animal to survive when the vital processes are more or less in abeyance. - - -Disappearance of many Ancient Types - -We cannot leave the last period of the Palaeozoic era and its prolonged -ice age without noticing that it meant the entire cessation of a large -number of ancient types, especially among plants and backboneless -animals, which now disappear for ever. It is necessary to understand -that the animals of ancient days stand in three different relations to -those of to-day. (_a_) There are ancient types that have living -representatives, sometimes few and sometimes many, sometimes much -changed and sometimes but slightly changed. The lamp-shell, -_Lingulella_, of the Cambrian and Ordovician period has a very near -relative in the _Lingula_ of to-day. There are a few extremely -conservative animals. (_b_) There are ancient types which have no living -representatives, except in the guise of transformed descendants, as the -King-crab (_Limulus_) may be said to be a transformed descendant of the -otherwise quite extinct race to which Eurypterids or Sea-scorpions -belonged. (_c_) There are altogether extinct types--_lost races_--which -have left not a wrack behind. For there is not any representation to-day -of such races as Graptolites and Trilobites. - -Looking backwards over the many millions of years comprised in the -Palaeozoic era, what may we emphasise as the most salient features? There -was in the _Cambrian_ the establishment of the chief classes of -backboneless animals; in the _Ordovician_ the first fishes and perhaps -the first terrestrial plants; in the _Silurian_ the emergence of -air-breathing Invertebrates and mud-fishes; in the _Devonian_ the -appearance of the first Amphibians, from which all higher land animals -are descended, and the establishment of a land flora; in the -_Carboniferous_ the great Club-moss forests and an exuberance of -air-breathing insects and their allies; in the _Permian_ the first -reptiles and a new flora. - - -THE GEOLOGICAL MIDDLE AGES - -Sec. 1 - -The Mesozoic Era - -In a broad way the Mesozoic era corresponds with the Golden Age of -reptiles, and with the climax of the Conifer and Cycad flora, which was -established in the Permian. But among the Conifers and Cycads our modern -flowering plants were beginning to show face tentatively, just like -birds and mammals among the great reptiles. - -In the _Triassic_ period the exuberance of reptilian life which marked -the Permian was continued. Besides Turtles which still persist, there -were Ichthyosaurs, Plesiosaurs, Dinosaurs, and Pterosaurs, none of which -lasted beyond the Mesozoic era. Of great importance was the rise of the -Dinosaurs in the Triassic, for it is highly probable that within the -limits of this vigorous and plastic stock--some of them bipeds--we must -look for the ancestors of both birds and mammals. Both land and water -were dominated by reptiles, some of which attained to gigantic size. Had -there been any zoologist in those days, he would have been very -sagacious indeed if he had suspected that reptiles did not represent the -climax of creation. - - -The Flying Dragons - -The _Jurassic_ period showed a continuance of the reptilian splendour. -They radiated in many directions, becoming adapted to many haunts. Thus -there were many Fish Lizards paddling in the seas, many types of -terrestrial dragons stalking about on land, many swiftly gliding -alligator-like forms, and the Flying Dragons which began in the Triassic -attained to remarkable success and variety. Their wing was formed by the -extension of a great fold of skin on the enormously elongated outermost -finger, and they varied from the size of a sparrow to a spread of over -five feet. A soldering of the dorsal vertebrae as in our Flying Birds was -an adaptation to striking the air with some force, but as there is not -more than a slight keel, if any, on the breast-bone, it is unlikely that -they could fly far. For we know from our modern birds that the power of -flight may be to some extent gauged from the degree of development of -the keel, which is simply a great ridge for the better insertion of the -muscles of flight. It is absent, of course, in the Running Birds, like -the ostrich, and it has degenerated in an interesting way in the -burrowing parrot (_Stringops_) and a few other birds that have "gone -back." - - -The First Known Bird - -But the Jurassic is particularly memorable because its strata have -yielded two fine specimens of the first known bird, _Archaeopteryx_. -These were entombed in the deposits which formed the fine-grained -lithographic stones of Bavaria, and practically every bone in the body -is preserved except the breast-bone. Even the feathers have left their -marks with distinctness. This oldest known bird--too far advanced to be -the first bird--was about the size of a crow and was probably of -arboreal habits. Of great interest are its reptilian features, so -pronounced that one cannot evade the evolutionist suggestion. It had -teeth in both jaws, which no modern bird has; it had a long lizard-like -tail, which no modern bird has; it had claws on three fingers, and a -sort of half-made wing. That is to say, it does not show, what all -modern birds show, a fusion of half the wrist-bones with the whole of -the palm-bones, the well-known carpo-metacarpus bone which forms a basis -for the longest pinions. In many reptiles, such as Crocodiles, there are -peculiar bones running across the abdomen beneath the skin, the -so-called "abdominal ribs," and it seems an eloquent detail to find -these represented in _Archaeopteryx_, the earliest known bird. No modern -bird shows any trace of them. [Illustration: SKELETON OF AN EXTINCT -FLIGHTLESS TOOTHED BIRD, HESPERORNIS - -(_After Marsh._) - -The bird was five or six feet high, something like a swimming ostrich, -with a very powerful leg but only a vestige of a wing. There were sharp -teeth in a groove. The modern divers come nearest to this ancient -type.] - -[Illustration: SIX STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, SHOWING GRADUAL -INCREASE IN SIZE - -(_After Lull and Matthew._) - -1. Four-toed horse, Eohippus, about one foot high. Lower Eocene, N. -America. - -2. Another four-toed horse, Orohippus, a little over a foot high. Middle -Eocene, N. America. - -3. Three-toed horse, Mesohippus, about the size of a sheep. Middle -Oligocene, N. America. - -4. Three-toed horse, Merychippus, Miocene, N. America. Only one toe -reaches the ground on each foot, but the remains of two others are -prominent. - -5. The first one-toed horse, Pliohippus, about forty inches high at the -shoulder. Pliocene, N. America. - -6. The modern horse, running on the third digit of each foot.] - -There is no warrant for supposing that the flying reptiles or -Pterodactyls gave rise to birds, for the two groups are on different -lines, and the structure of the wings is entirely different. Thus the -long-fingered Pterodactyl wing was a parachute wing, while the secret of -the bird's wing has its centre in the feathers. It is highly probable -that birds evolved from certain Dinosaurs which had become bipeds, and -it is possible that they were for a time swift runners that took "flying -jumps" along the ground. Thereafter, perhaps, came a period of arboreal -apprenticeship during which there was much gliding from tree to tree -before true flight was achieved. It is an interesting fact that the -problem of flight has been solved four times among animals--by insects, -by Pterodactyls, by birds, and by bats; and that the four solutions are -on entirely different lines. - -In the _Cretaceous_ period the outstanding events included the waning of -giant reptiles, the modernising of the flowering plants, and the -multiplication of small mammals. Some of the Permian reptiles, such as -the dog-toothed Cynodonts, were extraordinarily mammal-like, and it was -probably from among them that definite mammals emerged in the Triassic. -Comparatively little is known of the early Triassic mammals save that -their back-teeth were marked by numerous tubercles on the crown, but -they were gaining strength in the late Triassic when small arboreal -insectivores, not very distant from the modern tree-shrews (_Tupaia_), -began to branch out in many directions indicative of the great divisions -of modern mammals, such as the clawed mammals, hoofed mammals, and the -race of monkeys or Primates. In the Upper Cretaceous there was an -exuberant "radiation" of mammals, adaptive to the conquest of all sorts -of haunts, and this was vigorously continued in Tertiary times. - -There is no difficulty in the fact that the earliest remains of definite -mammals in the Triassic precede the first-known bird in the Jurassic. -For although we usually rank mammals as higher than birds (being mammals -ourselves, how could we do otherwise?), there are many ways in which -birds are pre-eminent, e.g. in skeleton, musculature, integumentary -structures, and respiratory system. The fact is that birds and mammals -are on two quite different tacks of evolution, not related to one -another, save in having a common ancestry in extinct reptiles. Moreover, -there is no reason to believe that the Jurassic _Archaeopteryx_ was the -first bird in any sense except that it is the first of which we have any -record. In any case it is safe to say that birds came to their own -before mammals did. - -Looking backwards, we may perhaps sum up what is most essential in the -Mesozoic era in Professor Schuchert's sentence: "The Mesozoic is the Age -of Reptiles, and yet the little mammals and the toothed birds are -storing up intelligence and strength to replace the reptiles when the -cycads and conifers shall give way to the higher flowering plants." - - -Sec. 2 - -The Cenozoic or Tertiary Era - -In the _Eocene_ period there was a replacement of the small-brained -archaic mammals by big-brained modernised types, and with this must be -associated the covering of the earth with a garment of grass and dry -pasture. Marshes were replaced by meadows and browsing by grazing -mammals. In the spreading meadows an opportunity was also offered for a -richer evolution of insects and birds. - -During the _Oligocene_ the elevation of the land continued, the climate -became much less moist, and the grazing herds extended their range. - -The _Miocene_ was the mammalian Golden Age and there were crowning -examples of what Osborn calls "adaptive radiation." That is to say, -mammals, like the reptiles before them, conquer every haunt of life. -There are flying bats, volplaning parachutists, climbers in trees like -sloths and squirrels, quickly moving hoofed mammals, burrowers like the -moles, freshwater mammals, like duckmole and beaver, shore-frequenting -seals and manatees, and open-sea cetaceans, some of which dive far more -than full fathoms five. It is important to realise the perennial -tendency of animals to conquer every corner and to fill every niche of -opportunity, and to notice that this has been done by successive sets of -animals in succeeding ages. _Most notably the mammals repeat all the -experiments of reptiles on a higher turn of the spiral._ Thus arises -what is called convergence, the superficial resemblance of unrelated -types, like whales and fishes, the resemblance being due to the fact -that the different types are similarly adapted to similar conditions of -life. Professor H. F. Osborn points out that mammals may seek any one of -the twelve different habitat-zones, and that in each of these there may -be six quite different kinds of food. Living creatures penetrate -everywhere like the overflowing waters of a great river in flood. - - -Sec. 3 - -The _Pliocene_ period was a more strenuous time, with less genial -climatic conditions, and with more intense competition. Old land bridges -were broken and new ones made, and the geographical distribution -underwent great changes. Professor R. S. Lull describes the _Pliocene_ -as "a period of great unrest." "Many migrations occurred the world over, -new competitions arose, and the weaker stocks began to show the effects -of the strenuous life. One momentous event seems to have occurred in the -Pliocene, and that was the transformation of the precursor of humanity -into man--the culmination of the highest line of evolution." - -The _Pleistocene_ period was a time of sifting. There was a continued -elevation of the continental masses, and Ice Ages set in, relieved by -less severe interglacial times when the ice-sheets retreated northwards -for a time. Many types, like the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the -sabre-toothed tiger, the cave-lion, and the cave-bear, became extinct. -Others which formerly had a wide range became restricted to the Far -North or were left isolated here and there on the high mountains, like -the Snow Mouse, which now occurs on isolated Alpine heights above the -snow-line. Perhaps it was during this period that many birds of the -Northern Hemisphere learned to evade the winter by the sublime device of -migration. - -Looking backwards we may quote Professor Schuchert again: - - "The lands in the Cenozoic began to bloom with more and more - flowering plants and grand hardwood forests, the atmosphere is - scented with sweet odours, a vast crowd of new kinds of insects - appear, and the places of the once dominant reptiles of the lands - and seas are taken by the mammals. Out of these struggles there - rises a greater intelligence, seen in nearly all of the mammal - stocks, but particularly in one, the monkey-ape-man. Brute man - appears on the scene with the introduction of the last glacial - climate, a most trying time for all things endowed with life, and - finally there results the dominance of reasoning man over all his - brute associates." - -In man and human society the story of evolution has its climax. - - -The Ascent of Man - -Man stands apart from animals in his power of building up general ideas -and of using these in the guidance of his behaviour and the control of -his conduct. This is essentially wrapped up with his development of -language as an instrument of thought. Some animals have words, but man -has language (Logos). Some animals show evidence of _perceptual_ -inference, but man often gets beyond this to _conceptual_ inference -(Reason). Many animals are affectionate and brave, self-forgetful and -industrious, but man "thinks the ought," definitely guiding his conduct -in the light of ideals, which in turn are wrapped up with the fact that -he is "a social person." - -Besides his big brain, which may be three times as heavy as that of a -gorilla, man has various physical peculiarities. He walks erect, he -plants the sole of his foot flat on the ground, he has a chin and a good -heel, a big forehead and a non-protrusive face, a relatively uniform set -of teeth without conspicuous canines, and a relatively naked body. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING SEVEN STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE -FORE-LIMBS AND HIND-LIMBS OF THE ANCESTORS OF THE MODERN HORSE, -BEGINNING WITH THE EARLIEST KNOWN PREDECESSORS OF THE HORSE AND -CULMINATING WITH THE HORSE OF TO-DAY - -(_After Marsh and Lull._) - -1 and 1A, fore-limb and hind-limb of Eohippus; 2 and 2A, Orohippus; 3 -and 3A, Mesohippus; 4 and 4A, Hypohippus; 5 and 5A, Merychippus; 6 and -6A, Hipparion; 7 and 7A, the modern horse. Note how the toes shorten and -disappear.] - -[Illustration: A. Fore-limb of Monkey B. Fore-limb of Whale - -WHAT IS MEANT BY HOMOLOGY? ESSENTIAL SIMILARITY OF ARCHITECTURE, THOUGH -THE APPEARANCES MAY BE VERY DIFFERENT - -This is seen in comparing these two fore-limbs, A, of Monkey, B, of -Whale. They are as different as possible, yet they show the same bones, -e.g. SC, the scapula or shoulder-blade; H, the humerus or upper arm; R -and U, the radius and ulna of the fore-arm; CA, the wrist; MC, the palm; -and then the fingers.] - -But in spite of man's undeniable apartness, there is no doubt as to his -solidarity with the rest of creation. There is an "all-pervading -similitude of structure," between man and the Anthropoid Apes, though it -is certain that it is not from any living form that he took his origin. -None of the anatomical distinctions, except the heavy brain, could be -called momentous. Man's body is a veritable museum of relics (vestigial -structures) inherited from pre-human ancestors. In his everyday bodily -life and in some of its disturbances, man's pedigree is often revealed. -Even his facial expression, as Darwin showed, is not always human. Some -fossil remains bring modern man nearer the anthropoid type. - -It is difficult not to admit the ring of truth in the closing words of -Darwin's _Descent of Man_: - - "We must, however, acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man, with - all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most - debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to - the humblest living creature, with his God-like intellect which has - penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar - system--with all these exalted powers--man still bears in his bodily - frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin." - - -THE EVOLVING SYSTEM OF NATURE - -There is another side of evolution so obvious that it is often -overlooked, the tendency to link lives together in vital -inter-relations. Thus flowers and their insect visitors are often -vitally interlinked in mutual dependence. Many birds feed on berries and -distribute the seeds. The tiny freshwater snail is the host of the -juvenile stages of the liver-fluke of the sheep. The mosquito is the -vehicle of malaria from man to man, and the tse-tse fly spreads sleeping -sickness. The freshwater mussel cannot continue its race without the -unconscious co-operation of the minnow, and the freshwater fish called -the bitterling cannot continue its race without the unconscious -co-operation of the mussel. There are numerous mutually beneficial -partnerships between different kinds of creatures, and other -inter-relations where the benefit is one-sided, as in the case of -insects that make galls on plants. There are also among kindred animals -many forms of colonies, communities, and societies. Nutritive chains -bind long series of animals together, the cod feeding on the whelk, the -whelk on the worm, the worm on the organic dust of the sea. There is a -system of successive incarnations and matter is continually passing from -one embodiment to another. These instances must suffice to illustrate -the central biological idea of the web of life, the interlinked System -of Animate Nature. Linnaeus spoke of the Systema Naturae, meaning the -orderly hierarchy of classes, orders, families, genera, and species; but -we owe to Darwin in particular some knowledge of a more dynamic Systema -Naturae, the network of vital inter-relations. This has become more and -more complex as evolution has continued, and man's web is most complex -of all. It means making Animate Nature more of a unity; it means an -external method of registering steps of progress; it means an evolving -set of sieves by which new variations are sifted, and living creatures -are kept from slipping down the steep ladder of evolution. - - -Parasitism - -It sometimes happens that the inter-relation established between one -living creature and another works in a retrograde direction. This is the -case with many thoroughgoing internal parasites which have sunk into an -easygoing kind of life, utterly dependent on their host for food, -requiring no exertions, running no risks, and receiving no spur to -effort. Thus we see that evolution is not necessarily progressive; -everything depends on the conditions in reference to which the living -creatures have been evolved. When the conditions are too easygoing, the -animal may be thoroughly well adapted to them--as a tapeworm certainly -is--but it slips down the rungs of the ladder of evolution. - -This is an interesting minor chapter in the story of evolution--the -establishment of different kinds of parasites, casual and constant, -temporary and lifelong, external hangers-on and internal unpaying -boarders, those that live in the food-canal and depend on the host's -food and those that inhabit the blood or the tissues and find their food -there. It seems clear that ichneumon grubs and the like which hatch -inside a caterpillar and eat it alive are not so much parasites as -"beasts of prey" working from within. - -But there are two sides to this minor chapter: there is the evolution of -the parasite, and there is also the evolution of counteractive measures -on the part of the host. Thus there is the maintenance of a bodyguard of -wandering amoeboid cells, which tackle the microbes invading the body -and often succeed in overpowering and digesting them. Thus, again, there -is the protective capacity the blood has of making antagonistic -substances or "anti-bodies" which counteract poisons, including the -poisons which the intruding parasites often make. - - -THE EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION--HOW IT CAME ABOUT - -Sec. 1 - -Progress in Evolution - -There has often been slipping back and degeneracy in the course of -evolution, but the big fact is that there has been progress. For -millions of years Life has been slowly creeping upwards, and if we -compare the highest animals--Birds and Mammals--with their predecessors, -we must admit that they are more controlled, more masters of their -fate, with more mentality. Evolution is on the whole _integrative_; that -is to say, it makes against instability and disorder, and towards -harmony and progress. Even in the rise of Birds and Mammals we can -discern that the evolutionary process was making towards a fuller -embodiment or expression of what Man values most--control, freedom, -understanding, and love. The advance of animal life through the ages has -been chequered, but on the whole it has been an advance towards -increasing fullness, freedom, and fitness of life. In the study of this -advance--the central fact of Organic Evolution--there is assuredly much -for Man's instruction and much for his encouragement. - - -Evidences of Evolution - -In all this, it may be said, the fact of evolution has been taken for -granted, but what are the evidences? Perhaps it should be frankly -answered that the idea of evolution, that the present is the child of -the past and the parent of the future, cannot be _proved_ as one may -prove the Law of Gravitation. All that can be done is to show that it is -a key--a way of looking at things--that fits the facts. There is no lock -that it does not open. - -But if the facts that the evolution theory vividly interprets be called -the evidences of its validity, there is no lack of them. There is -_historical_ evidence; and what is more eloquent than the general fact -that fishes emerge before amphibians, and these before reptiles, and -these before birds, and so on? There are wonderfully complete fossil -series, e.g. among cuttlefishes, in which we can almost see evolution in -process. The pedigree of horse and elephant and crocodile is in general -very convincing, though it is to be confessed that there are other cases -in regard to which we have no light. Who can tell, for instance, how -Vertebrates arose or from what origin? - -There is _embryological_ evidence, for the individual development often -reads like an abbreviated recapitulation of the presumed evolution of -the race. The mammal's visceral clefts are tell-tale evidence of remote -aquatic ancestors, breathing by gills. Something is known in regard to -the historical evolution of antlers in bygone ages; the Red Deer of -to-day recapitulates at least the general outlines of the history. The -individual development of an asymmetrical flat-fish, like a plaice or -sole, which rests and swims on one side, tells us plainly that its -ancestors were symmetrical fishes. - -There is what might be called _physiological_ evidence, for many plants -and animals are variable before our eyes, and evolution is going on -around us to-day. This is familiarly seen among domesticated animals and -cultivated plants, but there is abundant flux in Wild Nature. It need -hardly be said that some organisms are very conservative, and that -change need not be expected when a position of stable equilibrium has -been secured. - -There is also _anatomical_ evidence of a most convincing quality. In the -fore-limbs of backboned animals, say, the paddle of a turtle, the wing -of a bird, the flipper of a whale, the fore-leg of a horse, and the arm -of a man; the same essential bones and muscles are used to such diverse -results! What could it mean save blood relationship? And as to the two -sets of teeth in whalebone whales, which never even cut the gum, is -there any alternative but to regard them as relics of useful teeth which -ancestral forms possessed? In short, the evolution theory is justified -by the way in which it works. - - -Sec. 2 - -Factors in Evolution - -If it be said "So much for the _fact_ of evolution, but what of the -_factors_?" the answer is not easy. For not only is the problem the -greatest of all scientific problems, but the inquiry is still very -young. The scientific study of evolution practically dates from the -publication of _The Origin of Species_ in 1859. - -Heritable novelties or variations often crop up in living creatures, and -these form the raw material of evolution. These variations are the -outcome of expression of changes in the germ-cells that develop into -organisms. But why should there be changes in the constitution of the -germ-cells? Perhaps because the living material is very complex and -inherently liable to change; perhaps because it is the vehicle of a -multitude of hereditary items among which there are very likely to be -reshufflings or rearrangements; perhaps because the germ-cells have very -changeful surroundings (the blood, the body-cavity fluid, the -sea-water); perhaps because deeply saturating outside influences, such -as change of climate and habitat, penetrate through the body to its -germ-cells and provoke them to vary. But we must be patient with the -wearisome reiteration of "perhaps." Moreover, every many-celled organism -reproduced in the usual way, arises from an egg-cell fertilised by a -sperm-cell, and the changes involved in and preparatory to this -fertilisation may make new permutations and combinations of the living -items and hereditary qualities not only possible but necessary. It is -something like shuffling a pack of cards, but the cards are living. As -to the changes wrought on the body during its lifetime by peculiarities -in nurture, habits, and surroundings, these dents or modifications are -often very important for the individual, but it does not follow that -they are directly important for the race, since it is not certain that -they are transmissible. - -Given a crop of variations or new departures or mutations, whatever the -inborn novelties may be called, we have then to inquire how these are -sifted. The sifting, which means the elimination of the relatively less -fit variations and the selection of the relatively more fit, effected in -many different ways in the course of the struggle for existence. The -organism plays its new card in the game of life, and the consequences -may determine survival. The relatively less fit to given conditions -will tend to be eliminated, while the relatively more fit will tend to -survive. If the variations are hereditary and reappear, perhaps -increased in amount, generation after generation, and if the process of -sifting continue consistently, the result will be the evolution of the -species. The sifting process may be helped by various forms of -"isolation" which lessen the range of free intercrossing between members -of a species, e.g. by geographical barriers. Interbreeding of similar -forms tends to make a stable stock; out-breeding among dissimilars tends -to promote variability. But for an outline like this it is enough to -suggest the general method of organic evolution: Throughout the ages -organisms have been making tentatives--new departures of varying -magnitude--and these tentatives have been tested. The method is that of -testing all things and holding fast that which is good. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - -(The following short list may be useful to readers who desire to have -further books recommended to them.) - - CLODD, _Story of Creation: A Plain Account of Evolution._ - DARWIN, _Origin of Species, Descent of Man._ - DEPERET, _Transformation of the Animal World_ (Internat. Sci. Series). - GEDDES AND THOMSON, _Evolution_ (Home University Library). - GOODRICH, _Evolution_ (The People's Books). - HEADLEY, _Life and Evolution._ - HUTCHINSON, H. NEVILLE, _Extinct Monsters_ (1892). - LULL, _Organic Evolution._ - MCCABE, _A B C of Evolution._ - METCALF, _Outline of the Theory of Organic Evolution._ - OSBORN, H. F., _The Evolution of Life_ (1921). - THOMSON, _Darwinism and Human Life._ - WALLACE, _Darwinism._ - - - - -III - -ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT - - - - -ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT - - -We saw in a previous chapter how the process of evolution led to a -mastery of all the haunts of life. But it is necessary to return to -these haunts or homes of animals in some detail, so as to understand the -peculiar circumstances of each, and to see how in the course of ages of -struggle all sorts of self-preserving and race-continuing adaptations or -fitnesses have been wrought out and firmly established. Living creatures -have spread over all the earth and in the waters under the earth; some -of them have conquered the underground world and others the air. It is -possible, however, as has been indicated, to distinguish six great -haunts of life, each tenanted by a distinctive fauna, namely, the shore -of the sea, the open sea, the depths of the sea, the freshwaters, the -dry land, and the air. In the deep sea there are no plants at all; in -the air the only plants are floating bacteria, though there is a sense -in which a tree is very aerial, and the orchid perched on its branches -still more so; in the other four haunts there is a flora as well as a -fauna--the two working into one another's hands in interesting and often -subtle inter-relations--the subject of a separate study. - - -I. THE SHORE OF THE SEA - -The Seaweed Area - -By the shore of the sea the zoologist means much more than the narrow -zone between tide-marks; he means the whole of the relatively shallow, -well-illumined, seaweed-growing shelf around the continents and -continental islands. Technically, this is called the littoral area, and -it is divisible into zones, each with its characteristic population. It -may be noted that the green seaweeds are highest up on the shore; the -brown ones come next; the beautiful red ones are lowest. All of them -have got green chlorophyll, which enables them to utilise the sun's rays -in photosynthesis (i.e. building up carbon compounds from air, water, -and salts), but in the brown and red seaweeds the green pigment is -masked by others. It is maintained by some botanists that these other -pigments enable their possessors to make more of the scantier light in -the deeper waters. However this may be, we must always think of the -shore-haunt as the seaweed-growing area. Directly and indirectly the -life of the shore animals is closely wrapped up with the seaweeds, which -afford food and foothold, and temper the force of the waves. The minute -fragments broken off from seaweeds and from the sea-grass (a flowering -plant called Zostera) form a sort of nutritive sea-dust which is swept -slowly down the slope from the shore, to form a very useful deposit in -the quietness of deepish water. It is often found in the stomachs of -marine animals living a long way offshore. - - -Conditions of Shore Life - -The littoral area as defined is not a large haunt of life; it occupies -only about 9 million square miles, a small fraction of the 197,000,000 -of the whole earth's surface. But it is a very long haunt, some 150,000 -miles, winding in and out by bay and fiord, estuary and creek. Where -deep water comes close to cliffs there may be no shore at all; in other -places the relatively shallow water, with seaweeds growing over the -bottom, may extend outwards for miles. The nature of the shore varies -greatly according to the nature of the rocks, according to what the -streams bring down from inland, and according to the jetsam that is -brought in by the tides. The shore is a changeful place; there is, in -the upper reaches, a striking difference between "tide in" and "tide -out"; there are vicissitudes due to storms, to freshwater floods, to -wind-blown sand, and to slow changes of level, up and down. The shore is -a very crowded haunt, for it is comparatively narrow, and every niche -among the rocks may be precious. - -[Illustration: AN EIGHT-ARMED CUTTLEFISH OR OCTOPUS ATTACKING A SMALL -CRAB - -These molluscs are particularly fond of crustaceans, which they crunch -with their parrot's beak-like jaws. Their salivary juice has a -paralysing effect on their prey. To one side, below the eye, may be seen -the funnel through which water is very forcibly ejected in the process -of locomotion.] - -[Illustration: A COMMON STARFISH, WHICH HAS LOST THREE ARMS AND IS -REGROWING THEM - -The lowest arm is being regrown double. - -(_After Professor W. C. McIntosh._)] - -[Illustration: A PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING A STARFISH (_Asterias Forreri_) -WHICH HAS CAPTURED A LARGE FISH - -The suctorial tube-feet are seen gripping the fish firmly. (After an -observation on the Californian coast.)] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -THE PAPER NAUTILUS (ARGONAUTA), AN ANIMAL OF THE OPEN SEA - -The delicate shell is made by the female only, and is used as a shelter -for the eggs and young ones. It is secreted by two of the arms, not by -the mantle as other mollusc shells are. It is a single-chambered shell, -very different from that of the Pearly Nautilus.] - - -Keen Struggle for Existence - -It follows that the shore must be the scene of a keen struggle for -existence--which includes all the answers-back that living creatures -make to environing difficulties and limitations. There is struggle for -food, accentuated by the fact that small items tend to be swept away by -the outgoing tide or to sink down the slope to deep water. Apart from -direct competition, e.g. between hungry hermit-crabs, it often involves -hard work to get a meal. This is true even of apparently sluggish -creatures. Thus the Crumb-of-Bread Sponge, or any other seashore sponge, -has to lash large quantities of water through the intricate canal system -of its body before it can get a sufficient supply of the microscopic -organisms and organic particles on which it feeds. An index of the -intensity of the struggle for food is afforded by the nutritive chains -which bind animals together. The shore is almost noisy with the -conjugation of the verb to eat in its many tenses. One pound of rock-cod -requires for its formation ten pounds of whelk; one pound of whelk -requires ten pounds of sea-worms; and one pound of worms requires ten -pounds of sea-dust. Such is the circulation of matter, ever passing from -one embodiment or incarnation to another. - -Besides struggle for food there is struggle for foothold and for fresh -air, struggle against the scouring tide and against the pounding -breakers. The risk of dislodgment is often great and the fracture of -limbs is a common accident. Of kinds of armour--the sea-urchin's -hedgehog-like test, the crab's shard, the limpet's shell--there is great -variety, surpassed only by that of weapons--the sea-anemone's -stinging-cells, the sea-urchin's snapping-blades, the hermit-crab's -forceps, the grappling tentacles and parrot's-beak jaws of the octopus. - - -Shifts for a Living - -We get another glimpse of the intensity of the seashore struggle for -existence in the frequency of "shifts for a living," adaptations of -structure or of behaviour which meet frequently recurrent vicissitudes. -The starfish is often in the dilemma of losing a limb or its life; by a -reflex action it jettisons the captured arm and escapes. And what is -lost is gradually regrown. The crab gets its leg broken past all -mending; it casts off the leg across a weak breakage plane near the -base, and within a preformed bandage which prevents bleeding a new leg -is formed in miniature. Such is the adaptive device--more reflex than -reflective--which is called self-mutilation or autotomy. - -In another part of this book there is a discussion of camouflaging and -protective resemblance; how abundantly these are illustrated on the -shore! But there are other "shifts for a living." Some of the -sand-hoppers and their relatives illustrate the puzzling phenomenon of -"feigning death," becoming suddenly so motionless that they escape the -eyes of their enemies. Cuttlefishes, by discharging sepia from their -ink-bags, are able to throw dust in the eyes of their enemies. Some -undisguised shore-animals, e.g. crabs, are adepts in a hide-and-seek -game; some fishes, like the butterfish or gunnel, escape between stones -where there seemed no opening and are almost uncatchable in their -slipperiness. Subtlest of all, perhaps, is the habit some hermit-crabs -have of entering into mutually beneficial partnership (commensalism) -with sea-anemones, which mask their bearers and also serve as mounted -batteries, getting transport as their reward and likewise crumbs from -the frequently spread table. But enough has been said to show that the -shore-haunt exhibits an extraordinary variety of shifts for a living. - - -Parental Care on the Shore - -According to Darwin, the struggle for existence, as a big fact in the -economy of Animate Nature, includes not only competition but all the -endeavours which secure the welfare of the offspring, and give them a -good send-off in life. So it is without a jolt that we pass from -struggle for food and foothold to parental care. The marine leech called -Pontobdella, an interesting greenish warty creature fond of fixing -itself to skate, places its egg-cocoons in the empty shell of a bivalve -mollusc, and guards them for weeks, removing any mud that might injure -their development. We have seen a British starfish with its fully-formed -young ones creeping about on its body, though the usual mode of -development for shore starfishes is that the young ones pass through a -free-swimming larval period in the open water. The father sea-spider -carries about the eggs attached to two of his limbs; the father -sea-horse puts his mate's eggs into his breast pocket and carries them -there in safety until they are hatched; the father stickleback of the -shore-pools makes a seaweed nest and guards the eggs which his wives are -induced to lay there; the father lumpsucker mounts guard over the bunch -of pinkish eggs which his mate has laid in a nook of a rocky shore-pool, -and drives off intruders with zest. He also aerates the developing eggs -by frequent paddling with his pectoral fins and tail, as the Scots name -Cock-paidle probably suggests. It is interesting that the salient -examples of parental care in the shore-haunt are mostly on the male -parent's side. But there is maternal virtue as well. - -[Illustration: TEN-ARMED CUTTLEFISH OR SQUID IN THE ACT OF CAPTURING A -FISH - -The arms bear numerous prehensile suckers, which grip the prey. In the -mouth there are strong jaws shaped like a parrot's beak. The -cuttlefishes are molluscs and may be regarded as the highest of the -backboneless or Invertebrate animals. Many occur near shore, others in -the open sea, and others in the great depths.] - -[Illustration: GREENLAND WHALE - -Showing the double blowhole or nostrils on the top of the head and the -whalebone plates hanging down from the roof of the mouth.] - -[Illustration: MINUTE TRANSPARENT EARLY STAGE OF A SEA-CUCUMBER - -It swims in the open sea by means of girdles of microscopic cilia shown -in the figure. After a period of free swimming and a remarkable -metamorphosis, the animal settles down on the floor of the sea in -relatively shallow water.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum (Natural History)_ - -AN INTRICATE COLONY OF OPEN-SEA ANIMALS (_Physophora Hydrostatica_) -RELATED TO THE PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR - -There is great division of labor in the colony. At the top are floating -and swimming "persons"; the long ones below are offensive "persons" -bearing batteries of stinging cells; in the middle zone there are -nutritive, reproductive, and other "persons." The color of the colony is -a fine translucent blue. Swimmers and bathers are often badly stung by -this strange animal and its relatives.] - -[Illustration: A SCENE IN THE GREAT DEPTHS - -Showing a deep-sea fish of large gape, two feather-stars on the end of -long stalks, a "sea-spider" (or Pycnogon) walking on lanky legs on the -treacherous ooze, likewise a brittle-star, and some deep-sea corals.] - -The fauna of the shore is remarkably _representative_--from unicellular -Protozoa to birds like the oyster-catcher and mammals like the seals. -Almost all the great groups of animals have apparently served an -apprenticeship in the shore-haunt, and since lessons learned for -millions of years sink in and become organically enregistered, it is -justifiable to look to the shore as a great school in which were gained -racial qualities of endurance, patience, and alertness. - - -II. THE OPEN SEA - -In great contrast to the narrow, crowded, difficult conditions of the -shore-haunt (littoral area) are the spacious, bountiful, and relatively -easygoing conditions of the open sea (pelagic area), which means the -well-lighted surface waters quite away from land. Many small organisms -have their maximum abundance at about fifty fathoms, so that the word -"surface" is to be taken generously. The light becomes very dim at 250 -fathoms, and the open sea, as a zoological haunt, stops with the light. -It is hardly necessary to say that the pelagic plants are more abundant -near the surface, and that below a certain depth the population consists -almost exclusively of animals. Not a few of the animals sink and rise in -the water periodically; there are some that come near the surface by -day, and others that come near the surface by night. Of great interest -is the habit of the extremely delicate Ctenophores or -"sea-gooseberries," which the splash of a wave would tear into shreds. -Whenever there is any hint of a storm they sink beyond its reach, and -the ocean's surface must have remained flat as a mirror for many hours -before they can be lured upwards from the calm of their deep retreat. - - -The Floating Sea-meadows - -To understand the vital economy of the open sea, we must recognise the -incalculable abundance of minute unicellular plants, for they form the -fundamental food-supply. Along with these must also be included numerous -microscopic animals which have got possession of chlorophyll, or have -entered into internal partnership with unicellular Algae (symbiosis). -These green or greenish plants and animals are the _producers_, using -the energy of the sunlight to help them in building up carbon compounds -out of air, water, and salts. The animals which feed on the producers, -or on other animals, are the _consumers_. Between the two come those -open-sea bacteria that convert nitrogenous material, e.g. from dead -plants or animals that other bacteria have rotted, into forms, e.g. -nitrates, which plants can re-utilise. The importance of these -_middlemen_ is great in keeping "the circulation of matter" agoing. - -[Illustration: 1. SEA-HORSE IN SARGASSO WEED. In its frond-like tags of -skin and in its colouring this kind of sea-horse is well concealed among -the floating seaweed of the so-called Sargasso Sea. - -2. THE LARGE MARINE LAMPREYS (_PETROMYZON MARINUS_), WHICH MAY BE AS -LONG AS ONE'S ARM, SPAWN IN FRESH WATER. Stones and pebbles, gripped in -the suctorial mouth, are removed from a selected spot and piled around -the circumference, so that the eggs, which are laid within the circle, -are not easily washed away. - -3. THE DEEP-SEA FISH _CHIASMODON NIGER_ IS FAMOUS FOR ITS VORACITY. It -sometimes manages to swallow a fish larger than itself, which causes an -extraordinary protrusion of the stomach. - -4. DEEP-SEA FISHES. Two of them--_Melanocetus murrayi_ and _Melanocetus -indicus_--are related to the Angler of British coasts, but adapted to -life in the great abysses. They are very dark in colour, and delicately -built; they possess well-developed luminous organs. The third form is -called Chauliodus, a predatory animal with large gape and formidable -teeth.] - -[Illustration: FLINTY SKELETON OF VENUS FLOWER BASKET (EUPLECTELLA), A -JAPANESE DEEP-SEA SPONGE] - -[Illustration: EGG DEPOSITORY OF _Semotilus Atromaculatus_ - -In the building of this egg depository, the male fish takes stones from -the bottom of the stream, gripping them in his mouth, and heaps them up -into the dam. In the egg depository he arranges the stones so that when -the eggs are deposited in the interstices they are thoroughly protected, -and cannot be washed down-stream. - -1, dam of stones; 2, egg depository; 3, hillock of sand. The arrow shows -the direction of the stream. Upper fish, male; lower, female.] - -The "floating sea-meadows," as Sir John Murray called them, are always -receiving contributions from inshore waters, where the conditions are -favourable for the prolific multiplication of unicellular Algae, and -there is also a certain amount of non-living sea-dust always being swept -out from the seaweed and sea-grass area. - - -Swimmers and Drifters - -The animals of the open sea are conveniently divided into the active -swimmers (Nekton) and the more passive drifters (Plankton). The swimmers -include whales great and small, such birds as the storm petrel, the -fish-eating turtles and sea-snakes, such fishes as mackerel and herring, -the winged snails or sea-butterflies on which whalebone whales largely -feed, some of the active cuttles or squids, various open-sea prawns and -their relatives, some worms like the transparent arrow-worm, and such -active Protozoa as Noctiluca, whose luminescence makes the waves sparkle -in the short summer darkness. Very striking as an instance of the -insurgence of life are the sea-skimmers (Halobatidae), wingless insects -related to the water-measurers in the ditch. They are found hundreds of -miles from land, skimming on the surface of the open sea, and diving in -stormy weather. They feed on floating dead animals. - -The drifters or easygoing swimmers--for there is no hard and fast -line--are represented, for instance, by the flinty-shelled Radiolarians -and certain of the chalk-forming animals (Globigerinid Foraminifera); by -jellyfishes, swimming-bells, and Portuguese men-of-war; by the -comb-bearers or Ctenophores; by legions of minute Crustaceans; by -strange animals called Salps, related to the sedentary sea-squirts; and -by some sluggish fishes like globe-fishes, which often float idly on the -surface. - -Open-sea animals tend to be delicately built, with a specific gravity -near that of the sea-water, with adaptations, such as projecting -filaments, which help flotation, and with capacities of rising and -sinking according to the surrounding conditions. Many of them are -luminescent, and many of them are very inconspicuous in the water owing -to their transparency or their bluish colour. In both cases the -significance is obscure. - - -Hunger and Love - -Hunger is often very much in evidence in the open sea, especially in -areas where the Plankton is poor. For there is great diversity in this -respect, most of the Mediterranean, for instance, having a scanty -Plankton as compared with the North Sea. In the South Pacific, west of -Patagonia, there is said to be an immense "sea desert" where there is -little Plankton, and therefore little in the way of fishes. The success -of fisheries in the North, e.g. on the Atlantic cod-banks, is due to the -richness of the floating sea-meadows and the abundance of the smaller -constituents of the animal Plankton. - -Hunger is plain enough when the Baleen Whale rushes through the water -with open jaws, engulfing in the huge cavern of its mouth, where the -pendent whalebone plates form a huge sieve, incalculable millions of -small fry. - -But there is love as well as hunger in the open sea. The maternal care -exhibited by the whale reaches a very high level, and the delicate shell -of the female Paper Nautilus or Argonaut, in which the eggs and the -young ones are sheltered, may well be described as "the most beautiful -cradle in the world." - -Besides the permanent inhabitants of the open sea, there are the larval -stages of many shore-animals which are there only for a short time. For -there is an interesting give and take between the shore-haunt and the -open sea. From the shore come nutritive contributions and minute -organisms which multiply quickly in the open waters. But not less -important is the fact that the open waters afford a safe cradle or -nursery for many a delicate larva, e.g. of crab and starfish, -acorn-shell and sea-urchin, which could not survive for a day in the -rough-and-tumble conditions of the shore and the shallow water. After -undergoing radical changes and gaining strength, the young creatures -return to the shore in various ways. - - -III. THE DEEP SEA - -Very different from all the other haunts are the depths of the sea, -including the floor of the abysses and the zones of water near the -bottom. This haunt, forever unseen, occupies more than a third of the -earth's surface, and it is thickly peopled. It came into emphatic notice -in connection with the mending of telegraph cables, but the results of -the _Challenger_ expedition (1873-6) gave the first impressive picture -of what was practically a new world. - - -Physical Conditions - -The average depth of the ocean is about two and a half miles; therefore, -since many parts are relatively shallow, there must be enormous depths. -A few of these, technically called "deeps," are about six miles deep, in -which Mount Everest would be engulfed. There is enormous pressure in -such depths; even at 2,500 fathoms it is two and a half tons on the -square inch. The temperature is on and off the freezing-point of fresh -water (28 deg.-34 deg. Fahr.), due to the continual sinking down of cold water -from the Poles, especially from the South. Apart from the fitful gleams -of luminescent animals, there is utter darkness in the deep waters. The -rays of sunlight are practically extinguished at 250 fathoms, though -very sensitive bromogelatine plates exposed at 500 fathoms have shown -faint indications even at that depth. It is a world of absolute calm and -silence, and there is no scenery on the floor. A deep, cold, dark, -silent, monotonous world! - - -Biological Conditions - -While some parts of the floor of the abysses are more thickly peopled -than others, there is no depth limit to the distribution of life. -Wherever the long arm of the dredge has reached, animals have been -found, e.g. Protozoa, sponges, corals, worms, starfishes, sea-urchins, -sea-lilies, crustaceans, lamp-shells, molluscs, ascidians, and fishes--a -very representative fauna. In the absence of light there can be no -chlorophyll-possessing plants, and as the animals cannot all be eating -one another there must be an extraneous source of food-supply. This is -found in the sinking down of minute organisms which are killed on the -surface by changes of temperature and other causes. What is left of -them, before or after being swallowed, and of sea-dust and mineral -particles of various kinds forms the diversified "ooze" of the -sea-floor, a soft muddy precipitate, which is said to have in places the -consistence of butter in summer weather. - -There seems to be no bacteria in the abysses, so there can be no -rotting. Everything that sinks down, even the huge carcase of a whale, -must be nibbled away by hungry animals and digested, or else, in the -case of most bones, slowly dissolved away. Of the whale there are left -only the ear-bones, of the shark his teeth. - - -Adaptations to Deep-sea Life - -In adaptation to the great pressure the bodies of deep-sea animals are -usually very permeable, so that the water gets through and through them, -as in the case of Venus' Flower Basket, a flinty sponge which a child's -finger would shiver. But when the pressure inside is the same as that -outside nothing happens. In adaptation to the treacherous ooze, so apt -to smother, many of the active deep-sea animals have very long, -stilt-like legs, and many of the sedentary types are lifted into safety -on the end of long stalks which have their bases embedded in the mud. In -adaptation to the darkness, in which there is only luminescence that -eyes could use, there is a great development of tactility. The -interesting problem of luminescence will be discussed elsewhere. - -As to the origin of the deep-sea fauna, there seems no doubt that it -has arisen by many contributions from the various shore-haunts. -Following the down-drifting food, many shore-animals have in the course -of many generations reached the world of eternal night and winter, and -become adapted to its strange conditions. For the animals of the -deep-sea are as fit, beautiful, and vigorous as those elsewhere. There -are no slums in Nature. - -[Illustration: THE BITTERLING (_Rhodeus Amarus_) - -A Continental fish which lays its eggs by means of a long ovipositor -inside the freshwater mussel. The eggs develop inside the mollusc's -gill-plates.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge._ - -WOOLLY OPOSSUM CARRYING HER FAMILY - -One of the young ones is clinging to its mother and has its long -prehensile tail coiled round hers.] - -[Illustration: SURINAM TOAD (_Pipa Americana_) WITH YOUNG ONES HATCHING -OUT OF LITTLE POCKETS ON HER BACK] - -[Illustration: STORM PETREL OR MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN - -(_Procellaria Pelagica_) - -This characteristic bird of the open sea does not come to land at all -except to nest. It is the smallest web-footed bird, about four inches -long. The legs are long and often touch the water as the bird flies. The -storm petrel is at home in the Atlantic, and often nests on islands off -the west coast of Britain.] - - -IV. THE FRESH WATERS - -Of the whole earth's surface the freshwaters form a very small fraction, -about a hundredth, but they make up for their smallness by their -variety. We think of deep lake and shallow pond, of the great river and -the purling brook, of lagoon and swamp, and more besides. There is a -striking resemblance in the animal population of widely separated -freshwater basins: and this is partly because birds carry many small -creatures on their muddy feet from one water-shed to another; partly -because some of the freshwater animals are descended from types which -make their way from the sea and the seashore through estuaries and -marshes, and only certain kinds of constitution could survive the -migration; and partly because some lakes are landlocked dwindling relics -of ancient seas, and similar forms again would survive the change. - -A typical assemblage of freshwater animals would include many Protozoa, -like Amoebae and the Bell-Animalcules, a representative of one family -of sponges (Spongillidae), the common Hydra, many unsegmented worms -(notably Planarians and Nematodes), many Annelids related to the -earthworms, many crustaceans, insects, and mites, many bivalves and -snails, various fishes, a newt or two, perhaps a little mud-turtle or in -warm countries a huge Crocodilian, various interesting birds like the -water-ouzel or dipper, and mammals like the water-vole and the -water-shrew. - -Freshwater animals have to face certain difficulties, the greatest of -which are drought, frost, and being washed away in times of flood. -There is no more interesting study in the world than an inquiry into the -adaptations by which freshwater animals overcome the difficulties of the -situation. We cannot give more than a few illustrations. - -(1) Drought is circumvented by the capacity that many freshwater animals -have of lying low and saying nothing. Thus the African mudfish may spend -half the year encased in the mud, and many minute crustaceans can -survive being dried up for years. (2) Escape from the danger of being -frozen hard in the pool is largely due to the almost unique property of -water that it expands as it approaches the freezing-point. Thus the -colder water rises to the surface and forms or adds to the protecting -blanket of ice. The warmer water remains unfrozen at the bottom, and the -animals live on. (3) The risk of being washed away, e.g. to the sea, is -lessened by all sorts of gripping, grappling, and anchoring structures, -and by shortening the juvenile stages when the risks are greatest. - - -V. THE DRY LAND - -Over and over again in the history of animal life there have been -attempts to get out of the water on to terra firma, and many of these -have been successful, notably those made (1) by worms, (2) by -air-breathing Arthropods, and (3) by amphibians. - -In thinking of the conquest of the dry land by animals, we must -recognise the indispensable role of plants in preparing the way. The dry -ground would have proved too inhospitable had not terrestrial plants -begun to establish themselves, affording food, shelter, and humidity. -There had to be plants before there could be earthworms, which feed on -decaying leaves and the like, but how soon was the debt repaid when the -earthworms began their worldwide task of forming vegetable mould, -opening up the earth with their burrows, circulating the soil by means -of their castings, and bruising the particles in their -gizzard--certainly the most important mill in the world. - -Another important idea is that littoral haunts, both on the seashore and -in the freshwaters, afforded the necessary apprenticeship and -transitional experience for the more strenuous life on dry land. Much -that was perfected on land had its beginnings on the shore. Let us -inquire, however, what the passage from water to dry land actually -implied. This has been briefly discussed in a previous article (on -Evolution), but the subject is one of great interest and importance. - - -Difficulties and Results of the Transition from Water to Land - -Leaving the water for dry land implied a loss in freedom of movement, -for the terrestrial animal is primarily restricted to the surface of the -earth. Thus it became essential that movements should be very rapid and -very precise, needs with which we may associate the acquisition of fine -cross-striped, quickly contracting muscles, and also, in time, their -multiplication into very numerous separate engines. We exercise -fifty-four muscles in the half-second that elapses between raising the -heel of our foot in walking and planting it firmly on the ground again. -Moreover, the need for rapid precisely controlled movements implied an -improved nervous system, for the brain was a movement-controlling organ -for ages before it did much in the way of thinking. The transition to -terra firma also involved a greater compactness of body, so that there -should not be too great friction on the surface. An animal like the -jellyfish is unthinkable on land, and the elongated bodies of some land -animals like centipedes and snakes are specially adapted so that they do -not "sprawl." They are exceptions that prove the rule. - -Getting on to dry land meant entering a kingdom where the differences -between day and night, between summer and winter are more felt than in -the sea. This made it advantageous to have protections against -evaporation and loss of heat and other such dangers. Hence a variety of -ways in which the surface of the body acquired a thickened skin, or a -dead cuticle, or a shell, or a growth of hair, and so forth. In many -cases there is an increase of the protection before the winter sets in, -e.g. by growing thicker fur or by accumulating a layer of fat below the -skin. - -But the thickening or protection of the skin involved a partial or total -loss of the skin as a respiratory surface. There is more oxygen -available on dry land than in the water, but it is not so readily -captured. Thus we see the importance of moist internal surfaces for -capturing the oxygen which has been drawn into the interior of the body -into some sort of lung. A unique solution was offered by Tracheate -Arthropods, such as Peripatus, Centipedes, Millipedes, and Insects, -where the air is carried to every hole and corner of the body by a -ramifying system of air-tubes or tracheae. In most animals the blood goes -to the air, in insects the air goes to the blood. In the Robber-Crab, -which has migrated from the shore inland, the dry air is absorbed by -vascular tufts growing under the shelter of the gill-cover. - -The problem of disposing of eggs or young ones is obviously much more -difficult on land than in the water. For the water offers an immediate -cradle, whereas on the dry land there were many dangers, e.g. of -drought, extremes of temperature, and hungry sharp-eyed enemies, which -had to be circumvented. So we find all manner of ways in which land -animals hide their eggs or their young ones in holes and nests, on herbs -and on trees. Some carry their young ones about after they are born, -like the Surinam toad and the kangaroo, while others have prolonged the -period of ante-natal life during which the young ones develop in safety -within their mother, and in very intimate partnership with her in the -case of the placental mammals. It is very interesting to find that the -pioneer animal called Peripatus, which bridges the gap between worms and -insects, carries its young for almost a year before birth. - -Enough has been said to show that the successive conquests of the dry -land had great evolutionary results. It is hardly too much to say that -the invasion which the Amphibians led was the beginning of better -brains, more controlled activities, and higher expressions of family -life. - -[Illustration: ALBATROSS: A CHARACTERISTIC PELAGIC BIRD OF THE SOUTHERN -SEA - -It may have a spread of wing of over 11 feet from tip to tip. It is -famous for its extraordinary power of "sailing" round the ship without -any apparent strokes of its wings.] - - -VI. THE AIR - -There are no animals thoroughly aerial, but many insects spend much of -their adult life in the free air, and the swift hardly pauses in its -flight from dawn to dusk of the long summer day, alighting only for -brief moments at the nest to deliver insects to the young. All the -active life of bats certainly deserves to be called aerial. - -The air was the last haunt of life to be conquered, and it is -interesting to inquire what the conquest implied. (1) It meant -transcending the radical difficulty of terrestrial life which confines -the creatures of the dry land to moving on one plane, the surface of the -earth. But the power of flight brought its possessors back to the -universal freedom of movement which water animals enjoy. When we watch a -sparrow rise into the air just as the cat has completed her stealthy -stalking, we see that flight implies an enormous increase of safety. (2) -The power of flight also opened up new possibilities of following the -prey, of exploring new territories, of prospecting for water. (3) Of -great importance too was the practicability of placing the eggs and the -young, perhaps in a nest, in some place inaccessible to most enemies. -When one thinks of it, the rooks' nests swaying on the tree-tops express -the climax of a brilliant experiment. (4) The crowning advantage was the -possibility of migrating, of conquering time (by circumventing the arid -summer and the severe winter) and of conquering space (by passing -quickly from one country to another and sometimes almost girdling the -globe). There are not many acquisitions that have meant more to their -possessors than the power of flight. It was a key opening the doors of a -new freedom. - -The problem of flight, as has been said in a previous chapter, has been -solved four times, and the solution has been different in each case. The -four solutions are those offered by insects, extinct Pterodactyls, -birds, and bats. Moreover, as has been pointed out, there have been -numerous attempts at flight which remain glorious failures, notably the -flying fishes, which take a great leap and hold their pectoral fins -taut; the Flying Tree-Toad, whose webbed fingers and toes form a -parachute; the Flying Lizard (_Draco volans_), which has its skin pushed -out on five or six greatly elongated mobile ribs; and various "flying" -mammals, e.g. Flying Phalangers and Flying Squirrels, which take great -swooping leaps from tree to tree. - -The wings of an insect are hollow flattened sacs which grow out from the -upper parts of the sides of the second and third rings of the region -called the thorax. They are worked by powerful muscles, and are -supported, like a fan, by ribs of chitin, which may be accompanied by -air-tubes, blood-channels, and nerves. The insect's body is lightly -built and very perfectly aerated, and the principle of the insect's -flight is the extremely rapid striking of the air by means of the -lightly built elastic wings. Many an insect has over two hundred strokes -of its wings in one _second_. Hence, in many cases, the familiar hum, -comparable on a small scale to that produced by the rapidly revolving -blades of an aeroplane's propeller. For a short distance a bee can -outfly a pigeon, but few insects can fly far, and they are easily blown -away or blown back by the wind. Dragon-flies and bees may be cited as -examples of insects that often fly for two or three miles. But this is -exceptional, and the usual shortness of insect flight is an important -fact for man since it limits the range of insects like house-flies and -mosquitoes which are vehicles of typhoid fever and malaria respectively. -The most primitive insects (spring-tails and bristle-tails) show no -trace of wings, while fleas and lice have become secondarily wingless. -It is interesting to notice that some insects only fly once in their -lifetime, namely, in connection with mating. The evolution of the -insect's wing remains quite obscure, but it is probable that insects -could run, leap, and parachute before they could actually fly. - -The extinct Flying Dragons or Pterodactyls had their golden age in the -Cretaceous era, after which they disappeared, leaving no descendants. A -fold of skin was spread out from the sides of the body by the enormously -elongated outermost finger (usually regarded as corresponding to our -little finger); it was continued to the hind-legs and thence to the -tail. - -It is unlikely that the Pterodactyls could fly far, for they have at -most a weak keel on their breast-bone; on the other hand, some of them -show a marked fusion of dorsal vertebrae, which, as in flying birds, must -have served as a firm fulcrum for the stroke of the wings. The quaint -creatures varied from the size of a sparrow up to a magnificent spread -of 15-20 feet from tip to tip of the wings. They were the largest of all -flying creatures. - -The bird's solution of the problem of flight, which will be discussed -separately, is centred in the feather, which forms a coherent vane for -striking the air. In Pterodactyl and bat the wing is a web-wing or -patagium, and a small web is to be seen on the front side of the bird's -wing. But the bird's patagium is unimportant, and the bird's wing is on -an evolutionary tack of its own--a fore-limb transformed for bearing the -feathers of flight. Feathers are in a general way comparable to the -scales of reptiles, but only in a general way, and no transition stage -is known between the two. Birds evolved from a bipedal Dinosaur stock, -as has been noticed already, and it is highly probable that they began -their ascent by taking running leaps along the ground, flapping their -scaly fore-limbs, and balancing themselves in kangaroo-like fashion with -an extended tail. A second chapter was probably an arboreal -apprenticeship, during which they made a fine art of parachuting--a -persistence of which is to be seen in the pigeon "gliding" from the -dovecot to the ground. It is in birds that the mastery of the air -reaches its climax, and the mysterious "sailing" of the albatross and -the vulture is surely the most remarkable locomotor triumph that has -ever been achieved. Without any apparent stroke of the wings, the bird -sails for half an hour at a time with the wind and against the wind, -around the ship and in majestic spirals in the sky, probably taking -advantage of currents of air of different velocities, and continually -changing energy of position into energy of motion as it sinks, and -energy of motion into energy of position as it rises. It is interesting -to know that some dragon-flies are also able to "sail." - -The web-wing of bats involves much more than the fore-arm. The double -fold of skin begins on the side of the neck, passes along the front of -the arm, skips the thumb, and is continued over the elongated palm-bones -and fingers to the sides of the body again, and to the hind-legs, and to -the tail if there is a tail. It is interesting to find that the bones of -the bat's skeleton tend to be lightly built as in birds, that the -breast-bone has likewise a keel for the better insertion of the pectoral -muscles, and that there is a solidifying of the vertebrae of the back, -affording as in birds a firm basis for the wing action. Such similar -adaptations to similar needs, occurring in animals not nearly related to -one another, are called "convergences," and form a very interesting -study. In addition to adaptations which the bat shares with the flying -bird, it has many of its own. There are so many nerve-endings on the -wing, and often also on special skin-leaves about the ears and nose, -that the bat flying in the dusk does not knock against branches or other -obstacles. Some say that it is helped by the echoes of its high-pitched -voice, but there is no doubt as to its exquisite tactility. That it -usually produces only a single young one at a time is a clear adaptation -to flight, and similarly the sharp, mountain-top-like cusps on the back -teeth are adapted in insectivorous bats for crunching insects. - -Whether we think of the triumphant flight of birds, reaching a climax in -migration, or of the marvel that a creature of the earth--as a mammal -essentially is--should evolve such a mastery of the air as we see in -bats, or even of the repeated but splendid failures which parachuting -animals illustrate, we gain an impression of the insurgence of living -creatures in their characteristic endeavour after fuller well-being. - -We have said enough to show how well adapted many animals are to meet -the particular difficulties of the haunt which they tenant. But -difficulties and limitations are ever arising afresh, and so one fitness -follows on another. It is natural, therefore, to pass to the frequent -occurrence of protective resemblance, camouflage, and mimicry--the -subject of the next article. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - ELMHIRST, R., _Animals of the Shore_. - FLATTELY AND WALTON, _The Biology of the Shore_ (1921). - FURNEAUX, _Life of Ponds and Streams_. - HICKSON, S. J., _Story of Life in the Seas_ and _Fauna of the Deep Sea_. - JOHNSTONE, J., _Life in the Sea_ (Cambridge Manual of Science). - MIALL, L. C., _Aquatic Insects_. - MURRAY, SIR JOHN, _The Ocean_ (Home University Library). - MURRAY, SIR JOHN AND HJORT, DR. J., _The Depths of the Ocean_. - NEWBIGIN, M. I., _Life by the Sea Shore_. - PYCRAFT, W. P., _History of Birds_. - SCHARFF, R. F., _History of the European Fauna_ (Contemp. Sci. Series). - THOMSON, J. ARTHUR, _The Wonder of Life_ (1914) and - _The Haunts of Life_ (1921). - - - - -IV - -THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE - - - - -ANIMAL AND BIRD MIMICRY AND DISGUISE - - -Sec. 1 - -For every animal one discovers when observing carefully, there must be -ten unseen. This is partly because many animals burrow in the ground or -get in underneath things and into dark corners, being what is called -cryptozoic or elusive. But it is partly because many animals put on -disguise or have in some way acquired a garment of invisibility. This is -very common among animals, and it occurs in many forms and degrees. The -reason why it is so common is because the struggle for existence is -often very keen, and the reasons why the struggle for existence is keen -are four. First, there is the tendency to over-population in many -animals, especially those of low degree. Second, there is the fact that -the scheme of nature involves nutritive chains or successive -incarnations, one animal depending upon another for food, and all in the -long run on plants; thirdly, every vigorous animal is a bit of a -hustler, given to insurgence and sticking out his elbows. There is a -fourth great reason for the struggle for existence, namely, the frequent -changefulness of the physical environment, which forces animals to -answer back or die; but the first three reasons have most to do with the -very common assumption of some sort of disguise. Even when an animal is -in no sense a weakling, it may be very advantageous for it to be -inconspicuous when it is resting or when it is taking care of its young. -Our problem is the evolution of elusiveness, so far at least as that -depends on likeness to surroundings, on protective resemblance to other -objects, and in its highest reaches on true mimicry. - - -Colour Permanently Like That of Surroundings - -Many animals living on sandy places have a light-brown colour, as is -seen in some lizards and snakes. The green lizard is like the grass and -the green tree-snake is inconspicuous among the branches. The spotted -leopard is suited to the interrupted light of the forest, and it is -sometimes hard to tell where the jungle ends and the striped tiger -begins. There is no better case than the hare or the partridge sitting a -few yards off on the ploughed field. Even a donkey grazing in the dusk -is much more readily heard than seen. - -The experiment has been made of tethering the green variety of Praying -Mantis on green herbage, fastening them with silk threads. They escape -the notice of birds. The same is true when the brown variety is tethered -on withered herbage. But if the green ones are put on brown plants, or -the brown ones on green plants, the birds pick them off. Similarly, out -of 300 chickens in a field, 240 white or black and therefore -conspicuous, 60 spotted and inconspicuous, 24 were soon picked off by -crows, but only one of these was spotted. This was not the proportion -that there should have been if the mortality had been fortuitous. There -is no doubt that it often pays an animal to be like its habitual -surroundings, like a little piece of scenery if the animal is not -moving. It is safe to say that in process of time wide departures from -the safest coloration will be wiped out in the course of Nature's -ceaseless sifting. - -But we must not be credulous, and there are three cautions to be borne -in mind. (1) An animal may be very like its surroundings without there -being any protection implied. The arrow-worms in the sea are as clear as -glass, and so are many open-sea animals. But this is because their -tissues are so watery, with a specific gravity near that of the salt -water. And the invisibility does not save them, always or often, from -being swallowed by larger animals that gather the harvest of the sea. -(2) Among the cleverer animals it looks as if the creature sometimes -sought out a spot where it was most inconspicuous. A spider may place -itself in the middle of a little patch of lichen, where its -self-effacement is complete. Perhaps it is more comfortable as well as -safer to rest in surroundings the general colour of which is like that -of the animal's body. (3) The fishes that live among the coral-reefs are -startling in their brilliant coloration, and there are many different -patterns. To explain this it has been suggested that these fishes are so -safe among the mazy passages and endless nooks of the reefs, that they -can well afford to wear any colour that suits their constitution. In -some cases this may be true, but naturalists who have put on a diving -suit and walked about among the coral have told us that each kind of -fish is particularly suited to some particular place, and that some are -suited for midday work and others for evening work. Sometimes there is a -sort of Box and Cox arrangement by which two different fishes utilise -the same corner at different times. - -[Illustration: THE PRAYING MANTIS (_Mantis Religiosa_) - -A very voracious insect with a quiet, unobtrusive appearance. It holds -its formidable forelegs as if in the attitude of prayer; its movements -are very slow and stealthy; and there is a suggestion of a leaf in the -forewing. But there is no reason to credit the creature with conscious -guile!] - -[Illustration: PROTECTIVE COLORATION: A WINTER SCENE IN NORTH -SCANDINAVIA - -Showing Variable Hare, Willow Grouse, and Arctic Fox, all white in -winter and inconspicuous against the snow. But the white dress is also -the dress that is physiologically best, for it loses least of the animal -heat.] - -[Illustration: THE VARIABLE MONITOR (_Varanus_) - -The monitors are the largest of existing lizards, the Australian species -represented in the photograph attaining a length of four feet. It has a -brown colour with yellow spots, and in spite of its size it is not -conspicuous against certain backgrounds, such as the bark of a tree.] - - -Sec. 2 - -Gradual Change of Colour - -The common shore-crab shows many different colours and mottlings, -especially when it is young. It may be green or grey, red or brown, and -so forth, and it is often in admirable adjustment to the colour of the -rock-pool where it is living. Experiments, which require extension, have -shown that when the crab has moulted, which it has to do very often when -it is young, the colour of the new shell tends to harmonise with the -general colour of the rocks and seaweed. How this is brought about, we -do not know. The colour does not seem to change till the next moult, and -not then unless there is some reason for it. A full-grown shore-crab is -well able to look after itself, and it is of interest to notice, -therefore, that the variety of coloration is mainly among the small -individuals, who have, of course, a much less secure position. It is -possible, moreover, that the resemblance to the surroundings admits of -more successful hunting, enabling the small crab to take its victim -unawares. - -Professor Poulton's experiments with the caterpillars of the small -tortoise-shell butterfly showed that in black surroundings the pupae tend -to be darker, in white surroundings lighter, in gilded boxes golden; and -the same is true in other cases. It appears that the surrounding colour -affects the caterpillars through the skin during a sensitive period--the -twenty hours immediately preceding the last twelve hours of the larval -state. The result will tend to make the quiescent pupae less conspicuous -during the critical time of metamorphosis. The physiology of this -sympathetic colouring remains obscure. - - -Seasonal Change of Colouring - -The ptarmigan moults three times in the year. Its summer plumage is -rather grouselike above, with a good deal of rufous brown; the back -becomes much more grey in autumn; almost all the feathers of the winter -plumage are white. That is to say, they develop without any pigment and -with numerous gas-bubbles in their cells. Now there can be no doubt that -this white winter plumage makes the ptarmigan very inconspicuous amidst -the snow. Sometimes one comes within a few feet of the crouching bird -without seeing it, and this garment of invisibility may save it from the -hungry eyes of golden eagles. - -Similarly the brown stoat becomes the white ermine, mainly by the -growth, of a new suit of white fur, and the same is true of the mountain -hare. The ermine is all white except the black tip of its tail; the -mountain hare in its winter dress is all white save the black tips of -its ears. In some cases, especially in the mountain hare, it seems that -individual hairs may turn white, by a loss of pigment, as may occur in -man. According to Metchnikoff, the wandering amoeboid cells of the -body, called phagocytes, may creep up into the hairs and come back again -with microscopic burdens of pigment. The place of the pigment is taken -by gas-bubbles, and that is what causes the whiteness. In no animals is -there any white _pigment_; the white _colour_ is like that of snow or -foam, it is due to the complete reflection of the light from innumerable -minute surfaces of crystals or bubbles. - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S._ - -BANDED KRAIT: A VERY POISONOUS SNAKE WITH ALTERNATING YELLOW AND DARK -BANDS - -It is very conspicuous and may serve as an illustration of warning -coloration. Perhaps, that is to say, its striking coloration serves as -an advertisement, impressing other creatures with the fact that the -Banded Krait should be left alone. It is very unprofitable for a snake -to waste its venom on creatures it does not want.] - -[Illustration: _Photos: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S._ - -THE WARTY CHAMELEON - -The upper photograph shows the Warty Chameleon inflated and conspicuous. -At another time, however, with compressed body and adjusted coloration, -the animal is very inconspicuous. The lower photograph shows the sudden -protrusion of the very long tongue on a fly.] - -[Illustration: SEASONAL COLOUR-CHANGE: A SUMMER SCENE IN NORTH -SCANDINAVIA - -Showing a brown Variable Hare, Willow Grouse, and Arctic Fox, all -inconspicuous in their coloration when seen in their natural -surroundings.] - -The mountain hare may escape the fox the more readily because its -whiteness makes it so inconspicuous against a background of snow; and -yet, at other times, we have seen the creature standing out like a -target on the dark moorland. So it cuts both ways. The ermine has almost -no enemies except the gamekeeper, but its winter whiteness may help it -to sneak upon its victims, such as grouse or rabbit, when there is snow -upon the ground. In both cases, however, the probability is that the -constitutional rhythm which leads to white hair in winter has been -fostered and fixed for a reason quite apart from protection. The fact is -that for a warm-blooded creature, whether bird or mammal, the -physiologically best dress is a white one, for there is less radiation -of the precious animal heat from white plumage or white pelage than from -any other colour. The quality of warm-bloodedness is a prerogative of -birds and mammals, and it means that the body keeps an almost constant -temperature, day and night, year in and year out. This is effected by -automatic internal adjustments which regulate the supply of heat, -chiefly from the muscles, to the loss of heat, chiefly through the skin -and from the lungs. The chief importance of this internal heat is that -it facilitates the smooth continuance of the chemical processes on which -life depends. If the temperature falls, as in hibernating mammals (whose -warm-bloodedness is imperfect), the rate of the vital process is slowed -down--sometimes dangerously. Thus we see how the white coat helps the -life of the creature. - - -Sec. 3 - -Rapid Colour-change - -Bony flat-fishes, like plaice and sole, have a remarkable power of -adjusting their hue and pattern to the surrounding gravel and sand, so -that it is difficult to find them even when we know that they are there. -It must be admitted that they are also very quick to get a sprinkling -of sand over their upturned side, so that only the eyes are left -showing. But there is no doubt as to the exactness with which they often -adjust themselves to be like a little piece of the substratum on which -they lie; they will do this within limits in experimental conditions -when they are placed on a quite artificial floor. As these fishes are -very palatable and are much sought after by such enemies as cormorants -and otters, it is highly probably that their power of self-effacement -often saves their life. And it may be effected within a few minutes, in -some cases within a minute. - -In these self-effacing flat-fishes we know with some precision what -happens. The adjustment of colour and pattern is due to changes in the -size, shape, and position of mobile pigment-cells (chromatophores) and -the skin. But what makes the pigment-cells change? The fact that a blind -flat-fish does not change its colour gives us the first part of the -answer. The colour and the pattern of the surroundings must affect the -eye. The message travels by the optic nerve to the brain; from the -brain, instead of passing down the spinal cord, the message travels down -the chain of sympathetic ganglia. From these it passes along the nerves -which comes out of the spinal cord and control the skin. Thus the -message reaches the colour-cells in the skin, and before you have -carefully read these lines the flat-fish has slipped on its Gyges ring -and become invisible. - -The same power of rapid colour-change is seen in cuttlefishes, where it -is often an expression of nervous excitement, though it sometimes helps -to conceal. It occurs with much subtlety in the AEsop prawn, Hippolyte, -which may be brown on a brown seaweed, green on sea-lettuce or -sea-grass, red on red seaweed, and so on through an extensive repertory. - - According to the nature of the background, [Professor Gamble writes] - so is the mixture of the pigments compounded so as to form a close - reproduction both of its colour and its pattern. A sweep of the - shrimp net detaches a battalion of these sleeping prawns, and if - we turn the motley into a dish and give a choice of seaweed, each - variety after its kind will select the one with which it agrees in - colour, and vanish. Both when young and when full-grown, the AEsop - prawn takes on the colour of its immediate surroundings. At - nightfall Hippolyte, of whatever colour, changes to a transparent - azure blue: its stolidity gives place to a nervous restlessness; at - the least tremor it leaps violently, and often swims actively from - one food-plant to another. This blue fit lasts till daybreak, and is - then succeeded by the prawn's diurnal tint. - -Thus, Professor Gamble continues, the colour of an animal may express a -nervous rhythm. - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE - -Hawk Moth, settled down on a branch, and very difficult to detect as -long as it remains stationary. Note its remarkable sucking tongue, which -is about twice the length of its body. The tongue can be quickly coiled -up and put safely away beneath the lower part of the head.] - -[Illustration: WHEN ONLY A FEW DAYS OLD, YOUNG BITTERN BEGIN TO STRIKE -THE SAME ATTITUDE AS THEIR PARENTS THRUSTING THEIR BILLS UPWARDS AND -DRAWING THEIR BODIES UP SO THAT THEY RESEMBLE A BUNCH OF REEDS - -The soft browns and blue-greens harmonise with the dull sheaths of the -young reeds; the nestling bittern is thus completely camouflaged.] - - -The Case of Chameleons - -The highest level at which rapid colour-change occurs is among lizards, -and the finest exhibition of it is among the chameleons. These quaint -creatures are characteristic of Africa; but they occur also in -Andalusia, Arabia, Ceylon, and Southern India. They are adapted for life -on trees, where they hunt insects with great deliberateness and success. -The protrusible tongue, ending in a sticky club, can be shot out for -about seven inches in the common chameleon. Their hands and feet are -split so that they grip the branches firmly, and the prehensile tail -rivals a monkey's. When they wish they can make themselves very slim, -contracting the body from side to side, so that they are not very -readily seen. In other circumstances, however, they do not practise -self-effacement, but the very reverse. They inflate their bodies, having -not only large lungs, but air-sacs in connection with them. The throat -bulges; the body sways from side to side; and the creature expresses its -sentiments in a hiss. The power of colour-change is very remarkable, and -depends partly on the contraction and expansion of the colour-cells -(chromatophores) in the under-skin (or dermis) and partly on -close-packed refractive granules and crystals of a waste-product called -guanin. The repertory of possible colours in the common chameleon is -greater than in any other animal except the AEsop prawn. There is a -legend of a chameleon which was brown in a brown box, green in a green -box, and blue in a blue box, and died when put into one lined with -tartan; and there is no doubt that one and the same animal has a wide -range of colours. The so-called "chameleon" (_Anolis_) of North America -is so sensitive that a passing cloud makes it change its emerald hue. - -There is no doubt that a chameleon may make itself more inconspicuous by -changing its colour, being affected by the play of light on its eyes. A -bright-green hue is often seen on those that are sitting among strongly -illumined green leaves. But the colour also changes with the time of day -and with the animal's moods. A sudden irritation may bring about a rapid -change; in other cases the transformation comes about very gradually. -When the colour-change expresses the chameleon's feelings it might be -compared to blushing, but that is due to an expansion of the arteries of -the face, allowing more blood to get into the capillaries of the -under-skin. The case of the chameleon is peculiarly interesting because -the animal has two kinds of tactics--self-effacement on the one hand and -bluffing on the other. There can be little doubt that the power of -colour-change sometimes justifies itself by driving off intruders. Dr. -Cyril Crossland observed that a chameleon attacked by a fox-terrier -"turned round and opened its great pink mouth in the face of the -advancing dog, at the same time rapidly changing colour, becoming almost -black. This ruse succeeded every time, the dog turning off at once." In -natural leafy surroundings the startling effect would be much greater--a -sudden throwing off of the mantle of invisibility and the exposure of a -conspicuous black body with a large red mouth. - - -Sec. 4 - -Likeness to Other Things - -Dr. H. O. Forbes tells of a flat spider which presents a striking -resemblance to a bird's dropping on a leaf. Years after he first -found it he was watching in a forest in the Far East when his eye fell -on a leaf before him which had been blotched by a bird. He wondered idly -why he had not seen for so long another specimen of the bird-dropping -spider (_Ornithoscatoides decipiens_), and drew the leaf towards him. -Instantaneously he got a characteristic sharp nip; it was the spider -after all! Here the colour-resemblance was enhanced by a -form-resemblance. - -[Illustration: A. PROTECTIVE COLORATION OR CAMOUFLAGING, GIVING ANIMALS -A GARMENT OF INVISIBILITY - -At the foot of the plate is a Nightjar, with plumage like bark and -withering leaves; to the right, resting on a branch, is shown a -Chameleon in a green phase amid green surroundings; the insects on the -reeds are Locusts; while a green Frog, merged into its surroundings, -rests on a leaf near the centre at the top of the picture. - -B. ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION OR CAMOUFLAGE - -A shore scene showing Trout in the pool almost invisible against their -background. The Stone Curlews, both adult and young, are very -inconspicuous among the stones on the beach.] - -But why should it profit a spider to be like a bird-dropping? Perhaps -because it thereby escapes attention; but there is another possibility. -It seems that some butterflies, allied to our Blues, are often attracted -to excrementitious material, and the spider Dr. Forbes observed had -actually caught its victim. This is borne out by a recent observation by -Dr. D. G. H. Carpenter, who found a Uganda bug closely resembling a -bird-dropping on sand. The bug actually settled down on a bird-dropping -on sand, and caught a blue butterfly which came to feed there! - -Some of the walking-stick insects, belonging to the order of crickets -and grasshoppers (Orthoptera), have their body elongated and narrow, -like a thin dry branch, and they have a way of sticking out their limbs -at abrupt and diverse angles, which makes the resemblance to twigs very -close indeed. Some of these quaint insects rest through the day and have -the remarkable habit of putting themselves into a sort of kataleptic -state. Many creatures turn stiff when they get a shock, or pass suddenly -into new surroundings, like some of the sand-hoppers when we lay them on -the palm of our hand; but these twig-insects put themselves into this -strange state. The body is rocked from side to side for a short time, -and then it stiffens. An advantage may be that even if they were -surprised by a bird or a lizard, they will not be able to betray -themselves by even a tremor. Disguise is perfected by a remarkable -habit, a habit which leads us to think of a whole series of different -ways of lying low and saying nothing which are often of life-preserving -value. The top end of the series is seen when a fox plays 'possum. - -The leaf-butterfly _Kallima_, conspicuously coloured on its upper -surface, is like a withered leaf when it settles down and shows the -under side of its wings. Here, again, there is precise form-resemblance, -for the nervures on the wings are like the mid-rib and side veins on a -leaf, and the touch of perfection is given in the presence of whitish -spots which look exactly like the discolorations produced by lichens on -leaves. An old entomologist, Mr. Jenner Weir, confessed that he -repeatedly pruned off a caterpillar on a bush in mistake for a -superfluous twig, for many brownish caterpillars fasten themselves by -their posterior claspers and by an invisible thread of silk from their -mouth, and project from the branch at a twig-like angle. An insect may -be the very image of a sharp prickle or a piece of soft moss; a spider -may look precisely like a tiny knob on a branch or a fragment of lichen; -one of the sea-horses (_Phyllopteryx_) has frond-like tassels on various -parts of its body, so that it looks extraordinarily like the seaweeds -among which it lives. In a few cases, e.g. among spiders, it has been -shown that animals with a special protective resemblance to something -else seek out a position where this resemblance tells, and there is -urgent need for observations bearing on this selection of environment. - - -Sec. 5 - -Mimicry in the True Sense - -It sometimes happens that in one and the same place there are two groups -of animals not very nearly related which are "doubles" of one another. -Investigation shows that the members of the one group, _always in the -majority_, are in some way specially protected, e.g. by being -unpalatable. They are the "mimicked." The members of the other group, -_always in the minority_, have not got the special protection possessed -by the others. They are the "mimickers," though the resemblance is not, -of course, associated with any conscious imitation. The theory is that -the mimickers live on the reputation of the mimicked. If the mimicked -are left alone by birds because they have a reputation for -unpalatability, or because they are able to sting, the mimickers -survive--although they are palatable and stingless. They succeed, not -through any virtue of their own, but because of their resemblance to the -mimicked, for whom they are mistaken. There are many cases of mimetic -resemblance so striking and so subtle that it seems impossible to doubt -that the thing works; there are other cases which are rather -far-fetched, and may be somewhat of the nature of coincidences. Thus -although Mr. Bates tells us that he repeatedly shot humming-bird moths -in mistake for humming-birds, we cannot think that this is a good -illustration of mimicry. What is needed for many cases is what is -forthcoming for some, namely, experimental evidence, e.g. that the -unpalatable mimicked butterflies are left in relative peace while -similar palatable butterflies are persecuted. It is also necessary to -show that the mimickers do actually consort with the mimicked. Some -beetles and moths are curiously wasplike, which may be a great -advantage; the common drone-fly is superficially like a small bee; some -harmless snakes are very like poisonous species; and Mr. Wallace -maintained that the powerful "friar-birds" of the Far East are mimicked -by the weak and timid orioles. When the model is unpalatable or -repulsive or dangerous, and the mimic the reverse, the mimicry is called -"Batesian" (after Mr. Bates), but there is another kind of mimicry -called Muellerian (after Fritz Mueller) where the mimic is also -unpalatable. The theory in this case is that the mimicry serves as -mutual assurance, the members of the ring getting on better by -consistently presenting the same appearance, which has come to mean to -possible enemies a signal, _Noli me tangere_ ("Leave me alone"). There -is nothing out of the question in this theory, but it requires to be -taken in a critical spirit. It leads us to think of "warning colours," -which are the very opposite of the disguises which we are now studying. -Some creatures like skunks, magpies, coral-snakes, cobras, brightly -coloured tree-frogs are obtrusive rather than elusive, and the theory -of Alfred Russel Wallace was that the flaunting conspicuousness serves -as a useful advertisement, impressing itself on the memories of -inexperienced enemies, who soon learn to leave creatures with "warning -colours" alone. In any case it is plain that an animal which is as safe -as a wasp or a coral-snake can afford to wear any suit of clothes it -likes. - -[Illustration: DEAD-LEAF BUTTERFLY (_Kallima Inachis_) FROM INDIA - -It is conspicuous on its upper surface, but when it settles down on a -twig and shows the underside of its wings it is practically invisible. -The colouring of the under surface of the wings is like that of the -withering leaf; there are spots like fungas spots; and the venation of -the wings suggests the mid-rib and veins of the leaf. A, showing upper -surface; B, showing under surface; C, a leaf.] - -[Illustration: PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN A SMALL SPIDER (_to the -left_) AND AN ANT (_to the right_) - -As ants are much dreaded, it is probably profitable to the spider to be -like an ant. It will be noted that the spider has four pairs of legs and -no feelers, whereas the ant has three pairs of legs and a pair of -feelers.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._ - -THE WASP BEETLE, WHICH, WHEN MOVING AMONGST THE BRANCHES GIVES A -WASP-LIKE IMPRESSION] - -[Illustration: HERMIT-CRAB WITH PARTNER SEA-ANEMONES - -Hermit-crabs hide their soft tail in the shell of a whelk or some other -sea-snail. But some hermit-crabs place sea-anemones on the back of their -borrowed shell. The sea-anemones mask the hermit-crab and their -tentacles can sting. As for the sea-anemones, they are carried about by -the hermit-crab and they get crumbs from its table. This kind of -mutually beneficial external partnership is called commensalism, i.e. -eating at the same table.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: G. P. Duffus._ - -CUCKOO-SPIT - -The white mass in the centre of the picture is a soapy froth which the -young frog-hopper makes, and within which it lies safe both from the -heat of the sun and almost all enemies. After sojourning for a time in -the cuckoo-spit, the frog-hopper becomes a winged insect.] - - -Masking - -The episode in Scottish history called "The Walking Wood of Birnam," -when the advancing troop masked their approach by cutting down branches -of the trees, has had its counterpart in many countries. But it is also -enacted on the seashore. There are many kinds of crabs that put on -disguise with what looks like deliberateness. The sand-crab takes a -piece of seaweed, nibbles at the end of it, and then rubs it on the back -of the carapace or on the legs so that it fixes to the bristles. As the -seaweed continues to live, the crab soon has a little garden on its back -which masks the crab's real nature. It is most effective camouflaging, -but if the crab continues to grow it has to moult, and that means losing -the disguise. It is then necessary to make a new one. The crab must have -on the shore something corresponding to a reputation; that is to say, -other animals are clearly or dimly aware that the crab is a voracious -and combative creature. How useful to the crab, then, to have its -appearance cloaked by a growth of innocent seaweed, or sponge, or -zoophyte. It will enable the creature to sneak upon its victims or to -escape the attention of its own enemies. - -If a narrow-beaked crab is cleaned artificially it will proceed to -clothe itself again, the habit has become instinctive; and it must be -admitted that while a particular crab prefers a particular kind of -seaweed for its dress, it will cover itself with unsuitable and even -conspicuous material, such as pieces of coloured cloth, if nothing -better is available. The disguise differs greatly, for one crab is -masked by a brightly coloured and unpalatable sponge densely packed -with flinty needles; another cuts off the tunic of a sea-squirt and -throws it over its shoulders; another trundles about a bivalve shell. -The facts recall the familiar case of the hermit-crab, which protects -its soft tail by tucking it into the empty shell of a periwinkle or a -whelk or some other sea-snail, and that case leads on to the elaboration -known as commensalism, where the hermit-crab fixes sea-anemones on the -back of its borrowed house. The advantage here is beyond that of -masking, for the sea-anemone can sting, which is a useful quality in a -partner. That this second advantage may become the main one is evident -in several cases where the sea-anemone is borne, just like a weapon, on -each of the crustacean's great claws. Moreover, as the term commensalism -(eating at the same table) suggests, the partnership is _mutually_ -beneficial. For the sea-anemone is carried about by the hermit-crab, and -it doubtless gets its share of crumbs from its partner's frequent meals. -There is a very interesting sidelight on the mutual benefit in the case -of a dislodged sea-anemone which sulked for a while and then waited in a -state of preparedness until a hermit-crab passed by and touched it. -Whereupon the sea-anemone gripped and slowly worked itself up on to the -back of the shell. - - -Sec. 6 - -Other Kinds of Elusiveness - -There are various kinds of disguise which are not readily classified. A -troop of cuttlefish swimming in the sea is a beautiful sight. They keep -time with one another in their movements and they show the same change -of colour almost at the same moment. They are suddenly attacked, -however, by a small shark, and then comes a simultaneous discharge of -sepia from their ink-bags. There are clouds of ink in the clear water, -for, as Professor Hickson puts it, the cuttlefishes have thrown dust in -the eyes of their enemies. One can see a newborn cuttlefish do this a -minute after it escapes from the egg. - -Very beautiful is the way in which many birds, like our common -chaffinch, disguise the outside of their nest with moss and lichen and -other trifles felted together, so that the cradle is as inconspicuous as -possible. There seems to be a touch of art in fastening pieces of -spider's web on the outside of a nest! - -How curious is the case of the tree-sloth of South American forests, -that walks slowly, back downwards, along the undersides of the branches, -hanging on by its long, curved fingers and toes. It is a nocturnal -animal, and therefore not in special danger, but when resting during the -day it is almost invisible because its shaggy hair is so like certain -lichens and other growths on the branches. But the protective -resemblance is enhanced by the presence of a green alga, which actually -lives on the surface of the sloth's hairs--an alga like the one that -makes tree-stems and gate-posts green in damp weather. - -There is no commoner sight in the early summer than the cuckoo-spit on -the grasses and herbage by the wayside. It is conspicuous and yet it is -said to be left severely alone by almost all creatures. In some way it -must be a disguise. It is a sort of soap made by the activity of small -frog-hoppers while they are still in the wingless larval stage, before -they begin to hop. The insect pierces with its sharp mouth-parts the -skin of the plant and sucks in sweet sap which by and by overflows over -its body. It works its body up and down many times, whipping in air, -which mixes with the sugary sap, reminding one of how "whipped egg" is -made. But along with the sugary sap and the air, there is a little -ferment from the food-canal and a little wax from glands on the skin, -and the four things mixed together make a kind of soap which lasts -through the heat of the day. - -There are many other modes of disguise besides those which we have been -able to illustrate. Indeed, the biggest fact is that there are so many, -for it brings us back to the idea that life is not an easy business. It -is true, as Walt Whitman says, that animals do not sweat and whine about -their condition; perhaps it is true, as he says, that not one is -unhappy over the whole earth. But there is another truth, that this -world is not a place for the unlit lamp and the ungirt loin, and that -when a creature has not armour or weapons or cleverness it must find -some path of safety or go back. One of these paths of safety is -disguise, and we have illustrated its evolution. - - - - -V - -THE ASCENT OF MAN - - - - -THE ASCENT OF MAN - - -Sec. 1 - -No one thinks less of Sir Isaac Newton because he was born as a very -puny infant, and no one should think less of the human race because it -sprang from a stock of arboreal mammals. There is no doubt as to man's -apartness from the rest of creation when he is seen at his best--"a -little lower than the angels, crowned with glory and honour." "What a -piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! in -form and moving how express and admirable! in action how like an angel! -in apprehension so like a God." Nevertheless, all the facts point to his -affiliation to the stock to which monkeys and apes also belong. Not, -indeed, that man is descended from any living ape or monkey; it is -rather that he and they have sprung from a common ancestry--are branches -of the same stem. This conclusion is so momentous that the reasons for -accepting it must be carefully considered. They were expounded with -masterly skill in Darwin's _Descent of Man_ in 1871--a book which was -but an expansion of a chapter in _The Origin of Species_ (1859). - - -Anatomical Proof of Man's Relationship with a Simian Stock - -The anatomical structure of man is closely similar to that of the -anthropoid apes--the gorilla, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gibbon. -Bone for bone, muscle for muscle, blood-vessel for blood-vessel, nerve -for nerve, man and ape agree. As the conservative anatomist, Sir -Richard Owen, said, there is between them "an all-pervading similitude -of structure." Differences, of course, there are, but they are not -momentous except man's big brain, which may be three times as heavy as -that of a gorilla. The average human brain weighs about 48 ounces; the -gorilla brain does not exceed 20 ounces at its best. The capacity of the -human skull is never less than 55 cubic inches; in the orang and the -chimpanzee the figures are 26 and 27-1/2 respectively. We are not -suggesting that the most distinctive features of man are such as can be -measured and weighed, but it is important to notice that the main seat -of his mental powers is physically far ahead of that of the highest of -the anthropoid apes. - -Man alone is thoroughly erect after his infancy is past; his head -weighted with the heavy brain does not droop forward as the ape's does; -with his erect attitude there is perhaps to be associated his more -highly developed vocal organs. Compared with an anthropoid ape, man has -a bigger and more upright forehead, a less protrusive face region, -smaller cheek-bones and eyebrow ridges, and more uniform teeth. He is -almost unique in having a chin. Man plants the sole of his foot flat on -the ground, his big toe is usually in a line with the other toes, and he -has a better heel than any monkey has. The change in the shape of the -head is to be thought of in connection with the enlargement of the -brain, and also in connection with the natural reduction of the muzzle -region when the hand was freed from being an organ of support and became -suited for grasping the food and conveying it to the mouth. - -Everyone is familiar in man's clothing with traces of the past -persisting in the present, though their use has long since disappeared. -There are buttons on the back of the waist of the morning coat to which -the tails of the coat used to be fastened up, and there are buttons, -occasionally with buttonholes, at the wrist which were once useful in -turning up the sleeve. The same is true of man's body, which is a -veritable museum of relics. Some anatomists have made out a list of -over a hundred of these _vestigial_ structures, and though this number -is perhaps too high, there is no doubt that the list is long. In the -inner upper corner of the eye there is a minute tag--but larger in some -races than in others--which is the last dwindling relic of the third -eyelid, used in cleaning the front of the eye, which most mammals -possess in a large and well-developed form. It can be easily seen, for -instance, in ox and rabbit. In man and in monkeys it has become a -useless vestige, and the dwindling must be associated with the fact that -the upper eyelid is much more mobile in man and monkeys than in the -other mammals. The vestigial third eyelid in man is enough of itself to -prove his relationship with the mammals, but it is only one example out -of many. Some of these are discussed in the article dealing with the -human body, but we may mention the vestigial muscles going to the -ear-trumpet, man's dwindling counterpart of the skin-twitching muscle -which we see a horse use when he jerks a fly off his flanks, and the -short tail which in the seven-weeks-old human embryo is actually longer -than the leg. Without committing ourselves to a belief in the entire -uselessness of the vermiform appendix, which grows out as a blind alley -at the junction of the small intestine with the large, we are safe in -saying that it is a dwindling structure--the remains of a blind gut -which must have been capacious and useful in ancestral forms. In some -mammals, like the rabbit, the blind gut is the bulkiest structure in the -body, and bears the vermiform appendix at its far end. In man the -appendix alone is left, and it tells its tale. It is interesting to -notice that it is usually longer in the orang than in man, and that it -is very variable, as dwindling structures tend to be. One of the -unpleasant expressions of this variability is the liability to go wrong: -hence appendicitis. Now these vestigial structures are, as Darwin said, -like the unsounded, i.e. functionless, letters in words, such as the _o_ -in "leopard," the _b_ in "doubt," the _g_ in "reign." They are of no -use, but they tell us something of the history of the words. So do man's -vestigial structures reveal his pedigree. They must have an historical -or evolutionary significance. No other interpretation is possible. - -[Illustration: _Photo: New York Zoological Park._ - -CHIMPANZEE, SITTING - -The head shows certain facial characteristics, e.g. the beetling eyebrow -ridges, which were marked in the Neanderthal race of men. Note the -shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: New York Zoological Park._ - -CHIMPANZEE, ILLUSTRATING WALKING POWERS - -Note the great length of the arms and the relative shortness of the -legs.] - -[Illustration: SURFACE VIEW OF THE BRAINS OF MAN (1) AND CHIMPANZEE (2) - -The human brain is much larger and heavier, more dome-like, and with -much more numerous and complicated convolutions.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: New York Zoological Park._ - -SIDE-VIEW OF CHIMPANZEE'S HEAD. - -(Compare with opposite picture.)] - -[Illustration: _After a model by J. H. McGregor._ - -PROFILE VIEW OF HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE MAN, RECONSTRUCTED -FROM THE SKULL-CAP.] - -[Illustration: THE FLIPPER OF A WHALE AND THE HAND OF A MAN - -In the bones and in their arrangement there is a close resemblance in -the two cases, yet the outcome is very different. The multiplication of -finger joints in the whale is a striking feature.] - -Some men, oftener than women, show on the inturned margin of the -ear-trumpet or pinna, a little conical projection of great interest. It -is a vestige of the tip of the pointed ear of lower mammals, and it is -well named _Darwin's point_. It was he who described it as a "surviving -symbol of the stirring times and dangerous days of man's animal youth." - - -Sec. 2 - -Physiological Proof of Man's Relationship with a Simian Stock - -The everyday functions of the human body are practically the same as -those of the anthropoid ape, and similar disorders are common to both. -Monkeys may be infected with certain microbes to which man is peculiarly -liable, such as the bacillus of tuberculosis. Darwin showed that various -human gestures and facial expressions have their counterparts in -monkeys. The sneering curl of the upper lip, which tends to expose the -canine tooth, is a case in point, though it may be seen in many other -mammals besides monkeys--in dogs, for instance, which are at some -considerable distance from the simian branch to which man's ancestors -belonged. - -When human blood is transfused into a dog or even a monkey, it behaves -in a hostile way to the other blood, bringing about a destruction of the -red blood corpuscles. But when it is transfused into a chimpanzee there -is an harmonious mingling of the two. This is a very literal -demonstration of man's blood-relationship with the higher apes. But -there is a finer form of the same experiment. When the blood-fluid (or -serum) of a rabbit, which has had human blood injected into it, is -mingled with human blood, it forms a cloudy precipitate. It forms almost -as marked a precipitate when it is mingled with the blood of an -anthropoid ape. But when it is mingled with the blood of an American -monkey there is only a slight clouding after a considerable time and -no actual precipitate. When it is added to the blood of one of the -distantly related "half-monkeys" or lemurs there is no reaction or only -a very weak one. With the blood of mammals off the simian line -altogether there is no reaction at all. Thus, as a distinguished -anthropologist, Professor Schwalbe, has said: "We have in this not only -a proof of the literal blood-relationship between man and apes, but the -degree of relationship with the different main groups of apes can be -determined beyond possibility of mistake." We can imagine how this -modern line of experiment would have delighted Darwin. - -[Illustration: THE GORILLA, INHABITING THE FOREST TRACT OF THE GABOON IN -AFRICA - -A full-grown individual stands about 5 feet high. The gait is shuffling, -the strength enormous, the diet mainly vegetarian, the temper rather -ferocious.] - - -Embryological Proof of Man's Relationship with a Simian Stock - -In his individual development, man does in some measure climb up his own -genealogical tree. Stages in the development of the body during its nine -months of ante-natal life are closely similar to stages in the -development of the anthropoid embryo. Babies born in times of famine or -siege are sometimes, as it were, imperfectly finished, and sometimes -have what may be described as monkeyish features and ways. A visit to an -institution for the care of children who show arrested, defective, or -disturbed development leaves one sadly impressed with the risk of -slipping down the rungs of the steep ladder of evolution; and even in -adults the occurrence of serious nervous disturbance, such as -"shell-shock," is sometimes marked by relapses to animal ways. It is a -familiar fact that a normal baby reveals the past in its surprising -power of grip, and the careful experiments of Dr. Louis Robinson showed -that an infant three weeks old could support its own weight for over two -minutes, holding on to a horizontal bar. "In many cases no sign of -distress is evinced and no cry uttered, until the grasp begins to give -way." This persistent grasp probably points back to the time when the -baby had to cling to its arboreal mother. The human tail is represented -in the adult by a fusion of four or five vertebrae forming the "coccyx" -at the end of the backbone, and is normally concealed beneath the -flesh, but in the embryo the tail projects freely and is movable. Up to -the sixth month of the ante-natal sleep the body is covered, all but the -palms and soles, with longish hair (the lanugo), which usually -disappears before birth. This is a stage in the normal development, -which is reasonably interpreted as a recapitulation of a stage in the -racial evolution. We draw this inference when we find that the unborn -offspring of an almost hairless whale has an abundant representation of -hairs; we must draw a similar inference in the case of man. - -It must be noticed that there are two serious errors in the careless -statement often made that man in his development is at one time like a -little fish, at a later stage like a little reptile, at a later stage -like a little primitive mammal, and eventually like a little monkey. The -first error here is that the comparison should be made with -_embryo_-fish, _embryo_-reptile, _embryo_-mammal, and so on. It is in -the making of the embryos that the great resemblance lies. When the -human embryo shows the laying down of the essential vertebrate -characters, such as brain and spinal cord, then it is closely comparable -to the embryo of a lower vertebrate at a similar stage. When, at a -subsequent stage, its heart, for instance, is about to become a -four-chambered mammalian heart, it is closely comparable to the heart -of, let us say, a turtle, which never becomes more than three-chambered. -The point is that in the making of the organs of the body, say brain and -kidneys, the embryo of man pursues a path closely corresponding to the -path followed by the embryos of other backboned animals lower in the -scale, but at successive stages it parts company with these, with the -lowest first and so on in succession. A human embryo is never like a -little reptile, but the developing organs pass through stages which very -closely resemble the corresponding stages in lower types which are in a -general way ancestral. - -The second error is that every kind of animal, man included, has from -the first a certain individuality, with peculiar characteristics which -are all its own. This is expressed by the somewhat difficult word -_specificity_, which just means that every species is itself and no -other. So in the development of the human embryo, while there are close -resemblances to the embryos of apes, monkeys, other mammals, and even, -at earlier stages still, to the embryos of reptile and fish, it has to -be admitted that we are dealing from first to last with a human embryo -with peculiarities of its own. - -[Illustration: "DARWIN'S POINT" ON HUMAN EAR (MARKED D.P.) - -It corresponds to the tip (T) of the ear of an ordinary mammal, as shown -in the hare's ear below. In the young orang the part corresponding to -Darwin's point is still at the tip of the ear.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. Russell & Sons._ - -PROFESSOR SIR ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. - -Conservator of the Museum and Hunterian Professor, Royal College of -Surgeons of England. One of the foremost living anthropologists and a -leading authority on the antiquity of man.] - -[Illustration: _After T. H. Huxley (by permission of Messrs. -Macmillan)._ - -SKELETONS OF THE GIBBON, ORANG, CHIMPANZEE, GORILLA, MAN - -Photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size (except that -of the gibbon, which was twice as large as nature) drawn by Mr. -Waterhouse Hawkins from specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of -Surgeons.] - -Every human being begins his or her life as a single cell--a fertilised -egg-cell, a treasure-house of all the ages. For in this living -microcosm, only a small fraction (1/125) of an inch in diameter, there -is condensed--who can imagine how?--all the natural inheritance of man, -all the legacy of his parentage, of his ancestry, of his long pre-human -pedigree. Darwin called the pinhead brain of the ant the most marvellous -atom of matter in the world, but the human ovum is more marvellous -still. It has more possibilities in it than any other thing, yet without -fertilisation it will die. The fertilised ovum divides and redivides; -there results a ball of cells and a sack of cells; gradually division of -labour becomes the rule; there is a laying down of nervous system and -food-canal, muscular system and skeleton, and so proceeds what is -learnedly called differentiation. Out of the apparently simple there -emerges the obviously complex. As Aristotle observed more than two -thousand years ago, in the developing egg of the hen there soon appears -the beating heart! There is nothing like this in the non-living world. -But to return to the developing human embryo, there is formed from and -above the embryonic food-canal a skeletal rod, which is called the -notochord. It thrills the imagination to learn that this is the only -supporting axis that the lower orders of the backboned race possess. The -curious thing is that it does not become the backbone, which is -certainly one of the essential features of the vertebrate race. The -notochord is the supporting axis of the pioneer backboned animals, -namely the Lancelets and the Round-mouths (Cyclostomes), such as the -Lamprey. They have no backbone in the strict sense, but they have this -notochord. It can easily be dissected out in the lamprey--a long gristly -rod. It is surrounded by a sheath which becomes the backbone of most -fishes and of all higher animals. The interesting point is that although -the notochord is only a vestige in the adults of these types, it is -never absent from the embryo. It occurs even in man, a short-lived relic -of the primeval supporting axis of the body. It comes and then it goes, -leaving only minute traces in the adult. We cannot say that it is of any -use, unless it serves as a stimulus to the development of its -substitute, the backbone. It is only a piece of preliminary scaffolding, -but there is no more eloquent instance of the living hand of the past. - -One other instance must suffice of what Professor Lull calls the -wonderful changes wrought in the dark of the ante-natal period, which -recapitulate in rapid abbreviation the great evolutionary steps which -were taken by man's ancestors "during the long night of the geological -past." On the sides of the neck of the human embryo there are four pairs -of slits, the "visceral clefts," openings from the beginning of the -food-canals to the surface. There is no doubt as to their significance. -They correspond to the gill-slits of fishes and tadpoles. Yet in -reptiles, birds, and mammals they have no connection with breathing, -which is their function in fishes and amphibians. Indeed, they are not -of any use at all, except that the first becomes the Eustachian tube -bringing the ear-passage into connection with the back of the mouth, and -that the second and third have to do with the development of a curious -organ called the thymus gland. Persistent, nevertheless, these -gill-slits are, recalling even in man an aquatic ancestry of many -millions of years ago. - -When all these lines of evidence are considered, they are seen to -converge in the conclusion that man is derived from a simian stock of -mammals. He is solidary with the rest of creation. To quote the closing -words of Darwin's _Descent of Man_: - - We must, however, acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all - his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, - with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the - humblest living creature, with his God-like intellect, which has - penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar - system--with all these exalted powers--man still bears in his bodily - frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin. - -We should be clear that this view does not say more than that man sprang -from a stock common to him and to the higher apes. Those who are -repelled by the idea of man's derivation from a simian type should -remember that the theory implies rather more than this, namely, that man -is the outcome of a genealogy which has implied many millions of years -of experimenting and sifting--the groaning and travailing of a whole -creation. Speaking of man's mental qualities, Sir Ray Lankester says: -"They justify the view that man forms a new departure in the gradual -unfolding of Nature's predestined plan." In any case, we have to try to -square our views with the facts, not the facts with our views, and while -one of the facts is that man stands unique and apart, the other is that -man is a scion of a progressive simian stock. Naturalists have exposed -the pit whence man has been digged and the rock whence he has been hewn, -but it is surely a heartening encouragement to know that it is an -ascent, not a descent, that we have behind us. There is wisdom in -Pascal's maxim: - - It is dangerous to show man too plainly how like he is to the - animals, without, at the same time, reminding him of his greatness. - It is equally unwise to impress him with his greatness and not with - his lowliness. It is worse to leave him in ignorance of both. But it - is very profitable to recognise the two facts. - - -Sec. 3 - -Man's Pedigree - -The facts of anatomy, physiology, and embryology, of which we have given -illustrations, all point to man's affiliation with the order of monkeys -and apes. To this order is given the name Primates, and our first and -second question must be when and whence the Primates began. The rock -record answers the first question: the Primates emerged about the dawn -of the Eocene era, when grass was beginning to cover the earth with a -garment. Their ancestral home was in the north in both hemispheres, and -then they migrated to Africa, India, Malay, and South America. In North -America the Primates soon became extinct, and the same thing happened -later on in Europe. In this case, however, there was a repeopling from -the South (in the Lower Miocene) and then a second extinction (in the -Upper Pliocene) before man appeared. There is considerable evidence in -support of Professor R. S. Lull's conclusion, that in Southern Asia, -Africa, and South America the evolution of Primates was continuous since -the first great southward migration, and there is, of course, an -abundant modern representation of Primates in these regions to-day. - -As to the second question: Whence the Primates sprang, the answer must -be more conjectural. But it is a reasonable view that Carnivores and -Primates sprang from a common Insectivore stock, the one order diverging -towards flesh-eating and hunting on the ground, the other order -diverging towards fruit-eating and arboreal habits. There is no doubt -that the Insectivores (including shrews, tree-shrews, hedgehog, mole, -and the like) were very plastic and progressive mammals. - -What followed in the course of ages was the divergence of branch after -branch from the main Primate stem. First there diverged the South -American monkeys on a line of their own, and then the Old World monkeys, -such as the macaques and baboons. Ages passed and the main stems gave -off (in the Oligocene period) the branch now represented by the small -anthropoid apes--the gibbon and the siamang. Distinctly later there -diverged the branch of the large anthropoid apes--the gorilla, the -chimpanzee, and the orang. That left a generalised humanoid stock -separated off from all monkeys and apes, and including the immediate -precursors of man. When this sifting out of a generalised humanoid stock -took place remains very uncertain, some authorities referring it to the -Miocene, others to the early Pliocene. Some would estimate its date at -half a million years ago, others at two millions! The fact is that -questions of chronology do not as yet admit of scientific statement. - -[Illustration: SIDE-VIEW OF SKULL OF MAN (M) AND GORILLA (G) - -Notice in the gorilla's skull the protrusive face region, the big -eyebrow ridges, the much less domed cranial cavity, the massive lower -jaw, the big canine teeth. Notice in man's skull the well-developed -forehead, the domed and spacious cranial cavity, the absence of any -snout, the chin process, and many other marked differences separating -the human skull from the ape's.] - -[Illustration: THE SKULL AND BRAIN-CASE OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA -APE-MAN, AS RESTORED. BY J. H. McGREGOR FROM THE SCANTY REMAINS - -The restoration shows the low, retreating forehead and the prominent -eyebrow ridges.] - -[Illustration: SUGGESTED GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MAN AND ANTHROPOID APES - -From Sir Arthur Keith; the lettering to the right has been slightly -simplified.] - -We are on firmer, though still uncertain, ground when we state the -probability that it was in Asia that the precursors of man were -separated off from monkeys and apes, and began to be terrestrial rather -than arboreal. Professor Lull points out that Asia is nearest to the -oldest known human remains (in Java), and that Asia was the seat of the -most ancient civilisations and the original home of many domesticated -animals and cultivated plants. The probability is that the cradle of the -human race was in Asia. - - -Man's Arboreal Apprenticeship - -At this point it will be useful to consider man's arboreal -apprenticeship and how he became a terrestrial journeyman. Professor -Wood Jones has worked out very convincingly the thesis that man had no -direct four-footed ancestry, but that the Primate stock to which he -belongs was from its first divergence arboreal. He maintains that the -leading peculiarities of the immediate precursors of man were wrought -out during a long arboreal apprenticeship. The first great gain of -arboreal life on bipedal erect lines (not after the quadrupedal fashion -of tree-sloths, for instance) was the emancipation of the hand. The -foot became the supporting and branch-gripping member, and the hand was -set free to reach upward, to hang on by, to seize the fruit, to lift it -and hold it to the mouth, and to hug the young one close to the breast. -The hand thus set free has remained plastic--a generalised, not a -specialised member. Much has followed from man's "handiness." - -The arboreal life had many other consequences. It led to an increased -freedom of movement of the thigh on the hip joint, to muscular -arrangements for balancing the body on the leg, to making the backbone a -supple yet stable curved pillar, to a strongly developed collar-bone -which is only found well-formed when the fore-limb is used for more than -support, and to a power of "opposing" the thumb and the big toe to the -other digits of the hand and foot--an obvious advantage for -branch-gripping. But the evolution of a free hand made it possible to -dispense with protrusive lips and gripping teeth. Thus began the -recession of the snout region, the associated enlargement of the -brain-box, and the bringing of the eyes to the front. The overcrowding -of the teeth that followed the shortening of the snout was one of the -taxes on progress of which modern man is often reminded in his dental -troubles. - -Another acquisition associated with arboreal life was a greatly -increased power of turning the head from side to side--a mobility very -important in locating sounds and in exploring with the eyes. -Furthermore, there came about a flattening of the chest and of the back, -and the movements of the midriff (or diaphragm) came to count for more -in respiration than the movements of the ribs. The sense of touch came -to be of more importance and the sense of smell of less; the part of the -brain receiving tidings from hand and eye and ear came to predominate -over the part for receiving olfactory messages. Finally, the need for -carrying the infant about among the branches must surely have implied an -intensification of family relations, and favoured the evolution of -gentleness. - -[Illustration: _Photo: New York Zoological Park._ - -THE GIBBON IS LOWER THAN THE OTHER APES AS REGARDS ITS SKULL AND -DENTITION, BUT IT IS HIGHLY SPECIALIZED IN THE ADAPTATION OF ITS LIMBS -TO ARBOREAL LIFE] - -[Illustration: _Photo: New York Zoological Park._ - -THE ORANG HAS A HIGH ROUNDED SKULL AND A LONG FACE] - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum (Natural History)._ - -COMPARISONS OF THE SKELETONS OF HORSE AND MAN - -Bone for bone, the two skeletons are like one another, though man is a -biped and the horse a quadruped. The backbone in man is mainly vertical; -the backbone in the horse is horizontal except in the neck and the tail. -Man's skull is mainly in a line with the backbone; the horse's at an -angle to it. Both man and horse have seven neck vertebrae. Man has five -digits on each limb; the horse has only one digit well developed on each -limb.] - -It may be urged that we are attaching too much importance to the -arboreal apprenticeship, since many tree-loving animals remain to-day -very innocent creatures. To this reasonable objection there are two -answers, first that in its many acquisitions the arboreal evolution of -the _humanoid_ precursors of man prepared the way for the survival of a -_human_ type marked by a great step in brain-development; and second -that the passage from the humanoid to the human was probably associated -with _a return to mother earth_. - -According to Professor Lull, to whose fine textbook, _Organic Evolution_ -(1917), we are much indebted, "climatic conditions in Asia in the -Miocene or early Pliocene were such as to compel the descent of the -pre-human ancestor from the trees, a step which was absolutely essential -to further human development." Continental elevation and consequent -aridity led to a dwindling of the forests, and forced the ape-man to -come to earth. "And at the last arose the man." - -According to Lull, the descent from the trees was associated with the -assumption of a more erect posture, with increased liberation and -plasticity of the hand, with becoming a hunter, with experiments towards -clothing and shelter, with an exploring habit, and with the beginning of -communal life. - -It is a plausible view that the transition from the humanoid to the -human was effected by a discontinuous variation of considerable -magnitude, what is nowadays called a _mutation_, and that it had mainly -to do with the brain and the vocal organs. But given the gains of the -arboreal apprenticeship, the stimulus of an enforced descent to terra -firma, and an evolving brain and voice, we can recognise accessory -factors which helped success to succeed. Perhaps the absence of great -physical strength prompted reliance on wits; the prolongation of infancy -would help to educate the parents in gentleness; the strengthening of -the feeling of kinship would favour the evolution of family and social -life--of which there are many anticipations at lower levels. There is -much truth in the saying: "Man did not make society, society made man." - -A continuation of the story will deal with the emergence of the -primitive types of man and the gradual ascent of the modern species. - - -Sec. 4 - -Tentative Men - -So far the story has been that of the sifting out of a humanoid stock -and of the transition to human kind, from the ancestors of apes and men -to the man-ape, and from the man-ape to man. It looks as if the -sifting-out process had proceeded further, for there were several human -branches that did not lead on to the modern type of man. - -1. The first of these is represented by the scanty fossil remains known -as _Pithecanthropus erectus_, found in Java in fossiliferous beds which -date from the end of the Pliocene or the beginning of the Pleistocene -era. Perhaps this means half a million years ago, and the remains -occurred along with those of some mammals which are now extinct. -Unfortunately the remains of Pithecanthropus the Erect consisted only of -a skull-cap, a thigh-bone, and two back teeth, so it is not surprising -that experts should differ considerably in their interpretation of what -was found. Some have regarded the remains as those of a large gibbon, -others as those of a pre-human ape-man, and others as those of a -primitive man off the main line of ascent. According to Sir Arthur -Keith, Pithecanthropus was "a being human in stature, human in gait, -human in all its parts, save its brain." The thigh-bone indicates a -height of about 5 feet 7 inches, one inch less than the average height -of the men of to-day. The skull-cap indicates a low, flat forehead, -beetling brows, and a capacity about two-thirds of the modern size. The -remains were found by Dubois, in 1894, in Trinil in Central Java. - -2. The next offshoot is represented by the Heidelberg man (_Homo -heidelbergensis_), discovered near Heidelberg in 1907 by Dr. -Schoetensack. But the remains consisted only of a lower jaw and its -teeth. Along with this relic were bones of various mammals, including -some long since extinct in Europe, such as elephant, rhinoceros, bison, -and lion. The circumstances indicate an age of perhaps 300,000 years -ago. There were also very crude flint implements (or eoliths). But the -teeth are human teeth, and the jaw seems transitional between that of an -anthropoid ape and that of man. Thus there was no chin. According to -most authorities the lower jaw from the Heidelberg sand-pit must be -regarded as a relic of a primitive type off the main line of human -ascent. - -[Illustration: A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE JAVA MAN - -(_Pithecanthropus erectus._)] - -3. It was in all probability in the Pliocene that there took origin the -Neanderthal species of man, _Homo neanderthalensis_, first known from -remains found in 1856 in the Neanderthal ravine near Duesseldorf. -According to some authorities Neanderthal man was living in Europe a -quarter of a million years ago. Other specimens were afterwards found -elsewhere, e.g. in Belgium ("the men of Spy"), in France, in Croatia, -and at Gibraltar, so that a good deal is known of Neanderthal man. He -was a loose-limbed fellow, short of stature and of slouching gait, but a -skilful artificer, fashioning beautifully worked flints with a -characteristic style. He used fire; he buried his dead reverently and -furnished them with an outfit for a long journey; and he had a big -brain. But he had great beetling, ape-like eyebrow ridges and massive -jaws, and he showed "simian characters swarming in the details of his -structure." In most of the points in which he differs from modern man he -approaches the anthropoid apes, and he must be regarded as a low type of -man off the main line. Huxley regarded the Neanderthal man as a low form -of the modern type, but expert opinion seems to agree rather with the -view maintained in 1864 by Professor William King of Galway, that the -Neanderthal man represents a distinct species off the main line of -ascent. He disappeared with apparent suddenness (like some aboriginal -races to-day) about the end of the Fourth Great Ice Age; but there is -evidence that before he ceased to be there had emerged a successor -rather than a descendant--the modern man. - -4. Another offshoot from the main line is probably represented by the -Piltdown man, found in Sussex in 1912. The remains consisted of the -walls of the skull, which indicate a large brain, and a high forehead -without the beetling eyebrows of the Neanderthal man and -Pithecanthropus. The "find" included a tooth and part of a lower jaw, -but these perhaps belong to some ape, for they are very discrepant. The -Piltdown skull represents the most ancient human remains as yet found in -Britain, and Dr. Smith Woodward's establishment of a separate genus -Eoanthropus expresses his conviction that the Piltdown man was off the -line of the evolution of the modern type. If the tooth and piece of -lower jaw belong to the Piltdown skull, then there was a remarkable -combination of ape-like and human characters. As regards the brain, -_inferred_ from the skull-walls, Sir Arthur Keith says: - - All the essential features of the brain of modern man are to be seen - in the brain cast. There are some which must be regarded as - primitive. There can be no doubt that it is built on exactly the - same lines as our modern brains. A few minor alterations would make - it in all respects a modern brain.... Although our knowledge of the - human brain is limited--there are large areas to which we can assign - no definite function--we may rest assured that a brain which was - shaped in a mould so similar to our own was one which responded to - the outside world as ours does. Piltdown man saw, heard, felt, - thought, and dreamt much as we do still. - -And this was 150,000 years ago at a modern estimate, and some would say -half a million. - -There is neither agreement nor certainty as to the antiquity of man, -except that the modern type was distinguishable from its collaterals -hundreds of thousands of years ago. The general impression left is very -grand. In remote antiquity the Primate stem diverged from the other -orders of mammals; it sent forth its tentative branches, and the result -was a tangle of monkeys; ages passed and the monkeys were left behind, -while the main stem, still probing its way, gave off the Anthropoid -apes, both small and large. But they too were left behind, and the main -line gave off other experiments--indications of which we know in Java, -at Heidelberg, in the Neanderthal, and at Piltdown. None of these lasted -or was made perfect. They represent _tentative_ men who had their day -and ceased to be, our predecessors rather than our ancestors. Still, the -main stem goes on evolving, and who will be bold enough to say what -fruit it has yet to bear! - -[Illustration: _After a model by J. H. McGregor._ - -PROFILE VIEW OF THE HEAD OF PITHECANTHROPUS, THE JAVA APE-MAN--AN EARLY -OFFSHOOT FROM THE MAIN LINE OF MAN'S ASCENT - -The animal remains found along with the skull-cap, thigh-bone, and two -teeth of Pithecanthropus seem to indicate the lowest Pleistocene period, -perhaps 500,000 years ago.] - -[Illustration: _From the reconstruction by J. H. McGregor._ - -PILTDOWN SKULL. THE DARK PARTS ONLY ARE PRESERVED, NAMELY PORTIONS OF -THE CRANIAL WALLS AND THE NASAL BONES - -Some authorities include a canine tooth and part of the lower jaw which -were found close by. The remains were found in 1912 in Thames gravels in -Sussex, and are usually regarded as vastly more ancient than those of -Neanderthal Man. It has been suggested that Piltdown Man lived 100,000 -to 150,000 years ago, in the Third Interglacial period.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission from Osborn's "Men of the Old -Stone Age."_ - -SAND-PIT AT MAUER, NEAR HEIDELBERG: DISCOVERY SITE OF THE JAW OF -HEIDELBERG MAN - - _a-b._ "Newer loess," either of Third Interglacial or of Postglacial - times. - _b-c._ "Older loess" (sandy loess), of the close of Second Interglacial - times. - _c-f._ The "sands of Mauer." - _d-e._ An intermediate layer of clay. - -The white cross (X) indicates the spot at the base of the "sands of -Mauer" at which the jaw of Heidelberg was discovered.] - - -Primitive Men - -Ancient skeletons of men of the modern type have been found in many -places, e.g. Combe Capelle in Dordogne, Galley Hill in Kent, Cro-Magnon -in Perigord, Mentone on the Riviera; and they are often referred to as -"Cave-men" or "men of the Early Stone Age." They had large skulls, high -foreheads, well-marked chins, and other features such as modern man -possesses. They were true men at last--that is to say, like ourselves! -The spirited pictures they made on the walls of caves in France and -Spain show artistic sense and skill. Well-finished statuettes -representing nude female figures are also known. The elaborate burial -customs point to a belief in life after death. They made stone -implements--knives, scrapers, gravers, and the like, of the type known -as Palaeolithic, and these show interesting gradations of skill and -peculiarities of style. The "Cave-men" lived between the third and -fourth Ice Ages, along with cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-hyaena, mammoth, -woolly rhinoceros, Irish elk, and other mammals now extinct--taking us -back to 30,000-50,000 years ago, and many would say much more. Some of -the big-brained skulls of these Palaeolithic cave-men show not a single -feature that could be called primitive. They show teeth which in size -and form are exactly the same as those of a thousand generations -afterwards--and suffering from gumboil too! There seems little doubt -that these vigorous Palaeolithic Cave-men of Europe were living for a -while contemporaneously with the men of Neanderthal, and it is possible -that they directly or indirectly hastened the disappearance of their -more primitive collaterals. Curiously enough, however, they had not -themselves adequate lasting power in Europe, for they seem for the most -part to have dwindled away, leaving perhaps stray present-day survivors -in isolated districts. The probability is that after their decline -Europe was repeopled by immigrants from Asia. It cannot be said that -there is any inherent biological necessity for the decline of a vigorous -race--many animal races go back for millions of years--but in mankind -the historical fact is that a period of great racial vigour and success -is often followed by a period of decline, sometimes leading to practical -disappearance as a definite race. The causes of this waning remain very -obscure--sometimes environmental, sometimes constitutional, sometimes -competitive. Sometimes the introduction of a new parasite, like the -malaria organism, may have been to blame. - -After the Ice Ages had passed, perhaps 25,000 years ago, the Palaeolithic -culture gave place to the Neolithic. The men who made rudely dressed but -often beautiful stone implements were succeeded or replaced by men who -made polished stone implements. The earliest inhabitants of Scotland -were of this Neolithic culture, migrating from the Continent when the -ice-fields of the Great Glaciation had disappeared. Their remains are -often associated with the "Fifty-foot Beach" which, though now high and -dry, was the seashore in early Neolithic days. Much is known about these -men of the polished stones. They were hunters, fowlers, and fishermen; -without domesticated animals or agriculture; short folk, two or three -inches below the present standard; living an active strenuous life. -Similarly, for the south, Sir Arthur Keith pictures for us a Neolithic -community at Coldrum in Kent, dating from about 4,000 years ago--a few -ticks of the geological clock. It consisted, in this case, of -agricultural pioneers, men with large heads and big brains, about two -inches shorter in stature than the modern British average (5 ft. 8 in.), -with better teeth and broader palates than men have in these days of -soft food, with beliefs concerning life and death similar to those that -swayed their contemporaries in Western and Southern Europe. Very -interesting is the manipulative skill they showed on a large scale in -erecting standing stones (probably connected with calendar-keeping and -with worship), and on a small scale in making daring operations on the -skull. Four thousand years ago is given as a probable date for that -early community in Kent, but evidences of Neolithic man occur in -situations which demand a much greater antiquity--perhaps 30,000 years. -And man was not young then! - -[Illustration: PAINTINGS ON THE ROOF OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE IN NORTHERN -SPAIN, SHOWING A BISON ABOVE AND A GALLOPING BOAR BELOW - -The artistic drawings, over 2 feet in length, were made by the Reindeer -Men or "Cromagnards" in the time of the Upper or Post-Glacial -Pleistocene, before the appearance of the Neolithic men.] - -We must open one more chapter in the thrilling story of the Ascent of -Man--the Metal Ages, which are in a sense still continuing. Metals began -to be used in the late Polished Stone (Neolithic) times, for there were -always overlappings. Copper came first, Bronze second, and Iron last. -The working of copper in the East has been traced back to the fourth -millennium B.C., and there was also a very ancient Copper Age in the New -World. It need hardly be said that where copper is scarce, as in -Britain, we cannot expect to find much trace of a Copper Age. - -The ores of different metals seem to have been smelted together in an -experimental way by many prehistoric metallurgists, and bronze was the -alloy that rewarded the combination of tin with copper. There is -evidence of a more or less definite Bronze Age in Egypt and Babylonia, -Greece and Europe. - -It is not clear why iron should not have been the earliest metal to be -used by man, but the Iron Age dates from about the middle of the second -millennium B.C. From Egypt the usage spread through the Mediterranean -region to North Europe, or it may have been that discoveries made in -Central Europe, so rich in iron-mines, saturated southwards, following -for instance, the route of the amber trade from the Baltic. Compared -with stone, the metals afforded much greater possibilities of -implements, instruments, and weapons, and their discovery and usage had -undoubtedly great influence on the Ascent of Man. Occasionally, however, -on his descent. - - -Retrospect - -Looking backwards, we discern the following stages: (1) The setting -apart of a Primate stock, marked off from other mammals by a tendency to -big brains, a free hand, gregariousness, and good-humoured -talkativeness. (2) The divergence of marmosets and New World monkeys and -Old World monkeys, leaving a stock--an anthropoid stock--common to the -present-day and extinct apes and to mankind. (3) From this common stock -the Anthropoid apes diverged, far from ignoble creatures, and a humanoid -stock was set apart. (4) From the latter (we follow Sir Arthur Keith and -other authorities) there arose what may be called, without -disparagement, tentative or experimental men, indicated by -Pithecanthropus "the Erect," the Heidelberg man, the Neanderthalers, -and, best of all, the early men of the Sussex Weald--hinted at by the -Piltdown skull. It matters little whether particular items are -corroborated or disproved--e.g. whether the Heidelberg man came before -or after the Neanderthalers--the general trend of evolution remains -clear. (5) In any case, the result was the evolution of _Homo sapiens, -the man we are_--a quite different fellow from the Neanderthaler. (6) -Then arose various stocks of primitive men, proving everything and -holding fast to that which is good. There were the Palaeolithic peoples, -with rude stone implements, a strong vigorous race, but probably, in -most cases, supplanted by fresh experiments. These may have arisen as -shoots from the growing point of the old race, or as a fresh offshoot -from more generalised members at a lower level. This is the eternal -possible victory alike of aristocracy and democracy. (7) Palaeolithic men -were involved in the succession of four Great Ice Ages or -Glaciations, and it may be that the human race owes much to the -alternation of hard times and easy times--glacial and interglacial. When -the ice-fields cleared off Neolithic man had his innings. (8) And we -have closed the story, in the meantime, with the Metal Ages. - -[Illustration: _After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor._ - -PILTDOWN MAN, PRECEDING NEANDERTHAL MAN, PERHAPS 100,000 TO 150,000 -YEARS AGO] - -[Illustration: _After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor._ - -THE NEANDERTHAL MAN OF LA CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS - -The men of this race lived in Europe from the Third Interglacial period -through the Fourth Glacial. They disappeared somewhat suddenly, being -replaced by the Modern Man type, such as the Cromagnards. Many regard -the Neanderthal Men as a distinct species.] - -It seems not unfitting that we should at this point sound another -note--that of the man of feeling. It is clear in William James's words: - - Bone of our bone, and flesh of our flesh, are these half-brutish - prehistoric brothers. Girdled about with the immense darkness of - this mysterious universe even as we are, they were born and died, - suffered and struggled. Given over to fearful crime and passion, - plunged in the blackest ignorance, preyed upon by hideous and - grotesque delusions, yet steadfastly serving the profoundest of - ideals in their fixed faith that existence in any form is better - than non-existence, they ever rescued triumphantly from the jaws of - ever imminent destruction the torch of life which, thanks to them, - now lights the world for us. - - -Races of Mankind - -Given a variable stock spreading over diverse territory, we expect to -find it splitting up into varieties which may become steadied into races -or incipient species. Thus we have races of hive-bees, "Italians," -"Punics," and so forth; and thus there arose races of men. Certain types -suited certain areas, and periods of in-breeding tended to make the -distinctive peculiarities of each incipient race well-defined and -stable. When the original peculiarities, say, of negro and Mongol, -Australian and Caucasian, arose as brusque variations or "mutations," -then they would have great staying power from generation to generation. -They would not be readily swamped by intercrossing or averaged off. -Peculiarities and changes of climate and surroundings, not to speak of -other change-producing factors, would provoke new departures from age to -age, and so fresh racial ventures were made. Moreover, the occurrence -of out-breeding when two races met, in peace or in war, would certainly -serve to induce fresh starts. Very important in the evolution of human -races must have been the alternating occurrence of periods of -in-breeding (endogamy), tending to stability and sameness, and periods -of out-breeding (exogamy), tending to changefulness and diversity. - -Thus we may distinguish several more or less clearly defined primitive -races of mankind--notably the African, the Australian, the Mongolian, -and the Caucasian. The woolly-haired African race includes the negroes -and the very primitive bushmen. The wavy-to curly-haired Australian race -includes the Jungle Tribes of the Deccan, the Vedda of Ceylon, the -Jungle Folk or Semang, and the natives of unsettled parts of -Australia--all sometimes slumped together as "Pre-Dravidians." The -straight-haired Mongols include those of Tibet, Indo-China, China, and -Formosa, those of many oceanic islands, and of the north from Japan to -Lapland. The Caucasians include Mediterraneans, Semites, Nordics, -Afghans, Alpines, and many more. - -There are very few corners of knowledge more difficult than that of the -Races of Men, the chief reason being that there has been so much -movement and migration in the course of the ages. One physical type has -mingled with another, inducing strange amalgams and novelties. If we -start with what might be called "zoological" races or strains differing, -for instance, in their hair (woolly-haired Africans, straight-haired -Mongols, curly-or wavy-haired Pre-Dravidians and Caucasians), we find -these replaced by _peoples_ who are mixtures of various races, "brethren -by civilisation more than by blood." As Professor Flinders Petrie has -said, the only meaning the term "race" now can have is that of a group -of human beings whose type has been unified by their rate of -assimilation exceeding the rate of change produced by the infiltration -of foreign elements. It is probable, however, that the progress of -precise anthropology will make it possible to distinguish the various -racial "strains" that make up any people. For the human sense of race -is so strong that it convinces us of reality even when scientific -definition is impossible. It was this the British sailor expressed in -his answer to the question "What is a Dago?" "Dagoes," he replied, "is -anything wot isn't our sort of chaps." - -[Illustration: RESTORATION BY A. FORESTIER OF THE RHODESIAN MAN WHOSE -SKULL WAS DISCOVERED IN 1921 - -Attention may be drawn to the beetling eyebrow ridges, the projecting -upper lip, the large eye-sockets, the well-poised head, the strong -shoulders. - -The squatting figure is crushing seeds with a stone, and a crusher is -lying on the rock to his right.] - -[Illustration: RESTORATION BY A. FORESTIER OF THE RHODESIAN MAN WHOSE -SKULL WAS DISCOVERED IN 1921 - -The figure in the foreground, holding a staff, shows the erect attitude -and the straight legs. His left hand holds a flint implement. - -On the left, behind the sitting figure, is seen the entrance to the -cave. This new Rhodesian cave-man may be regarded as a southern -representative of a Neanderthal race, or as an extinct type intermediate -between the Neanderthal Men and the Modern Man type.] - - -Steps in Human Evolution - -Real men arose, we believe, by variational uplifts of considerable -magnitude which led to big and complex brains and to the power of -reasoned discourse. In some other lines of mammalian evolution there -were from time to time great advances in the size and complexity of the -brain, as is clear, for instance, in the case of horses and elephants. -The same is true of birds as compared with reptiles, and everyone -recognises the high level of excellence that has been attained by their -vocal powers. How these great cerebral advances came about we do not -know, but it has been one of the main trends of animal evolution to -improve the nervous system. Two suggestions may be made. First, the -prolongation of the period of ante-natal life, in intimate physiological -partnership with the mother, may have made it practicable to start the -higher mammal with a much better brain than in the lower orders, like -Insectivores and Rodents, and still more Marsupials, where the period -before birth (gestation) is short. Second, we know that the individual -development of the brain is profoundly influenced by the internal -secretions of certain ductless glands notably the thyroid. When this -organ is not functioning properly the child's brain development is -arrested. It may be that increased production of certain -hormones--itself, of course, to be accounted for--may have stimulated -brain development in man's remote ancestors. - -Given variability along the line of better brains and given a process of -discriminate sifting which would consistently offer rewards to alertness -and foresight, to kin-sympathy and parental care, there seems no great -difficulty in imagining how Man would evolve. We must not think of an -Aristotle or a Newton except as fine results which justify all the -groaning and travailing; we must think of average men, of primitive -peoples to-day, and of our forbears long ago. We must remember how much -of man's advance is dependent on the external registration of the social -heritage, not on the slowly changing natural inheritance. - -Looking backwards it is impossible, we think, to fail to recognise -progress. There is a ring of truth in the fine description AEschylus gave -of primitive men that-- - - first, beholding they beheld in vain, and, hearing, heard not, but, - like shapes in dreams, mixed all things wildly down the tedious - time, nor knew to build a house against the sun with wicketed sides, - nor any woodwork knew, but lived like silly ants, beneath the - ground, in hollow caves unsunned. There came to them no steadfast - sign of winter, nor of spring flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of - fruit, but blindly and lawlessly they did all things. - -Contrast this picture with the position of man to-day. He has mastered -the forces of Nature and is learning to use their resources more and -more economically; he has harnessed electricity to his chariot and he -has made the ether carry his messages. He tapped supplies of material -which seemed for centuries unavailable, having learned, for instance, -how to capture and utilise the free nitrogen of the air. With his -telegraph and "wireless" he has annihilated distance, and he has added -to his navigable kingdom the depths of the sea and the heights of the -air. He has conquered one disease after another, and the young science -of heredity is showing him how to control in his domesticated animals -and cultivated plants the nature of the generations yet unborn. With all -his faults he has his ethical face set in the right direction. The main -line of movement is towards the fuller embodiment of the true, the -beautiful, and the good in healthy lives which are increasingly a -satisfaction in themselves. - -[Illustration: _Photo: British Museum (Natural History)._ - -SIDE-VIEW OF A PREHISTORIC HUMAN SKULL DISCOVERED IN 1921 IN BROKEN HILL -CAVE, NORTHERN RHODESIA - -Very striking are the prominent eyebrow ridges and the broad massive -face. The skull looks less domed than that of modern man, but its -cranial capacity is far above the lowest human limit. The teeth are -interesting in showing marked rotting or "caries," hitherto unknown in -prehistoric skulls. In all probability the Rhodesian man was an African -representative of the extinct Neanderthal species hitherto known only -from Europe.] - -[Illustration: _After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor._ - -A CROMAGNON MAN OR CROMAGNARD, REPRESENTATIVE OF A STRONG ARTISTIC RACE -LIVING IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE IN THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE, PERHAPS 25,000 -YEARS AGO - -They seemed to have lived for a while contemporaneously with the -Neanderthal Men, and there may have been interbreeding. Some Cromagnards -probably survive, but the race as a whole declined, and there was -repopulation of Europe from the East.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission from Osborn's "Men of the Old -Stone Age."_ - -PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING A NARROW PASSAGE IN THE CAVERN OF FONT-DE-GAUME ON -THE BEUNE - -Throughout the cavern the walls are crowded with engravings; on the left -wall, shown in the photograph, are two painted bison. In the great -gallery there may be found not less than eighty figures--bison, -reindeer, and mammoths. A specimen of the last is reproduced below.] - -[Illustration: A MAMMOTH DRAWN ON THE WALL OF THE FONT-DE-GAUME CAVERN - -The mammoth age was in the Middle Pleistocene, while Neanderthal Men -still flourished, probably far over 30,000 years ago.] - -[Illustration: A GRAZING BISON, DELICATELY AND CAREFULLY DRAWN, ENGRAVED -ON A WALL OF THE ALTAMIRA CAVE, NORTHERN SPAIN - -This was the work of a Reindeer Man or Cromagnard, in the Upper or -Post-Glacial Pleistocene, perhaps 25,000 years ago. Firelight must have -been used in making these cave drawings and engravings.] - - -Factors in Human Progress - -Many, we believe, were the gains that rewarded the arboreal -apprenticeship of man's ancestors. Many, likewise, were the results of -leaving the trees and coming down to the solid earth--a transition which -marked the emergence of more than tentative men. What great steps -followed? - -Some of the greatest were--the working out of a spoken language and of -external methods of registration; the invention of tools; the discovery -of the use of fire; the utilisation of iron and other metals; the taming -of wild animals such as dog and sheep, horses and cattle; the -cultivation of wild plants such as wheat and rice; and the irrigation of -fields. All through the ages necessity has been the mother of invention -and curiosity its father; but perhaps we miss the heart of the matter if -we forget the importance of some leisure time--wherein to observe and -think. If our earth had been so clouded that the stars were hidden from -men's eyes the whole history of our race would have been different. For -it was through his leisure-time observations of the stars that early man -discovered the regularity of the year and got his fundamental -impressions of the order of Nature--on which all his science is founded. - -If we are to think clearly of the factors of human progress we must -recall the three great biological ideas--the living organism, its -environment, and its functioning. For man these mean (1) the living -creature, the outcome of parents and ancestors, a fresh expression of a -bodily and mental inheritance; (2) the surroundings, including climate -and soil, the plants and animals these allow; and (3) the activities of -all sorts, occupations and habits, all the actions and reactions between -man and his milieu. In short, we have to deal with FOLK, PLACE, WORK; -the _Famille_, _Lieu_, _Travail_ of the LePlay school. - -As to FOLK, human progress depends on intrinsic racial -qualities--notably health and vigour of body, clearness and alertness of -mind, and an indispensable sociality. The most powerful factors in the -world are clear ideas in the minds of energetic men of good will. The -differences in bodily and mental health which mark races, and stocks -within a people, just as they mark individuals, are themselves traceable -back to germinal variations or mutations, and to the kind of sifting to -which the race or stock has been subjected. Easygoing conditions are not -only without stimulus to new departures, they are without the sifting -which progress demands. - -As to PLACE, it is plain that different areas differ greatly in their -material resources and in the availability of these. Moreover, even when -abundant material resources are present, they will not make for much -progress unless the climate is such that they can be readily utilised. -Indeed, climate has been one of the great factors in civilisation, here -stimulating and there depressing energy, in one place favouring certain -plants and animals important to man, in another place preventing their -presence. Moreover, climate has slowly changed from age to age. - -As to WORK, the form of a civilisation is in some measure dependent on -the primary occupations, whether hunting or fishing, farming or -shepherding; and on the industries of later ages which have a profound -moulding effect on the individual at least. We cannot, however, say more -than that the factors of human progress have always had these three -aspects, Folk, Place, Work, and that if progress is to continue on -stable lines it must always recognise the essential correlation of -fitter folk in body and mind: improved habits and functions, alike in -work and leisure; and bettered surroundings in the widest and deepest -sense. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - DARWIN, CHARLES, _Descent of Man_. - HADDON, A. C., _Races of Men_. - HADDON, A. C., _History of Anthropology_. - KEANE, A. H., _Man Past and Present_. - KEITH, ARTHUR, _Antiquity of Man_. - LULL, R. S., _Organic Evolution_. - MCCABE, JOSEPH, _Evolution of Civilization_. - MARETT, R. R., _Anthropology_ (Home University Library). - OSBORN, H. F., _Men of the Early Stone Age_. - SOLLAS, W. J., _Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives_. - TYLOR, E. B., _Anthropology and Primitive Culture_. - - - - -VI - -EVOLUTION GOING ON - - - - -EVOLUTION GOING ON - - -Evolution, as we have seen in a previous chapter, is another word for -race-history. It means the ceaseless process of Becoming, linking -generation to generation of living creatures. The Doctrine of Evolution -states the fact that the present is the child of the past and the parent -of the future. It comes to this, that the living plants and animals we -know are descended from ancestors on the whole simpler, and these from -others likewise simpler, and so on, back and back--till we reach the -first living creatures, of which, unfortunately, we know nothing. -Evolution is a process of racial change in a definite direction, whereby -new forms arise, take root, and flourish, alongside of or in the place -of their ancestors, which were in most cases rather simpler in structure -and behaviour. - -The rock-record, which cannot be wrong, though we may read it wrongly, -shows clearly that there was once a time in the history of the Earth -when the only backboned animals were Fishes. Ages passed, and there -evolved Amphibians, with fingers and toes, scrambling on to dry land. -Ages passed, and there evolved Reptiles, in bewildering profusion. There -were fish-lizards and sea-serpents, terrestrial dragons and flying -dragons, a prolific and varied stock. From the terrestrial Dinosaurs it -seems that Birds and Mammals arose. In succeeding ages there evolved all -the variety of Birds and all the variety of Mammals. Until at last arose -the Man. The question is whether similar processes of evolution are -still going on. - -We are so keenly aware of rapid changes in mankind, though these -concern the social heritage much more than the flesh-and-blood natural -inheritance, that we find no difficulty in the idea that evolution is -going on in mankind. We know the contrast between modern man and -primitive man, and we are convinced that in the past, at least, progress -has been a reality. That degeneration may set in is an awful -possibility--involution rather than evolution--but even if going back -became for a time the rule, we cannot give up the hope that the race -would recover itself and begin afresh to go forward. For although there -have been retrogressions in the history of life, continued through -unthinkably long ages, and although great races, the Flying Dragons for -instance, have become utterly extinct, leaving no successors whatsoever, -we feel sure that there has been on the whole a progress towards nobler, -more masterful, more emancipated, more intelligent, and _better_ forms -of life--a progress towards what mankind at its best has always regarded -as best, i.e. affording most enduring satisfaction. So we think of -evolution going on in mankind, evolution chequered by involution, but on -the whole _progressive evolution_. - - -Evolutionary Prospect for Man - -It is not likely that man's body will admit of _great_ change, but there -is room for some improvement, e.g. in the superfluous length of the -food-canal and the overcrowding of the teeth. It is likely, however, -that there will be constitutional changes, e.g. of prolonged -youthfulness, a higher standard of healthfulness, and a greater -resistance to disease. It is justifiable to look forward to great -improvements in intelligence and in control. The potentialities of the -human brain, as it is, are far from being utilised to the full, and new -departures of promise are of continual occurrence. What is of great -importance is that the new departures or variations which emerge in fine -children should be fostered, not nipped in the bud, by the social -environment, education included. The evolutionary prospect for man is -promising. - -[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPH OF A MEDIAN SECTION THROUGH THE SHELL OF THE -PEARLY NAUTILUS - -It is only the large terminal chamber that is occupied by the animal.] - -[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ENTIRE SHELL OF THE PEARLY NAUTILUS - -The headquarters of the Nautilus are in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. -They sometimes swim at the surface of the sea, but they usually creep -slowly about on the floor of comparatively shallow water.] - -[Illustration: NAUTILUS - -A section through the Pearly Nautilus, _Nautilus pompilius_, common from -Malay to Fiji. The shell is often about 9 inches long. The animal lives -in the last chamber only, but a tube (S) runs through the empty -chambers, perforating the partitions (SE). The bulk of the animal is -marked VM; the eye is shown at E; a hood is marked H; round the mouth -there are numerous lobes (L) bearing protrusible tentacles, some of -which are shown. When the animal is swimming near the surface the -tentacles radiate out in all directions, and it has been described as "a -shell with something like a cauliflower sticking out of it." The Pearly -Nautilus is a good example of a conservative type, for it began in the -Triassic Era. But the family of Nautiloids to which it belongs -illustrates very vividly what is meant by a dwindling race. The -Nautiloids began in the Cambrian, reached their golden age in the -Silurian, and began to decline markedly in the Carboniferous. There are -2,500 extinct or fossil species of Nautiloids, and only 4 living -to-day.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge._ - -SHOEBILL - -A bird of a savage nature, never mixing with other marsh birds. -According to Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, it shows affinities to herons, -storks, pelicans, and gannets, and is a representative of a type equal -to both herons and storks and falling between the two.] - -But it is very important to realise that among plant and animals -likewise, _Evolution is going on_. - - -The Fountain of Change: Variability - -On an ordinary big clock we do not readily see that even the minute hand -is moving, and if the clock struck only once in a hundred years we can -conceive of people arguing whether the hands did really move at all. So -it often is with the changes that go on from generation to generation in -living creatures. The flux is so slow, like the flowing of a glacier, -that some people fail to be convinced of its reality. And it must, of -course, be admitted that some kinds of living creatures, like the -Lamp-shell _Ligula_ or the Pearly Nautilus, hardly change from age to -age, whereas others, like some of the birds and butterflies, are always -giving rise to something new. The Evening Primrose among plants, and the -Fruit-fly, Drosophila, among animals, are well-known examples of -organisms which are at present in a sporting or mutating mood. - -Certain dark varieties of moth, e.g. of the Peppered Moth, are taking -the place of the paler type in some parts of England, and the same is -true of some dark forms of Sugar-bird in the West Indian islands. Very -important is the piece of statistics worked out by Professor R. C. -Punnett, that "if a population contains .001 per cent of a new variety, -and if that variety has even a 5 per cent selection advantage over the -original form, the latter will almost completely disappear in less than -a hundred generations." This sort of thing has been going on all over -the world for untold ages, and the face of animate nature has -consequently changed. - -We are impressed by striking novelties that crop up--a clever dwarf, a -musical genius, a calculating boy, a cock with a 10 ft. tail, a -"wonder-horse" with a mane reaching to the ground, a tailless cat, a -white blackbird, a copper beech, a Greater Celandine with much cut up -leaves; but this sort of mutation is common, and smaller, less brusque -variations are commoner still. _They form the raw materials of possible -evolution._ We are actually standing before an apparently inexhaustible -fountain of change. This is evolution going on. - - -The Sporting Jellyfish - -It is of interest to consider a common animal like the jellyfish -Aurelia. It is admirably suited for a leisurely life in the open sea, -where it swims about by contracting its saucer-shaped body, thus driving -water out from its concavity. By means of millions of stinging cells on -its four frilled lips and on its marginal tentacles it is able to -paralyse and lasso minute crustaceans and the like, which it then wafts -into its mouth. It has a very eventful life-history, for it has in its -early youth to pass through a fixed stage, fastened to rock or seaweed, -but it is a successful animal, well suited for its habitat, and -practically cosmopolitan in its distribution. It is certainly an -old-established creature. Yet it is very variable in colour and in size, -and even in internal structure. Very often it is the size of a saucer or -a soup-plate, but giants over two feet in diameter are well known. Much -more important, however, than variation in colour and size are the -inborn changes in structure. Normally a jellyfish has its parts in four -or multiples of four. Thus it has four frilled lips, four tufts of -digestive filaments in its stomach, and four brightly coloured -reproductive organs. It has eight sense-organs round the margin of its -disc, eight branched and eight unbranched radial canals running from the -central stomach to a canal round the circumference. The point of giving -these details is just this, that every now and then we find a jellyfish -with its parts in sixes, fives, or threes, and with a multitude of minor -idiosyncrasies. _Even in the well-established jellyfish there is a -fountain of change._ - - -Sec. 1 - -Evolution of Plants - -It is instructive to look at the various kinds of cabbages, such as -cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, kale and curly greens, and remember -that they are all scions of the not very promising wild cabbage found on -our shores. And are not all the aristocrat apple-trees of our orchards -descended from the plebeian crab-apple of the roadside? We know far too -little about the precise origin of our cultivated plants, but there is -no doubt that after man got a hold of them he took advantage of their -variability to establish race after race, say, of rose and -chrysanthemum, of potato and cereal. The evolution of cultivated plants -is continuing before our eyes, and the creations of Mr. Luther Burbank, -such as the stoneless plum and the primus berry, the spineless cactus -and the Shasta daisy, are merely striking instances of what is always -going on. - -There is reason to believe that the domestic dog has risen three times, -from three distinct ancestors--a wolf, a jackal, and a coyote. So a -multiple pedigree must be allowed for in the case of the dog, and the -same is true in regard to some other domesticated animals. But the big -fact is the great variety of breeds that man has been able to fix, after -he once got started with a domesticated type. There are over 200 -well-marked breeds of domestic pigeons, and there is very strong -evidence that all are descended from the wild rock-dove, just as the -numerous kinds of poultry are descended from the jungle-fowl of some -parts of India and the Malay Islands. Even more familiar is the way in -which man has, so to speak, unpacked the complex fur of the wild rabbit, -and established all the numerous colour-varieties which we see among -domestic rabbits. And apart from colour-varieties there are long-haired -Angoras and quaint lop-eared forms, and many more besides. All this -points to evolution going on. - - -The Romance of the Wheat - -It is well-known that Neolithic man grew wheat, and some authorities -have put the date of the first wheat harvest at between fifteen thousand -and ten thousand years ago. The ancient civilisations of Babylonia, -Egypt, Crete, Greece, and Rome were largely based on wheat, and it is -highly probable that the first great wheatfields were in the fertile -land between the Tigris and the Euphrates. The oldest Egyptian tombs -that contain wheat, which, by the way, never germinates after its -millennia of rest, belong to the First Dynasty, and are about six -thousand years old. But there must have been a long history of wheat -before that. - -Now it is a very interesting fact that the almost certain ancestor of -the cultivated wheat is at present living on the arid and rocky slopes -of Mount Hermon. It is called _Triticum hermonis_, and it is varying -notably to-day, as it did long ago when it gave rise to the emmer, which -was cultivated in the Neolithic Age and is the ancestor of all our -ordinary wheats. We must think of Neolithic man noticing the big seeds -of this Hermon grass, gathering some of the heads, breaking the brittle -spikelet-bearing axis in his fingers, knocking off the rough awns or -bruising the spikelets in his hand till the glumes or chaff separated -off and could be blown away, chewing a mouthful of the seeds--and -resolving to sow and sow again. - -That was the beginning of a long story, in the course of which man took -advantage of the numerous variations that cropped up in this sporting -stock and established one successful race after another on his fields. -Virgil refers in the "Georgics" to the gathering of the largest and -fullest ears of wheat in order to get good seed for another sowing, but -it was not till the first quarter of the nineteenth century that the -great step was taken, by men like Patrick Sheriff of Haddington, of -deliberately selecting individual ears of great excellence and -segregating their progeny from mingling with mediocre stock. This is the -method which has been followed with remarkable success in modern times. - -One of the factors that assisted the Allies in overcoming the food -crisis in the darkest period of the war was the virtue of Marquis Wheat, -a very prolific, early ripening, hard red spring wheat with excellent -milling and baking qualities. It is now the dominant spring wheat in -Canada and the United States, and it has enormously increased the real -wealth of the world in the last ten years (1921). Now our point is -simply that this Marquis Wheat is a fine example of evolution going on. -In 1917 upwards of 250,000,000 bushels of this wheat were raised in -North America, and in 1918 upwards of 300,000,000 bushels; yet the whole -originated from a single grain planted in an experimental plot at Ottawa -by Dr. Charles E. Saunders so recently as the spring of 1903. - -[Illustration: THE WALKING-FISH OR MUD-SKIPPER (PERIOPHTHALMUS), COMMON -AT THE MOUTHS OF RIVERS IN TROPICAL AFRICA, ASIA, AND NORTH-WEST -AUSTRALIA - -It skips about by means of its strong pectoral fins on the mud-flats; it -jumps from stone to stone hunting small shore-animals; it climbs up the -roots of the mangrove-trees. The close-set eyes protrude greatly and are -very mobile. The tail seems to help in respiration.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: "The Times."_ - -THE AUSTRALIAN MORE-PORK OR PODARGUS - -A bird with a frog-like mouth, allied to the British Nightjar. Now in -the London Zoological Gardens. - -The capacious mouth is well suited for engulfing large insects such as -locusts and mantises, which are mostly caught on the trees. During the -day the More-pork or Frog-mouth sleeps upright on a branch, and its -mottled brown plumage makes it almost invisible.] - -[Illustration: PELICAN'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING AND STORING FISHES - -There is an enormous dilatable sac beneath the lower jaw.] - -[Illustration: HORNBILL'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR EXCAVATING A NEST IN A TREE, -AND ALSO FOR SEIZING AND BREAKING DIVERSE FORMS OF FOOD, FROM MAMMALS TO -TORTOISES, FROM ROOTS TO FRUITS - -The use of the helmet or casque is obscure.] - -[Illustration: SPOONBILL'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SIFTING THE MUD AND -CATCHING THE SMALL ANIMALS, E.G. FISHES, CRUSTACEANS, INSECT LARVAE, -WHICH LIVE THERE] - -[Illustration: FALCON'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR SEIZING, KILLING, AND TEARING -SMALL MAMMALS AND BIRDS] - -[Illustration: AVOCET'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR A CURIOUS SIDEWAYS SCOOPING IN -THE SHORE-POOLS AND CATCHING SMALL ANIMALS] - -[Illustration: PUFFIN'S BILL, ADAPTED FOR CATCHING SMALL FISHES NEAR THE -SURFACE OF THE SEA, AND FOR HOLDING THEM WHEN CAUGHT AND CARRYING THEM -TO THE NEST - -The scaly covering is moulted in the autumn.] - -We must not dwell too long on this particular instance of evolution, -though it has meant much to our race. We wish, however, following -Professor Buller's _Essays on Wheat_ (1919), to explain the method by -which this good seed was discovered. From one we may learn all. The -parent of Marquis Wheat on the male side was the mid-Europe Red Fife--a -first-class cereal. The parent on the female side was less promising, a -rather nondescript, not pure-bred wheat, called Red Calcutta, which was -imported from India into Canada about thirty years ago. The father was -part of a cargo that came from the Baltic to Glasgow, and was happily -included in a sample sent on to David Fife in Ontario about 1842. From -one kernel of this sample David Fife started his stock of Red Fife, -which was crossed by Dr. Saunders with Hard Red Calcutta. The result of -the cross was a medley of types, nearly a hundred varieties altogether, -and it was in scrutinising these that Dr. Saunders hit upon Marquis. He -worked steadily through the material, studying head after head of what -resulted from sowing, and selecting out those that gave most promise. -Each of the heads selected was propagated; most of the results were -rejected; the elect were sifted again and yet again, and finally Marquis -Wheat emerged, rich in constructive possibilities, probably the most -valuable food-plant in the world. It is like a romance to read that "the -first crop of the wheat that was destined within a dozen years to -overtax the mightiest elevators in the land was stored away in the -winter of 1904-5 in a paper packet no larger than an envelope." - -Thus from the Wild Wheat of Mount Hermon there evolved one of the most -important food-plants of the world. This surely is _Evolution going on_. - - -Sec. 2 - -Changes in the Animal Life of a Country - -Nothing gives us a more convincing impression of evolution in being than -a succession of pictures of the animal life of a country in different -ages. Dr. James Ritchie, a naturalist of distinction, has written a -masterly book, _The Influence of Man on Animal Life in Scotland_ (1920), -in which we get this succession of pictures. "Within itself," he says, -"a fauna is in a constant state of uneasy restlessness, an assemblage of -creatures which in its parts ebbs and flows as one local influence or -another plays upon it." There are temporary and local changes, endless -disturbances and readjustments of the "balance of nature." One year -there is a plague of field-voles, perhaps next year "grouse disease" is -rife; in one place there is huge increase of starlings, in another place -of rabbits; here cockchafers are in the ascendant, and there the moles -are spoiling the pasture. "But while the parts fluctuate, the fauna as a -whole follows a path of its own. As well as internal tides which swing -to and fro about an average level, there is a drift which carries the -fauna bodily along an 'irretraceable course.'" This is partly due to -considerable changes of climate, for climate calls the tune to which -living creatures dance, but it is also due to new departures among the -animals themselves. We need not go back to the extinct animals and lost -faunas of past ages--for Britain has plenty of relics of these--which -"illustrate the reality of the faunal drift," but it may be very useful, -in illustration of evolution in being, to notice what has happened in -Scotland since the end of the Great Ice Age. - -Some nine thousand years ago or more, certain long-headed, -square-jawed, short-limbed, but agile hunters and fishermen, whom we -call Neolithic Man, established themselves in Scotland. What was the -state of the country then? - - It was a country of swamps, low forests of birch, alder, and willow, - fertile meadows, and snow-capped mountains. Its estuaries penetrated - further inland than they now do, and the sea stood at the level of - the Fifty-Foot Beach. On its plains and in its forests roamed many - creatures which are strange to the fauna of to-day--the Elk and the - Reindeer, Wild Cattle, the Wild Boar and perhaps Wild Horses, a - fauna of large animals which paid toll to the European Lynx, the - Brown Bear and the Wolf. In all likelihood, the marshes resounded to - the boom of the Bittern and the plains to the breeding calls of the - Crane and the Great Bustard. - -Such is Dr. Ritchie's initial picture. - -[Illustration: LIFE-HISTORY OF A FROG - -1, Before hatching; 2, newly hatched larvae hanging on to water-weed; 3, -with external gills; 4, external gills are covered over and are -absorbed; 5, limbless larva about a month old with internal gills; 6, -tadpole with hind-legs, about two months old; 7, with the fore-limbs -emerging; 8, with all four legs free; 9, a young frog, about three -months old, showing the almost complete absorption of the tail and the -change of the tadpole mouth into a frog mouth.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: J. J. Ward. F.E.S._ - -HIND-LEG OF WHIRLIGIG BEETLE WHICH HAS BECOME BEAUTIFULLY MODIFIED FOR -AQUATIC LOCOMOTION - -The flattened tips form an expanding "fan" or paddle, which opens and -closes with astonishing rapidity. The closing of the "fan," like the -"feathering" of an oar, reduces friction when the leg is being moved -forwards for the next stroke.] - -[Illustration: THE BIG ROBBER-CRAB (_Birgus Latro_), THAT CLIMBS THE -COCO-NUT PALM AND BREAKS OFF THE NUTS - -It occurs on islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific, and is often found -far above sea-level. It is able to breathe dry air. One is seen emerging -from its burrow, which is often lined with coco-nut fibre. The empty -coco-nut shell is sometimes used by the Robber-Crab for the protection -of its tail.] - -Now what happened in this kingdom of Caledonia which Neolithic Man had -found? He began to introduce domesticated animals, and that meant a -thinning of the ranks of predacious creatures. "Safety first" was the -dangerous motto in obedience to which man exterminated the lynx, the -brown bear, and the wolf. Other creatures, such as the great auk, were -destroyed for food, and others like the marten for their furs. Small -pests were destroyed to protect the beginnings of agriculture; larger -animals like the boar were hunted out of existence; others, like the -pearl-bearing river-mussels, yielded to subtler demands. No doubt there -was protection also--protection for sport, for utility, for aesthetic -reasons, and because of humane sentiments; even wholesome superstitions -have safeguarded the robin redbreast and the wren. There were -introductions too--the rabbit for utility, the pheasant for sport, and -the peacock for amenity. And every introduction, every protection, every -killing out had its far-reaching influences. - -But if we are to picture the evolution going on, we must think also of -man's indirect interference with animal life. He destroyed the forests, -he cultivated the wild, he made bridges, he allowed aliens, like rats -and cockroaches, to get in unawares. Of course, he often did good, as -when he drained swamps and got rid of the mosquitoes which once made -malaria rife in Scotland. - -What has been the net result? Not, as one might think for a moment, a -reduction in the _number_ of different kinds of animals. Fourteen or so -species of birds and beasts have been banished from Scotland since man -interfered, but as far as numbers go they have been more than replaced -by deliberate introductions like fallow deer, rabbit, squirrel, and -pheasant, and by accidental introductions like rats and cockroaches. But -the change is rather in _quality_ than in quantity; the smaller have -taken the place of the larger, rather paltry pigmies of noble giants. -Thus we get a vivid idea that evolution, especially when man interferes, -is not necessarily progressive. That depends on the nature of the sieves -with which the living materials are sifted. As Dr. Ritchie well says, -the standard of the wild fauna as regards size has fallen and is -falling, and it is not in size only that there is loss, there is a -deterioration of quality. "For how can the increase of Rabbits and -Sparrows and Earthworms and Caterpillars, and the addition of millions -of Rats and Cochroaches and Crickets and Bugs, ever take the place of -those fine creatures round the memories of which the glamour of -Scotland's past still plays--the Reindeer and the Elk, the Wolf, the -Brown Bear, the Lynx, and the Beaver, the Bustard, the Crane, the -Bumbling Bittern, and many another, lost or disappearing." Thus we see -again that evolution is going on. - - -Sec. 3 - -The Adventurers - -All through the millions of years during which animals have tenanted the -earth and the waters under the earth, there has been a search for new -kingdoms to conquer, for new corners in which to make a home. And this -still goes on. _It has been and is one of the methods of evolution to -fill every niche of opportunity._ There is a spider that lives inside a -pitcher-plant, catching some of the inquisitive insects which slip down -the treacherous internal surface of the trap. There is another that -makes its home in crevices among the rocks on the shore of the -Mediterranean, or even in empty tubular shells, keeping the water out, -more or less successfully, by spinning threads of silk across the -entrance to its retreat. The beautiful brine-shrimp, _Artemia salina_, -that used to occur in British salterns has found a home in the dense -waters of the Great Salt Lake of Utah. Several kinds of earthworms have -been found up trees, and there is a fish, Arges, that climbs on the -stones of steep mountain torrents of the Andes. The intrepid explorers -of the _Scotia_ voyage found quite a number of Arctic terns spending our -winter within the summer of the Antarctic Circle--which means girdling -the globe from pole to pole; and every now and then there are incursions -of rare birds, like Pallas's Sand-grouse, into Britain, just as if they -were prospecting in search of a promised land. Twice or thrice the -distinctively North American Killdeer Plover has been found in Britain, -having somehow or other got across the Atlantic. We miss part of the -meaning of evolution if we do not catch this note of insurgence and -adventure, which some animal or other never ceases to sound, though many -establish themselves in a security not easily disturbed, and though a -small minority give up the struggle against the stream and are content -to acquiesce, as parasites or rottenness eaters, in a drifting life of -ease. - -More important than very peculiar cases is the broad fact that over and -over again in different groups of animals there have been attempts to -master different kinds of haunts--such as the underground world, the -trees, the freshwaters, and the air. There are burrowing amphibians, -burrowing reptiles, burrowing birds, and burrowing mammals; there are -tree-toads, tree-snakes, tree-lizards, tree-kangaroos, tree-sloths, -tree-shrews, tree-mice, tree-porcupines, and so on; enough of a list to -show, without mentioning birds, how many different kinds of animals -have entered upon an arboreal apprenticeship--an apprenticeship often -with far-reaching consequences. What the freeing of the hand from being -an organ of terrestrial support has meant in the evolution of monkeys is -a question that gives a spur to our imagination. - - -The Case of the Robber Crab - -On some of the coral islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans there -lives a land-crab, Birgus, which has learned to breathe on land. It -breathes dry air by means of curious blood-containing tufts in the upper -part of its gill-cavity, and it has also rudimentary gills. It is often -about a foot long, and it has very heavy great claws, especially on the -left-hand side. With this great claw it hammers on the "eye-hole" of a -coconut, from which it has torn off the fibrous husk. It hammers until a -hole is made by which it can get at the pulp. Part of the shell is -sometimes used as a protection for the soft abdomen--for the -robber-crab, as it is called, is an offshoot from the hermit-crab stock. -Every year this quaint explorer, which may go far up the hills and climb -the coco-palms, has to go back to the sea to spawn. The young ones are -hatched in the same state as in our common shore-crab. That is to say, -they are free-swimming larvae which pass through an open-water period -before they settle down on the shore, and eventually creep up on to dry -land. Just as open-water turtles lay their eggs on sandy shores, going -back to their old terrestrial haunt, so the robber-crab, which has -almost conquered the dry land, has to return to the seashore to breed. -There is a peculiar interest in the association of the robber-crab with -the coco-palm, for that tree is not a native of these coral islands, but -has been introduced, perhaps from Mexico, by the Polynesian mariners -before the discovery of America by Columbus. So the learning to deal -with coconuts is a recent achievement, and we are face to face with a -very good example of evolution going on. - -[Illustration: EARLY LIFE-HISTORY OF THE SALMON - -1. The fertilised egg, shed in the gravelly bed of the river. - -2. The embryo within the egg, just before hatching. The embryo has been -constricted off from the yolk-laden portion of the egg. - -3. The newly hatched salmon, or alevin, encumbered with its legacy of -yolk (Y.S.). - -4 and 5. The larval salmon, still being nourished from the yolk-sac -(Y.S.), which is diminishing in size as the fish grows larger. - -6. The salmon fry about six weeks old, with the yolk fully absorbed, so -that the young fish has now to feed for itself. The fry become parr, -which go to the sea as smolts, and return as grilse. - -In all cases the small figures to the right indicate the natural size.] - -[Illustration: THE SALMON LEAPING AT THE FALL IS A MOST FASCINATING -SPECTACLE - -Again and again we see them jumping out of the seething foam beneath the -fall, casting themselves into the curtain of the down-rushing water, -only to be carried back by it into the depths whence they have risen. -One here and another there makes its effort good, touches the upper lip -of the cataract, gives a swift stroke of its tail, and rushes on towards -those upper reaches which are the immemorial spawning beds of its -race.] - - -The Story of the Salmon - -In late autumn or in winter the salmon spawn in the rivers. The female -makes a shallow trough in the gravel by moving her tail from side to -side, and therein lays many eggs. The male, who is in attendance, -fertilises these with the milt, and then the female covers them deeply -with gravel. The process is repeated over and over again for a week or -more till all the eggs are shed. For three to four months the eggs -develop, and eventually there emerge the larvae or _alevins_, which lurk -among the pebbles. They cannot swim much, for they are encumbered by a -big legacy of yolk. In a few weeks, perhaps eight, the protruding bag of -yolk has disappeared and the _fry_, about an inch long, begin to move -about more actively and to fend for themselves. By the end of the year -they have grown to be rather trout-like _parr_, about four inches long. -In two years these are double that length. Usually in the second year, -but it may be earlier or later, the parr become silvery _smolts_, which -go out to sea, usually about the month of May. They feed on young -herring and the like and grow large and strong. When they are about -three and a half years old they come up the rivers as _grilse_ and may -spawn. Or they may pass through the whole grilse stage in the sea and -come up the rivers with all the characters of the full-grown fish. In -many cases the salmon spawn only once, and some (they are called _kelts_ -after spawning) are so much exhausted by starting a new generation that -they die or fall a victim to otters and other enemies. In the case of -the salmon of the North Pacific (in the genus _Oncorhynchus_, not -_Salmo_) all the individuals die after spawning, none being able to -return to the sea. It must be remembered that full-grown salmon do not -as a rule feed in fresh water, though they may be unable to resist -snapping at the angler's strange creations. A very interesting fact is -that the salmon keeps as it were a diary of its movements, which vary a -good deal in different rivers. This diary is written in the scales, and -a careful reading of the concentric lines on the scales shows the age of -the fish, and when it went out to sea, and whether it has spawned or -not, and more besides. - - -Interpretation of the Salmon's Story - -When an animal frequents two different haunts, in one of which it -breeds, it is very often safe to say that the breeding-place represents -the original home. The flounder is quite comfortable far up the rivers, -but it has to go to the shore-waters to spawn, and there is no doubt -that the flounder is a marine fish which has recently learned to -colonise the fresh waters. Its relatives, like plaice and sole, are -strictly marine. But it is impossible to make a dogma of the rule that -the breeding-place corresponds to the original home. Thus some kinds of -bass, which belong to the marine family of sea-perches, live in the sea -or in estuaries, while two have become permanent residents in fresh -water. Or, again, the members of the herring family are very -distinctively marine, but the shad, which belong to this family, spawn -in rivers and may spend their lives there. - -So there are two different ways of interpreting the life-history of the -salmon. Some authorities regard the salmon as a marine fish which is -establishing itself in fresh water. But others read the story the other -way and regard the salmon as a member of a freshwater race, that has -taken to the sea for feeding purposes. In regard to trout, we know that -the ranks of those in rivers and lakes are continually being reinforced -by migrants from the sea, and that some trout go down to the sea while -others remain in the freshwater. We know also in regard to a related -fish, the char, that while the great majority of kinds are now permanent -residents in cold and deep, isolated northern lakes, there are Arctic -forms which live in the sea but enter the rivers to spawn. These facts -favour the view that the salmon was originally a marine fish. But there -are arguments on both sides, and, for our present purpose, the important -fact is that the salmon is conquering _two_ haunts. Its evolution is -going on. - - -The Romance of the Eel - -Early in summer, at dates varying with the distance of the rivers from -the open Atlantic, crowds of young eels or elvers come up-stream. -Sometimes the procession or eel-fare includes thousands of individuals, -each about the length of our first finger, and as thick as a stout -knitting needle. They obey an inborn impulse to swim against the stream, -seeking automatically to have both sides of their body equally -stimulated by the current. So they go straight ahead. The obligation -works only during the day, for when the sun goes down behind the hills -the elvers snuggle under stones or beneath the bank and rest till dawn. -In the course of time they reach the quiet upper reaches of the river or -go up rivulets and drainpipes to the isolated ponds. Their impulse to go -on must be very imperious, for they may wriggle up the wet moss by the -side of a waterfall or even make a short excursion in a damp meadow. - -In the quiet-flowing stretches of the river or in the ponds they feed -and grow for years and years. They account for a good many young fishes. -Eventually, after five or six years in the case of the males, six to -eight years in the case of the females, the well-grown fishes, perhaps a -foot and a half to two feet long, are seized by a novel restlessness. -They are beginning to be mature. They put on a silvery jacket and become -large of eye, and they return to the sea. In getting away from the pond -it may be necessary to wriggle through the damp meadow-grass before -reaching the river. They travel by night and rather excitedly. The -Arctic Ocean is too cold for them and the North Sea too shallow. They -must go far out to sea, to where the old margin of the once larger -continent of Europe slopes down to the great abysses, from the Hebrides -southwards. Eels seem to spawn in the deep dark water; but the just -liberated eggs have not yet been found. The young fry rises to near the -surface and becomes a knife-blade-like larva, transparent all but its -eye. It lives for many months in this state, growing to be about three -inches long, rising and sinking in the water, and swimming gently. -These open-sea young eels are known as Leptocephali, a name given to -them before their real nature was proved. They gradually become shorter, -and the shape changes from knife-blade-like to cylindrical. During this -change they fast, and the weight of their delicate body decreases. They -turn into glass-eels, about 2-1/2 inches long, like a knitting-needle in -girth. They begin to move towards the distant shores and rivers, and -they may be a year and a half old before they reach their destination -and go up-stream as elvers. Those that ascend the rivers of the Eastern -Baltic must have journeyed three thousand miles. It is certain that no -eel ever matures or spawns in fresh water. It is practically certain -that all the young eels ascending the rivers of North Europe have come -in from the Atlantic, some of them perhaps from the Azores or further -out still. It is interesting to inquire how the young eels circumvent -the Falls of the Rhine and get into Lake Constance, or how their kindred -on the other side of the Atlantic overcome the obstacle of Niagara; but -it is more important to lay emphasis on the variety of habitats which -this fish is trying--the deep waters, the open sea, the shore, the -river, the pond, and even, it may be, a little taste of solid earth. It -seems highly probable that the common eel is a deep-water marine fish -which has learned to colonise the freshwaters. It has been adventurous -and it has succeeded. The only shadow on the story of achievement is -that there seems to be no return from the spawning. There is little -doubt that death is the nemesis of their reproduction. In any case, no -adult eel ever comes back from the deep sea. We are minded of Goethe's -hard saying: "Death is Nature's expert advice to get plenty of life." - - -Sec. 4 - -Forming New Habits - -There is a well-known mudfish of Australia, Neoceratodus by name, which -has turned its swim-bladder into a lung and comes to the surface to -spout. It expels vitiated air with considerable force and takes fresh -gulps. At the same time, like an ordinary fish, it has gills which allow -the usual interchange of gases between the blood and the water. Now this -Australian mudfish or double-breather (Dipnoan), which may be a long way -over a yard in length, is a direct and little-changed descendant of an -ancient extinct fish, Ceratodus, which lived in Mesozoic times, as far -back as the Jurassic, which probably means over five millions of years -ago. The Queensland mudfish is an antiquity, and there has not been much -change in its lineage for millions of years. We might take it as an -illustration of the inertia of evolution. And yet, though its structure -has changed but little, the fish probably illustrates evolution in -process, for it is a fish that is learning to breathe dry air. It cannot -leave the water; but it can live comfortably in pools which are foul -with decomposing animal and vegetable matter. In partially dried-up and -foul waterholes, full of dead fishes of various kinds, Neoceratodus has -been found vigorous and lively. Unless we take the view, which is -_possible_, that the swim-bladder of fishes was originally a lung, the -mud-fishes are learning to breathe dry air. They illustrate evolution -agoing. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON EEL (_Anguilla -Vulgalis_) - -1. The transparent open-sea knife-blade-like larva called a -Leptocephalus. - -2 and 3. The gradual change of shape from knife-blade-like to -cylindrical. The body becomes shorter and loses weight. - -4. The young elver, at least a year old, which makes its way from the -open sea to the estuaries and rivers. It is 2/3 inches long and almost -cylindrical. - -5. The fully-formed eel.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Gambier Bolton._ - -CASSOWARY - -Its bare head is capped with a helmet. Unlike the plumage of most birds -its feathers are loose and hair-like, whilst its wings are merely -represented by a few black quills. It is flightless and entirely -dependent on its short powerful legs to carry it out of danger.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Gambier Bolton._ - -THE KIWI, ANOTHER FLIGHTLESS BIRD, OF REMARKABLE APPEARANCE, HABITS, AND -STRUCTURE] - -The herring-gull is by nature a fish-eater; but of recent years, in some -parts of Britain, it has been becoming in the summer months more and -more of a vegetarian, scooping out the turnips, devouring potatoes, -settling on the sheaves in the harvest field and gorging itself with -grain. Similar experiments, usually less striking, are known in many -birds; but the most signal illustration is that of the kea or Nestor -parrot of New Zealand, which has taken to lighting on the loins of the -sheep, tearing away the fleece, cutting at the skin, and gouging out -fat. Now the parrot belongs to a vegetarian or frugivorous stock, and -this change of diet in the relatively short time since sheep-ranches -were established in New Zealand is very striking. Here, since we know -the dates, we may speak of evolution going on under our eyes. It must be -remembered that variations in habit may give an animal a new -opportunity to test variations in structure which arise mysteriously -from within, as expressions of germinal changefulness rather than as -imprints from without. For of the transmissibility of the latter there -is little secure evidence. - - -Experiments in Locomotion - -It is very interesting to think of the numerous types of locomotion -which animals have discovered--pulling and punting, sculling and rowing, -and of the changes that are rung on these four main methods. How -striking is the case of the frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus) of -Australia, which at the present time is, as it were, experimenting in -bipedal progression--always a rather eventful thing to do. It gets up on -its hind-legs and runs totteringly for a few feet, just like a baby -learning to walk. - -How beautiful is the adventure which has led our dipper or -water-ouzel--a bird allied to the wrens--to try walking and flying under -water! How admirable is the volplaning of numerous parachutists--"flying -fish," "flying frog," "flying dragon," "flying phalanger," "flying -squirrel," and more besides, which take great leaps through the air. For -are these not the splendid failures that might have succeeded in -starting new modes of flight? - -Most daring of all, perhaps, are the aerial journeys undertaken by many -small spiders. On a breezy morning, especially in the autumn, they mount -on gate-posts and palings and herbage, and, standing with their head to -the wind, pay out three or four long threads of silk. When the wind tugs -at these threads, the spinners let go, and are borne, usually back -downwards, on the wings of the wind from one parish to another. It is -said that if the wind falls they can unfurl more sail, or furl if it -rises. In any case, these wingless creatures make aerial journeys. When -tens of thousands of the used threads sink to earth, there is a "shower -of gossamer." On his _Beagle_ voyage Darwin observed that vast numbers -of small gossamer spiders were borne on to the ship when it was sixty -miles distant from the land. - -[Illustration: THE AUSTRALIAN FRILLED LIZARD, WHICH IS AT PRESENT TRYING -TO BECOME A BIPED - -When it gets up on its hind-legs and runs for a short distance it folds -its big collar round its neck.] - -[Illustration: A CARPET OF GOSSAMER - -The silken threads used by thousands of gossamer spiders in their -migrations are here seen entangled in the grass, forming what is called -a shower of gossamer. At the edge of the grass the gossamer forms a -curtain, floating out and looking extraordinarily like waves breaking on -a seashore.] - -[Illustration: THE WATER-SPIDER - -The spider is seen just leaving its diving-bell to ascend to the surface -to capture air. - -The spider jerks its body and legs out at the surface and then dives-- - ---carrying with it what looks like a silvery air-bubble--air entangled -in the hair. - -The spider reaches its air-dome. Note how the touch of its legs indents -the inflated balloon. - -Running down the side of the nest, the spider - ---brushes off the air at the entrance, and the bubble ascends into the -silken balloon. - -_Photos: J. J. Ward, F.E.S._] - - -New Devices - -It is impossible, we must admit, to fix dates, except in a few cases, -relatively recent; but there is a smack of modernity in some striking -devices which we can observe in operation to-day. Thus no one will -dispute the statement that spiders are thoroughly terrestrial animals -breathing dry air, but we have the fact of the water-spider conquering -the under-water world. There are a few spiders about the seashore, and a -few that can survive douching with freshwater, but the particular case -of the true water-spider, _Argyroneta natans_, stands by itself because -the creature, as regards the female at least, has _conquered_ the -sub-aquatic environment. A flattish web is woven, somehow, underneath -the water, and pegged down by threads of silk. Along a special vertical -line the mother spider ascends to the surface and descends again, having -entangled air in the hairs of her body. She brushes off this air -underneath her web, which is thereby buoyed up into a sort of dome. She -does this over and over again, never getting wet all the time, until the -domed web has become like a diving-bell, full of dry air. In this -eloquent anticipation of man's rational device, this creature--far from -being endowed with reason--lays her eggs and looks after her young. The -general significance of the facts is that when competition is keen, a -new area of exploitation is a promised land. Thus spiders have spread -over all the earth except the polar areas. But here is a spider with -some spirit of adventure, which has endeavoured, instead of trekking, to -find a new corner near at home. It has tackled a problem surely -difficult for a terrestrial animal, the problem of living in great part -under water, and it has solved it in a manner at once effective and -beautiful. - - -In Conclusion - -We have given but a few representative illustrations of a great theme. -When we consider the changefulness of living creatures, the -transformations of cultivated plants and domesticated animals, the -gradual alterations in the fauna of a country, the search after new -haunts, the forming of new habits, and the discovery of many inventions, -are we not convinced that Evolution is going on? And why should it -stop? - - - - -VII - -THE DAWN OF MIND - - - - -THE DAWN OF MIND - - -In the story of evolution there is no chapter more interesting than the -emergence of mind in the animal kingdom. But it is a difficult chapter -to read, partly because "mind" cannot be seen or measured, only -_inferred_ from the outward behaviour of the creature, and partly -because it is almost impossible to avoid reading ourselves into the much -simpler animals. - - -Sec. 1 - -Two Extremes to be Avoided - -The one extreme is that of uncritical generosity which credits every -animal, like Brer Rabbit--who, by the way, was the hare--with human -qualities. The other extreme is that of thinking of the animal as if it -were an automatic machine, in the working of which there is no place or -use for mind. Both these extremes are to be avoided. - -When Professor Whitman took the eggs of the Passenger Pigeon (which -became extinct not long ago with startling rapidity) and placed them a -few inches to one side of the nest, the bird looked a little uneasy and -put her beak under her body as if to feel for something that was not -there. But she did not try to retrieve her eggs, close at hand as they -were. In a short time she flew away altogether. This shows that the mind -of the pigeon is in some respects very different from the mind of man. -On the other hand, when a certain clever dog, carrying a basket of eggs, -with the handle in his mouth, came to a stile which had to be -negotiated, he laid the basket on the ground, pushed it gently through a -low gap to the other side, and then took a running leap over. We dare -not talk of this dog as an automatic machine. - - -A Caution in Regard to Instinct - -In studying the behaviour of animals, which is the only way of getting -at their mind, for it is only of our own mind that we have direct -knowledge, it is essential to give prominence to the fact that there has -been throughout the evolution of living creatures a strong tendency to -enregister or engrain capacities of doing things effectively. Thus -certain abilities come to be inborn; they are parts of the inheritance, -which will express themselves whenever the appropriate trigger is -pulled. The newly born child does not require to learn its breathing -movements, as it afterwards requires to learn its walking movements. The -ability to go through the breathing movements is inborn, engrained, -enregistered. - -In other words, there are hereditary pre-arrangements of nerve-cells and -muscle-cells which come into activity almost as easily as the beating of -the heart. In a minute or two the newborn pigling creeps close to its -mother and sucks milk. It has not to learn how to do this any more than -we have to learn to cough or sneeze. Thus animals have many useful -ready-made, or almost ready-made, capacities of doing apparently clever -things. In simple cases of these inborn pre-arrangements we speak of -reflex actions; in more complicated cases, of instinctive behaviour. Now -the caution is this, that while these inborn capacities usually work -well in natural conditions, they sometimes work badly when the ordinary -routine is disturbed. We see this when a pigeon continues sitting for -many days on an empty nest, or when it fails to retrieve its eggs only -two inches away. But it would be a mistake to call the pigeon, because -of this, an unutterably stupid bird. We have only to think of the -achievements of homing pigeons to know that this cannot be true. We must -not judge animals in regard to those kinds of behaviour which have been -handed over to instinct, and go badly agee when the normal routine is -disturbed. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the enregistered -instinctive capacities work well, and the advantage of their becoming -stereotyped was to leave the animal more free for adventures at a higher -level. Being "a slave of instinct" may give the animal a security that -enables it to discover some new home or new food or new joy. Somewhat in -the same way, a man of methodical habits, which he has himself -established, may gain leisure to make some new departure of racial -profit. - -[Illustration: _Photo: O. J. Wilkinson._ - -JACKDAW BALANCING ON A GATEPOST - -The jackdaw is a big-brained, extremely alert, very educable, loquacious -bird.] - -[Illustration: _From Ingersoll's "The Wit of the Wild."_ - -TWO OPOSSUMS FEIGNING DEATH - -The Opossums are mainly arboreal marsupials, insectivorous and -carnivorous, confined to the American Continent from the United States -to Patagonia. Many have no pouch and carry their numerous young ones on -their back, the tail of the young twined round that of the mother. The -opossums are agile, clever creatures, and famous for "playing 'possum," -lying inert just as if they were dead.] - -[Illustration: MALE OF THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK, MAKING A NEST OF -WATER-WEED, GLUED TOGETHER BY VISCID THREADS SECRETED FROM THE KIDNEYS -AT THE BREEDING SEASON] - -[Illustration: A FEMALE STICKLEBACK ENTERS THE NEST WHICH THE MALE HAS -MADE, LAYS THE EGGS INSIDE, AND THEN DEPARTS - -In many cases two or three females use the same nest, the stickleback -being polygamous. Above the nest the male, who mounts guard, is seen -driving away an intruder.] - -When we draw back our finger from something very hot, or shut our eye to -avoid a blow from a rebounding branch, we do not will the action; and -this is more or less the case, probably, when a young mammal sucks its -mother for the first time. Some Mound-birds of Celebes lay their eggs in -warm volcanic ash by the shore of the sea, others in a great mass of -fermenting vegetation; it is inborn in the newly hatched bird to -struggle out as quickly as it can from such a strange nest, else it will -suffocate. If it stops struggling too soon, it perishes, for it seems -that the trigger of the instinct cannot be pulled twice. Similarly, when -the eggs of the turtle, that have been laid in the sand of the shore, -hatch out, the young ones make _instinctively_ for the sea. Some of the -crocodiles bury their eggs two feet or so below the surface among sand -and decaying vegetation--an awkward situation for a birthplace. When the -young crocodile is ready to break out of the egg-shell, just as a chick -does at the end of the three weeks of brooding, it utters -_instinctively_ a piping cry. On hearing this, the watchful mother digs -away the heavy blankets, otherwise the young crocodile would be buried -alive at birth. Now there is no warrant for believing that the young -Mound-birds, young crocodiles, and young turtles have an intelligent -appreciation of what they do when they are hatched. They act -instinctively, "as to the manner born." But this is not to say that -their activity is not backed by endeavour or even suffused with a -certain amount of awareness. Of course, it is necessarily difficult for -man, who is so much a creature of intelligence, to get even an inkling -of the mental side of instinctive behaviour. - -In many of the higher reaches of animal instinct, as in courtship or -nest-building, in hunting or preparing the food, it looks as if the -starting of the routine activity also "rang up" the higher centres of -the brain and put the intelligence on the _qui vive_, ready to interpose -when needed. So the twofold caution is this: (1) We must not depreciate -the creature too much if, in unusual circumstances, it acts in an -ineffective way along lines of behaviour which are normally handed over -to instinct; and (2) we must leave open the possibility that even -routine instinctive behaviour may be suffused with awareness and backed -by endeavour. - - -Sec. 2 - -A Useful Law - -But how are we to know when to credit the animal with intelligence and -when with something less spontaneous? Above all, how are we to know when -the effective action, like opening the mouth the very instant it is -touched by food in the mother's beak, is just a physiological action -like coughing or sneezing, and when there is behind it--a mind at work? -The answer to this question is no doubt that given by Prof. Lloyd -Morgan, who may be called the founder of comparative psychology, that we -must describe the piece of behaviour very carefully, just as it -occurred, without reading anything into it, and that we must not ascribe -it to a higher faculty if it can be satisfactorily accounted for in -terms of a lower one. In following this principle we may be sometimes -niggardly, for the behaviour may have a mental subtlety that we have -missed; but in nine cases out of ten our conclusions are likely to be -sound. It is the critical, scientific way. - -Bearing this law in mind, let us take a survey of the emergence of mind -among backboned animals. - - -Senses of Fishes - -Fishes cannot shut their eyes, having no true lids; but the eyes -themselves are very well developed and the vision is acute, especially -for moving objects. Except in gristly fishes, the external opening to -the ear has been lost, so that sound-waves and coarser vibrations must -influence the inner ear, which is well developed, through the -surrounding flesh and bones. It seems that the main use of the ear in -fishes is in connection with balancing, not with hearing. In many cases, -however, the sense of hearing has been demonstrated; thus fishes will -come to the side of a pond to be fed when a bell is rung or when a -whistle is blown by someone not visible from the water. The fact that -many fishes pay no attention at all to loud noises does not prove that -they are deaf, for an animal may hear a sound and yet remain quite -indifferent or irresponsive. This merely means that the sound has no -vital interest for the animal. Some fishes, such as bullhead and -dogfish, have a true sense of smell, detecting by their nostrils very -dilute substances permeating the water from a distance. Others, such as -members of the cod family, perceive their food in part at least by the -sense of taste, which is susceptible to substances near at hand and -present in considerable quantity. This sense of taste may be located on -the fins as well as about the mouth. At this low level the senses of -smell and taste do not seem to be very readily separated. The chief use -of the sensitive line or lateral line seen on each side of a bony fish -is to make the animal aware of slow vibrations and changes of pressure -in the water. The skin responds to pressures, the ear to vibrations of -high frequency; the lateral line is between the two in its function. - - -Interesting Ways of Fishes - -The brain of the ordinary bony fish is at a very low level. Thus the -cerebral hemispheres, destined to become more and more the seat of -intelligence, are poorly developed. In gristly fishes, like skates and -sharks, the brain is much more promising. But although the state of the -brain does not lead one to expect very much from a bony fish like trout -or eel, haddock or herring, illustrations are not wanting of what might -be called pretty pieces of behaviour. Let us select a few cases. - - -The Stickleback's Nest - -The three-spined and two-spined sticklebacks live equally well in fresh -or salt water; the larger fifteen-spined stickleback is entirely marine. -In all three species the male fish makes a nest, in fresh or brackish -water in the first two cases, in shore-pools in the third case. The -little species use the leaves and stems of water-plants; the larger -species use seaweed and zoophyte. The leaves or fronds are entangled -together and fastened by glue-like threads, secreted, strange to say, by -the kidneys. It is just as if a temporary diseased condition had been -regularised and turned to good purpose. Going through the nest several -times, the male makes a little room in the middle. Partly by coercion -and partly by coaxing he induces a female--first one and then -another--to pass through the nest with two doors, depositing eggs during -her short sojourn. The females go their way, and the male mounts guard -over the nest. He drives off intruding fishes much bigger than himself. -When the young are hatched, the male has for a time much to do, keeping -his charges within bounds until they are able to move about with -agility. It seems that sticklebacks are short-lived fishes, probably -breeding only once; and it is reasonable to suppose that their success -as a race depends to some extent on the paternal care. Now if we could -believe that the nesting behaviour had appeared suddenly in its present -form, we should be inclined to credit the fish with considerable mental -ability. But we are less likely to be so generous if we reflect that the -routine has been in all likelihood the outcome of a long racial process -of slight improvements and critical testings. The secretion of the glue -probably came about as a pathological variation; its utilisation was -perhaps discovered by accident; the types that had wit enough to take -advantage of this were most successful; the routine became enregistered -hereditarily. The stickleback is not so clever as it looks. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Imperial War Museum._ - -HOMING PIGEON - -A blue chequer hen, which during the War (in September of 1918) flew 22 -miles in as many minutes, saving the crew of an aeroplane in -difficulties.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Imperial War Museum._ - -CARRIER PIGEON - -Carrier pigeons were much used in the War to carry messages. The -photograph shows how the message is fixed to the carrier pigeon's leg, -in the form of light rings.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: James's Press Agency._ - -YELLOW-CROWNED PENGUIN - -Notice the flightless wings turned into flippers, which are often -flapped very vigorously. The very strong feet are also noteworthy. -Penguins are mostly confined to the Far South.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Cagcombe & Co._ - -PENGUINS ARE "A PECULIAR PEOPLE" - -Their wings have been turned into flippers for swimming in the sea and -tobogganing on snow. The penguins come back over hundreds of miles of -trackless waste to their birthplace, where they breed. When they reach -the Antarctic shore they walk with determination to a suitable site, -often at the top of a steep cliff. Some species waddle 130 steps per -minute, 6 inches per step, two-thirds of a mile per hour.] - - -The Mind of a Minnow - -To find solid ground on which to base an appreciation of the behaviour -of fishes, it is necessary to experiment, and we may refer to Miss -Gertrude White's interesting work on American minnows and sticklebacks. -After the fishes had become quite at home in their artificial -surroundings, their lessons began. Cloth packets, one of which contained -meat and the other cotton, were suspended at opposite ends of the -aquarium. The mud-minnows did not show that they perceived either -packet, though they swam close by them; the sticklebacks were intrigued -at once. Those that went towards the packet containing meat darted -furiously upon it and pulled at it with great excitement. Those that -went towards the cotton packet turned sharply away when they were within -about two inches off. They then perceived what those at the other end -were after and joined them--a common habit amongst fishes. Although the -minnows were not interested in the tiny "bags of mystery," they were -even more alert than the sticklebacks in perceiving moving objects in or -on the water, and there is no doubt that both these shallow-water -species discover their food largely by sense of sight. - -The next set of lessons had to do with colour-associations. The fishes -were fed on minced snail, chopped earthworm, fragments of liver, and the -like, and the food was given to them from the end of forceps held above -the surface of the water, so that the fishes could not be influenced by -smell. They had to leap out of the water to take the food from the -forceps. Discs of coloured cardboard were slipped over the end of the -forceps, so that what the fishes saw was a morsel of food in the centre -of a coloured disc. After a week or so of preliminary training, they -were so well accustomed to the coloured discs that the presentation of -one served as a signal for the fishes to dart to the surface and spring -out of the water. When baits of paper were substituted for the food, the -fishes continued to jump at the discs. When, however, a blue disc was -persistently used for the paper bait and a red disc for the real food, -or _vice versa_, some of the minnows learned to discriminate infallibly -between shadow and substance, both when these were presented alternately -and when they were presented simultaneously. This is not far from the -dawn of mind. - -In the course of a few lessons, both minnows and sticklebacks learned to -associate particular colours with food, and other associations were also -formed. A kind of larva that a minnow could make nothing of after -repeated trials was subsequently ignored. The approach of the -experimenter or anyone else soon began to serve as a food-signal. There -can be no doubt that in the ordinary life of fishes there is a process -of forming useful associations and suppressing useless responses. Given -an inborn repertory of profitable movements that require no training, -given the power of forming associations such as those we have -illustrated, and given a considerable degree of sensory alertness along -certain lines, fishes do not require much more. And in truth they have -not got it. Moving with great freedom in three dimensions in a medium -that supports them and is very uniform and constant, able in most cases -to get plenty of food without fatiguing exertions and to dispense with -it for considerable periods if it is scarce, multiplying usually in -great abundance so that the huge infantile mortality hardly counts, -rarely dying a natural death but usually coming with their strength -unabated to a violent end, fishes hold their own in the struggle for -existence without much in the way of mental endowment. Their brain has -more to do with motion than with mentality, and they have remained at a -low psychical level. - -Yet just as we should greatly misjudge our own race if we confined our -attention to everyday routine, so in our total, as distinguished from -our average, estimate of fishes, we must remember the salmon surmounting -the falls, the wary trout eluding the angler's skill, the common -mud-skipper (Periophthalmus) of many tropical shores which climbs on the -rocks and the roots of the mangrove-trees, or actively hunts small -shore-animals. We must remember the adventurous life-history of the eel -and the quaint ways in which some fishes, males especially, look after -their family. The male sea-horse puts the eggs in his breast-pocket; the -male Kurtus carries them on the top of his head; the cock-paidle or -lumpsucker guards them and aerates them in a corner of a shore-pool. - - -Sec. 3 - -The Mind of Amphibians - -Towards the end of the age of the Old Red Sandstone or Devonian, a great -step in evolution was taken--the emergence of Amphibians. The earliest -representatives had fish-like characters even more marked than those -which may be discerned in the tadpoles of our frogs and toads, and there -is no doubt that amphibians sprang from a fish stock. But they made -great strides, associated in part with their attempts to get out of the -water on to dry land. From fossil forms we cannot say much in regard to -soft parts; but if we consider the living representatives of the class, -we may credit amphibians with such important acquisitions as fingers and -toes, a three-chambered heart, true ventral lungs, a drum to the ear, a -mobile tongue, and vocal cords. When animals began to be able to grasp -an object and when they began to be able to utter sufficient sounds, two -new doors were opened. Apart from insects, whose instrumental music had -probably begun before the end of the Devonian age, amphibians were the -first animals to have a voice. The primary meaning of this voice was -doubtless, as it is to-day in our frogs, a sex-call; but it was the -beginning of what was destined to play a very important part in the -evolution of the mind. In the course of ages the significance of the -voice broadened out; it became a parental call; it became an infant's -cry. Broadening still, it became a very useful means of recognition -among kindred, especially in the dark and in the intricacies of the -forest. Ages passed, and the voice rose on another turn of the -evolutionary spiral to be expressive of particular emotions beyond the -immediate circle of sex--emotions of joy and of fear, of jealousy and of -contentment. Finally, we judge, the animal--perhaps the bird was -first--began to give utterance to particular "words," indicative not -merely of emotions, but of particular things with an emotional halo, -such as "food," "enemy," "home." Long afterwards, words became _in man_ -the medium of reasoned discourse. Sentences were made and judgments -expressed. But was not the beginning in the croaking of Amphibia? - - -Senses of Amphibians - -Frogs have good eyes, and the toad's eyes are "jewels." There is -evidence of precise vision in the neat way in which a frog catches a -fly, flicking out its tongue, which is fixed in front and loose behind. -There is also experimental proof that a frog discriminates between red -and blue, or between red and white, and an interesting point is that -while our skin is sensitive to heat rays but not to light, the skin of -the frog answers back to light rays as well. Professor Yerkes -experimented with a frog which had to go through a simple labyrinth if -it wished to reach a tank of water. At the first alternative between two -paths, a red card was placed on the wrong side and a white one on the -other. When the frog had learned to take the correct path, marked by the -white card, Prof. Yerkes changed the cards. The confusion of the frog -showed how thoroughly it had learned its lesson. - -We know very little in regard to sense of smell or taste in amphibians; -but the sense of hearing is well developed, more developed than might be -inferred from the indifference that frogs show to almost all sounds -except the croaking of their kindred and splashes in the water. - -The toad looks almost sagacious when it is climbing up a bank, and some -of the tree-frogs are very alert; but there is very little that we dare -say about the amphibian mind. We have mentioned that frogs may learn the -secret of a simple maze, and toads sometimes make for a particular -spawning-pond from a considerable distance. But an examination of their -brains, occupying a relatively small part of the broad, flat skull, -warns us not to expect much intelligence. On the other hand, when we -take frogs along a line that is very vital to them, namely, the -discrimination of palatable and unpalatable insects, we find, by -experiment, that they are quick to learn and that they remember their -lessons for many days. Frogs sometimes deposit their eggs in very -unsuitable pools of water; but perhaps that is not quite so stupid as it -looks. The egg-laying is a matter that has been, as it were, handed over -to instinctive registration. - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge._ - -HARPY-EAGLE - -"Clean and dainty and proud as a Spanish Don." - -It is an arboreal and cliff-loving bird, feeding chiefly on mammals, -very fierce and strong. The under parts are mostly white, with a greyish -zone on the chest. The upper parts are blackish-grey. The harpy occurs -from Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S._ - -THE DINGO OR WILD DOG OF AUSTRALIA, PERHAPS AN INDIGENOUS WILD SPECIES, -PERHAPS A DOMESTICATED DOG THAT HAS GONE WILD OR FERAL - -It does much harm in destroying sheep. It is famous for its persistent -"death-feigning," for an individual has been known to allow part of its -skin to be removed, in the belief that it was dead, before betraying its -vitality.] - -[Illustration: WOODPECKER, HAMMERING AT A COTTON-REEL, ATTACHED TO A -TREE - -Notice how the stiff tail-feathers braced against the stem help the bird -to cling on with its toes. The original hole, in which this woodpecker -inserted nuts for the purposes of cracking the shell and extracting the -kernel, is seen towards the top of the tree. But the taker of the -photograph tied on a hollowed-out cotton-reel as a receptacle for a nut, -and it was promptly discovered and used by the bird.] - - -Experiments in Parental Care - -It must be put to the credit of amphibians that they have made many -experiments in methods of parental care, as if they were feeling their -way to new devices. A common frog lays her clumps of eggs in the cradle -of the water, sometimes far over a thousand together; the toad winds two -long strings round and between water-weeds; and in both cases that is -all. There is no parental care, and the prolific multiplication covers -the enormous infantile mortality. This is the spawning solution of the -problem of securing the continuance of the race. But there is another -solution, that of parental care associated with an economical reduction -of the number of eggs. Thus the male of the Nurse-Frog (Alytes), not -uncommon on the Continent, fixes a string of twenty to fifty eggs to the -upper part of his hind-legs, and retires to his hole, only coming out at -night to get some food and to keep up the moisture about the eggs. In -three weeks, when the tadpoles are ready to come out, he plunges into -the pond and is freed from his living burden and his family cares. In -the case of the thoroughly aquatic Surinam Toad (Pipa), the male helps -to press the eggs, perhaps a hundred in number, on to the back of the -female, where each sinks into a pocket of skin with a little lid. By and -by fully formed young toads jump out of the pockets. - -In the South American tree-frogs called Nototrema there is a pouch on -the back of the female in which the eggs develop, and it is interesting -to find that in some species what come out are ordinary tadpoles, while -in other species the young emerge as miniatures of their parents. -Strangest of all, perhaps, is the case of Darwin's Frog (Rhinoderma of -Chili), where the young, about ten to fifteen in number, develop in the -male's croaking-sacs, which become in consequence enormously distended. -Eventually the strange spectacle is seen of miniature frogs jumping out -of their father's mouth. Needless to say we are not citing these methods -of parental care as examples of intelligence; but perhaps they correct -the impression of amphibians as a rather humdrum race. Whatever be the -mental aspect of the facts, there has certainly been some kind of -experimenting, and the increase of parental care, so marked in many -amphibians, with associated reduction of the number of offspring is a -finger-post on the path of progress. - - -Sec. 4 - -The Reptilian Mind - -We speak of the wisdom of the serpent; but it is not very easy to -justify the phrase. Among all the multitude of reptiles--snakes, -lizards, turtles, and crocodiles, a motley crowd--we cannot see much -more than occasional traces of intelligence. The inner life remains a -tiny rill. - -No doubt many reptiles are very effective; but it is an instinctive -rather than an intelligent efficiency. The well-known "soft-shell" -tortoise of the United States swims with powerful strokes and runs so -quickly that it can hardly be overtaken. It hunts vigorously for -crayfish and insect larvae in the rivers. It buries itself in the mud -when cold weather comes. It may lie on a floating log ready to slip into -the water at a moment's notice; it may bask on a sunny bank or in the -warm shallows. Great wariness is shown in choosing times and places for -egg-laying. The mother tramps the earth down upon the buried eggs. All -is effective. Similar statements might be made in regard to scores of -other reptiles; but what we see is almost wholly of the nature of -instinctive routine, and we get little glimpse of more than efficiency -and endeavour. - -In a few cases there is proof of reptiles finding their way back to -their homes from a considerable distance, and recognition of persons is -indubitable. Gilbert White remarks of his tortoise: "Whenever the good -old lady came in sight who had waited on it for more than thirty years, -it always hobbled with awkward alacrity towards its benefactress, while -to strangers it was altogether inattentive." Of definite learning there -are a few records. Thus Professor Yerkes studied a sluggish turtle of -retiring disposition, taking advantage of its strong desire to efface -itself. On the path of the darkened nest of damp grass he interposed a -simple maze in the form of a partitioned box. After wandering about -constantly for thirty-five minutes the turtle found its way through the -maze by chance. Two hours afterwards it reached the nest in fifteen -minutes; and after another interval of two hours it only required five -minutes. After the third trial, the routes became more direct, there was -less aimless wandering. The time of the twentieth trial was forty-five -seconds; that of the thirtieth, forty seconds. In the thirtieth case, -the path followed was quite direct, and so it was on the fiftieth trip, -which only required thirty-five seconds. Of course, the whole thing did -not amount to very much; but there was a definite learning, _a learning -from experience_, which has played an important part in the evolution of -animal behaviour. - -Comparing reptiles with amphibians, we may recognise an increased -masterliness of behaviour and a hint of greater plasticity. The records -of observers who have made pets of reptiles suggest that the life of -feeling or emotion is growing stronger, and so do stories, if they can -be accepted, which suggest the beginning of conjugal affection. - -The error must be guarded against of interpreting in terms of -intelligence what is merely the outcome of long-continued structure -adaptation. When the limbless lizard called the Slow-worm is suddenly -seized by the tail, it escapes by surrendering the appendage, which -breaks across a preformed weak plane. But this is a reflex action, not a -reflective one. It is comparable to our sudden withdrawal of our finger -from a very hot cinder. The Egg-eating African snake Dasypeltis gets the -egg of a bird into its gullet unbroken, and cuts the shell against -downward-projecting sharp points of the vertebrae. None of the precious -contents is lost and the broken "empties" are returned. It is admirable, -indeed unsurpassable; but it is not intelligent. - - -Sec. 5 - -Mind in Birds - -Sight and hearing are highly developed in birds, and the senses, besides -pulling the triggers of inborn efficiencies, supply the raw materials -for intelligence. There is some truth, though not the whole truth, in -the old philosophical dictum, that there is nothing in the intellect -which was not previously in the senses. Many people have admired the -certainty and alacrity with which gulls pick up a fragment of biscuit -from the white wake of a steamer, and the incident is characteristic. In -their power of rapidly altering the focus of the eye, birds are -unsurpassed. - -To the sense of sight in birds, the sense of hearing comes a good -second. A twig breaks under our feet, and out sounds the danger-call of -the bird we were trying to watch. Many young birds, like partridges, -respond when two or three hours old to the anxious warning note of the -parents, and squat motionless on the ground, though other sounds, such -as the excited clucking of a foster-mother hen, leave them indifferent. -They do not know what they are doing when they squat; they are obeying -the living hand of the past which is within them. Their behaviour is -instinctive. But the present point is the discriminating quality of the -sense of hearing; and that is corroborated by the singing of birds. -It is emotional art, expressing feelings in the medium of sound. On the -part of the females, who are supposed to listen, it betokens a -cultivated ear. - -[Illustration: THE BEAVER - -The beaver will gnaw through trees a foot in diameter; to save itself -more trouble than is necessary, it will stop when it has gnawed the -trunk till there is only a narrow core left, having the wit to know that -the autumn gales will do the rest.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: F. R. Hinkins & Son._ - -THE THRUSH AT ITS ANVIL - -The song-thrush takes the snail's shell in its bill, and knocks it -against a stone until it breaks, making the palatable flesh available. - -Many broken shells are often found around the anvil.] - -As to the other senses, touch is not highly developed except about the -bill, where it reaches a climax in birds like the wood-cock, which probe -for unseen earthworms in the soft soil. Taste seems to be poorly -developed, for most birds bolt their food, but there is sometimes an -emphatic rejection of unpalatable things, like toads and caterpillars. -Of smell in birds little is known, but it has been proved to be present -in certain cases, e.g. in some nocturnal birds of prey. It seems certain -that it is by sight, not by smell, that the eagles gather to the -carcass; but perhaps there is more smell in birds than they are usually -credited with. One would like to experiment with the oil from the preen -gland of birds to see whether the scent of this does not help in the -recognition of kin by kin at night or amid the darkness of the forest. -There may be other senses in birds, such as a sense of temperature and a -sense of balance; but no success has attended the attempts made to -demonstrate a magnetic sense, which has been impatiently postulated by -students of bird migration in order to "explain" how the birds find -their way. The big fact is that in birds there are two widely open -gateways of knowledge, the sense of sight and the sense of hearing. - - -Instinctive Aptitudes - -Many a young water-bird, such as a coot, swims right away when it is -tumbled into water for the first time. So chicks peck without any -learning or teaching, very young ducklings catch small moths that flit -by, and young plovers lie low when the danger-signal sounds. But birds -seem strangely limited as regards many of these instinctive -capacities--limited when compared with the "little-brained" ants and -bees, which have from the first such a rich repertory of ready-made -cleverness. The limitation in birds is of great interest, for it means -that intelligence is coming to its own and is going to take up the -reins at many corners of the daily round. Professor Lloyd Morgan -observed that his chickens incubated in the laboratory had no -instinctive awareness of the significance of their mother's cluck when -she was brought outside the door. Although thirsty and willing to drink -from a moistened finger-tip, they did not instinctively recognize water, -even when they walked through a saucerful. Only when they happened to -peck their toes as they stood in the water did they appreciate water as -the stuff they wanted, and raise their bills up to the sky. Once or -twice they actually stuffed their crops with "worms" of red worsted! - -Instinctive aptitudes, then, the young birds have, but these are more -limited than in ants, bees, and wasps; and the reason is to be found in -the fact that the brain is now evolving on the tack of what Sir Ray -Lankester has called "educability." Young birds _learn_ with prodigious -rapidity; the emancipation of the mind from the tyranny of hereditary -obligations has begun. Young birds make mistakes, like the red worsted -mistake, but they do not make the same mistakes often. They are able to -profit by experience in a very rapid way. We do not mean that creatures -of the little-brain type, like ants, bees, and wasps, are unable to -profit by experience or are without intelligence. There are no such -hard-and-fast lines. We mean that in the ordinary life of insects the -enregistered instinctive capacities are on the whole sufficient for the -occasion, and that intelligent educability is very slightly developed. -Nor do we mean that birds are quite emancipated from the tyranny of -engrained instinctive obligations, and can always "ring up" intelligence -in a way that is impossible for the stereotyped bee. The sight of a -pigeon brooding on an empty nest, while her two eggs lie disregarded -only a couple of inches away, is enough to show that along certain lines -birds may find it impossible to get free from the trammels of instinct. -The peculiar interest of birds is that they have many instincts and yet -a notable power of learning intelligently. - - -Intelligence co-operating with Instinct - -Professor Lloyd Morgan was foster-parent to two moorhens which grew up -in isolation from their kindred. They swam instinctively, but they would -not dive, neither in a large bath nor in a current. But it happened one -day when one of these moorhens was swimming in a pool on a Yorkshire -stream, that a puppy came barking down the bank and made an awkward -feint towards the young bird. In a moment the moorhen dived, disappeared -from view, and soon partially reappeared, his head just peeping above -the water beneath the overhanging bank. This was the first time the bird -had dived, and the performance was absolutely true to type. - -There can be little doubt as to the meaning of this observation. The -moorhen has an hereditary or instinctive capacity for swimming and -diving, but the latter is not so easily called into activity as the -former. The particular moorhen in question had enjoyed about two months -of swimming experience, which probably counted for something, but in the -course of that experience nothing had pulled the trigger of the diving -capacity. On an eventful day the young moorhen saw and heard the dog; it -was emotionally excited; it probably did to some extent intelligently -appreciate a novel and meaningful situation. Intelligence cooperated -with instinct, and the bird dived appropriately. - -Birds have inborn predispositions to certain effective ways of pecking, -scratching, swimming, diving, flying, crouching, lying low, -nest-building, and so on; but they are marked off from the much more -purely instinctive ants and bees by the extent to which individual -"nurture" seems to mingle with the inherited "nature." The two together -result in the fine product which we call the bird's behaviour. After -Lloyd Morgan's chicks had tried a few conspicuous and unpalatable -caterpillars, they had no use for any more. They learned in their early -days with prodigious rapidity, illustrating the deep difference between -the "big-brain" type, relatively poor in its endowment of instinctive -capacities, but eminently "educable," and the "little-brain" type, say, -of ants and bees, richly endowed with instinctive capacities, but very -far from being quick or glad to learn. We owe it to Sir Ray Lankester to -have made it clear that these two types of brain are, as it were, on -different tacks of evolution, and should not be directly pitted against -one another. The "little-brain" type makes for a climax in the ant, -where instinctive behaviour reaches a high degree of perfection; the -"big-brain" type reaches its climax in horse and dog, in elephant and -monkey. The particular interest that attaches to the behaviour of birds -is in the combination of a good deal of instinct with a great deal of -intelligent learning. This is well illustrated when birds make a nest -out of new materials or in some quite novel situation. It is clearly -seen when birds turn to some new kind of food, like the Kea parrot, -which attacks the sheep in New Zealand. - -Some young woodpeckers are quite clever in opening fir cones to get at -the seeds, and this might be hastily referred to a well-defined -hereditary capacity. But the facts are that the parents bring their -young ones first the seeds themselves, then partly opened cones, and -then intact ones. There is an educative process, and so it is in scores -of cases. - - -Using their Wits - -When the Greek eagle lifts the Greek tortoise in its talons, and lets it -fall from a height so that the strong carapace is broken and the flesh -exposed, it is making intelligent use of an expedient. Whether it -discovered the expedient by experimenting, as is possible, or by chance, -as is more likely, it uses it intelligently. In the same way -herring-gulls lift sea-urchins and clams in their bills, and let them -fall on the rocks so that the shells are broken. In the same way rooks -deal with freshwater mussels. - - -The Thrush's Anvil - -A very instructive case is the behaviour of the song-thrush when it -takes a wood-snail in its beak and hammers it against a stone, its -so-called anvil. To a young thrush, which she had brought up by hand, -Miss Frances Pitt offered some wood-snails, but it took no interest in -them until one put out its head and began to move about. The bird then -pecked at the snail's horns, but was evidently puzzled when the creature -retreated within the shelter of the shell. This happened over and over -again, the thrush's inquisitive interest increasing day by day. It -pecked at the shell and even picked it up by the lip, but no real -progress was made till the sixth day, when the thrush seized the snail -and beat it on the ground as it would a big worm. On the same day it -picked up a shell and knocked it repeatedly against a stone, trying -first one snail and then another. After fifteen minutes' hard work, the -thrush managed to break one, and after that it was all easy. A certain -predisposition to beat things on the ground was doubtless present, but -the experiment showed that the use of an anvil could be arrived at by an -untutored bird. After prolonged trying it found out how to deal with a -difficult situation. It may be said that in more natural conditions this -might be picked up by imitation, but while this is quite possible, it is -useful to notice that experiments with animals lead us to doubt whether -imitation counts for nearly so much as used to be believed. - - -Sec. 6 - -The Mind of the Mammal - -When we watch a collie at a sheep-driving competition, or an elephant -helping the forester, or a horse shunting waggons at a railway siding, -we are apt to be too generous to the mammal mind. For in the cases we -have just mentioned, part of man's mind has, so to speak, got into the -animal's. On the other hand, when we study rabbits and guinea-pigs, we -are apt to be too stingy, for these rodents are under the average of -mammals, and those that live in domestication illustrate the stupefying -effect of a too sheltered life. The same applies to domesticated sheep -contrasted with wild sheep, or even with their own lambs. If we are to -form a sound judgment on the intelligence of mammals we must not attend -too much to those that have profited by man's training, nor to those -whose mental life has been dulled by domestication. - - -Instinctive Aptitudes - -What is to be said of the behaviour of beavers who gnaw the base of a -tree with their chisel-edged teeth till only a narrow core is left--to -snap in the first gale, bringing the useful branches down to the ground? -What is to be said of the harvest-mouse constructing its nest, or of the -squirrel making cache after cache of nuts? These and many similar pieces -of behaviour are fundamentally instinctive, due to inborn -predispositions of nerve-cells and muscle-cells. But in mammals they -seem to be often attended by a certain amount of intelligent attention, -saving the creature from the tyranny of routine so marked in the ways of -ants and bees. - - -Sheer Dexterity - -Besides instinctive aptitudes, which are exhibited in almost equal -perfection by all the members of the same species, there are acquired -dexterities which depend on individual opportunities. They are also -marked by being outside and beyond ordinary routine--not that any -rigorous boundary line can be drawn. We read that at Mathura on the -Jumna doles of food are provided by the piety of pilgrims for the sacred -river-tortoises, which are so crowded when there is food going that -their smooth carapaces form a more or less continuous raft across the -river. On that unsteady slippery bridge the Langur monkeys -(_Semnopithecus entellus_) venture out and in spite of vicious snaps -secure a share of the booty. This picture of the monkeys securing a -footing on the moving mass of turtle-backs is almost a diagram of sheer -dexterity. It illustrates the spirit of adventure, the will to -experiment, which is, we believe, the main motive-force in new -departures in behaviour. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Lafayette_ - -ALSATIAN WOLF-DOG - -An animal of acute senses and great intelligence. It was of great -service in the war. - -(The dog shown, Arno von Indetal, is a trained police dog and did -service abroad during the war.)] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge._ - -THE POLAR BEAR OF THE FAR NORTH - -An animal of extraordinary strength, able with a stroke of its paw to -lift a big seal right out of the water and send it crashing along the -ice. The food consists chiefly of seals. The sexes wander separately. A -hole is often dug as a winter retreat, but there is no hibernation. A -polar bear in captivity has been seen making a current with its paw in -the water of its pool in order to secure floating buns without -trouble--an instance of sheer intelligence.] - -[Illustration: _From the Smithsonian Report_, 1914 - -AN ALLIGATOR "YAWNING" IN EXPECTATION OF FOOD - -Note the large number of sharp conical teeth fixed in sockets along the -jaws.] - - -Power of Association - -A bull-terrier called Jasper, studied by Prof. J. B. Watson, showed -great power of associating certain words with certain actions. From a -position invisible to the dog the owner would give certain commands, -such as "Go into the next room and bring me a paper lying on the floor." -Jasper did this at once, and a score of similar things. - -Lord Avebury's dog Van was accustomed to go to a box containing a small -number of printed cards and select the card TEA or OUT, as the occasion -suggested. It had established an association between certain black marks -on a white background and the gratification of certain desires. It is -probable that some of the extraordinary things horses and dogs have been -known to do in the way of stamping a certain number of times in supposed -indication of an answer to an arithmetical question (in the case of -horses), or of the name of an object drawn (in the case of dogs), are -dependent on clever associations established by the teacher between -minute signs and a number of stampings. What is certain is that mammals -have in varying degrees a strong power of establishing associations. -There is often some delicacy in the association established. Everyone -knows of cases where a dog, a cat, or a horse will remain quite -uninterested, to all appearance, in its owner's movements until some -little detail, such as taking a key from its peg, pulls the trigger. Now -the importance of this in the wild life of the fox or the hare, the -otter or the squirrel, is obviously that the young animals learn to -associate certain sounds in their environment with definite -possibilities. They have to learn an alphabet of woodcraft, the letters -of which are chiefly sounds and scents. - - -The Dancing Mouse as a Pupil - -The dancing or waltzing mouse is a Japanese variety with many -peculiarities, such as having only one of the three semicircular canals -of the ear well developed. It has a strong tendency to waltz round and -round in circles without sufficient cause and to trip sideways towards -its dormitory instead of proceeding in the orthodox head-on fashion. But -this freak is a very educable creature, as Professor Yerkes has shown. -In a careful way he confronted his mouse-pupil with alternative pathways -marked by different degrees of illumination, or by different colours. If -the mouse chose compartment A, it found a clear passage direct to its -nest; if it chose compartment B, it was punished by a mild electric -shock and it had to take a roundabout road home. Needless to say, the A -compartment was sometimes to the right hand, sometimes to the left, else -mere position would have been a guide. The experiments showed that the -dancing mice learn to discriminate the right path from the wrong, and -similar results have been got from other mammals, such as rats and -squirrels. There is no proof of learning by ideas, but there is proof of -learning by experience. And the same must be true in wild life. - -Many mammals, such as cats and rats, learn how to manipulate -puzzle-boxes and how to get at the treasure at the heart of a Hampton -Court maze. Some of the puzzle-boxes, with a reward of food inside, are -quite difficult, for the various bolts and bars have to be dealt with in -a particular order, and yet many mammals master the problem. What is -plain is that they gradually eliminate useless movements, that they make -fewer and fewer mistakes, that they eventually succeed, and that they -register the solution within themselves so that it remains with them for -a time. It looks a little like the behaviour of a man who learns a game -of skill without thinking. It is a learning by experience, not by ideas -or reflection. Thus it is very difficult to suppose that a rat or a cat -could form any idea or even picture of the Hampton Court maze--which -they nevertheless master. - - -Learning Tricks - -Given sufficient inducement many of the cleverer mammals will learn to -do very sensible things, and no one is wise enough to say that they -never understand what they are doing. Yet it is certain that trained -animals often exhibit pieces of behaviour which are not nearly so clever -as they look. The elephant at the Belle Vue Gardens in Manchester used -to collect pennies from benevolent visitors. When it got a penny in its -trunk it put it in the slot of an automatic machine which delivered up a -biscuit. When a visitor gave the elephant a halfpenny it used to throw -it back with disgust. At first sight this seemed almost wise, and there -was no doubt some intelligent appreciation of the situation. But it was -largely a matter of habituation, the outcome of careful and prolonged -training. The elephant was laboriously taught to put the penny in the -slot and to discriminate between the useful pennies and the useless -halfpennies. It was not nearly so clever as it looked. - - -Using their Wits - -In the beautiful Zoological Park in Edinburgh the Polar Bear was wont to -sit on a rocky peninsula of a water-filled quarry. The visitors threw in -buns, some of which floated on the surface. It was often easy for the -Polar Bear to collect half a dozen by plunging into the pool. But it had -discovered a more interesting way. At the edge of the peninsula it -scooped the water gently with its huge paw and made a current which -brought the buns ashore. This was a simple piece of behaviour, but it -has the smack of intelligence--of putting two and two together in a -novel way. It suggests the power of making what is called a "perceptual -inference." - -On the occasion of a great flood in a meadow it was observed that a -number of mares brought their foals to the top of a knoll, and stood -round about them protecting them against the rising water. A dog has -been known to show what was at any rate a plastic appreciation of a -varying situation in swimming across a tidal river. It changed its -starting-point, they say, according to the flow or ebb of the tide. -Arctic foxes and some other wild mammals show great cleverness in -dealing with traps, and the manipulative intelligence of elephants is -worthy of all our admiration. - - -Sec. 7 - -Why is there not more Intelligence? - -When we allow for dexterity and power of association, when we recognise -a certain amount of instinctive capacity and a capacity for profiting by -experience in an intelligent way, we must admit a certain degree of -disappointment when we take a survey of the behaviour of mammals, -especially of those with very fine brains, from which we should -naturally expect great things. Why is there not more frequent exhibition -of intelligence in the stricter sense? - -The answer is that most mammals have become in the course of time very -well adapted to the ordinary conditions of their life, and tend to leave -well alone. They have got their repertory of efficient answers to the -ordinary questions of everyday life, and why should they experiment? In -the course of the struggle for existence what has been established is -efficiency in normal circumstances, and therefore even the higher -animals tend to be no cleverer than is necessary. So while many mammals -are extraordinarily efficient, they tend to be a little dull. Their -mental equipment is adequate for the everyday conditions of their life, -but it is not on sufficiently generous lines to admit of, let us say, an -interest in Nature or adventurous experiment. Mammals always tend to -"play for safety." - -We hasten, however, to insert here some very interesting saving clauses. - - -Experimentation in Play - -A glimpse of what mammals are capable of, were it necessary, may be -obtained by watching those that are playful, such as lambs and kids, -foals and calves, young foxes and others. For these young creatures let -themselves go irresponsibly, they are still unstereotyped, they test -what they and their fellows can do. The experimental character of much -of animal play is very marked. - -It is now recognised by biologists that play among animals is the young -form of work, and that the playing period, often so conspicuous, is -vitally important as an apprenticeship to the serious business of life -and as an opportunity for learning the alphabet of Nature. But the -playing period is much more; it is one of the few opportunities animals -have of making experiments without too serious responsibilities. Play is -Nature's device for allowing elbow-room for new departures -(behaviour-variations) which may form part of the raw materials of -progress. Play, we repeat, gives us a glimpse of the possibilities of -the mammal mind. - - -Other Glimpses of Intelligence - -A squirrel is just as clever as it needs to be and no more; and of some -vanishing mammals, like the beaver, not even this can be said. Humdrum -non-plastic efficiency is apt to mean stagnation. Now we have just seen -that in the play of young mammals there is an indication of unexhausted -possibilities, and we get the same impression when we think of three -other facts. (_a_) In those mammals, like dog and horse, which have -entered into active cooperative relations with man, we see that the mind -of the mammal is capable of much more than the average would lead us to -think. When man's sheltering is too complete and the domesticated -creature is passive in his grip, the intelligence deteriorates. (_b_) -When we study mammals, like the otter, which live a versatile life in a -very complex and difficult environment, we get an inspiriting picture of -the play of wits. (_c_) Thirdly, when we pass to monkeys, where the -fore-limb has become a free hand, where the brain shows a relatively -great improvement, where "words" are much used, we cannot fail to -recognise the emergence of something new--a restless inquisitiveness, a -desire to investigate the world, an unsatisfied tendency to experiment. -We are approaching the Dawn of Reason. - - -THE MIND OF MONKEYS - -Sec. 8 - -There is a long gamut between the bushy-tailed, almost squirrel-like -marmosets and the big-brained chimpanzee. There is great variety of -attainment at different levels in the Simian tribe. - - -Keen Senses - -To begin at the beginning, it is certain that monkeys have a first-class -sensory equipment, especially as regards sight, hearing, and touch. The -axes of the two eyes are directed forwards as in man, and a large -section of the field of vision is common to both eyes. In other words, -monkeys have a more complete stereoscopic vision than the rest of the -mammals enjoy. They look more and smell less. They can distinguish -different colours, apart from different degrees of brightness in the -coloured objects. They are quick to discriminate differences in the -shapes of things, e.g. boxes similar in size but different in shape, for -if the prize is always put in a box of the same shape they soon learn -(by association) to select the profitable one. They learn to -discriminate cards with short words or with signs printed on them, -coming down when the "Yes" card is shown, remaining on their perch when -the card says "No." Bred to a forest life where alertness is a -life-or-death quality, they are quick to respond to a sudden movement or -to pick out some new feature in their surroundings. And what is true of -vision holds also for hearing. - - -Power of Manipulation - -Another quality which separates monkeys very markedly from ordinary -mammals is their manipulative expertness, the co-ordination of hand -and eye. This great gift follows from the fact that among monkeys the -fore-leg has been emancipated. It has ceased to be indispensable as an -organ of support; it has become a climbing, grasping, lifting, handling -organ. The fore-limb has become a free hand, and everyone who knows -monkeys at all is aware of the zest with which they use their tool. They -enjoy pulling things to pieces--a kind of dissection--or screwing the -handle off a brush and screwing it on again. - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. P. Dando_ - -BABY ORANG - -Notice the small ears and the suggestion of good temper. The mother -orang will throw prickly fruits and pieces of branches at those who -intrude on her maternal care.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Gambier Bolton._ - -ORANG-UTAN - -A large and heavy ape, frequenting forests in Sumatra and Borneo, living -mainly in trees, where a temporary nest is made. The expression is -melancholy, the belly very protuberant, the colour yellow-brown, the -movements are cautious and slow.] - -[Illustration: 1. CHIMPANZEE - -2. BABY ORANG-UTAN - -3. ORANG-UTAN - -4. BABY CHIMPANZEES - -_Photos: James's Press Agency._ - -In his famous book on _The Expression of the Emotions in Man and -Animals_ (1872) Charles Darwin showed that many forms of facial -expression familiar in man have their counterparts in apes and other -mammals. He also showed how important the movements of expression are as -means of communication between mother and offspring, mate and mate, kith -and kin. - -The anthropoid apes show notable differences of temperament as the -photographs show. The chimpanzee is lively, cheerful, and educable. The -orang is also mild of temper, but often and naturally appears melancholy -in captivity. This is not suggested, however, by our photograph of the -adult. Both chimpanzee and orang are markedly contrasted with the fierce -and gloomy gorilla.] - - -Activity for Activity's Sake - -Professor Thorndike hits the nail on the head when he lays stress on the -intensity of activity in monkeys--activity both of body and mind. They -are pent-up reservoirs of energy, which almost any influence will tap. -Watch a cat or a dog, Professor Thorndike says; it does comparatively -few things and is content for long periods to do nothing. It will be -splendidly active in response to some stimulus such as food or a friend -or a fight, but if nothing appeals to its special make-up, which is very -utilitarian in its interests, it will do nothing. "Watch a monkey and -you cannot enumerate the things he does, cannot discover the stimuli to -which he reacts, cannot conceive the _raison d'etre_ of his pursuits. -Everything appeals to him. He likes to be active for the sake of -activity." - -This applies to mental activity as well, and the quality is one of -extraordinary interest, for it shows the experimenting mood at a higher -turn of the spiral than in any other creature, save man. It points -forward to the scientific spirit. We cannot, indeed, believe in the -sudden beginning of any quality, and we recall the experimenting of -playing mammals, such as kids and kittens, or of inquisitive adults like -Kipling's mongoose, Riki-Tiki-Tavi, which made it his business in life -to find out about things. But in monkeys the habit of restless -experimenting rises to a higher pitch. They appear to be curious about -the world. The psychologist whom we have quoted tells of a monkey which -happened to hit a projecting wire so as to make it vibrate. He went on -repeating the performance hundreds of times during the next few days. Of -course, he got nothing out of it, save fun, but it was grist to his -mental mill. "The fact of mental life is to monkeys it own reward." The -monkey's brain is "tender all over, functioning throughout, set off in -action by anything and everything." - - -Sheer Quickness - -Correlated with the quality of restless inquisitiveness and delight in -activity for its own sake there is the quality of quickness. We mean not -merely the locomotor agility that marks most monkeys, but quickness of -perception and plan. It is the sort of quality that life among the -branches will engender, where it is so often a case of neck or nothing. -It is the quality which we describe as being on the spot, though the -phrase has slipped from its original moorings. Speaking of his Bonnet -Monkey, an Indian macaque, second cousin to the kind that lives on the -Rock of Gibraltar, Professor S. J. Holmes writes: "For keenness of -perception, rapidity of action, facility in forming good practical -judgments about ways and means of escaping pursuit and of attaining -various other ends, Lizzie had few rivals in the animal world.... Her -perceptions and decisions were so much more rapid than my own that she -would frequently transfer her attention, decide upon a line of action, -and carry it into effect before I was aware of what she was about. Until -I came to guard against her nimble and unexpected manoeuvres, she -succeeded in getting possession of many apples and peanuts which I had -not intended to give her except upon the successful performance of some -task." - - -Quick to Learn - -Quite fundamental to any understanding of animal behaviour is the -distinction so clearly drawn by Sir Ray Lankester between the -"little-brain" type, rich in inborn or instinctive capacities, but -relatively slow to learn, and the "big-brain" type, with a relatively -poor endowment of specialised instincts, but with great educability. The -"little-brain" type finds its climax in ants and bees; the "big-brain" -type in horses and dogs, elephants and monkeys. And of all animals -monkeys are the quickest to learn, if we use the word "learn" to mean -the formation of useful associations between this and that, between a -given sense-presentation and a particular piece of behaviour. - - -The Case of Sally - -Some of us remember Sally, the chimpanzee at the "Zoo" with which Dr. -Romanes used to experiment. She was taught to give her teacher the -number of straws he asked for, and she soon learned to do so up to five. -If she handed a number not asked for, her offer was refused; if she gave -the proper number, she got a piece of fruit. If she was asked for five -straws, she picked them up individually and placed them in her mouth, -and when she had gathered five she presented them together in her hand. -Attempts to teach her to give six to ten straws were not very -successful. For Sally "above six" meant "many," and besides, her limits -of patience were probably less than her range of computation. This was -hinted at by the highly interesting circumstance that when dealing with -numbers above five she very frequently doubled over a straw so as to -make it present two ends and thus appear as two straws. The doubling of -the straw looked like an intelligent device to save time, and it was -persistently resorted to in spite of the fact that her teacher always -refused to accept a doubled straw as equivalent to two straws. Here we -get a glimpse of something beyond the mere association of a -sound--"Five"--and that number of straws. - - -The Case of Lizzie - -The front of the cage in which Professor Holmes kept Lizzie was made of -vertical bars which allowed her to reach out with her arm. On a board -with an upright nail as handle, there was placed an apple--out of -Lizzie's reach. She reached immediately for the nail, pulled the board -in and got the apple. "There was no employment of the method of trial -and error; there was direct appropriate action following the perception -of her relation to board, nail, and apple." Of course her ancestors may -have been adepts at drawing a fruit-laden branch within their reach, but -the simple experiment was very instructive. All the more instructive -because in many other cases the experiments indicate a gradual sifting -out of useless movements and an eventful retention of the one that pays. -When Lizzie was given a vaseline bottle containing a peanut and closed -with a cork, she at once pulled the cork out with her teeth, obeying the -instinct to bite at new objects, but she never learned to turn the -bottle upside down and let the nut drop out. She often got the nut, and -after some education she got it more quickly than she did at first, but -there was no indication that she ever perceived the fit and proper way -of getting what she wanted. "In the course of her intent efforts her -mind seemed so absorbed with the object of desire that it was never -focussed on the means of attaining that object. There was no -deliberation, and no discrimination between the important and the -unimportant elements in her behaviour. The gradually increasing facility -of her performances depended on the apparently unconscious elimination -of useless movements." This may be called learning, but it is learning -at a very low level; it is far from learning by ideas; it is hardly even -learning by experiment; it is not more than learning by experience, it -is not more than fumbling at learning! - - -Trial and Error - -A higher note is struck in the behaviour of some more highly endowed -monkeys. In many experiments, chiefly in the way of getting into boxes -difficult to open, there is evidence (1) of attentive persistent -experiment (2) of the rapid elimination of ineffective movements, and -(3) of remembering the solution when it was discovered. Kinnaman taught -two macaques the Hampton Court Maze, a feat which probably means a -memory of movements, and we get an interesting glimpse in his -observation that they began to smack their lips audibly when they -reached the latter part of their course, and began to feel, dare one -say, "We are right this time." - -In getting into "puzzle-boxes" and into "combination-boxes" (where the -barriers must be overcome in a definite order), monkeys learn by the -trial and error method much more quickly than cats and dogs do, and a -very suggestive fact emphasized by Professor Thorndike is "a process of -sudden acquisition by a rapid, often apparently instantaneous -abandonment of the unsuccessful movements and selection of the -appropriate one, which rivals in suddenness the selections made by human -beings in similar performances." A higher note still was sounded by one -of Thorndike's monkeys which opened a puzzle-box at once, eight months -after his previous experience with it. For here was some sort of -registration of a solution. - - -Imitation - -Two chimpanzees in the Dublin Zoo were often to be seen washing the two -shelves of their cupboard and "wringing" the wet cloth in the approved -fashion. It was like a caricature of a washerwoman, and someone said, -"What mimics they are!" Now we do not know whether that was or was not -the case with the chimpanzees, but the majority of the experiments that -have been made do not lead us to attach to imitation so much importance -as is usually given to it by the popular interpreter. There are -instances where a monkey that had given up a puzzle in despair returned -to it when it had seen its neighbour succeed, but most of the -experiments suggested that the creature has to find out for itself. Even -with such a simple problem as drawing food near with a stick, it often -seems of little use to show the monkey how it is done. Placing a bit of -food outside his monkey's cage, Professor Holmes "poked it about with -the stick so as to give her a suggestion of how the stick might be -employed to move the food within reach, but although the act was -repeated many times Lizzie never showed the least inclination to use the -stick to her advantage." Perhaps the idea of a "tool" is beyond the -Bonnet Monkey, yet here again we must be cautious, for Professor L. T. -Hobhouse had a monkey of the same macaque genus which learned in the -course of time to use a crooked stick with great effect. - - -The Case of Peter - -Perhaps the cleverest monkey as yet studied was a performing chimpanzee -called Peter, which has been generally described by Dr. Lightner Witmer. -Peter could skate and cycle, thread needles and untie knots, smoke a -cigarette and string beads, screw in nails and unlock locks. But what -Peter was thinking about all the time it was hard to guess, and there is -very little evidence to suggest that his rapid power of putting two and -two together ever rose above a sort of concrete mental experimenting, -which Dr. Romanes used to call perceptual inference. Without supposing -that there are hard-and-fast boundary lines, we cannot avoid the general -conclusion that, while monkeys are often intelligent, they seldom, if -ever, show even hints of reason, i.e. of working or playing with general -ideas. That remains Man's prerogative. - - -The Bustle of the Mind - -In mammals like otters, foxes, stoats, hares, and elephants, what a -complex of tides and currents there must be in the brain-mind! We may -think of a stream with currents at different levels. Lowest there are -the _basal appetites_ of hunger and sex, often with eddies rising to the -surface. Then there are the _primary emotions_, such as fear of -hereditary enemies and maternal affection for offspring. Above these are -_instinctive aptitudes_, inborn powers of doing clever things without -having to learn how. But in mammals these are often expressed along -with, or as it were through, the controlled life of _intelligent -activity_, where there is more clear-cut perceptual influence. - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. P. Dando._ - -CHIMPANZEE - -An African ape, at home in the equatorial forests, a lively and playful -creature, eminently educable.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: W. S. Berridge._ - -YOUNG CHEETAHS, OR HUNTING LEOPARDS - -Trained to hunt from time immemorial and quite easily tamed. Cheetahs -occur in India, Persia, Turkestan, and Africa.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: C. Reid._ - -COMMON OTTER - -One of the most resourceful of animals and the "most playsomest crittur -on God's earth." It neither stores nor hibernates, but survives in -virtue of its wits and because of the careful education of the young. -The otter is a roving animal, often with more than one resting-place; it -has been known to travel fifteen miles in a night.] - -Higher still are the records or memories of individual experience and -the registration of individual habits, while on the surface is the -instreaming multitude of messages from the outside world, like raindrops -and hailstones on the stream, some of them penetrating deeply, being, as -we say, full of meaning. The mind of the higher animal is in some -respects like a child's mind, in having little in the way of clear-cut -ideas, in showing no reason in the strict sense, and in its -extraordinary educability, but it differs from the child's mind entirely -in the sure effectiveness of a certain repertory of responses. It is -efficient to a degree. - - -"Until at last arose the Man." - -Man's brain is more complicated than that of the higher apes--gorilla, -orang, and chimpanzee--and it is relatively larger. But the improvements -in structure do not seem in themselves sufficient to account for man's -great advance in intelligence. The rill of inner life has become a swift -stream, sometimes a rushing torrent. Besides perceptual inference or -_Intelligence_--a sort of picture-logic, which some animals likewise -have--there is conceptual inference--or _Reason_--an internal -experimenting with general ideas. Even the cleverest animals, it would -seem, do not get much beyond playing with "particulars"; man plays an -internal game of chess with "universals." Intelligent behaviour may go a -long way with mental images; rational conduct demands general ideas. It -may be, however, that "percepts" and "concepts" differ rather in degree -than in kind, and that the passage from one to the other meant a higher -power of forming associations. A clever dog has probably a generalised -percept of man, as distinguished from a memory-image of the particular -men it has known, but man alone has the concept Man, or Mankind, or -Humanity. Experimenting with concepts or general ideas is what we call -Reason. - -Here, of course, we get into deep waters, and perhaps it is wisest not -to attempt too much. So we shall content ourselves here with pointing -out that Man's advance in intelligence and from intelligence to reason -is closely wrapped up with his power of speech. What animals began--a -small vocabulary--he has carried to high perfection. But what is -distinctive is not the vocabulary so much as the habit of making -sentences, of expressing judgments in a way which admitted of -communication between mind and mind. The multiplication of words meant -much, the use of words as symbols of general ideas meant even more, for -it meant the possibility of playing the internal game of thinking; but -perhaps the most important advance of all was the means of comparing -notes with neighbours, of corroborating individual experience by social -intercourse. With words, also, it became easier to enregister outside -himself the gains of the past. It is not without significance that the -Greek Logos, which may be translated "the word," may also be translated -Mind. - - -Sec. 9 - -Looking Backwards - -When we take a survey of animal behaviour we see a long inclined plane. -The outer world provokes simple creatures to answer back; simple -creatures act experimentally on their surroundings. From the beginning -this twofold process has been going on, receiving stimuli from the -environment and acting upon the environment, and according to the -efficiency of the reactions and actions living creatures have been -sifted for millions of years. One main line of advance has been opening -new gateways of knowledge--the senses, which are far more than five in -number. The other main line of advance has been in most general terms, -experimenting or testing, probing and proving, trying one key after -another till a door is unlocked. There is progress in multiplying the -gateways of knowledge and making them more discriminating, and there is -progress in making the modes of experimenting more wide-awake, more -controlled, and more resolute. But behind both of these is the -characteristically vital power of enregistering within the organism the -lessons of the past. In the life of the individual these enregistrations -are illustrated by memories and habituations and habits; in the life of -the race they are illustrated by reflex actions and instinctive -capacities. - - -Body and Mind - -We must not shirk the very difficult question of the relation between -the bodily and the mental side of behaviour. - -(_a_) Some great thinkers have taught that the mind is a reality by -itself which plays upon the instrument of the brain and body. As the -instrument gets worn and dusty the playing is not so good as it once -was, but the player is still himself. This theory of the essential -independence of the mind is a very beautiful one, but those who like it -when applied to themselves are not always so fond of it when it is -applied to other intelligent creatures like rooks and elephants. It may -be, however, that there is a gradual emancipation of the mind which has -gone furthest in Man and is still progressing. - -(_b_) Some other thinkers have taught that the inner life of thought and -feeling is only, as it were, an echo of the really important -activity--that of the body and brain. Ideas are just foam-bells on the -hurrying streams and circling eddies of matter and energy that make up -our physiological life. To most of us this theory is impossible, because -we are quite sure that ideas and feelings and purposes, which cannot be -translated into matter and motion, are the clearest realities in our -experience, and that they count for good and ill all through our life. -They are more than the tickings of the clock; they make the wheels go -round. - -(_c_) There are others who think that the most scientific position is -simply to recognise both the bodily and the mental activities as equally -important, and so closely interwoven that they cannot be separated. -Perhaps they are just the outer and the inner aspects of one -reality--the life of the creature. Perhaps they are like the concave and -convex curves of a dome, like the two sides of a shield. Perhaps the -life of the organism is always a unity, at one time appearing more -conspicuously as Mind-body, at another time as Body-mind. The most -important fact is that neither aspect can be left out. By no jugglery -with words can we get Mind out of Matter and Motion. And since we are in -ourselves quite sure of our Mind, we are probably safe in saying that in -the beginning was Mind. This is in accordance with Aristotle's saying -that there is nothing in the end which was not also in kind present in -the beginning--whatever we mean by beginning. - - -In conclusion - -What has led to the truly wonderful result which we admire in a creature -like a dog or an otter, a horse or a hare? In general, we may say, just -two main processes--(1) testing all things, and (2) holding fast that -which is good. New departures occur and these are tested for what they -are worth. Idiosyncrasies crop up and they are sifted. New cards come -mysteriously from within into the creature's hand, and they are -played--for better or for worse. So by new variations and their sifting, -by experimenting and enregistering the results, the mind has gradually -evolved and will continue to evolve. - - - - -VIII - -FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNIVERSE - - - - -THE WORLD OF ATOMS - - -Most people have heard of the oriental race which puzzled over the -foundations of the universe, and decided that it must be supported on -the back of a giant elephant. But the elephant? They put it on the back -of a monstrous tortoise, and there they let the matter end. If every -animal in nature had been called upon, they would have been no nearer a -foundation. Most ancient peoples, indeed, made no effort to find a -foundation. The universe was a very compact little structure, mainly -composed of the earth and the great canopy over the earth which they -called the sky. They left it, as a whole, floating in nothing. And in -this the ancients were wiser than they knew. Things do not fall down -unless they are pulled down by that mysterious force which we call -gravitation. The earth, it is true, is pulled by the sun, and would fall -into it; but the earth escapes this fiery fate by circulating at great -speed round the sun. The stars pull each other; but it has already been -explained that they meet this by travelling rapidly in gigantic orbits. -Yet we do, in a new sense of the word, need foundations of the universe. -Our mind craves for some explanation of the matter out of which the -universe is made. For this explanation we turn to modern Physics and -Chemistry. Both these sciences study, under different aspects, matter -and energy; and between them they have put together a conception of the -fundamental nature of things which marks an epoch in the history of -human thought. - - -Sec. 1 - -The Bricks of the Cosmos - -More than two thousand years ago the first men of science, the Greeks of -the cities of Asia Minor, speculated on the nature of matter. You can -grind a piece of stone into dust. You can divide a spoonful of water -into as many drops as you like. Apparently you can go on dividing as -long as you have got apparatus fine enough for the work. But there must -be a limit, these Greeks said, and so they supposed that all matter was -ultimately composed of minute particles which were indivisible. That is -the meaning of the Greek word "atom." - -Like so many other ideas of these brilliant early Greek thinkers, the -atom was a sound conception. We know to-day that matter is composed of -atoms. But science was then so young that the way in which the Greeks -applied the idea was not very profound. A liquid or a gas, they said, -consisted of round, smooth atoms, which would not cling together. Then -there were atoms with rough surfaces, "hooky" surfaces, and these stuck -together and formed solids. The atoms of iron or marble, for instance, -were so very hooky that, once they got together, a strong man could not -tear them apart. The Greeks thought that the explanation of the universe -was that an infinite number of these atoms had been moving and mixing in -an infinite space during an infinite time, and had at last hit by chance -on the particular combination which is our universe. - -This was too simple and superficial. The idea of atoms was cast aside, -only to be advanced again in various ways. It was the famous Manchester -chemist, John Dalton, who restored it in the early years of the -nineteenth century. He first definitely formulated the atomic theory as -a scientific hypothesis. The whole physical and chemical science of that -century was now based upon the atom, and it is quite a mistake to -suppose that recent discoveries have discredited "atomism." An atom is -the smallest particle of a chemical element. No one has ever seen an -atom. Even the wonderful new microscope which has just been invented -cannot possibly show us particles of matter which are a million times -smaller than the breadth of a hair; for that is the size of atoms. We -can weigh them and measure them, though they are invisible, and we know -that all matter is composed of them. It is a new discovery that atoms -are not indivisible. They consist themselves of still smaller particles, -as we shall see. But the atoms exist all the same, and we may still say -that they are the bricks of which the material universe is built. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Elliott & Fry._ - -SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD - -One of our most eminent physicists who has succeeded Sir J. J. Thomson -as Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The -modern theory of the structure of the atom is largely due to him.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Rischgitz Collection._ - -J. CLERK-MAXWELL - -One of the greatest scientific men who have ever lived. He -revolutionised physics with his electro-magnetic theory of light, and -practically all modern researches have had their origin, direct or -indirect, in his work. Together with Faraday he constitutes one of the -main scientific glories of the nineteenth century.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Ernest H. Mills._ - -SIR WILLIAM CROOKES - -Sir William Crookes experimented on the electric discharge in vacuum -tubes and described the phenomena as a "fourth state of matter." He was -actually observing the flight of electrons, but he did not fully -appreciate the nature of his experiments.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Photo Press_ - -PROFESSOR SIR W. H. BRAGG - -One of the most distinguished physicists of the present day.] - -But if we had some magical glass by means of which we could see into the -structure of material things, we should not see the atoms put evenly -together as bricks are in a wall. As a rule, two or more atoms first -come together to form a larger particle, which we call a "molecule." -Single atoms do not, as a rule, exist apart from other atoms; if a -molecule is broken up, the individual atoms seek to unite with other -atoms of another kind or amongst themselves. For example, three atoms of -oxygen form what we call ozone; two atoms of hydrogen uniting with one -atom of oxygen form water. It is molecules that form the mass of matter; -a molecule, as it has been expressed, is a little building of which -atoms are the bricks. - -In this way we get a useful first view of the material things we handle. -In a liquid the molecules of the liquid cling together loosely. They -remain together as a body, but they roll over and away from each other. -There is "cohesion" between them, but it is less powerful than in a -solid. Put some water in a kettle over the lighted gas, and presently -the tiny molecules of water will rush through the spout in a cloud of -steam and scatter over the kitchen. The heat has broken their bond of -association and turned the water into something like a gas; though we -know that the particles will come together again, as they cool, and form -once more drops of water. - -In a gas the molecules have full individual liberty. They are in a -state of violent movement, and they form no union with each other. If we -want to force them to enter into the loose sort of association which -molecules have in a liquid, we have to slow down their individual -movements by applying severe cold. That is how a modern man of science -liquefies gases. No power that we have will liquefy air at its ordinary -temperature. In _very_ severe cold, on the other hand, the air will -spontaneously become liquid. Some day, when the fires of the sun have -sunk very low, the temperature of the earth will be less than -200 deg. C.: -that is to say, more than two hundred degrees Centigrade below -freezing-point. It will sink to the temperature of the moon. Our -atmosphere will then be an ocean of liquid air, 35 feet deep, lying upon -the solidly frozen masses of our water-oceans. - -In a solid the molecules cling firmly to each other. We need a force -equal to twenty-five tons to tear asunder the molecules in a bar of iron -an inch thick. Yet the structure is not "solid" in the popular sense of -the word. If you put a piece of solid gold in a little pool of mercury, -the gold will take in the mercury _between_ its molecules, as if it were -porous like a sponge. The hardest solid is more like a lattice-work than -what we usually mean by "solid"; though the molecules are not fixed, -like the bars of a lattice-work, but are in violent motion; they vibrate -about equilibrium positions. If we could see right into the heart of a -bit of the hardest steel, we should see billions of separate molecules, -at some distance from each other, all moving rapidly to and fro. - -This molecular movement can, in a measure, be made visible. It was -noticed by a microscopist named Brown that, in a solution containing -very fine suspended particles, the particles were in constant movement. -Under a powerful microscope these particles are seen to be violently -agitated; they are each independently darting hither and thither -somewhat like a lot of billiard balls on a billiard table, colliding and -bounding about in all directions. Thousands of times a second these -encounters occur, and this lively commotion is always going on, this -incessant colliding of one molecule with another is the normal -condition of affairs; not one of them is at rest. The reason for this -has been worked out, and it is now known that these particles move about -because they are being incessantly bombarded by the molecules of the -liquid. The molecules cannot, of course, be seen, but the fact of their -incessant movement is revealed to the eye by the behaviour of the -visible suspended particles. This incessant movement in the world of -molecules is called the Brownian movement, and is a striking proof of -the reality of molecular motions. - - -Sec. 2 - -The Wonder-World of Atoms - -The exploration of this wonder-world of atoms and molecules by the -physicists and chemists of to-day is one of the most impressive triumphs -of modern science. Quite apart from radium and electrons and other -sensational discoveries of recent years, the study of ordinary matter is -hardly inferior, either in interest or audacity, to the work of the -astronomer. And there is the same foundation in both cases--marvellous -apparatus, and trains of mathematical reasoning that would have -astonished Euclid or Archimedes. Extraordinary, therefore, as are some -of the facts and figures we are now going to give in connection with the -minuteness of atoms and molecules, let us bear in mind that we owe them -to the most solid and severe processes of human thought. - -Yet the principle can in most cases be made so clear that the reader -will not be asked to take much on trust. It is, for instance, a matter -of common knowledge that gold is soft enough to be beaten into gold -leaf. It is a matter of common sense, one hopes, that if you beat a -measured cube of gold into a leaf six inches square, the mathematician -can tell the thickness of that leaf without measuring it. As a matter of -fact, a single grain of gold has been beaten into a leaf seventy-five -inches square. Now the mathematician can easily find that when a single -grain of gold is beaten out to that size, the leaf must be 1/367,000 of -an inch thick, or about a thousand times thinner than the paper on -which these words are printed; yet the leaf must be several molecules -thick. - -The finest gold leaf is, in fact, too thick for our purpose, and we turn -with a new interest to that toy of our boyhood the soap-bubble. If you -carefully examine one of these delicate films of soapy water, you notice -certain dark spots or patches on them. These are their thinnest parts, -and by two quite independent methods--one using electricity and the -other light--we have found that at these spots the bubble is less than -the three-millionth of an inch thick! But the molecules in the film -cling together so firmly that they must be at least twenty or thirty -deep in the thinnest part. A molecule, therefore, must be far less than -the three-millionth of an inch thick. - -We found next that a film of oil on the surface of water may be even -thinner than a soap-bubble. Professor Perrin, the great French authority -on atoms, got films of oil down to the fifty-millionth of an inch in -thickness! He poured a measured drop of oil upon water. Then he found -the exact limits of the area of the oil-sheet by blowing upon the water -a fine powder which spread to the edge of the film and clearly outlined -it. The rest is safe and simple calculation, as in the case of the -beaten grain of gold. Now this film of oil must have been at least two -molecules deep, so a single molecule of oil is considerably less than a -hundred-millionth of an inch in diameter. - -Innumerable methods have been tried, and the result is always the same. -A single grain of indigo, for instance, will colour a ton of water. This -obviously means that the grain contains billions of molecules which -spread through the water. A grain of musk will scent a room--pour -molecules into every part of it--for several years, yet not lose -one-millionth of its mass in a year. There are a hundred ways of showing -the minuteness of the ultimate particles of matter, and some of these -enable us to give definite figures. On a careful comparison of the best -methods we can say that the average molecule of matter is less than -the 1/125,000,000 of an inch in diameter. In a single cubic centimetre -of air--a globule about the size of a small marble--there are thirty -million trillion molecules. And since the molecule is, as we saw, a -group or cluster of atoms, the atom itself is smaller. Atoms, for -reasons which we shall see later, differ very greatly from each other in -size and weight. It is enough to say that some of them are so small that -it would take 400,000,000 of them, in a line, to cover an inch of space; -and that it takes at least a quintillion atoms of gold to weigh a single -gramme. Five million atoms of helium could be placed in a line across -the diameter of a full stop. - -[Illustration: An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element. -Two or more atoms come together to form a molecule: thus molecules form -the mass of matter. A molecule of water is made up of two atoms of -hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Molecules of different substances, -therefore, are of different sizes according to the number and kind of -the particular atoms of which they are composed. A starch molecule -contains no less than 25,000 atoms. - -Molecules, of course, are invisible. The above diagram illustrates the -_comparative_ sizes of molecules.] - -[Illustration: INCONCEIVABLE NUMBERS AND INCONCEIVABLY SMALL PARTICLES - -The molecules, which are inconceivably small, are, on the other hand, so -numerous that if one was able to place, end to end, all those contained -in, for example, a cubic centimetre of gas (less than a fifteenth of a -cubic inch), one would obtain a line capable of passing two hundred -times round the earth.] - -[Illustration: WHAT IS A MILLION? - -In dealing with the infinitely small, it is difficult to apprehend the -vast figures with which scientists confront us. A million is one -thousand thousand. We may realise what this implies if we consider that -a clock, beating seconds, takes approximately 278 hours (i.e. one week -four days fourteen hours) to tick one million times. A billion is one -million million. To tick a billion the clock would tick for over 31,735 -years. - -(In France and America a thousand millions is called a billion.)] - -[Illustration: THE BROWNIAN MOVEMENT - -A diagram, constructed from actual observations, showing the erratic -paths pursued by very fine particles suspended in a liquid, when -bombarded by the molecules of the liquid. This movement is called the -Brownian movement, and it furnishes a striking illustration of the truth -of the theory that the molecules of a body are in a state of continual -motion.] - - -The Energy of Atoms - -And this is only the beginning of the wonders that were done with -"ordinary matter," quite apart from radium and its revelations, to which -we will come presently. Most people have heard of "atomic energy," and -the extraordinary things that might be accomplished if we could harness -this energy and turn it to human use. A deeper and more wonderful source -of this energy has been discovered in the last twenty years, but it is -well to realise that the atoms themselves have stupendous energy. The -atoms of matter are vibrating or gyrating with extraordinary vigour. The -piece of cold iron you hold in your hand, the bit of brick you pick up, -or the penny you take from your pocket is a colossal reservoir of -energy, since it consists of trillions of moving atoms. To realise the -total energy, of course, we should have to witness a transformation such -as we do in atoms of radio-active elements, about which we shall have -something to say presently. - -If we put a grain of indigo in a glass of water, or a grain of musk in a -perfectly still room, we soon realise that molecules travel. Similarly, -the fact that gases spread until they fill every "empty" available space -shows definitely that they consist of small particles travelling at -great speed. The physicist brings his refined methods to bear on these -things, and he measures the energy and velocity of these infinitely -minute molecules. He tells us that molecules of oxygen, at the -temperature of melting ice, travel at the rate of about 500 yards a -second--more than a quarter of a mile a second. Molecules of hydrogen -travel at four times that speed, or three times the speed with which a -bullet leaves a rifle. Each molecule of the air, which seems so still in -the house on a summer's day, is really travelling faster than a rifle -bullet does at the beginning of its journey. It collides with another -molecule every twenty-thousandth of an inch of its journey. It is turned -from its course 5,000,000,000 times in every second by collisions. If we -could stop the molecules of hydrogen gas, and utilise their energy, as -we utilise the energy of steam or the energy of the water at Niagara, we -should find enough in every gramme of gas (about two-thousandths of a -pound) to raise a third of a ton to a height of forty inches. - -I have used for comparison the speed of a rifle bullet, and in an -earlier generation people would have thought it impossible even to -estimate this. It is, of course, easy. We put two screens in the path of -the bullet, one near the rifle and the other some distance away. We -connect them electrically and use a fine time-recording machine, and the -bullet itself registers the time it takes to travel from the first to -the second screen. - -Now this is very simple and superficial work in comparison with the -system of exact and minute measurements which the physicist and chemist -use. In one of his interesting works Mr. Charles R. Gibson gives a -photograph of two exactly equal pieces of paper in the opposite pans of -a fine balance. A single word has been written in pencil on one of these -papers, and that little scraping of lead has been enough to bring down -the scale! The spectroscope will detect a quantity of matter four -million times smaller even than this; and the electroscope is a million -times still more sensitive than the spectroscope. We have a -heat-measuring instrument, the bolometer, which makes the best -thermometer seem Early Victorian. It records the millionth of a degree -of temperature. It is such instruments, multiplied by the score, -which enable us to do the fine work recorded in these pages. - -[Illustration: _Reproduced from "The Forces of Nature" (Messrs. -Macmillan)._ - -A SOAP BUBBLE - -The iridescent colours sometimes seen on a soap bubble, as in the -illustration, may also be seen in very fine sections of crystals, in -glass blown into extremely fine bulbs, on the wings of dragon-flies and -the surface of oily water. The different colours correspond to different -thicknesses of the surface. Part of the light which strikes these thin -coatings is reflected from the upper surface, but another part of the -light penetrates the transparent coating and is reflected from the lower -surface. It is the mixture of these two reflected rays, their -"interference" as it is called, which produces the colours observed. The -"black spots" on a soap bubble are the places where the soapy film is -thinnest. At the black spots the thickness of the bubble is about the -three-millionth part of an inch. If the whole bubble were as thin as -this it would be completely invisible.] - - -Sec. 3 - -THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS AND RADIUM - -The Discovery of Sir Wm. Crookes - -But these wonders of the atom are only a prelude to the more romantic -and far-reaching discoveries of the new physics--the wonders of the -electron. Another and the most important phase of our exploration of the -material universe opened with the discovery of radium in 1898. - -In the discovery of radio-active elements, a new property of matter was -discovered. What followed on the discovery of radium and of the X-rays -we shall see. - -As Sir Ernest Rutherford, one of our greatest authorities, recently -said, the new physics has dissipated the last doubt about the reality of -atoms and molecules. The closer examination of matter which we have been -able to make shows positively that it is composed of atoms. But we must -not take the word now in its original Greek meaning (an "indivisible" -thing). The atoms are not indivisible. They can be broken up. They are -composed of still smaller particles. - -The discovery that the atom was composed of smaller particles was the -welcome realisation of a dream that had haunted the imagination of the -nineteenth century. Chemists said that there were about eighty different -kinds of atoms--different kinds of matter--but no one was satisfied with -the multiplicity. Science is always aiming at simplicity and unity. It -may be that science has now taken a long step in the direction of -explaining the fundamental unity of all the matter. The chemist was -unable to break up these "elements" into something simpler, so he called -their atoms "indivisible" in that sense. But one man of science after -another expressed the hope that we would yet discover some fundamental -matter of which the various atoms were composed--_one primordial -substance from which all the varying forms of matter have been evolved -or built up_. Prout suggested this at the very beginning of the century, -when atoms were rediscovered by Dalton. Father Secchi, the famous Jesuit -astronomer said that all the atoms were probably evolved from ether; and -this was a very favoured speculation. Sir William Crookes talked of -"prothyl" as the fundamental substance. Others thought hydrogen was the -stuff out of which all the other atoms were composed. - -The work which finally resulted in the discovery of radium began with -some beautiful experiments of Professor (later Sir William) Crookes in -the eighties. - -It had been noticed in 1869 that a strange colouring was caused when an -electric charge was sent through a vacuum tube--the walls of the glass -tube began to glow with a greenish phosphorescence. A vacuum tube is one -from which nearly all the air has been pumped, although we can never -completely empty the tube. Crookes used such ingenious methods that he -reduced the gas in his tubes until it was twenty million times thinner -than the atmosphere. He then sent an electric discharge through, and got -very remarkable results. The negative pole of the electric current (the -"cathode") _gave off rays which faintly lit the molecules of the thin -gas in the tube_, and caused a pretty fluorescence on the glass walls of -the tube. What were these Rays? Crookes at first thought they -corresponded to a "new or fourth state of matter." Hitherto we had only -been familiar with matter in the three conditions of solid, liquid, and -gaseous. - -Now Crookes really had the great secret under his eyes. But about twenty -years elapsed before the true nature of these rays was finally and -independently established by various experiments. The experiments proved -"that the rays consisted of a stream of negatively charged particles -travelling with enormous velocities from 10,000 to 100,000 miles a -second. In addition, it was found that the mass of each particle was -exceedingly small, about 1/1800 of the mass of a hydrogen atom, the -lightest atom known to science." _These particles or electrons, as they -are now called, were being liberated from the atom._ The atoms of matter -were breaking down in Crookes tubes. At that time, however, it was -premature to think of such a thing, and Crookes preferred to say that -the particles of the gas were electrified and hurled against the walls -of the tube. He said that it was ordinary matter in a new -state--"radiant matter." Another distinguished man of science, Lenard, -found that, when he fitted a little plate of aluminum in the glass wall -of the tube, the mysterious rays passed through this as if it were a -window. They must be waves in the ether, he said. - -[Illustration: _From "Scientific Ideas of To-day_." - -DETECTING A SMALL QUANTITY OF MATTER - -In the left-hand photograph the two pieces of paper exactly balance. The -balance used is very sensitive, and when the single word "atoms" has -been written with a lead pencil upon one of the papers the additional -weight is sufficient to depress one of the pans as shown in the second -photograph. The spectroscope will detect less than one-millionth of the -matter contained in the word pencilled above.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd._ - -THIS X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH IS THAT OF A HAND OF A SOLDIER WOUNDED IN THE -GREAT WAR - -Note the pieces of shrapnel which are revealed.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: National Physical Laboratory._ - -AN X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF A GOLF BALL, REVEALING AN IMPERFECT CORE] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of X-Rays Ltd._ - -A WONDERFUL X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH - -Note the fine details revealed, down to the metal tags of the bootlace -and the nails in the heel of the boot.] - - -Sec. 4 - -The Discovery of X-rays - -So the story went on from year to year. We shall see in a moment to what -it led. Meanwhile the next great step was when, in 1895, Roentgen -discovered the X-rays, which are now known to everybody. He was -following up the work of Lenard, and he one day covered a "Crookes tube" -with some black stuff. To his astonishment a prepared chemical screen -which was near the tube began to glow. _The rays had gone through the -black stuff; and on further experiment he found that they would go -through stone, living flesh, and all sorts of "opaque" substances._ In a -short time the world was astonished to learn that we could photograph -the skeleton in a living man's body, locate a penny in the interior of a -child that had swallowed one, or take an impression of a coin through a -slab of stone. - -And what are these X-rays? They are not a form of matter; they are not -material particles. X-rays were found to be a new variety of _light_ -with a remarkable power of penetration. We have seen what the -spectroscope reveals about the varying nature of light wave-lengths. -Light-waves are set up by vibrations in ether,[2] and, as we shall see, -these ether disturbances are all of the same kind; they only differ as -regards wave-lengths. The X-rays which Roentgen discovered, then, are -light, but a variety of light previously unknown to us; they are ether -waves of very short length. X-rays have proved of great value in many -directions, as all the world knows, but that we need not discuss at this -point. Let us see what followed Roentgen's discovery. - - [2] We refer throughout to the "ether" because, although modern - theories dispense largely with this conception, the theories of - physics are so inextricably interwoven with it that it is necessary, - in an elementary exposition, to assume its existence. The modern - view will be explained later in the article on Einstein's Theory. - -While the world wondered at these marvels, the men of science were -eagerly following up the new clue to the mystery of matter which was -exercising the mind of Crookes and other investigators. In 1896 -Becquerel brought us to the threshold of the great discovery. - -Certain substances are phosphorescent--they become luminous after they -have been exposed to sunlight for some time, and Becquerel was trying to -find if any of these substances give rise to X-rays. One day he chose a -salt of the metal uranium. He was going to see if, after exposing it to -sunlight, he could photograph a cross with it through an opaque -substance. He wrapped it up and laid it aside, to wait for the sun, but -he found the uranium salt did not wait for the sun. Some strong -radiation from it went through the opaque covering and made an -impression of the cross upon the plate underneath. Light or darkness was -immaterial. The mysterious rays streamed night and day from the salt. -This was something new. Here was a substance which appeared to be -producing X-rays; the rays emitted by uranium would penetrate the same -opaque substances as the X-rays discovered by Roentgen. - - -Discovery of Radium - -Now, at the same time as many other investigators, Professor Curie and -his Polish wife took up the search. They decided to find out whether -the emission came from the uranium itself or _from something associated -with it_, and for this purpose they made a chemical analysis of great -quantities of minerals. They found a certain kind of pitchblende which -was very active, and they analysed tons of it, concentrating always on -the radiant element in it. After a time, as they successively worked out -the non-radiant matter, the stuff began to glow. In the end they -extracted from eight tons of pitchblende about half a teaspoonful of -something _that was a million times more radiant than uranium_. There -was only one name for it--Radium. - -That was the starting-point of the new development of physics and -chemistry. From every laboratory in the world came a cry for radium -salts (as pure radium was too precious), and hundreds of brilliant -workers fastened on the new element. The inquiry was broadened, and, as -year followed year, one substance after another was found to possess the -power of emitting rays, that is, to be radio-active. We know to-day that -nearly every form of matter can be stimulated to radio-activity; which, -as we shall see, means that _its atoms break up into smaller and -wonderfully energetic particles which we call "electrons."_ This -discovery of electrons has brought about a complete change in our ideas -in many directions. - -So, instead of atoms being indivisible, they are actually dividing -themselves, spontaneously, and giving off throughout the universe tiny -fragments of their substance. We shall explain presently what was later -discovered about the electron; meanwhile we can say that every glowing -metal is pouring out a stream of these electrons. Every arc-lamp is -discharging them. Every clap of thunder means a shower of them. Every -star is flooding space with them. We are witnessing the spontaneous -breaking up of atoms, atoms which had been thought to be indivisible. -The sun not only pours out streams of electrons from its own atoms, but -the ultra-violet light which it sends to the earth is one of the most -powerful agencies for releasing electrons from the surface-atoms of -matter on the earth. It is fortunate for us that our atmosphere absorbs -most of this ultra-violet or invisible light of the sun--a kind of light -which will be explained presently. It has been suggested that, if we -received the full flood of it from the sun, our metals would -disintegrate under its influence and this "steel civilisation" of ours -would be impossible! - -But we are here anticipating, we are going beyond radium to the -wonderful discoveries which were made by the chemists and physicists of -the world who concentrated upon it. The work of Professor and Mme. Curie -was merely the final clue to guide the great search. How it was followed -up, how we penetrated into the very heart of the minute atom and -discovered new and portentous mines of energy, and how we were able to -understand, not only matter, but electricity and light, will be told in -the next chapter. - - -THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON AND HOW IT EFFECTED A REVOLUTION IN IDEAS - -What the discovery of radium implied was only gradually realised. Radium -captivated the imagination of the world; it was a boon to medicine, but -to the man of science it was at first a most puzzling and most -attractive phenomenon. It was felt that some great secret of nature was -dimly unveiled in its wonderful manifestations, and there now -concentrated upon it as gifted a body of men--conspicuous amongst them -Sir J. J. Thomson, Sir Ernest Rutherford, Sir W. Ramsay, and Professor -Soddy--as any age could boast, with an apparatus of research as far -beyond that of any other age as the _Aquitania_ is beyond a Roman -galley. Within five years the secret was fairly mastered. Not only were -all kinds of matter reduced to a common basis, but the forces of the -universe were brought into a unity and understood as they had never been -understood before. - -[Illustration: ELECTRIC DISCHARGE IN A VACUUM TUBE - -The two ends, marked + and -, of a tube from which nearly all air has -been exhausted are connected to electric terminals, thus producing an -electric discharge in the vacuum tube. This discharge travels straight -along the tube, as in the upper diagram. When a magnetic field is -applied, however, the rays are deflected, as shown in the lower diagram. -The similarity of the behaviour of the electric discharge with the -radium rays (see diagram of deflection of radium rays, _post_) shows -that the two phenomena may be identified. It was by this means that the -characteristics of electrons were first discovered.] - -[Illustration: THE RELATIVE SIZES OF ATOMS AND ELECTRONS - -An atom is far too small to be seen. In a bubble of hydrogen gas no -larger than the letter "O" there are billions of atoms, whilst an -electron is more than a thousand times smaller than the smallest atom. -How their size is ascertained is described in the text. In this diagram -a bubble of gas is magnified to the size of the world. Adopting this -scale, _each atom_ in the bubble would then be as large as a tennis -ball.] - -[Illustration: IF AN ATOM WERE MAGNIFIED TO THE SIZE OF ST. PAUL'S -CATHEDRAL, EACH ELECTRON IN THE ATOM (AS REPRESENTED BY THE CATHEDRAL) -WOULD THEN BE ABOUT THE SIZE OF A SMALL BULLET] - -[Illustration: ELECTRONS STREAMING FROM THE SUN TO THE EARTH - -There are strong reasons for supposing that sun-spots are huge -electronic cyclones. The sun is constantly pouring out vast streams of -electrons into space. Many of these streams encounter the earth, giving -rise to various electrical phenomena.] - - -Sec. 5 - -The Discovery of the Electron - -Physicists did not take long to discover that the radiation from radium -was very like the radiation in a "Crookes tube." It was quickly -recognised, moreover, that both in the tube and in radium (and other -metals) the atoms of matter were somehow breaking down. - -However, the first step was to recognise that there were three distinct -and different rays that were given off by such metals as radium and -uranium. Sir Ernest Rutherford christened them, after the first three -letters of the Greek alphabet, the Alpha, the Beta, and Gamma rays. We -are concerned chiefly with the second group and purpose here to deal -with that group only.[3] - - [3] The "Alpha rays" were presently recognised as atoms of helium - gas, shot out at the rate of 12,000 miles a second. - -The "Gamma rays" are _waves_, like the X-rays, not material particles. -They appear to be a type of X-rays. They possess the remarkable power of -penetrating opaque substances; they will pass through a foot of solid -iron, for example. - -The "Beta rays," as they were at first called, have proved to be one of -the most interesting discoveries that science ever made. They proved -what Crookes had surmised about the radiations he discovered in his -vacuum tube. But it was _not_ a fourth state of matter that had been -found, but a new _property_ of matter, a property common to all atoms of -matter. The Beta rays were later christened Electrons. They are -particles of disembodied electricity, here spontaneously liberated from -the atoms of matter: only when the electron was isolated from the atom -was it recognised for the first time as a separate entity. Electrons, -therefore, are a constituent of the atoms of matter, and we have -discovered that they can be released from the atom by a variety of -agencies. Electrons are to be found everywhere, forming part of every -atom. - -"An electron," Sir William Bragg says, "can only maintain a separate -existence if it is travelling at an immense rate, from one -three-hundredth of the velocity of light upwards, that is to say, at -least 600 _miles a second, or thereabouts_. Otherwise the electron -sticks to the first atom it meets." These amazing particles may travel -with the enormous velocity of from 10,000 to more than 100,000 miles a -second. It was first learned that they are of an electrical nature, -because they are bent out of their normal path if a magnet is brought -near them. And this fact led to a further discovery: to one of those -sensational estimates which the general public is apt to believe to be -founded on the most abstruse speculations. The physicist set up a little -chemical screen for the "Beta rays" to hit, and he so arranged his tube -that only a narrow sheaf of the rays poured on to the screen. He then -drew this sheaf of rays out of its course with a magnet, and he -accurately measured the shift of the luminous spot on the screen where -the rays impinged on it. But when he knows the exact intensity of his -magnetic field--which he can control as he likes--and the amount of -deviation it causes, and the mass of the moving particles, he can tell -the speed of the moving particles which he thus diverts. These particles -were being hurled out of the atoms of radium, or from the negative pole -in a vacuum tube, at a speed which, in good conditions, reached nearly -the velocity of light, i.e. nearly 186,000 miles a second. - -Their speed has, of course, been confirmed by numbers of experiments; -and another series of experiments enabled physicists to determine the -size of the particles. Only one of these need be described, to give the -reader an idea how men of science arrived at their more startling -results. - -Fog, as most people know, is thick in our great cities because the -water-vapour gathers on the particles of dust and smoke that are in the -atmosphere. This fact was used as the basis of some beautiful -experiments. Artificial fogs were created in little glass tubes, by -introducing dust, in various proportions, for supersaturated vapour to -gather on. In the end it was possible to cause tiny drops of rain, each -with a particle of dust at its core, to fall upon a silver mirror and be -counted. It was a method of counting the quite invisible particles of -dust in the tube; and the method was now successfully applied to the new -rays. Yet another method was to direct a slender stream of the particles -upon a chemical screen. The screen glowed under the cannonade of -particles, and a powerful lens resolved the glow into distinct sparks, -which could be counted. - -In short, a series of the most remarkable and beautiful experiments, -checked in all the great laboratories of the world, settled the nature -of these so-called rays. They were streams of particles more than a -thousand times smaller than the smallest known atom. The mass of each -particle is, according to the latest and finest measurements 1/1845 of -that of an atom of hydrogen. The physicist has not been able to find any -character except electricity in them, and the name "electrons" has been -generally adopted. - - -The Key to many Mysteries - -The Electron is an atom, of disembodied electricity; it occupies an -exceedingly small volume, and its "mass" is entirely electrical. These -electrons are the key to half the mysteries of matter. Electrons in -rapid motion, as we shall see, explain what we mean by an "electric -current," not so long ago regarded as one of the most mysterious -manifestations in nature. - -"What a wonder, then, have we here!" says Professor R. K. Duncan. "An -innocent-looking little pinch of salt and yet possessed of special -properties utterly beyond even the fanciful imaginings of men of past -time; for nowhere do we find in the records of thought even the hint of -the possibility of things which we now regard as established fact. This -pinch of salt projects from its surface bodies [i.e. electrons] -possessing the inconceivable velocity of over 100,000 miles a second, a -velocity sufficient to carry them, if unimpeded, five times around the -earth in a second, and possessing with this velocity, masses a thousand -times smaller than the smallest atom known to science. Furthermore, -they are charged with negative electricity; they pass straight through -bodies considered opaque with a sublime indifference to the properties -of the body, with the exception of its mere density; they cause bodies -which they strike to shine out in the dark; they affect a photographic -plate; they render the air a conductor of electricity; they cause clouds -in moist air; they cause chemical action and have a peculiar -physiological action. Who, to-day, shall predict the ultimate service to -humanity of the beta-rays from radium!" - - -Sec. 6 - -THE ELECTRON THEORY, OR THE NEW VIEW OF MATTER - -The Structure of the Atom - -There is general agreement amongst all chemists, physicists, and -mathematicians upon the conclusions which we have so far given. We know -that the atoms of matter are constantly--either spontaneously or under -stimulation--giving off electrons, or breaking up into electrons; and -they therefore contain electrons. Thus we have now complete proof of the -independent existence of atoms and also of electrons. - -When, however, the man of science tries to tell us _how_ electrons -compose atoms, he passes from facts to speculation, and very difficult -speculation. Take the letter "o" as it is printed on this page. In a -little bubble of hydrogen gas no larger than that letter there are -_trillions_ of atoms; and they are not packed together, but are -circulating as freely as dancers in a ball-room. We are asking the -physicist to take one of these minute atoms and tell us how the still -smaller electrons are arranged in it. Naturally he can only make mental -pictures, guesses or hypotheses, which he tries to fit to the facts, and -discards when they will _not_ fit. - -At present, after nearly twenty years of critical discussion, there are -two chief theories of the structure of the atom. At first Sir J. J. -Thomson imagined the electrons circulating in shells (like the layers of -an onion) round the nucleus of the atom. This did not suit, and Sir E. -Rutherford and others worked out a theory that the electrons circulated -round a nucleus rather like the planets of our solar system revolving -round the central sun. Is there a nucleus, then, round which the -electrons revolve? The electron, as we saw, is a disembodied atom of -electricity; we should say, of "negative" electricity. Let us picture -these electrons all moving round in orbits with great velocity. Now it -is suggested that there is a nucleus of "positive" electricity -attracting or pulling the revolving electrons to it, and so forming an -equilibrium, otherwise the electrons would fly off in all directions. -This nucleus has been recently named the proton. We have thus two -electricities in the atom: the positive = the nucleus; the negative = -the electron. Of recent years Dr. Langmuir has put out a theory that the -electrons do not _revolve round_ the nucleus, but remain in a state of -violent agitation of some sort at fixed distances from the nucleus. - -[Illustration: PROFESSOR SIR J. J. THOMSON - -Experimental discoverer of the electronic constitution of matter, in the -Cavendish Physical Laboratory, Cambridge. A great investigator, noted -for the imaginative range of his hypotheses and his fertility in -experimental devices.] - -[Illustration: _From the Smithsonian Report_, 1915. - -ELECTRONS PRODUCED BY PASSAGE OF X-RAYS THROUGH AIR - -A photograph clearly showing that electrons are definite entities. As -electrons leave atoms they may traverse matter or pass through the air -in a straight path The illustration shows the tortuous path of electrons -resulting from collision with atoms.] - -[Illustration: MAGNETIC DEFLECTION OF RADIUM RAYS - -The radium rays are made to strike a screen, producing visible spots of -light. When a magnetic field is applied the rays are seen to be -deflected, as in the diagram. This can only happen if the rays carry an -electric charge, and it was by experiments of this kind that we obtained -our knowledge respecting the electric charges carried by radium rays.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission of "Scientific American."_ - -PROFESSOR R. A. MILLIKAN'S APPARATUS FOR COUNTING ELECTRONS] - -But we will confine ourselves here to the facts, and leave the -contending theories to scientific men. It is now pretty generally -accepted that an atom of matter consists of a number of electrons, or -charges of negative electricity, held together by a charge of positive -electricity. It is not disputed that these electrons are in a state of -violent motion or strain, and that therefore a vast energy is locked up -in the atoms of matter. To that we will return later. Here, rather, we -will notice another remarkable discovery which helps us to understand -the nature of matter. - -A brilliant young man of science who was killed in the war, Mr. Moseley, -some years ago showed that, when the atoms of different substances are -arranged in order of their weight, _they are also arranged in the order -of increasing complexity of structure_. That is to say, the heavier the -atom, the more electrons it contains. There is a gradual building up of -atoms containing more and more electrons from the lightest atom to the -heaviest. Here it is enough to say that as he took element after -element, from the lightest (hydrogen) to the heaviest (uranium) he found -a strangely regular relation between them. If hydrogen were represented -by the figure one, helium by two, lithium three, and so on up to -uranium, then uranium should have the figure ninety-two. This makes it -probable that there are in nature ninety-two elements--we have found -eighty-seven--and that the number Mr. Moseley found is the number of -electrons in the atom of each element; that is to say, the number is -arranged in order of the atomic numbers of the various elements. - - -Sec. 7 - -The New View of Matter - -Up to the point we have reached, then, we see what the new view of -Matter is. Every atom of matter, of whatever kind throughout the whole -universe, is built up of electrons in conjunction with a nucleus. From -the smallest atom of all--the atom of hydrogen--which consists of one -electron, rotating round a positively charged nucleus, to a heavy -complicated atom, such as the atom of gold, constituted of many -electrons and a complex nucleus, _we have only to do with positive and -negative units of electricity_. The electron and its nucleus are -particles of electricity. All Matter, therefore, is nothing but a -manifestation of electricity. The atoms of matter, as we saw, combine -and form molecules. Atoms and molecules are the bricks out of which -nature has built up everything; ourselves, the earth, the stars, the -whole universe. - -But more than bricks are required to build a house. There are other -fundamental existences, such as the various forms of energy, which give -rise to several complex problems. And we have also to remember, that -there are more than eighty distinct elements, each with its own definite -type of atom. We shall deal with energy later. Meanwhile it remains to -be said that, although we have discovered a great deal about the -electron and the constitution of matter, and that while the physicists -of our own day seem to see a possibility of explaining positive and -negative electricity, the nature of them both is unknown. There exists -the theory that the particles of positive and negative electricity, -which make up the atoms of matter, are points or centres of disturbances -of some kind in a universal ether, and that all the various forms of -energy are, in some fundamental way, aspects of the same primary entity -which constitutes matter itself. - -But the discovery of the property of radio-activity has raised many -other interesting questions, besides that which we have just dealt with. -In radio-active elements, such as uranium for example, the element is -breaking down; in what we call radio-activity we have a manifestation of -the spontaneous change of elements. What is really taking place is a -transmutation of one element into another, from a heavier to a lighter. -The element uranium spontaneously becomes radium, and radium passes -through a number of other stages until it, in turn, becomes lead. Each -descending element is of lighter atomic weight than its predecessor. The -changing process, of course, is a very slow one. It may be that all -matter is radio-active, or can be made so. This raises the question -whether all the matter in the universe may not undergo disintegration. - -There is, however, another side of the question, which the discovery of -radio-activity has brought to light, and which has effected a revolution -in our views. We have seen that in radio-active substances the elements -are breaking down. Is there a process of building up at work? If the -more complicated atoms are breaking down into simpler forms, may there -not be a converse process--a building up from simpler elements to more -complicated elements? It is probably the case that both processes are at -work. - -There are some eighty-odd chemical elements on the earth to-day: are -they all the outcome of an inorganic evolution, element giving rise to -element, going back and back to some primeval stuff from which they -were all originally derived infinitely long ago? Is there an evolution -in the inorganic world which may be going on, parallel to that of the -evolution of living things; or is organic evolution a continuation of -inorganic evolution? We have seen what evidence there is of this -inorganic evolution in the case of the stars. We cannot go deeply into -the matter here, nor has the time come for any direct statement that can -be based on the findings of modern investigation. Taking it altogether -the evidence is steadily accumulating, and there are authorities who -maintain that already the evidence of inorganic evolution is convincing -enough. The heavier atoms would appear to behave as though they were -evolved from the lighter. The more complex forms, it is supposed, have -_evolved_ from the simpler forms. Moseley's discovery, to which -reference has been made, points to the conclusion that the elements are -built up one from another. - - -Sec. 8 - -Other New Views - -We may here refer to another new conception to which the discovery of -radio-activity has given rise. Lord Kelvin, who estimated the age of the -earth at twenty million years, reached this estimate by considering the -earth as a body which is gradually cooling down, "losing its primitive -heat, like a loaf taken from the oven, at a rate which could be -calculated, and that the heat radiated by the sun was due to -contraction." Uranium and radio-activity were not known to Kelvin, and -their discovery has upset both his arguments. Radio-active substances, -which are perpetually giving out heat, introduce an entirely new factor. -We cannot now assume that the earth is necessarily cooling down; it may -even, for all we know, be getting hotter. At the 1921 meeting of the -British Association, Professor Rayleigh stated that further knowledge -had extended the probable period during which there had been life on -this globe to about one thousand million years, and the total age of -the earth to some small multiple of that. The earth, he considers, is -not cooling, but "contains an internal source of heat from the -disintegration of uranium in the outer crust." On the whole the estimate -obtained would seem to be in agreement with the geological estimates. -The question, of course, cannot, in the present state of our knowledge, -be settled within fixed limits that meet with general agreement. - -[Illustration: MAKING THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE - -Radium, as explained in the text, emits rays--the "Alpha," the "Beta" -(electrons), and "Gamma" rays. The above illustration indicates the -method by which these invisible rays are made visible, and enables the -nature of the rays to be investigated. To the right of the diagram is -the instrument used, the Spinthariscope, making the impact of radium -rays visible on a screen. - -The radium rays shoot out in all directions; those that fall on the -screen make it glow with points of light. These points of light are -observed by the magnifying lens. - -A. Magnifying lens. B. A zinc sulphite screen. C. A needle on whose -point is placed a speck of radium. - -The lower picture shows the screen and needle magnified.] - -[Illustration: THE THEORY OF ELECTRONS - -An atom of matter is composed of electrons. We picture an atom as a sort -of miniature solar system, the electrons (particles of negative -electricity) rotating round a central nucleus of positive electricity, -as described in the text. In the above pictorial representation of an -atom the whirling electrons are indicated in the outer ring. Electrons -move with incredible speed as they pass from one atom to another.] - -[Illustration: ARRANGEMENTS OF ATOMS IN A DIAMOND - -The above is a model (seen from two points of view) of the arrangement -of the atoms in a diamond. The arrangement is found by studying the -X-ray spectra of the diamond.] - -As we have said, there are other fundamental existences which give rise -to more complex problems. The three great fundamental entities in the -physical universe are matter, ether, and energy; so far as we know, -outside these there is nothing. We have dealt with matter, there remain -ether and energy. We shall see that just as no particle of matter, -however small, may be created or destroyed, and just as there is no such -thing as empty space--ether pervades everything--so there is no such -thing as _rest_. Every particle that goes to make up our solid earth is -in a state of perpetual unremitting vibration; energy "is the universal -commodity on which all life depends." Separate and distinct as these -three fundamental entities--matter, ether, and energy--may appear, it -may be that, after all, they are only different and mysterious phases of -an essential "oneness" of the universe. - - -Sec. 9 - -The Future - -Let us, in concluding this chapter, give just one illustration of the -way in which all this new knowledge may prove to be as valuable -practically as it is wonderful intellectually. We saw that electrons are -shot out of atoms at a speed that may approach 160,000 miles a second. -Sir Oliver Lodge has written recently that a seventieth of a grain of -radium discharges, at a speed a thousand times that of a rifle bullet, -thirty million electrons a second. Professor Le Bon has calculated that -it would take 1,340,000 barrels of powder to give a bullet the speed of -one of these electrons. He shows that the smallest French copper -coin--smaller than a farthing--contains an energy equal to eighty -million horsepower. A few pounds of matter contain more energy than we -could extract from millions of tons of coal. Even in the atoms of -hydrogen at a temperature which we could produce in an electric furnace -the electrons spin round at a rate of nearly a hundred trillion -revolutions a second! - -Every man asks at once: "Will science ever tap this energy?" If it does, -no more smoke, no mining, no transit, no bulky fuel. The energy of an -atom is of course only liberated when an atom passes from one state to -another. The stored up energy is fortunately fast bound by the electrons -being held together as has been described. If it were not so "the earth -would explode and become a gaseous nebula"! It is believed that some day -we shall be able to release, harness, and utilise atomic energy. "I am -of opinion," says Sir William Bragg, "that atom energy will supply our -future need. A thousand years may pass before we can harness the atom, -or to-morrow might see us with the reins in our hands. That is the -peculiarity of Physics--research and 'accidental' discovery go hand in -hand." Half a brick contains as much energy as a small coal-field. The -difficulties are tremendous, but, as Sir Oliver Lodge reminds us, there -was just as much scepticism at one time about the utilisation of steam -or electricity. "Is it to be supposed," he asks, "that there can be no -fresh invention, that all the discoveries have been made?" More than one -man of science encourages us to hope. Here are some remarkable words -written by Professor Soddy, one of the highest authorities on -radio-active matter, in our chief scientific weekly (_Nature_, November -6, 1919): - - The prospects of the successful accomplishment of artificial - transmutation brighten almost daily. The ancients seem to have had - something more than an inkling that the accomplishment of - transmutation would confer upon men powers hitherto the prerogative - of the gods. But now we know definitely that the material aspect of - transmutation would be of small importance in comparison with the - control over the inexhaustible stores of internal atomic energy to - which its successful accomplishment would inevitably lead. It has - become a problem, no longer redolent of the evil associations of the - age of alchemy, but one big with the promise of a veritable physical - renaissance of the whole world. - -If that "promise" is ever realised, the economic and social face of the -world will be transformed. - -Before passing on to the consideration of ether, light, and energy, let -us see what new light the discovery of the electron has thrown on the -nature and manipulation of electricity. - - -WHAT IS ELECTRICITY? - -The Nature of Electricity - -There is at least one manifestation in nature, and so late as twenty -years ago it seemed to be one of the most mysterious manifestations of -all, which has been in great measure explained by the new discoveries. -Already, at the beginning of this century, we spoke of our "age of -electricity," yet there were few things in nature about which we knew -less. The "electric current" rang our bells, drove our trains, lit our -rooms, but none knew what the current was. There was a vague idea that -it was a sort of fluid that flowed along copper wires as water flows in -a pipe. We now suppose that it is _a rapid movement of electrons from -atom to atom_ in the wire or wherever the current is. - -Let us try to grasp the principle of the new view of electricity and see -how it applies to all the varied electrical phenomena in the world about -us. As we saw, the nucleus of an atom of matter consists of positive -electricity which holds together a number of electrons, or charges of -negative electricity.[4] This certainly tells us to some extent what -electricity is, and how it is related to matter, but it leaves us with -the usual difficulty about fundamental realities. But we now know that -electricity, like matter, is atomic in structure; a charge of -electricity is made up of a number of small units or charges of a -definite, constant amount. It has been suggested that the two kinds of -electricity, i.e. positive and negative, are right-handed and -left-handed vortices or whirlpools in ether, or rings in ether, but -there are very serious difficulties, and we leave this to the future. - - [4] The words "positive" and "negative" electricity belong to the - days when it was regarded as a fluid. A body overcharged with the - fluid was called positive; an undercharged body was called negative. - A positively-electrified body is now one whose atoms have lost some - of their outlying electrons, so that the positive charge of - electricity predominates. The negatively-electrified body is one - with more than the normal number of electrons. - - -Sec. 10 - -What an Electric Current is - -The discovery of these two kinds of electricity has, however, enabled us -to understand very fairly what goes on in electrical phenomena. The -outlying electrons, as we saw, may pass from atom to atom, and this, on -a large scale, is the meaning of the electric current. In other words, -we believe an electric current to be a flow of electrons. Let us take, -to begin with, a simple electrical "cell," in which a feeble current is -generated: such a cell as there is in every house to serve its electric -bells. - -In the original form this simple sort of "battery" consisted of a plate -of zinc and a plate of copper immersed in a chemical. Long before -anything was known about electrons it was known that, if you put zinc -and copper together, you produce a mild current of electricity. We know -now what this means. Zinc is a metal the atoms of which are particularly -disposed to part with some of their outlying electrons. Why, we do not -know; but the fact is the basis of these small batteries. Electrons from -the atoms of zinc pass to the atoms of copper, and their passage is a -"current." Each atom gives up an electron to its neighbour. It was -further found long ago that if the zinc and copper were immersed in -certain chemicals, which slowly dissolve the zinc, and the two metals -were connected by a copper wire, the current was stronger. In modern -language, there is a brisker flow of electrons. The reason is that -the atoms of zinc which are stolen by the chemical leave their -detachable electrons behind them, and the zinc has therefore more -electrons to pass on to the copper. - -[Illustration: DISINTEGRATION OF ATOMS - -An atom of Uranium, by ejecting an Alpha particle, becomes Uranium X. -This substance, by ejecting Beta and Gamma rays, becomes Radium. Radium -passes through a number of further changes, as shown in the diagram, and -finally becomes lead. Some radio-active substances disintegrate much -faster than others. Thus Uranium changes very slowly, taking -5,000,000,000 years to reach the same stage of disintegration that -Radium A reaches in 3 minutes. As the disintegration proceeds, the -substances become of lighter and lighter atomic weights. Thus Uranium -has an atomic weight of 238, whereas lead has an atomic weight of only -206. The breaking down of atoms is fully explained in the text.] - -[Illustration: _Reproduced by permission from "The Interpretation of -Radium" (John Murray)._ - -SILK TASSEL ELECTRIFIED - -The separate threads of the tassel, being each electrified with the same -kind of electricity, repel one another, and thus the tassel branches out -as in the photograph.] - -[Illustration: SILK TASSEL DISCHARGED BY THE RAYS FROM RADIUM - -When the radium rays, carrying an opposite electric charge to that on -the tassel, strikes the threads, the threads are neutralised, and hence -fall together again.] - -[Illustration: A HUGE ELECTRIC SPARK - -This is an actual photograph of an electric spark. It is leaping a -distance of about 10 feet, and is the discharge of a million volts. It -is a graphic illustration of the tremendous energy of electrons.] - -[Illustration: _From "Scientific Ideas of To-day_." - -ELECTRICAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN COMMON OBJECTS - -Take an ordinary flower-vase well dried and energetically rub it with a -silk handkerchief. The vase which thus becomes electrified will attract -any light body, such as a feather, as shown in the above illustration.] - -Such cells are now made of zinc and carbon, immersed in sal-ammoniac, -but the principle is the same. The flow of electricity is a flow of -electrons; though we ought to repeat that they do not flow in a body, as -molecules of water do. You may have seen boys place a row of bricks, -each standing on one end, in such order that the first, if it is pushed, -will knock over the second, the second the third, and so on to the last. -There is a flow of _movement_ all along the line, but each brick moves -only a short distance. So an electron merely passes to the next atom, -which sends on an electron to a third atom, and so on. In this case, -however, the movement from atom to atom is so rapid that the ripple of -movement, if we may call it so, may pass along at an enormous speed. We -have seen how swiftly electrons travel. - -But how is this turned into power enough even to ring a bell? The actual -mechanical apparatus by which the energy of the electron current is -turned into sound, or heat, or light will be described in a technical -section later in this work. We are concerned here only with the -principle, which is clear. While zinc is very apt to part with -electrons, copper is just as obliging in facilitating their passage -onward. Electrons will travel in this way in most metals, but copper is -one of the best "conductors." So we lengthen the copper wire between the -zinc and the carbon until it goes as far as the front door and the bell, -which are included in the circuit. When you press the button at the -door, two wires are brought together, and the current of electrons -rushes round the circuit; and at the bell its energy is diverted into -the mechanical apparatus which rings the bell. - -Copper is a good conductor--six times as good as iron--and is therefore -so common in electrical industries. Some other substances are just as -stubborn as copper is yielding, and we call them "insulators," because -they resist the current instead of letting it flow. Their atoms do not -easily part with electrons. Glass, vulcanite, and porcelain are very -good insulators for this reason. - - -What the Dynamo does - -But even several cells together do not produce the currents needed in -modern industry, and the flow is produced in a different manner. As the -invisible electrons pass along a wire they produce what we call a -magnetic field around the wire, they produce a disturbance in the -surrounding ether. To be exact, it is through the ether surrounding the -wire that the energy originated by the electrons is transmitted. To set -electrons moving on a large scale we use a "dynamo." By means of the -dynamo it is possible to transform mechanical energy into electrical -energy. The modern dynamo, as Professor Soddy puts it, may be looked -upon as an electron pump. We cannot go into the subject deeply here, we -would only say that a large coil of copper wire is caused to turn round -rapidly between the poles of a powerful magnet. That is the essential -construction of the "dynamo," which is used for generating strong -currents. We shall see in a moment how magnetism differs from -electricity, and will say here only that round the poles of a large -magnet there is a field of intense disturbance which will start a flow -of electrons in any copper that is introduced into it. On account of the -speed given to the coil of wire its atoms enter suddenly this magnetic -field, and they give off crowds of electrons in a flash. - -It is found that a similar disturbance is caused, though the flow is in -the _opposite_ direction, when the coil of wire leaves the magnetic -field. And as the coil is revolving very rapidly we get a powerful -current of electricity that runs in alternate directions--an -"alternating" current. Electricians have apparatus for converting it -into a continuous current where this is necessary. - -A current, therefore, means a steady flow of the electrons from atom to -atom. Sometimes, however, a number of electrons rush violently and -explosively from one body to another, as in the electric spark or the -occasional flash from an electric tram or train. The grandest and most -spectacular display of this phenomenon is the thunderstorm. As we saw -earlier, a portentous furnace like the sun is constantly pouring floods -of electrons from its atoms into space. The earth intercepts great -numbers of these electrons. In the upper regions of the air the stream -of solar electrons has the effect of separating positively-electrified -atoms from negatively-electrified ones, and the water-vapour, which is -constantly rising from the surface of the sea, gathers more freely round -the positively-electrified atoms, and brings them down, as rain, to the -earth. Thus the upper air loses a proportion of positive electricity, or -becomes "negatively electrified." In the thunderstorm we get both kinds -of clouds--some with large excesses of electrons, and some deficient in -electrons--and the tension grows until at last it is relieved by a -sudden and violent discharge of electrons from one cloud to another or -to the earth--an electric spark on a prodigious scale. - - -Sec. 11 - -Magnetism - -We have seen that an electric current is really a flow of electrons. Now -an electric current exhibits a magnetic effect. The surrounding space is -endowed with energy which we call electro-magnetic energy. A piece of -magnetised iron attracting other pieces of iron to it is the popular -idea of a magnet. If we arrange a wire to pass vertically through a -piece of cardboard and then sprinkle iron filings on the cardboard we -shall find that, on passing an electric current through the wire, the -iron filings arrange themselves in circles round it. The magnetic force, -due to the electric current, seems to exist in circles round the wire, -an ether disturbance being set up. Even a single electron, when in -movement, creates a magnetic "field," as it is called, round its path. -There is no movement of electrons without this attendant field of -energy, and their motion is not stopped until that field of energy -disappears from the ether. The modern theory of magnetism supposes that -all magnetism is produced in this way. All magnetism is supposed to -arise from the small whirling motions of the electrons contained in the -ultimate atoms of matter. We cannot here go into the details of the -theory nor explain why, for instance, iron behaves so differently from -other substances, but it is sufficient to say that here, also, the -electron theory provides the key. This theory is not yet definitely -_proved_, but it furnishes a sufficient theoretical basis for future -research. The earth itself is a gigantic magnet, a fact which makes the -compass possible, and it is well known that the earth's magnetism is -affected by those great outbreaks on the sun called sun-spots. Now it -has been recently shown that a sun-spot is a vast whirlpool of electrons -and that it exerts a strong magnetic action. There is doubtless a -connection between these outbreaks of electronic activity and the -consequent changes in the earth's magnetism. The precise mechanism of -the connection, however, is still a matter that is being investigated. - - -ETHER AND WAVES - -Ether and Waves - -The whole material universe is supposed to be embedded in a vast medium -called the ether. It is true that the notion of the ether has been -abandoned by some modern physicists, but, whether or not it is -ultimately dispensed with, the conception of the ether has entered so -deeply into the scientific mind that the science of physics cannot be -understood unless we know something about the properties attributed to -the ether. The ether was invented to explain the phenomena of light, and -to account for the flow of energy across empty space. Light takes time -to travel. We see the sun at any moment by the light that left it 8 -minutes before. It has taken that 8 minutes for the light from the -sun to travel that 93,000,000 miles odd which separates it from our -earth. Besides the fact that light takes time to travel, it can be shown -that light travels in the form of waves. We know that sound travels in -waves; sound consists of waves in the air, or water or wood or whatever -medium we hear it through. If an electric bell be put in a glass jar and -the air be pumped out of the jar, the sound of the bell becomes feebler -and feebler until, when enough air has been taken out, we do not hear -the bell at all. Sound cannot travel in a vacuum. We continue to _see_ -the bell, however, so that evidently light can travel in a vacuum. The -invisible medium through which the waves of light travel is the ether, -and this ether permeates all space _and all matter_. Between us and the -stars stretch vast regions empty of all matter. But we see the stars; -their light reaches us, even though it may take centuries to do so. We -conceive, then, that it is the universal ether which conveys that light. -All the energy which has reached the earth from the sun and which, -stored for ages in our coal-fields, is now used to propel our trains and -steamships, to heat and light our cities, to perform all the -multifarious tasks of modern life, was conveyed by the ether. Without -that universal carrier of energy we should have nothing but a stagnant, -lifeless world. - -[Illustration: _Photo: Leadbeater._ - -AN ELECTRIC SPARK - -An electric spark consists of a rush of electrons across the space -between the two terminals. A state of tension is established in the -ether by the electric charges, and when this tension passes a certain -limit the discharge takes place.] - -[Illustration: _From "Scientific Ideas of To-day."_ - -AN ETHER DISTURBANCE AROUND AN ELECTRON CURRENT - -In the left-hand photograph an electric current is passing through the -coil, thus producing a magnetic field and transforming the poker into a -magnet. The poker is then able to support a pair of scissors. As soon as -the electric current is broken off, as in the second photograph, the -ether disturbance ceases. The poker loses its magnetism, and the -scissors fall.] - -We have said that light consists of waves. The ether may be considered -as resembling, in some respects, a jelly. It can transmit vibrations. -The waves of light are really excessively small ripples, measuring from -crest to crest. The distance from crest to crest of the ripples in a -pond is sometimes no more than an inch or two. This distance is -enormously great compared to the longest of the wave-lengths that -constitute light. We say the longest, for the waves of light differ in -length; the colour depends upon the length of the light. Red light has -the longest waves and violet the shortest. The longest waves, the waves -of deep-red light, are seven two hundred and fifty thousandths of an -inch in length (7/250,000 inch). This is nearly twice the length of -deep-violet light-waves, which are 1/67,000 inch. But light-waves, the -waves that affect the eye, are not the only waves carried by the ether. -Waves too short to affect the eye can affect the photographic plate, and -we can discover in this way the existence of waves only half the length -of the deep-violet waves. Still shorter waves can be discovered, until -we come to those excessively minute rays, the X-rays. - - -Below the Limits of Visibility - -But we can extend our investigations in the other direction; we find -that the ether carries many waves longer than light-waves. Special -photographic emulsions can reveal the existence of waves five times -longer than violet-light waves. Extending below the limits of visibility -are waves we detect as heat-waves. Radiant heat, like the heat from a -fire, is also a form of wave-motion in the ether, but the waves our -senses recognise as heat are longer than light-waves. There are longer -waves still, but our senses do not recognise them. But we can detect -them by our instruments. These are the waves used in wireless -telegraphy, and their length may be, in some cases, measured in miles. -These waves are the so-called electro-magnetic waves. Light, radiant -heat, and electro-magnetic waves are all of the same nature; they differ -only as regards their wave-lengths. - - -LIGHT--VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE - -If Light, then, consists of waves transmitted through the ether, what -gives rise to the waves? Whatever sets up such wonderfully rapid series -of waves must be something with an enormous vibration. We come back to -the electron: all atoms of matter, as we have seen, are made up of -electrons revolving in a regular orbit round a nucleus. These electrons -may be affected by out-side influences, they may be agitated and their -speed or vibration increased. - - -Electrons and Light - -The particles even of a piece of cold iron are in a state of vibration. -No nerves of ours are able to feel and register the waves they emit, but -your cold poker is really radiating, or sending out a series of -wave-movements, on every side. After what we saw about the nature of -matter, this will surprise none. Put your poker in the fire for a time. -The particles of the glowing coal, which are violently agitated, -communicate some of their energy to the particles of iron in the poker. -They move to and fro more rapidly, and the waves which they create are -now able to affect your nerves and cause a sensation of heat. Put the -poker again in the fire, until its temperature rises to 500 deg. C. It -begins to glow with a dull red. Its particles are now moving very -violently, and the waves they send out are so short and rapid that they -can be picked up by the eye--we have _visible_ light. They would still -not affect a photographic plate. Heat the iron further, and the crowds -of electrons now send out waves of various lengths which blend into -white light. What is happening is the agitated electrons flying round in -their orbits at a speed of trillions of times a second. Make the iron -"blue hot," and it pours out, in addition to light, the _invisible_ -waves which alter the film on the photographic plate. And beyond these -there is a long range of still shorter waves, culminating in the X-rays, -which will pass between the atoms of flesh or stone. - -Nearly two hundred and fifty years ago it was proved that light -travelled at least 600,000 times faster than sound. Jupiter, as we saw, -has moons, which circle round it. They pass behind the body of the -planet, and reappear at the other side. But it was noticed that, when -Jupiter is at its greatest distance from us, the reappearance of the -moon from behind it is 16 minutes and 36 seconds later than when the -planet is nearest to us. Plainly this was because light took so long to -cover the additional distance. The distance was then imperfectly known, -and the speed of light was underrated. We now know the distance, and we -easily get the velocity of light. - -No doubt it seems far more wonderful to discover this within the walls -of a laboratory, but it was done as long ago as 1850. A cogged wheel is -so mounted that a ray of light passes between two of the teeth and is -reflected back from a mirror. Now, slight as is the fraction of a second -which light takes to travel that distance, it is possible to give such -speed to the wheel that the next tooth catches the ray of light on its -return and cuts it off. The speed is increased still further until the -ray of light returns to the eye of the observer through the notch _next_ -to the one by which it had passed to the mirror! The speed of the wheel -was known, and it was thus possible again to gather the velocity of -light. If the shortest waves are 1/67,000 of an inch in length, and -light travels at 186,000 miles a second, any person can work out that -about 800 trillion waves enter the eye in a second when we see "violet." - - -Sorting out Light-waves - -The waves sent out on every side by the energetic electrons become -faintly visible to us when they reach about 1/35,000 of an inch. As they -become shorter and more rapid, as the electrons increase their speed, we -get, in succession, the colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, -indigo, and violet. Each distinct sensation of colour means a wave of -different length. When they are all mingled together, as in the light of -the sun, we get white light. When this white light passes through glass, -the speed of the waves is lessened; and, if the ray of light falls -obliquely on a triangular piece of glass, the waves of different lengths -part company as they travel through it, and the light is spread out in a -band of rainbow-colour. The waves are sorted out according to their -lengths in the "obstacle race" through the glass. Anyone may see this -for himself by holding up a wedge-shaped piece of crystal between the -sunlight and the eye; the prism separates the sunlight into its -constituent colours, and these various colours will be seen quite -readily. Or the thing may be realised in another way. If the seven -colours are painted on a wheel as shown opposite page 280 (in the -proportion shown), and the wheel rapidly revolved on a pivot, the wheel -will appear a dull white, the several colours will not be seen. But -_omit_ one of the colours, then the wheel, when revolved, will not -appear white, but will give the impression of one colour, corresponding -to what the union of six colours gives. Another experiment will show -that some bodies held up between the eye and a white light will not -permit all the rays to pass through, but will intercept some; a body -that intercepts all the seven rays except red will give the impression -of red, or if all the rays except violet, then violet will be the colour -seen. - -[Illustration: _Photo: H. J. Shepstone._ - -LIGHTNING - -In a thunderstorm we have the most spectacular display in lightning of a -violent and explosive rush of electrons (electricity) from one body to -another, from cloud to cloud, or to the earth. In this wonderful -photograph of an electrical storm note the long branched and undulating -flashes of lightning. Each flash lasts no longer than the one -hundred-thousandth part of a second of time.] - -[Illustration: LIGHT WAVES - -Light consists of waves transmitted through the ether. Waves of light -differ in length. The colour of the light depends on the wave-length. -Deep-red waves (the longest) are 7/250000 inch and deep-violet waves -1/67000 inch. The diagram shows two wave-motions of different -wave-lengths. From crest to crest, or from trough to trough, is the -length of the wave.] - -[Illustration: THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT - -The electric current passing in the direction of the arrow round the -electric circuit generates in the surrounding space circular magnetic -circuits as shown in the diagram. It is this property which lies at the -base of the electro-magnet and of the electric dynamo.] - -[Illustration: THE MAGNET - -The illustration shows the lines of force between two magnets. The lines -of force proceed from the north pole of one magnet to the south pole of -the other. They also proceed from the north to the south poles of the -same magnet. These facts are shown clearly in the diagram. The north -pole of a magnet is that end of it which turns to the north when the -magnet is freely suspended.] - - -The Fate of the World - -Professor Soddy has given an interesting picture of what might happen -when the sun's light and heat is no longer what it is. The human eye -"has adapted itself through the ages to the peculiarities of the sun's -light, so as to make the most of that wave-length of which there is -most.... Let us indulge for a moment in these gloomy prognostications, -as to the consequences to this earth of the cooling of the sun with the -lapse of ages, which used to be in vogue, but which radio-activity has -so rudely shaken. Picture the fate of the world when the sun has become -a dull red-hot ball, or even when it has cooled so far that it would no -longer emit light to us. That does not all mean that the world would be -in inky darkness, and that the sun would not emit light to the people -then inhabiting this world, if any had survived and could keep -themselves from freezing. To such, if the eye continued to adapt itself -to the changing conditions, our blues and violets would be ultra-violet -and invisible, but our dark heat would be light and hot bodies would be -luminous to them which would be dark to us." - - -Sec. 12 - -What the Blue "Sky" means - -We saw in a previous chapter how the spectroscope splits up light-waves -into their colours. But nature is constantly splitting the light into -its different-lengthed waves, its colours. The rainbow, where dense -moisture in the air acts as a spectroscope, is the most familiar -example. A piece of mother-of-pearl, or even a film of oil on the street -or on water, has the same effect, owing to the fine inequalities in its -surface. The atmosphere all day long is sorting out the waves. The blue -"sky" overhead means that the fine particles in the upper atmosphere -catch the shorter waves, the blue waves, and scatter them. We can make a -tubeful of blue sky in the laboratory at any time. The beautiful -pink-flush on the Alps at sunrise, the red glory that lingers in the -west at sunset, mean that, as the sun's rays must struggle through -denser masses of air when it is low on the horizon, the long red waves -are sifted out from the other shafts. - -Then there is the varied face of nature which, by absorbing some waves -and reflecting others, weaves its own beautiful robe of colour. Here and -there is a black patch, which _absorbs_ all the light. White surfaces -_reflect_ the whole of it. What is reflected depends on the period of -vibration of the electrons in the particular kind of matter. Generally, -as the electrons receive the flood of trillions of waves, they absorb -either the long or the medium or the short, and they give us the -wonderful colour-scheme of nature. In some cases the electrons continue -to radiate long after the sunlight has ceased to fall upon them. We get -from them "black" or invisible light, and we can take photographs by it. -Other bodies, like glass, vibrate in unison with the period of the -light-waves and let them stream through. - - -Light without Heat - -There are substances--"phosphorescent" things we call them--which give -out a mysterious cold light of their own. It is one of the problems -of science, and one of profound practical interest. If we could produce -light without heat our "gas bill" would shrink amazingly. So much energy -is wasted in the production of heat-waves and ultra-violet waves which -we do not want, that 90 per cent. or more of the power used in -illumination is wasted. Would that the glow-worm, or even the dead -herring, would yield us its secret! Phosphorus is the one thing we know -as yet that suits the purpose, and--it smells! Indeed, our artificial -light is not only extravagant in cost, but often poor in colour. The -unwary person often buys a garment by artificial light, and is disgusted -next morning to find in it a colour which is not wanted. The colour -disclosed by the sun was not in the waves of the artificial light. - -[Illustration: ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS - -The Spectroscope sorts out the above seven colours from sunlight (which -is compounded of these seven colours). If painted in proper proportions -on a wheel, as shown in the coloured illustration, and the wheel be -turned rapidly on a pivot through its centre, only a dull white will be -perceived. If one colour be omitted, the result will be one colour--the -result of the union of the remaining six.] - -Beyond the waves of violet light are the still shorter and more rapid -waves--the "ultra-violet" waves--which are precious to the photographer. -As every amateur knows, his plate may safely be exposed to light that -comes through a red or an orange screen. Such a screen means "no -thoroughfare" for the blue and "beyond-blue" waves, and it is these -which arrange the little grains of silver on the plate. It is the same -waves which supply the energy to the little green grains of matter -(chlorophyll) in the plant, preparing our food and timber for us, as -will be seen later. The tree struggles upward and spreads out its leaves -fanwise to the blue sky to receive them. In our coal-measures, the -mighty dead forests of long ago, are vast stores of sunlight which we -are prodigally using up. - -The X-rays are the extreme end, the highest octave, of the series of -waves. Their power of penetration implies that they are excessively -minute, but even these have not held their secret from the modern -physicist. From a series of beautiful experiments, in which they were -made to pass amongst the atoms of a crystal, we learned their length. It -is about the ten-millionth of a millimetre, and a millimetre is about -the 1/25 of an inch! - -One of the most recent discoveries, made during a recent eclipse of the -sun, is that light is subject to gravitation. A ray of light from a star -is bent out of its straight path when it passes near the mass of the -sun. Professor Eddington tells us that we have as much right to speak of -a pound of light as of a pound of sugar. Professor Eddington even -calculates that the earth receives 160 tons of light from the sun every -year! - - -ENERGY: HOW ALL LIFE DEPENDS ON IT - -As we have seen in an earlier chapter, one of the fundamental entities -of the universe is matter. A second, not less important, is called -energy. Energy is indispensable if the world is to continue to exist, -since all phenomena, including life, depend on it. Just as it is humanly -impossible to create or to destroy a particle of matter, so is it -impossible to create or to destroy energy. This statement will be more -readily understood when we have considered what energy is. - -Energy, like matter, is indestructible, and just as matter exists in -various forms so does energy. And we may add, just as we are ignorant of -what the negative and positive particles of electricity which constitute -matter really are, so we are ignorant of the true nature of energy. At -the same time, energy is not so completely mysterious as it once was. It -is another of nature's mysteries which the advance of modern science has -in some measure unveiled. It was only during the nineteenth century that -energy came to be known as something as distinct and permanent as matter -itself. - - -Forms of Energy - -The existence of various forms of energy had been known, of course, for -ages; there was the energy of a falling stone, the energy produced by -burning wood or coal or any other substance, but the essential -_identity_ of all these forms of energy had not been suspected. The -conception of energy as something which, like matter, was constant in -amount, which could not be created nor destroyed, was one of the great -scientific acquisitions of the past century. - -[Illustration: WAVE SHAPES - -Wave-motions are often complex. The above illustration shows some fairly -complicated wave shapes. All such wave-motions can be produced by -superposing a number of simple wave forms.] - -[Illustration: THE POWER OF A MAGNET - -The illustration is that of a "Phoenix" electric magnet lifting scrap -from railway trucks. The magnet is 52 inches in diameter and lifts a -weight of 26 tons. The same type of magnet, 62 inches in diameter, lifts -a weight of 40 tons.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: The Locomotive Publishing Co., Ltd._ - -THE SPEED OF LIGHT - -A train travelling at the rate of sixty miles per hour would take rather -more than seventeen and a quarter days to go round the earth at the -equator, i.e. a distance of 25,000 miles. Light, which travels at the -rate of 186,000 miles per second, would take between one-seventh and -one-eighth of a second to go the same distance.] - -[Illustration: ROTATING DISC OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON FOR MIXING COLOURS - -The Spectroscope sorts out the above seven colours from sunlight (which -is compounded of these seven colours). If painted in proper proportions -on a wheel, as shown in the coloured illustration, and the wheel turned -rapidly on a pivot through its centre, only a dull white will be -perceived. If one colour be omitted, the result will be one colour--the -result of the union of the remaining six.] - -It is not possible to enter deeply into this subject here. It is -sufficient if we briefly outline its salient aspects. Energy is -recognised in two forms, kinetic and potential. The form of energy which -is most apparent to us is the _energy of motion_; for example, a rolling -stone, running water, a falling body, and so on. We call the energy of -motion _kinetic energy_. Potential energy is the energy a body has in -virtue of its position--it is its capacity, in other words, to acquire -kinetic energy, as in the case of a stone resting on the edge of a -cliff. - -Energy may assume different forms; one kind of energy may be converted -directly or indirectly into some other form. The energy of burning coal, -for example, is converted into heat, and from heat energy we have -mechanical energy, such as that manifested by the steam-engine. In this -way we can transfer energy from one body to another. There is the energy -of the great waterfalls of Niagara, for instance, which are used to -supply the energy of huge electric power stations. - - -What Heat is - -An important fact about energy is, that all energy _tends to take the -form of heat energy_. The impact of a falling stone generates heat; a -waterfall is hotter at the bottom than at the top--the falling particles -of water, on striking the ground, generate heat; and most chemical -changes are attended by heat changes. Energy may remain latent -indefinitely in a lump of wood, but in combustion it is liberated, and -we have heat as a result. The atom of radium or of any other -radio-active substance, as it disintegrates, generates heat. "Every hour -radium generates sufficient heat to raise the temperature of its own -weight of water, from the freezing point to the boiling point." And what -is heat? _Heat is molecular motion._ The molecules of every substance, -as we have seen on a previous page, are in a state of continual motion, -and the more vigorous the motion the hotter the body. As wood or coal -burns, the invisible molecules of these substances are violently -agitated, and give rise to ether waves which our senses interpret as -light and heat. In this constant movement of the molecules, then, we -have a manifestation of the energy of motion and of heat. - -That energy which disappears in one form reappears in another has been -found to be universally true. It was Joule who, by churning water, first -showed that a measurable quantity of mechanical energy could be -transformed into a measurable quantity of heat energy. By causing an -apparatus to stir water vigorously, that apparatus being driven by -falling weights or a rotating flywheel or by any other mechanical means, -the water became heated. A certain amount of mechanical energy had been -used up and a certain amount of heat had appeared. The relation between -these two things was found to be invariable. Every physical change in -nature involves a transformation of energy, but the total quantity of -energy in the universe remains unaltered. This is the great doctrine of -the Conservation of Energy. - - -Sec. 13 - -Substitutes for Coal - -Consider the source of nearly all the energy which is used in modern -civilisation--coal. The great forests of the Carboniferous epoch now -exists as beds of coal. By the burning of coal--a chemical -transformation--the heat energy is produced on which at present our -whole civilisation depends. Whence is the energy locked up in the coal -derived? From the sun. For millions of years the energy of the sun's -rays had gone to form the vast vegetation of the Carboniferous era and -had been transformed, by various subtle processes, into the potential -energy that slumbers in those immense fossilized forests. - -The exhaustion of our coal deposits would mean, so far as our knowledge -extends at present, the end of the world's civilisation. There are other -known sources of energy, it is true. There is the energy of falling -water; the great falls of Niagara are used to supply the energy of huge -electric power stations. Perhaps, also, something could be done to -utilise the energy of the tides--another instance of the energy of -moving water. And attempts have been made to utilise directly the energy -of the sun's rays. But all these sources of energy are small compared -with the energy of coal. A suggestion was made at a recent British -Association meeting that deep borings might be sunk in order to utilise -the internal heat of the earth, but this is not, perhaps, a very -practical proposal. By far the most effective substitutes for coal would -be found in the interior energy of the atom, a source of energy which, -as we have seen, is practically illimitable. If the immense electrical -energy in the interior of the atom can ever be liberated and controlled, -then our steadily decreasing coal supply will no longer be the bugbear -it now is to all thoughtful men. - -The stored-up energy of the great coal-fields can be used up, but we -cannot replace it or create fresh supplies. As we have seen, energy -cannot be destroyed, but it can become _unavailable_. Let us consider -what this important fact means. - - -Sec. 14 - -Dissipation of Energy - -Energy may become dissipated. Where does it go? since if it is -indestructible it must still exist. It is easier to ask the question -than to give a final answer, and it is not possible in this OUTLINE, -where an advanced knowledge of physics is not assumed on the part of the -reader, to go fully into the somewhat difficult theories put forward by -physicists and chemists. We may raise the temperature, say, of iron, -until it is white-hot. If we stop the process the temperature of the -iron will gradually settle down to the temperature of surrounding -bodies. As it does so, where does its previous energy go? In some -measure it may pass to other bodies in contact with the piece of iron, -but ultimately the heat becomes radiated away in space where we cannot -follow it. It has been added to the vast reservoir of _unavailable_ heat -energy of uniform temperature. It is sufficient here to say that if all -bodies had a uniform temperature we should experience no such thing as -heat, because heat only travels from one body to another, having the -effect of cooling the one and warming the other. In time the two bodies -acquire the same temperature. The sum-total of the heat in any body is -measured in terms of the kinetic energy of its moving molecules. - -There must come a time, so far as we can see at present, when, even if -all the heat energy of the universe is not radiated away into empty -infinite space, yet a uniform temperature will prevail. If one body is -hotter than another it radiates heat to that body until both are at the -same temperature. Each body may still possess a considerable quantity of -heat energy, which it has absorbed, but that energy, so far as reactions -between those two bodies are concerned, _is now unavailable_. The same -principle applies whatever number of bodies we consider. Before heat -energy can be utilised we must have bodies with different temperature. -If the whole universe were at some uniform temperature, then, although -it might possess an enormous amount of heat energy, this energy would be -unavailable. - - -What a Uniform Temperature would mean - -And what does this imply? It implies a great deal: for if all the energy -in the world became unavailable, the universe, as it now is, would cease -to be. It is possible that, by the constant interchange of heat -radiations, the whole universe is tending to some uniform temperature, -in which case, although all molecular motion would not have ceased, it -would have become unavailable. In this sense it may be said that the -universe is running down. - -[Illustration: NIAGARA FALLS - -The energy of this falling water is prodigious. It is used to generate -thousands of horse-power in great electrical installations. The power is -used to drive electric trams in cities 150 to 250 miles away.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Stephen Cribb._ - -TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY - -An illustration of Energy. The chemical energy brought into existence by -firing the explosive manifesting itself as mechanical energy, sufficient -to impart violent motion to tons of water.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: Underwood & Underwood._ - -"BOILING" A KETTLE ON ICE - -When a kettle containing liquid air is placed on ice it "boils" because -the ice is intensely hot _when compared with the very low temperature of -the liquid air_.] - -If all the molecules of a substance were brought to a standstill, that -substance would be at the absolute zero of temperature. There could be -nothing colder. The temperature at which all molecular motions would -cease is known: it is -273 deg. C. No body could possibly attain a lower -temperature than this: a lower temperature could not exist. Unless there -exists in nature some process, of which we know nothing at present, -whereby energy is renewed, our solar system must one day sink to this -absolute zero of temperature. The sun, the earth, and every other body -in the universe is steadily radiating heat, and this radiation cannot go -on for ever, because heat continually tends to diffuse and to equalise -temperatures. - -But we can see, theoretically, that there is a way of evading this law. -If the chaotic molecular motions which constitute heat could be -_regulated_, then the heat energy of a body could be utilised directly. -Some authorities think that some of the processes which go on in the -living body do not involve any waste energy, that the chemical energy of -food is transformed directly into work without any of it being -dissipated as useless heat energy. It may be, therefore, that man will -finally discover some way of escape from the natural law that, while -energy cannot be destroyed, it has a tendency to become unavailable. - -The primary reservoir of energy is the atom; it is the energy of the -atom, the atom of elements in the sun, the stars, the earth, from which -nature draws for all her supply of energy. Shall we ever discover how we -can replenish the dwindling resources of energy, or find out how we can -call into being the at present unavailable energy which is stored up in -uniform temperature? - - It looks as if our successors would witness an interesting race, - between the progress of science on the one hand and the depletion of - natural resources upon the other. The natural rate of flow of energy - from its primary atomic reservoirs to the sea of waste heat energy - of uniform temperature, allows life to proceed at a complete pace - sternly regulated by the inexorable laws of supply and demand, - which the biologists have recognised in their field as the struggle - for existence.[5] - - [5] _Matter and Energy_, by Professor Soddy. - -It is certain that energy is an actual entity just as much as matter, -and that it cannot be created or destroyed. Matter and ether are -receptacles or vehicles of energy. As we have said, what these entities -really are in themselves we do not know. It may be that all forms of -energy are in some fundamental way aspects of the same primary entity -which constitutes matter: how all matter is constituted of particles of -electricity we have already seen. The question to which we await an -answer is: What is electricity? - - -Sec. 15 - -MATTER, ETHER, AND EINSTEIN - -The supreme synthesis, the crown of all this progressive conquest of -nature, would be to discover that the particles of positive and negative -electricity, which make up the atoms of matter, are points or centres of -disturbances of some kind in a universal ether, and that all our -"energies" (light, magnetism, gravitation, etc.) are waves or strains of -some kind set up in the ether by these clusters of electrons. - -It is a fascinating, tantalising dream. Larmor suggested in 1900 that -the electron is a tiny whirlpool, or "vortex," in ether; and, as such a -vortex may turn in either of two opposite ways, we seem to see a -possibility of explaining positive and negative electricity. But the -difficulties have proved very serious, and the nature of the electron is -unknown. A recent view is that it is "a ring of negative electricity -rotating about its axis at a high speed," though that does not carry us -very far. The unit of positive electricity is even less known. We must -be content to know the general lines on which thought is moving toward -the final unification. - -We say "unification," but it would be a grave error to think that ether -is the only possible basis for such unity, or to make it an essential -part of one's philosophy of the universe. Ether was never more than an -imagined entity to which we ascribed the most extraordinary properties, -and which seemed then to promise considerable aid. It was conceived as -an elastic solid of very great density, stretching from end to end of -the universe, transmitting waves from star to star at the rate of -186,000 miles a second; yet it was believed that the most solid matter -passed through it as if it did not exist. - -Some years ago a delicate experiment was tried for the purpose of -detecting the ether. Since the earth, in travelling round the sun, must -move through the ether if the ether exists, there ought to be a stream -of ether flowing through every laboratory; just as the motion of a ship -through a still atmosphere will make "a wind." In 1887 Michelson and -Morley tried to detect this. Theoretically, a ray of light in the -direction of the stream ought to travel at a different rate from a ray -of light against the stream or across it. They found no difference, and -scores of other experiments have failed. This does not prove that there -is no ether, as there is reason to suppose that our instruments would -appear to shrink in precisely the same proportion as the alteration of -the light; but the fact remains that we have no proof of the existence -of ether. J. H. Jeans says that "nature acts as if no such thing -existed." Even the phenomena of light and magnetism, he says, do not -imply ether; and he thinks that the hypothesis may be abandoned. The -primary reason, of course, for giving up the notion of the ether is -that, as Einstein has shown, there is no way of detecting its existence. -If there is an ether, then, since the earth is moving through it, there -should be some way of detecting this motion. The experiment has been -tried, as we have said, but, although the method used was very -sensitive, no motion was discovered. It is Einstein who, by -revolutionising our conceptions of space and time, showed that no such -motion ever could be discovered, whatever means were employed, and that -the usual notion of the ether must be abandoned. We shall explain this -theory more fully in a later section. - - -INFLUENCE OF THE TIDES: ORIGIN OF THE MOON: THE EARTH SLOWING DOWN - -Sec. 16 - -Until comparatively recent times, until, in fact, the full dawn of -modern science, the tides ranked amongst the greatest of nature's -mysteries. And, indeed, what agency could be invoked to explain this -mysteriously regular flux and reflux of the waters of the ocean? It is -not surprising that that steady, rhythmical rise and fall suggested to -some imaginative minds the breathing of a mighty animal. And even when -man first became aware of the fact that this regular movement was -somehow associated with the moon, was he much nearer an explanation? -What bond could exist between the movements of that distant world and -the diurnal variation of the waters of the earth? It is reported that an -ancient astronomer, despairing of ever resolving the mystery, drowned -himself in the sea. - - -The Earth Pulled by the Moon - -But it was part of the merit of Newton's mighty theory of gravitation -that it furnished an explanation even of this age-old mystery. We can -see, in broad outlines at any rate, that the theory of universal -attraction can be applied to this case. For the moon, Newton taught us, -pulls every particle of matter throughout the earth. If we imagine that -part of the earth's surface which comprises the Pacific Ocean, for -instance, to be turned towards the moon, we see that the moon's pull, -_acting on the loose and mobile water_, would tend to heap it up into a -sort of mound. The whole earth is pulled by the moon, but the water -is more free to obey this pull than is the solid earth, although small -tides are also caused in the earth's solid crust. It can be shown also -that a corresponding hump would tend to be produced on the other side of -the earth, owing, in this case, to the tendency of the water, being more -loosely connected, to lag behind the solid earth. If the earth's surface -were entirely fluid the rotation of the earth would give the impression -that these two humps were continually travelling round the world, once -every day. At any given part of the earth's surface, therefore, there -would be two humps daily, i.e. two periods of high water. Such is the -simplest possible outline of the gravitational theory of the tides. - -[Illustration: THE CAUSE OF TIDES - -The tides of the sea are due to the pull of the moon, and, in lesser -degree, of the sun. The whole earth is pulled by the moon, but the loose -and mobile water is more free to obey this pull than is the solid earth, -although small tides are also caused in the earth's solid crust. The -effect which the tides have on slowing down the rotation of the earth is -explained in the text.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: G. Brocklehurst._ - -THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT - -An exceptionally smooth formation due to perfect weather conditions. The -wall-like formation of these tidal waves (see next page also) will be -noticed. The reason for this is that the downward current in the river -heads the sea-water back, and thus helps to exaggerate the advancing -slope of the wave. The exceptional spring tides are caused by the -combined operation of the moon and the sun, as is explained in the -text.] - -[Illustration: _Photo: G. Brocklehurst._ - -A BIG SPRING TIDE, THE AEGIR ON THE TRENT] - -The actually observed phenomena are vastly more complicated, and the -complete theory bears very little resemblance to the simple form we have -just outlined. Everyone who lives in the neighbourhood of a port knows, -for instance, that high water seldom coincides with the time when the -moon crosses the meridian. It may be several hours early or late. High -water at London Bridge, for instance, occurs about one and a half hours -after the moon has passed the meridian, while at Dublin high water -occurs about one and a half hours before the moon crosses the meridian. -The actually observed phenomena, then, are far from simple; they have, -nevertheless, been very completely worked out, and the times of high -water for every port in the world can now be prophesied for a -considerable time ahead. - - -The Action of Sun and Moon - -It would be beyond our scope to attempt to explain the complete theory, -but we may mention one obvious factor which must be taken into account. -Since the moon, by its gravitational attraction, produces tides, we -should expect that the sun, whose gravitational attraction is so much -stronger, should also produce tides and, we would suppose at first -sight, more powerful tides than the moon. But while it is true that the -sun produces tides, it is not true that they are more powerful than -those produced by the moon. The sun's tide-producing power is, as a -matter of fact, less than half that of the moon. The reason of this is -that _distance_ plays an enormous role in the production of tides. The -mass of the sun is 26,000,000 times that of the moon; on the other hand -it is 386 times as far off as the moon. This greater distance more than -counterbalances its greater mass, and the result, as we have said, is -that the moon is more than twice as powerful. Sometimes the sun and moon -act together, and we have what are called spring tides; sometimes they -act against one another, and we have neap tides. These effects are -further complicated by a number of other factors, and the tides, at -various places, vary enormously. Thus at St. Helena the sea rises and -falls about three feet, whereas in the Bay of Fundy it rises and falls -more than fifty feet. But here, again, the reasons are complicated. - - -Sec. 17 - -Origin of the Moon - -But there is another aspect of the tides which is of vastly greater -interest and importance than the theory we have just been discussing. In -the hands of Sir George H. Darwin, the son of Charles Darwin, the tides -had been made to throw light on the evolution of our solar system. In -particular, they have illustrated the origin and development of the -system formed by our earth and moon. It is quite certain that, long ages -ago, the earth was rotating immensely faster than it is now, and that -the moon was so near as to be actually in contact with the earth. In -that remote age the moon was just on the point of separating from the -earth, of being thrown off by the earth. Earth and moon were once one -body, but the high rate of rotation caused this body to split up into -two pieces; one piece became the earth we now know, and the other became -the moon. Such is the conclusion to which we are led by an examination -of the tides. In the first place let us consider the energy produced by -the tides. We see evidences of this energy all round the word's -coastlines. Estuaries are scooped out, great rocks are gradually reduced -to rubble, innumerable tons of matter are continually being set in -movement. Whence is this energy derived? Energy, like matter, cannot be -created from nothing; what, then, is the source which makes this -colossal expenditure possible. - - -The Earth Slowing down - -The answer is simple, but startling. _The source of tidal energy is the -rotation of the earth._ The massive bulk of the earth, turning every -twenty-four hours on its axis, is like a gigantic flywheel. In virtue of -its rotation it possesses an enormous store of energy. But even the -heaviest and swiftest flywheel, if it is doing work, or even if it is -only working against the friction of its bearings, cannot dispense -energy for ever. It must, gradually, slow down. There is no escape from -this reasoning. It is the rotation of the earth which supplies the -energy of the tides, and, as a consequence, the tides must be slowing -down the earth. The tides act as a kind of brake on the earth's -rotation. These masses of water, _held back by the moon_, exert a kind -of dragging effect on the rotating earth. Doubtless this effect, -measured by our ordinary standards, is very small; it is, however, -continuous, and in the course of the millions of years dealt with in -astronomy, this small but constant effect may produce very considerable -results. - -But there is another effect which can be shown to be a necessary -mathematical consequence of tidal action. It is the moon's action on the -earth which produces the tides, but they also react on the moon. The -tides are slowing down the earth, and they are also driving the moon -farther and farther away. This result, strange as it may seem, does not -permit of doubt, for it is the result of an indubitable dynamical -principle, which cannot be made clear without a mathematical discussion. -Some interesting consequences follow. - -Since the earth is slowing down, it follows that it was once rotating -faster. There was a period, a long time ago, when the day comprised only -twenty hours. Going farther back still we come to a day of ten hours, -until, inconceivable ages ago, the earth must have been rotating on its -axis in a period of from three to four hours. - -At this point let us stop and inquire what was happening to the moon. We -have seen that at present the moon is getting farther and farther away. -It follows, therefore, that when the day was shorter the moon was -nearer. As we go farther back in time we find the moon nearer and nearer -to an earth rotating faster and faster. When we reach the period we have -already mentioned, the period when the earth completed a revolution in -three or four hours, we find that the moon was so near as to be almost -grazing the earth. This fact is very remarkable. Everybody knows that -there is a _critical velocity_ for a rotating flywheel, a velocity -beyond which the flywheel would fly into pieces because the centrifugal -force developed is so great as to overcome the cohesion of the molecules -of the flywheel. We have already likened our earth to a flywheel, and we -have traced its history back to the point where it was rotating with -immense velocity. We have also seen that, at that moment, the moon was -barely separated from the earth. The conclusion is irresistible. In an -age more remote the earth _did_ fly in pieces, and one of those pieces -is the moon. Such, in brief outline, is the tidal theory of the origin -of the earth-moon system. - - -The Day Becoming Longer - -At the beginning, when the moon split off from the earth, it obviously -must have shared the earth's rotation. It flew round the earth in the -same time that the earth rotated, that is to say, the month and the day -were of equal length. As the moon began to get farther from the earth, -the month, because the moon took longer to rotate round the earth, began -to get correspondingly longer. The day also became longer, because the -earth was slowing down, taking longer to rotate on its axis, but the -month increased at a greater rate than the day. Presently the month -became equal to two days, then to three, and so on. It has been -calculated that this process went on until there were twenty-nine days -in the month. After that the number of days in the month began to -decrease until it reached its present value or magnitude, and will -continue to decrease until once more the month and the day are equal. In -that age the earth will be rotating very slowly. The braking action of -the tides will cause the earth always to keep the same face to the moon; -it will rotate on its axis in the same time that the moon turns round -the earth. If nothing but the earth and moon were involved this state of -affairs would be final. But there is also the effect of the solar tides -to be considered. The moon makes the day equal to the month, but the sun -has a tendency, by still further slowing down the earth's rotation on -its axis, to make the day equal to the year. It would do this, of -course, by making the earth take as long to turn on its axis as to go -round the sun. It cannot succeed in this, owing to the action of the -moon, but it can succeed in making the day rather longer than the month. - -Surprising as it may seem, we already have an illustration of this -possibility in the satellites of Mars. The Martian day is about one -half-hour longer than ours, but when the two minute satellites of Mars -were discovered it was noticed that the inner one of the two revolved -round Mars in about seven hours forty minutes. In one Martian day, -therefore, one of the moons of Mars makes more than three complete -revolutions round that planet, so that, to an inhabitant of Mars, there -would be more than three months in a day. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - ARRHENIUS, SVANTE, _Worlds in the Making_. - CLERK-MAXWELL, JAMES, _Matter and Motion_. - DANIELL, ALFRED, _A Text-Book of the Principles of Physics_. - DARWIN, SIR G. H., _The Tides_. - HOLMAN, _Matter, Energy, Force and Work_. - KAPP, GISBERT, _Electricity_. - KELVIN, LORD, _Popular Lectures and Addresses_. Vol. i. _Constitution - of Matter._ - LOCKYER, SIR NORMAN, _Inorganic Evolution_. - LODGE, SIR OLIVER, _Electrons_ and _The Ether of Space_. - PERRIN, JEAN, _Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality_. - SODDY, FREDERICK, _Matter and Energy_ and _The Interpretation of Radium_. - THOMPSON, SILVANUS P., _Light, Visible and Invisible_. - THOMSON, SIR J. J., _The Corpuscular Theory of Matter_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Outline of Science, Vol. 1 (of 4), by -J. 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Be sure to check the -copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing -this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. - -This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project -Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the -header without written permission. - -Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the -eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is -important information about your specific rights and restrictions in -how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a -donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. - - -**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** - -**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** - -*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** - - -Title: Ulysses - -Author: James Joyce - -Release Date: July, 2003 [EBook #4300] -[This file was first posted on December 27, 2001] -[Edition 12 posted June 30th, 2002] -[Date last updated: November 26, 2004] - -Edition: 12 - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -Please Note: This etext edition of the Project Gutenberg Ulysses by -James Joyce is based on the pre-1923 print editions. Any suggested -changes to this etext should be based on comparison to that print -edition, and not to the new 1986 and later print editions. - - - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ULYSSES *** - - - - -This etext was prepared by Col Choat . - - - - - -Ulysses by James Joyce - - - -- I -- - - - -STATELY, PLUMP BUCK MULLIGAN CAME FROM THE STAIRHEAD, bearing a bowl of -lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed. A yellow dressinggown, -ungirdled, was sustained gently behind him by the mild morning air. He -held the bowl aloft and intoned: - ---INTROIBO AD ALTARE DEI. - -Halted, he peered down the dark winding stairs and called out coarsely: - ---Come up, Kinch! Come up, you fearful jesuit! - -Solemnly he came forward and mounted the round gunrest. He faced about -and blessed gravely thrice the tower, the surrounding land and the -awaking mountains. Then, catching sight of Stephen Dedalus, he bent -towards him and made rapid crosses in the air, gurgling in his throat and -shaking his head. Stephen Dedalus, displeased and sleepy, leaned his arms -on the top of the staircase and looked coldly at the shaking gurgling -face that blessed him, equine in its length, and at the light untonsured -hair, grained and hued like pale oak. - -Buck Mulligan peeped an instant under the mirror and then covered -the bowl smartly. - ---Back to barracks! he said sternly. - -He added in a preacher's tone: - ---For this, O dearly beloved, is the genuine Christine: body and soul and -blood and ouns. Slow music, please. Shut your eyes, gents. One moment. A -little trouble about those white corpuscles. Silence, all. - -He peered sideways up and gave a long slow whistle of call, then paused -awhile in rapt attention, his even white teeth glistening here and there -with gold points. Chrysostomos. Two strong shrill whistles answered -through the calm. - ---Thanks, old chap, he cried briskly. That will do nicely. Switch off the -current, will you? - -He skipped off the gunrest and looked gravely at his watcher, gathering -about his legs the loose folds of his gown. The plump shadowed face and -sullen oval jowl recalled a prelate, patron of arts in the middle ages. A -pleasant smile broke quietly over his lips. - ---The mockery of it! he said gaily. Your absurd name, an ancient Greek! - -He pointed his finger in friendly jest and went over to the parapet, -laughing to himself. Stephen Dedalus stepped up, followed him wearily -halfway and sat down on the edge of the gunrest, watching him still as he -propped his mirror on the parapet, dipped the brush in the bowl and -lathered cheeks and neck. - -Buck Mulligan's gay voice went on. - ---My name is absurd too: Malachi Mulligan, two dactyls. But it has a -Hellenic ring, hasn't it? Tripping and sunny like the buck himself. We -must go to Athens. Will you come if I can get the aunt to fork out twenty -quid? - -He laid the brush aside and, laughing with delight, cried: - ---Will he come? The jejune jesuit! - -Ceasing, he began to shave with care. - ---Tell me, Mulligan, Stephen said quietly. - ---Yes, my love? - ---How long is Haines going to stay in this tower? - -Buck Mulligan showed a shaven cheek over his right shoulder. - ---God, isn't he dreadful? he said frankly. A ponderous Saxon. He thinks -you're not a gentleman. God, these bloody English! Bursting with money -and indigestion. Because he comes from Oxford. You know, Dedalus, you -have the real Oxford manner. He can't make you out. O, my name for you is -the best: Kinch, the knife-blade. - -He shaved warily over his chin. - ---He was raving all night about a black panther, Stephen said. Where is -his guncase? - ---A woful lunatic! Mulligan said. Were you in a funk? - ---I was, Stephen said with energy and growing fear. Out here in the dark -with a man I don't know raving and moaning to himself about shooting a -black panther. You saved men from drowning. I'm not a hero, however. If -he stays on here I am off. - -Buck Mulligan frowned at the lather on his razorblade. He hopped down -from his perch and began to search his trouser pockets hastily. - ---Scutter! he cried thickly. - -He came over to the gunrest and, thrusting a hand into Stephen's upper -pocket, said: - ---Lend us a loan of your noserag to wipe my razor. - -Stephen suffered him to pull out and hold up on show by its corner a -dirty crumpled handkerchief. Buck Mulligan wiped the razorblade neatly. -Then, gazing over the handkerchief, he said: - ---The bard's noserag! A new art colour for our Irish poets: snotgreen. -You can almost taste it, can't you? - -He mounted to the parapet again and gazed out over Dublin bay, his fair -oakpale hair stirring slightly. - ---God! he said quietly. Isn't the sea what Algy calls it: a great sweet -mother? The snotgreen sea. The scrotumtightening sea. EPI OINOPA PONTON. -Ah, Dedalus, the Greeks! I must teach you. You must read them in the -original. THALATTA! THALATTA! She is our great sweet mother. Come and -look. - -Stephen stood up and went over to the parapet. Leaning on it he looked -down on the water and on the mailboat clearing the harbourmouth of -Kingstown. - ---Our mighty mother! Buck Mulligan said. - -He turned abruptly his grey searching eyes from the sea to Stephen's -face. - ---The aunt thinks you killed your mother, he said. That's why she won't -let me have anything to do with you. - ---Someone killed her, Stephen said gloomily. - ---You could have knelt down, damn it, Kinch, when your dying mother asked -you, Buck Mulligan said. I'm hyperborean as much as you. But to think of -your mother begging you with her last breath to kneel down and pray for -her. And you refused. There is something sinister in you ... - -He broke off and lathered again lightly his farther cheek. A tolerant -smile curled his lips. - ---But a lovely mummer! he murmured to himself. Kinch, the loveliest -mummer of them all! - -He shaved evenly and with care, in silence, seriously. - -Stephen, an elbow rested on the jagged granite, leaned his palm against -his brow and gazed at the fraying edge of his shiny black coat-sleeve. -Pain, that was not yet the pain of love, fretted his heart. Silently, in -a dream she had come to him after her death, her wasted body within its -loose brown graveclothes giving off an odour of wax and rosewood, her -breath, that had bent upon him, mute, reproachful, a faint odour of -wetted ashes. Across the threadbare cuffedge he saw the sea hailed as a -great sweet mother by the wellfed voice beside him. The ring of bay and -skyline held a dull green mass of liquid. A bowl of white china had stood -beside her deathbed holding the green sluggish bile which she had torn up -from her rotting liver by fits of loud groaning vomiting. - -Buck Mulligan wiped again his razorblade. - ---Ah, poor dogsbody! he said in a kind voice. I must give you a shirt and -a few noserags. How are the secondhand breeks? - ---They fit well enough, Stephen answered. - -Buck Mulligan attacked the hollow beneath his underlip. - ---The mockery of it, he said contentedly. Secondleg they should be. God -knows what poxy bowsy left them off. I have a lovely pair with a hair -stripe, grey. You'll look spiffing in them. I'm not joking, Kinch. You -look damn well when you're dressed. - ---Thanks, Stephen said. I can't wear them if they are grey. - ---He can't wear them, Buck Mulligan told his face in the mirror. -Etiquette is etiquette. He kills his mother but he can't wear grey -trousers. - -He folded his razor neatly and with stroking palps of fingers felt the -smooth skin. - -Stephen turned his gaze from the sea and to the plump face with its -smokeblue mobile eyes. - ---That fellow I was with in the Ship last night, said Buck Mulligan, says -you have g.p.i. He's up in Dottyville with Connolly Norman. General -paralysis of the insane! - -He swept the mirror a half circle in the air to flash the tidings abroad -in sunlight now radiant on the sea. His curling shaven lips laughed and -the edges of his white glittering teeth. Laughter seized all his strong -wellknit trunk. - ---Look at yourself, he said, you dreadful bard! - -Stephen bent forward and peered at the mirror held out to him, cleft by a -crooked crack. Hair on end. As he and others see me. Who chose this face -for me? This dogsbody to rid of vermin. It asks me too. - ---I pinched it out of the skivvy's room, Buck Mulligan said. It does her -all right. The aunt always keeps plainlooking servants for Malachi. Lead -him not into temptation. And her name is Ursula. - -Laughing again, he brought the mirror away from Stephen's peering eyes. - ---The rage of Caliban at not seeing his face in a mirror, he said. If -Wilde were only alive to see you! - -Drawing back and pointing, Stephen said with bitterness: - ---It is a symbol of Irish art. The cracked looking-glass of a servant. - -Buck Mulligan suddenly linked his arm in Stephen's and walked with him -round the tower, his razor and mirror clacking in the pocket where he had -thrust them. - ---It's not fair to tease you like that, Kinch, is it? he said kindly. God -knows you have more spirit than any of them. - -Parried again. He fears the lancet of my art as I fear that of his. The -cold steelpen. - ---Cracked lookingglass of a servant! Tell that to the oxy chap downstairs -and touch him for a guinea. He's stinking with money and thinks you're -not a gentleman. His old fellow made his tin by selling jalap to Zulus or -some bloody swindle or other. God, Kinch, if you and I could only work -together we might do something for the island. Hellenise it. - -Cranly's arm. His arm. - ---And to think of your having to beg from these swine. I'm the only one -that knows what you are. Why don't you trust me more? What have you up -your nose against me? Is it Haines? If he makes any noise here I'll bring -down Seymour and we'll give him a ragging worse than they gave Clive -Kempthorpe. - -Young shouts of moneyed voices in Clive Kempthorpe's rooms. Palefaces: -they hold their ribs with laughter, one clasping another. O, I shall -expire! Break the news to her gently, Aubrey! I shall die! With slit -ribbons of his shirt whipping the air he hops and hobbles round the -table, with trousers down at heels, chased by Ades of Magdalen with the -tailor's shears. A scared calf's face gilded with marmalade. I don't want -to be debagged! Don't you play the giddy ox with me! - -Shouts from the open window startling evening in the quadrangle. A deaf -gardener, aproned, masked with Matthew Arnold's face, pushes his mower on -the sombre lawn watching narrowly the dancing motes of grasshalms. - -To ourselves ... new paganism ... omphalos. - ---Let him stay, Stephen said. There's nothing wrong with him except at -night. - ---Then what is it? Buck Mulligan asked impatiently. Cough it up. I'm -quite frank with you. What have you against me now? - -They halted, looking towards the blunt cape of Bray Head that lay on the -water like the snout of a sleeping whale. Stephen freed his arm quietly. - ---Do you wish me to tell you? he asked. - ---Yes, what is it? Buck Mulligan answered. I don't remember anything. - -He looked in Stephen's face as he spoke. A light wind passed his brow, -fanning softly his fair uncombed hair and stirring silver points of -anxiety in his eyes. - -Stephen, depressed by his own voice, said: - ---Do you remember the first day I went to your house after my mother's -death? - -Buck Mulligan frowned quickly and said: - ---What? Where? I can't remember anything. I remember only ideas and -sensations. Why? What happened in the name of God? - ---You were making tea, Stephen said, and went across the landing to get -more hot water. Your mother and some visitor came out of the drawingroom. -She asked you who was in your room. - ---Yes? Buck Mulligan said. What did I say? I forget. - ---You said, Stephen answered, O, IT'S ONLY DEDALUS WHOSE MOTHER IS -BEASTLY DEAD. - -A flush which made him seem younger and more engaging rose to Buck -Mulligan's cheek. - ---Did I say that? he asked. Well? What harm is that? - -He shook his constraint from him nervously. - ---And what is death, he asked, your mother's or yours or my own? You saw -only your mother die. I see them pop off every day in the Mater and -Richmond and cut up into tripes in the dissectingroom. It's a beastly -thing and nothing else. It simply doesn't matter. You wouldn't kneel down -to pray for your mother on her deathbed when she asked you. Why? Because -you have the cursed jesuit strain in you, only it's injected the wrong -way. To me it's all a mockery and beastly. Her cerebral lobes are not -functioning. She calls the doctor sir Peter Teazle and picks buttercups -off the quilt. Humour her till it's over. You crossed her last wish in -death and yet you sulk with me because I don't whinge like some hired -mute from Lalouette's. Absurd! I suppose I did say it. I didn't mean to -offend the memory of your mother. - -He had spoken himself into boldness. Stephen, shielding the gaping wounds -which the words had left in his heart, said very coldly: - ---I am not thinking of the offence to my mother. - ---Of what then? Buck Mulligan asked. - ---Of the offence to me, Stephen answered. - -Buck Mulligan swung round on his heel. - ---O, an impossible person! he exclaimed. - -He walked off quickly round the parapet. Stephen stood at his post, -gazing over the calm sea towards the headland. Sea and headland now grew -dim. Pulses were beating in his eyes, veiling their sight, and he felt -the fever of his cheeks. - -A voice within the tower called loudly: - ---Are you up there, Mulligan? - ---I'm coming, Buck Mulligan answered. - -He turned towards Stephen and said: - ---Look at the sea. What does it care about offences? Chuck Loyola, Kinch, -and come on down. The Sassenach wants his morning rashers. - -His head halted again for a moment at the top of the staircase, level -with the roof: - ---Don't mope over it all day, he said. I'm inconsequent. Give up the -moody brooding. - -His head vanished but the drone of his descending voice boomed out of the -stairhead: - - - AND NO MORE TURN ASIDE AND BROOD - UPON LOVE'S BITTER MYSTERY - FOR FERGUS RULES THE BRAZEN CARS. - - -Woodshadows floated silently by through the morning peace from the -stairhead seaward where he gazed. Inshore and farther out the mirror of -water whitened, spurned by lightshod hurrying feet. White breast of the -dim sea. The twining stresses, two by two. A hand plucking the -harpstrings, merging their twining chords. Wavewhite wedded words -shimmering on the dim tide. - -A cloud began to cover the sun slowly, wholly, shadowing the bay in -deeper green. It lay beneath him, a bowl of bitter waters. Fergus' song: -I sang it alone in the house, holding down the long dark chords. Her door -was open: she wanted to hear my music. Silent with awe and pity I went to -her bedside. She was crying in her wretched bed. For those words, -Stephen: love's bitter mystery. - -Where now? - -Her secrets: old featherfans, tasselled dancecards, powdered with musk, a -gaud of amber beads in her locked drawer. A birdcage hung in the sunny -window of her house when she was a girl. She heard old Royce sing in the -pantomime of TURKO THE TERRIBLE and laughed with others when he sang: - - - I AM THE BOY - THAT CAN ENJOY - INVISIBILITY. - - -Phantasmal mirth, folded away: muskperfumed. - - - AND NO MORE TURN ASIDE AND BROOD. - - -Folded away in the memory of nature with her toys. Memories beset his -brooding brain. Her glass of water from the kitchen tap when she had -approached the sacrament. A cored apple, filled with brown sugar, -roasting for her at the hob on a dark autumn evening. Her shapely -fingernails reddened by the blood of squashed lice from the children's -shirts. - -In a dream, silently, she had come to him, her wasted body within its -loose graveclothes giving off an odour of wax and rosewood, her breath, -bent over him with mute secret words, a faint odour of wetted ashes. - -Her glazing eyes, staring out of death, to shake and bend my soul. On me -alone. The ghostcandle to light her agony. Ghostly light on the tortured -face. Her hoarse loud breath rattling in horror, while all prayed on -their knees. Her eyes on me to strike me down. LILIATA RUTILANTIUM TE -CONFESSORUM TURMA CIRCUMDET: IUBILANTIUM TE VIRGINUM CHORUS EXCIPIAT. - -Ghoul! Chewer of corpses! - -No, mother! Let me be and let me live. - ---Kinch ahoy! - -Buck Mulligan's voice sang from within the tower. It came nearer up the -staircase, calling again. Stephen, still trembling at his soul's cry, -heard warm running sunlight and in the air behind him friendly words. - ---Dedalus, come down, like a good mosey. Breakfast is ready. Haines is -apologising for waking us last night. It's all right. - ---I'm coming, Stephen said, turning. - ---Do, for Jesus' sake, Buck Mulligan said. For my sake and for all our -sakes. - -His head disappeared and reappeared. - ---I told him your symbol of Irish art. He says it's very clever. Touch -him for a quid, will you? A guinea, I mean. - ---I get paid this morning, Stephen said. - ---The school kip? Buck Mulligan said. How much? Four quid? Lend us one. - ---If you want it, Stephen said. - ---Four shining sovereigns, Buck Mulligan cried with delight. We'll have a -glorious drunk to astonish the druidy druids. Four omnipotent sovereigns. - -He flung up his hands and tramped down the stone stairs, singing out of -tune with a Cockney accent: - - - O, WON'T WE HAVE A MERRY TIME, - DRINKING WHISKY, BEER AND WINE! - ON CORONATION, - CORONATION DAY! - O, WON'T WE HAVE A MERRY TIME - ON CORONATION DAY! - - -Warm sunshine merrying over the sea. The nickel shavingbowl shone, -forgotten, on the parapet. Why should I bring it down? Or leave it there -all day, forgotten friendship? - -He went over to it, held it in his hands awhile, feeling its coolness, -smelling the clammy slaver of the lather in which the brush was stuck. So -I carried the boat of incense then at Clongowes. I am another now and yet -the same. A servant too. A server of a servant. - -In the gloomy domed livingroom of the tower Buck Mulligan's gowned form -moved briskly to and fro about the hearth, hiding and revealing its -yellow glow. Two shafts of soft daylight fell across the flagged floor -from the high barbacans: and at the meeting of their rays a cloud of -coalsmoke and fumes of fried grease floated, turning. - ---We'll be choked, Buck Mulligan said. Haines, open that door, will you? - -Stephen laid the shavingbowl on the locker. A tall figure rose from the -hammock where it had been sitting, went to the doorway and pulled open -the inner doors. - ---Have you the key? a voice asked. - ---Dedalus has it, Buck Mulligan said. Janey Mack, I'm choked! - -He howled, without looking up from the fire: - ---Kinch! - ---It's in the lock, Stephen said, coming forward. - -The key scraped round harshly twice and, when the heavy door had been set -ajar, welcome light and bright air entered. Haines stood at the doorway, -looking out. Stephen haled his upended valise to the table and sat down -to wait. Buck Mulligan tossed the fry on to the dish beside him. Then he -carried the dish and a large teapot over to the table, set them down -heavily and sighed with relief. - ---I'm melting, he said, as the candle remarked when ... But, hush! Not a -word more on that subject! Kinch, wake up! Bread, butter, honey. Haines, -come in. The grub is ready. Bless us, O Lord, and these thy gifts. -Where's the sugar? O, jay, there's no milk. - -Stephen fetched the loaf and the pot of honey and the buttercooler from -the locker. Buck Mulligan sat down in a sudden pet. - ---What sort of a kip is this? he said. I told her to come after eight. - ---We can drink it black, Stephen said thirstily. There's a lemon in the -locker. - ---O, damn you and your Paris fads! Buck Mulligan said. I want Sandycove -milk. - -Haines came in from the doorway and said quietly: - ---That woman is coming up with the milk. - ---The blessings of God on you! Buck Mulligan cried, jumping up from his -chair. Sit down. Pour out the tea there. The sugar is in the bag. Here, I -can't go fumbling at the damned eggs. - -He hacked through the fry on the dish and slapped it out on three plates, -saying: - ---IN NOMINE PATRIS ET FILII ET SPIRITUS SANCTI. - -Haines sat down to pour out the tea. - ---I'm giving you two lumps each, he said. But, I say, Mulligan, you do -make strong tea, don't you? - -Buck Mulligan, hewing thick slices from the loaf, said in an old woman's -wheedling voice: - ---When I makes tea I makes tea, as old mother Grogan said. And when I -makes water I makes water. - ---By Jove, it is tea, Haines said. - -Buck Mulligan went on hewing and wheedling: - ---SO I DO, MRS CAHILL, says she. BEGOB, MA'AM, says Mrs Cahill, GOD SEND -YOU DON'T MAKE THEM IN THE ONE POT. - -He lunged towards his messmates in turn a thick slice of bread, impaled -on his knife. - ---That's folk, he said very earnestly, for your book, Haines. Five lines -of text and ten pages of notes about the folk and the fishgods of -Dundrum. Printed by the weird sisters in the year of the big wind. - -He turned to Stephen and asked in a fine puzzled voice, lifting his -brows: - ---Can you recall, brother, is mother Grogan's tea and water pot spoken of -in the Mabinogion or is it in the Upanishads? - ---I doubt it, said Stephen gravely. - ---Do you now? Buck Mulligan said in the same tone. Your reasons, pray? - ---I fancy, Stephen said as he ate, it did not exist in or out of the -Mabinogion. Mother Grogan was, one imagines, a kinswoman of Mary Ann. - -Buck Mulligan's face smiled with delight. - ---Charming! he said in a finical sweet voice, showing his white teeth and -blinking his eyes pleasantly. Do you think she was? Quite charming! - -Then, suddenly overclouding all his features, he growled in a hoarsened -rasping voice as he hewed again vigorously at the loaf: - - - --FOR OLD MARY ANN - SHE DOESN'T CARE A DAMN. - BUT, HISING UP HER PETTICOATS ... - - -He crammed his mouth with fry and munched and droned. - -The doorway was darkened by an entering form. - ---The milk, sir! - ---Come in, ma'am, Mulligan said. Kinch, get the jug. - -An old woman came forward and stood by Stephen's elbow. - ---That's a lovely morning, sir, she said. Glory be to God. - ---To whom? Mulligan said, glancing at her. Ah, to be sure! - -Stephen reached back and took the milkjug from the locker. - ---The islanders, Mulligan said to Haines casually, speak frequently of -the collector of prepuces. - ---How much, sir? asked the old woman. - ---A quart, Stephen said. - -He watched her pour into the measure and thence into the jug rich white -milk, not hers. Old shrunken paps. She poured again a measureful and a -tilly. Old and secret she had entered from a morning world, maybe a -messenger. She praised the goodness of the milk, pouring it out. -Crouching by a patient cow at daybreak in the lush field, a witch on her -toadstool, her wrinkled fingers quick at the squirting dugs. They lowed -about her whom they knew, dewsilky cattle. Silk of the kine and poor old -woman, names given her in old times. A wandering crone, lowly form of an -immortal serving her conqueror and her gay betrayer, their common -cuckquean, a messenger from the secret morning. To serve or to upbraid, -whether he could not tell: but scorned to beg her favour. - ---It is indeed, ma'am, Buck Mulligan said, pouring milk into their cups. - ---Taste it, sir, she said. - -He drank at her bidding. - ---If we could live on good food like that, he said to her somewhat -loudly, we wouldn't have the country full of rotten teeth and rotten -guts. Living in a bogswamp, eating cheap food and the streets paved with -dust, horsedung and consumptives' spits. - ---Are you a medical student, sir? the old woman asked. - ---I am, ma'am, Buck Mulligan answered. - ---Look at that now, she said. - -Stephen listened in scornful silence. She bows her old head to a voice -that speaks to her loudly, her bonesetter, her medicineman: me she -slights. To the voice that will shrive and oil for the grave all there is -of her but her woman's unclean loins, of man's flesh made not in God's -likeness, the serpent's prey. And to the loud voice that now bids her be -silent with wondering unsteady eyes. - ---Do you understand what he says? Stephen asked her. - ---Is it French you are talking, sir? the old woman said to Haines. - -Haines spoke to her again a longer speech, confidently. - ---Irish, Buck Mulligan said. Is there Gaelic on you? - ---I thought it was Irish, she said, by the sound of it. Are you from the -west, sir? - ---I am an Englishman, Haines answered. - ---He's English, Buck Mulligan said, and he thinks we ought to speak Irish -in Ireland. - ---Sure we ought to, the old woman said, and I'm ashamed I don't speak the -language myself. I'm told it's a grand language by them that knows. - ---Grand is no name for it, said Buck Mulligan. Wonderful entirely. Fill -us out some more tea, Kinch. Would you like a cup, ma'am? - ---No, thank you, sir, the old woman said, slipping the ring of the -milkcan on her forearm and about to go. - -Haines said to her: - ---Have you your bill? We had better pay her, Mulligan, hadn't we? - -Stephen filled again the three cups. - ---Bill, sir? she said, halting. Well, it's seven mornings a pint at -twopence is seven twos is a shilling and twopence over and these three -mornings a quart at fourpence is three quarts is a shilling. That's a -shilling and one and two is two and two, sir. - -Buck Mulligan sighed and, having filled his mouth with a crust thickly -buttered on both sides, stretched forth his legs and began to search his -trouser pockets. - ---Pay up and look pleasant, Haines said to him, smiling. - -Stephen filled a third cup, a spoonful of tea colouring faintly the thick -rich milk. Buck Mulligan brought up a florin, twisted it round in his -fingers and cried: - ---A miracle! - -He passed it along the table towards the old woman, saying: - ---Ask nothing more of me, sweet. All I can give you I give. - -Stephen laid the coin in her uneager hand. - ---We'll owe twopence, he said. - ---Time enough, sir, she said, taking the coin. Time enough. Good morning, -sir. - -She curtseyed and went out, followed by Buck Mulligan's tender chant: - - - --HEART OF MY HEART, WERE IT MORE, - MORE WOULD BE LAID AT YOUR FEET. - - -He turned to Stephen and said: - ---Seriously, Dedalus. I'm stony. Hurry out to your school kip and bring -us back some money. Today the bards must drink and junket. Ireland -expects that every man this day will do his duty. - ---That reminds me, Haines said, rising, that I have to visit your -national library today. - ---Our swim first, Buck Mulligan said. - -He turned to Stephen and asked blandly: - ---Is this the day for your monthly wash, Kinch? - -Then he said to Haines: - ---The unclean bard makes a point of washing once a month. - ---All Ireland is washed by the gulfstream, Stephen said as he let honey -trickle over a slice of the loaf. - -Haines from the corner where he was knotting easily a scarf about the -loose collar of his tennis shirt spoke: - ---I intend to make a collection of your sayings if you will let me. - -Speaking to me. They wash and tub and scrub. Agenbite of inwit. -Conscience. Yet here's a spot. - ---That one about the cracked lookingglass of a servant being the symbol -of Irish art is deuced good. - -Buck Mulligan kicked Stephen's foot under the table and said with warmth -of tone: - ---Wait till you hear him on Hamlet, Haines. - ---Well, I mean it, Haines said, still speaking to Stephen. I was just -thinking of it when that poor old creature came in. - ---Would I make any money by it? Stephen asked. - -Haines laughed and, as he took his soft grey hat from the holdfast of the -hammock, said: - ---I don't know, I'm sure. - -He strolled out to the doorway. Buck Mulligan bent across to Stephen and -said with coarse vigour: - ---You put your hoof in it now. What did you say that for? - ---Well? Stephen said. The problem is to get money. From whom? From the -milkwoman or from him. It's a toss up, I think. - ---I blow him out about you, Buck Mulligan said, and then you come along -with your lousy leer and your gloomy jesuit jibes. - ---I see little hope, Stephen said, from her or from him. - -Buck Mulligan sighed tragically and laid his hand on Stephen's arm. - ---From me, Kinch, he said. - -In a suddenly changed tone he added: - ---To tell you the God's truth I think you're right. Damn all else they -are good for. Why don't you play them as I do? To hell with them all. Let -us get out of the kip. - -He stood up, gravely ungirdled and disrobed himself of his gown, saying -resignedly: - ---Mulligan is stripped of his garments. - -He emptied his pockets on to the table. - ---There's your snotrag, he said. - -And putting on his stiff collar and rebellious tie he spoke to them, -chiding them, and to his dangling watchchain. His hands plunged and -rummaged in his trunk while he called for a clean handkerchief. God, -we'll simply have to dress the character. I want puce gloves and green -boots. Contradiction. Do I contradict myself? Very well then, I -contradict myself. Mercurial Malachi. A limp black missile flew out of -his talking hands. - ---And there's your Latin quarter hat, he said. - -Stephen picked it up and put it on. Haines called to them from the -doorway: - ---Are you coming, you fellows? - ---I'm ready, Buck Mulligan answered, going towards the door. Come out, -Kinch. You have eaten all we left, I suppose. Resigned he passed out with -grave words and gait, saying, wellnigh with sorrow: - ---And going forth he met Butterly. - -Stephen, taking his ashplant from its leaningplace, followed them out -and, as they went down the ladder, pulled to the slow iron door and -locked it. He put the huge key in his inner pocket. - -At the foot of the ladder Buck Mulligan asked: - ---Did you bring the key? - ---I have it, Stephen said, preceding them. - -He walked on. Behind him he heard Buck Mulligan club with his heavy -bathtowel the leader shoots of ferns or grasses. - ---Down, sir! How dare you, sir! - -Haines asked: - ---Do you pay rent for this tower? - ---Twelve quid, Buck Mulligan said. - ---To the secretary of state for war, Stephen added over his shoulder. - -They halted while Haines surveyed the tower and said at last: - ---Rather bleak in wintertime, I should say. Martello you call it? - ---Billy Pitt had them built, Buck Mulligan said, when the French were on -the sea. But ours is the OMPHALOS. - ---What is your idea of Hamlet? Haines asked Stephen. - ---No, no, Buck Mulligan shouted in pain. I'm not equal to Thomas Aquinas -and the fifty-five reasons he has made out to prop it up. Wait till I have -a few pints in me first. - -He turned to Stephen, saying, as he pulled down neatly the peaks of his -primrose waistcoat: - ---You couldn't manage it under three pints, Kinch, could you? - ---It has waited so long, Stephen said listlessly, it can wait longer. - ---You pique my curiosity, Haines said amiably. Is it some paradox? - ---Pooh! Buck Mulligan said. We have grown out of Wilde and paradoxes. -It's quite simple. He proves by algebra that Hamlet's grandson is -Shakespeare's grandfather and that he himself is the ghost of his own -father. - ---What? Haines said, beginning to point at Stephen. He himself? - -Buck Mulligan slung his towel stolewise round his neck and, bending in -loose laughter, said to Stephen's ear: - ---O, shade of Kinch the elder! Japhet in search of a father! - ---We're always tired in the morning, Stephen said to Haines. And it is -rather long to tell. - -Buck Mulligan, walking forward again, raised his hands. - ---The sacred pint alone can unbind the tongue of Dedalus, he said. - ---I mean to say, Haines explained to Stephen as they followed, this tower -and these cliffs here remind me somehow of Elsinore. THAT BEETLES O'ER -HIS BASE INTO THE SEA, ISN'T IT? - -Buck Mulligan turned suddenly. for an instant towards Stephen but did not -speak. In the bright silent instant Stephen saw his own image in cheap -dusty mourning between their gay attires. - ---It's a wonderful tale, Haines said, bringing them to halt again. - -Eyes, pale as the sea the wind had freshened, paler, firm and prudent. -The seas' ruler, he gazed southward over the bay, empty save for the -smokeplume of the mailboat vague on the bright skyline and a sail tacking -by the Muglins. - ---I read a theological interpretation of it somewhere, he said bemused. -The Father and the Son idea. The Son striving to be atoned with the -Father. - -Buck Mulligan at once put on a blithe broadly smiling face. He looked at -them, his wellshaped mouth open happily, his eyes, from which he had -suddenly withdrawn all shrewd sense, blinking with mad gaiety. He moved a -doll's head to and fro, the brims of his Panama hat quivering, and began -to chant in a quiet happy foolish voice: - - - --I'M THE QUEEREST YOUNG FELLOW THAT EVER YOU HEARD. - MY MOTHER'S A JEW, MY FATHER'S A BIRD. - WITH JOSEPH THE JOINER I CANNOT AGREE. - SO HERE'S TO DISCIPLES AND CALVARY. - - -He held up a forefinger of warning. - - - --IF ANYONE THINKS THAT I AMN'T DIVINE - HE'LL GET NO FREE DRINKS WHEN I'M MAKING THE WINE - BUT HAVE TO DRINK WATER AND WISH IT WERE PLAIN - THAT I MAKE WHEN THE WINE BECOMES WATER AGAIN. - - -He tugged swiftly at Stephen's ashplant in farewell and, running forward -to a brow of the cliff, fluttered his hands at his sides like fins or -wings of one about to rise in the air, and chanted: - - - --GOODBYE, NOW, GOODBYE! WRITE DOWN ALL I SAID - AND TELL TOM, DIEK AND HARRY I ROSE FROM THE DEAD. - WHAT'S BRED IN THE BONE CANNOT FAIL ME TO FLY - AND OLIVET'S BREEZY ... GOODBYE, NOW, GOODBYE! - - -He capered before them down towards the forty-foot hole, fluttering his -winglike hands, leaping nimbly, Mercury's hat quivering in the fresh wind -that bore back to them his brief birdsweet cries. - -Haines, who had been laughing guardedly, walked on beside Stephen and -said: - ---We oughtn't to laugh, I suppose. He's rather blasphemous. I'm not a -believer myself, that is to say. Still his gaiety takes the harm out of -it somehow, doesn't it? What did he call it? Joseph the Joiner? - ---The ballad of joking Jesus, Stephen answered. - ---O, Haines said, you have heard it before? - ---Three times a day, after meals, Stephen said drily. - ---You're not a believer, are you? Haines asked. I mean, a believer in the -narrow sense of the word. Creation from nothing and miracles and a -personal God. - ---There's only one sense of the word, it seems to me, Stephen said. - -Haines stopped to take out a smooth silver case in which twinkled a green -stone. He sprang it open with his thumb and offered it. - ---Thank you, Stephen said, taking a cigarette. - -Haines helped himself and snapped the case to. He put it back in his -sidepocket and took from his waistcoatpocket a nickel tinderbox, sprang -it open too, and, having lit his cigarette, held the flaming spunk -towards Stephen in the shell of his hands. - ---Yes, of course, he said, as they went on again. Either you believe or -you don't, isn't it? Personally I couldn't stomach that idea of a -personal God. You don't stand for that, I suppose? - ---You behold in me, Stephen said with grim displeasure, a horrible -example of free thought. - -He walked on, waiting to be spoken to, trailing his ashplant by his side. -Its ferrule followed lightly on the path, squealing at his heels. My -familiar, after me, calling, Steeeeeeeeeeeephen! A wavering line along -the path. They will walk on it tonight, coming here in the dark. He wants -that key. It is mine. I paid the rent. Now I eat his salt bread. Give him -the key too. All. He will ask for it. That was in his eyes. - ---After all, Haines began ... - -Stephen turned and saw that the cold gaze which had measured him was not -all unkind. - ---After all, I should think you are able to free yourself. You are your -own master, it seems to me. - ---I am a servant of two masters, Stephen said, an English and an Italian. - ---Italian? Haines said. - -A crazy queen, old and jealous. Kneel down before me. - ---And a third, Stephen said, there is who wants me for odd jobs. - ---Italian? Haines said again. What do you mean? - ---The imperial British state, Stephen answered, his colour rising, and -the holy Roman catholic and apostolic church. - -Haines detached from his underlip some fibres of tobacco before he spoke. - ---I can quite understand that, he said calmly. An Irishman must think -like that, I daresay. We feel in England that we have treated you rather -unfairly. It seems history is to blame. - -The proud potent titles clanged over Stephen's memory the triumph of -their brazen bells: ET UNAM SANCTAM CATHOLICAM ET APOSTOLICAM ECCLESIAM: -the slow growth and change of rite and dogma like his own rare thoughts, -a chemistry of stars. Symbol of the apostles in the mass for pope -Marcellus, the voices blended, singing alone loud in affirmation: and -behind their chant the vigilant angel of the church militant disarmed and -menaced her heresiarchs. A horde of heresies fleeing with mitres awry: -Photius and the brood of mockers of whom Mulligan was one, and Arius, -warring his life long upon the consubstantiality of the Son with the -Father, and Valentine, spurning Christ's terrene body, and the subtle -African heresiarch Sabellius who held that the Father was Himself His own -Son. Words Mulligan had spoken a moment since in mockery to the stranger. -Idle mockery. The void awaits surely all them that weave the wind: a -menace, a disarming and a worsting from those embattled angels of the -church, Michael's host, who defend her ever in the hour of conflict with -their lances and their shields. - -Hear, hear! Prolonged applause. ZUT! NOM DE DIEU! - ---Of course I'm a Britisher, Haines's voice said, and I feel as one. I -don't want to see my country fall into the hands of German jews either. -That's our national problem, I'm afraid, just now. - -Two men stood at the verge of the cliff, watching: businessman, boatman. - ---She's making for Bullock harbour. - -The boatman nodded towards the north of the bay with some disdain. - ---There's five fathoms out there, he said. It'll be swept up that way -when the tide comes in about one. It's nine days today. - -The man that was drowned. A sail veering about the blank bay waiting for -a swollen bundle to bob up, roll over to the sun a puffy face, saltwhite. -Here I am. - -They followed the winding path down to the creek. Buck Mulligan stood on -a stone, in shirtsleeves, his unclipped tie rippling over his shoulder. A -young man clinging to a spur of rock near him, moved slowly frogwise his -green legs in the deep jelly of the water. - ---Is the brother with you, Malachi? - ---Down in Westmeath. With the Bannons. - ---Still there? I got a card from Bannon. Says he found a sweet young -thing down there. Photo girl he calls her. - ---Snapshot, eh? Brief exposure. - -Buck Mulligan sat down to unlace his boots. An elderly man shot up near -the spur of rock a blowing red face. He scrambled up by the stones, water -glistening on his pate and on its garland of grey hair, water rilling -over his chest and paunch and spilling jets out of his black sagging -loincloth. - -Buck Mulligan made way for him to scramble past and, glancing at Haines -and Stephen, crossed himself piously with his thumbnail at brow and lips -and breastbone. - ---Seymour's back in town, the young man said, grasping again his spur of -rock. Chucked medicine and going in for the army. - ---Ah, go to God! Buck Mulligan said. - ---Going over next week to stew. You know that red Carlisle girl, Lily? - ---Yes. - ---Spooning with him last night on the pier. The father is rotto with -money. - ---Is she up the pole? - ---Better ask Seymour that. - ---Seymour a bleeding officer! Buck Mulligan said. - -He nodded to himself as he drew off his trousers and stood up, saying -tritely: - ---Redheaded women buck like goats. - -He broke off in alarm, feeling his side under his flapping shirt. - ---My twelfth rib is gone, he cried. I'm the UBERMENSCH. Toothless Kinch -and I, the supermen. - -He struggled out of his shirt and flung it behind him to where his -clothes lay. - ---Are you going in here, Malachi? - ---Yes. Make room in the bed. - -The young man shoved himself backward through the water and reached the -middle of the creek in two long clean strokes. Haines sat down on a -stone, smoking. - ---Are you not coming in? Buck Mulligan asked. - ---Later on, Haines said. Not on my breakfast. - -Stephen turned away. - ---I'm going, Mulligan, he said. - ---Give us that key, Kinch, Buck Mulligan said, to keep my chemise flat. - -Stephen handed him the key. Buck Mulligan laid it across his heaped -clothes. - ---And twopence, he said, for a pint. Throw it there. - -Stephen threw two pennies on the soft heap. Dressing, undressing. Buck -Mulligan erect, with joined hands before him, said solemnly: - ---He who stealeth from the poor lendeth to the Lord. Thus spake -Zarathustra. - -His plump body plunged. - ---We'll see you again, Haines said, turning as Stephen walked up the path -and smiling at wild Irish. - -Horn of a bull, hoof of a horse, smile of a Saxon. - ---The Ship, Buck Mulligan cried. Half twelve. - ---Good, Stephen said. - -He walked along the upwardcurving path. - - - LILIATA RUTILANTIUM. - TURMA CIRCUMDET. - IUBILANTIUM TE VIRGINUM. - - -The priest's grey nimbus in a niche where he dressed discreetly. I will -not sleep here tonight. Home also I cannot go. - -A voice, sweettoned and sustained, called to him from the sea. Turning -the curve he waved his hand. It called again. A sleek brown head, a -seal's, far out on the water, round. - -Usurper. - - - * * * * * * * - - ---You, Cochrane, what city sent for him? - ---Tarentum, sir. - ---Very good. Well? - ---There was a battle, sir. - ---Very good. Where? - -The boy's blank face asked the blank window. - -Fabled by the daughters of memory. And yet it was in some way if not as -memory fabled it. A phrase, then, of impatience, thud of Blake's wings of -excess. I hear the ruin of all space, shattered glass and toppling -masonry, and time one livid final flame. What's left us then? - ---I forget the place, sir. 279 B. C. - ---Asculum, Stephen said, glancing at the name and date in the gorescarred -book. - ---Yes, sir. And he said: ANOTHER VICTORY LIKE THAT AND WE ARE DONE FOR. - -That phrase the world had remembered. A dull ease of the mind. From a -hill above a corpsestrewn plain a general speaking to his officers, -leaned upon his spear. Any general to any officers. They lend ear. - ---You, Armstrong, Stephen said. What was the end of Pyrrhus? - ---End of Pyrrhus, sir? - ---I know, sir. Ask me, sir, Comyn said. - ---Wait. You, Armstrong. Do you know anything about Pyrrhus? - -A bag of figrolls lay snugly in Armstrong's satchel. He curled them -between his palms at whiles and swallowed them softly. Crumbs adhered to -the tissue of his lips. A sweetened boy's breath. Welloff people, proud -that their eldest son was in the navy. Vico road, Dalkey. - ---Pyrrhus, sir? Pyrrhus, a pier. - -All laughed. Mirthless high malicious laughter. Armstrong looked round at -his classmates, silly glee in profile. In a moment they will laugh more -loudly, aware of my lack of rule and of the fees their papas pay. - ---Tell me now, Stephen said, poking the boy's shoulder with the book, -what is a pier. - ---A pier, sir, Armstrong said. A thing out in the water. A kind of a -bridge. Kingstown pier, sir. - -Some laughed again: mirthless but with meaning. Two in the back bench -whispered. Yes. They knew: had never learned nor ever been innocent. All. -With envy he watched their faces: Edith, Ethel, Gerty, Lily. Their likes: -their breaths, too, sweetened with tea and jam, their bracelets tittering -in the struggle. - ---Kingstown pier, Stephen said. Yes, a disappointed bridge. - -The words troubled their gaze. - ---How, sir? Comyn asked. A bridge is across a river. - -For Haines's chapbook. No-one here to hear. Tonight deftly amid wild -drink and talk, to pierce the polished mail of his mind. What then? A -jester at the court of his master, indulged and disesteemed, winning a -clement master's praise. Why had they chosen all that part? Not wholly -for the smooth caress. For them too history was a tale like any other too -often heard, their land a pawnshop. - -Had Pyrrhus not fallen by a beldam's hand in Argos or Julius Caesar not -been knifed to death. They are not to be thought away. Time has branded -them and fettered they are lodged in the room of the infinite -possibilities they have ousted. But can those have been possible seeing -that they never were? Or was that only possible which came to pass? -Weave, weaver of the wind. - ---Tell us a story, sir. - ---O, do, sir. A ghoststory. - ---Where do you begin in this? Stephen asked, opening another book. - ---WEEP NO MORE, Comyn said. - ---Go on then, Talbot. - ---And the story, sir? - ---After, Stephen said. Go on, Talbot. - -A swarthy boy opened a book and propped it nimbly under the breastwork of -his satchel. He recited jerks of verse with odd glances at the text: - - - --WEEP NO MORE, WOFUL SHEPHERDS, WEEP NO MORE - FOR LYCIDAS, YOUR SORROW, IS NOT DEAD, - SUNK THOUGH HE BE BENEATH THE WATERY FLOOR ... - - -It must be a movement then, an actuality of the possible as possible. -Aristotle's phrase formed itself within the gabbled verses and floated -out into the studious silence of the library of Saint Genevieve where he -had read, sheltered from the sin of Paris, night by night. By his elbow a -delicate Siamese conned a handbook of strategy. Fed and feeding brains -about me: under glowlamps, impaled, with faintly beating feelers: and in -my mind's darkness a sloth of the underworld, reluctant, shy of -brightness, shifting her dragon scaly folds. Thought is the thought of -thought. Tranquil brightness. The soul is in a manner all that is: the -soul is the form of forms. Tranquility sudden, vast, candescent: form of -forms. - -Talbot repeated: - - - --THROUGH THE DEAR MIGHT OF HIM THAT WALKED THE WAVES, - THROUGH THE DEAR MIGHT ... - - ---Turn over, Stephen said quietly. I don't see anything. - ---What, sir? Talbot asked simply, bending forward. - -His hand turned the page over. He leaned back and went on again, -having just remembered. Of him that walked the waves. Here also over -these craven hearts his shadow lies and on the scoffer's heart and lips -and on mine. It lies upon their eager faces who offered him a coin of the -tribute. To Caesar what is Caesar's, to God what is God's. A long look -from dark eyes, a riddling sentence to be woven and woven on the church's -looms. Ay. - - - RIDDLE ME, RIDDLE ME, RANDY RO. - MY FATHER GAVE ME SEEDS TO SOW. - - -Talbot slid his closed book into his satchel. - ---Have I heard all? Stephen asked. - ---Yes, sir. Hockey at ten, sir. - ---Half day, sir. Thursday. - ---Who can answer a riddle? Stephen asked. - -They bundled their books away, pencils clacking, pages rustling. -Crowding together they strapped and buckled their satchels, all gabbling -gaily: - ---A riddle, sir? Ask me, sir. - ---O, ask me, sir. - ---A hard one, sir. - ---This is the riddle, Stephen said: - - - THE COCK CREW, - THE SKY WAS BLUE: - THE BELLS IN HEAVEN - WERE STRIKING ELEVEN. - 'TIS TIME FOR THIS POOR SOUL - TO GO TO HEAVEN. - - -What is that? - ---What, sir? - ---Again, sir. We didn't hear. - -Their eyes grew bigger as the lines were repeated. After a silence -Cochrane said: - ---What is it, sir? We give it up. - -Stephen, his throat itching, answered: - ---The fox burying his grandmother under a hollybush. - -He stood up and gave a shout of nervous laughter to which their cries -echoed dismay. - -A stick struck the door and a voice in the corridor called: - ---Hockey! - -They broke asunder, sidling out of their benches, leaping them. -Quickly they were gone and from the lumberroom came the rattle of sticks -and clamour of their boots and tongues. - -Sargent who alone had lingered came forward slowly, showing an -open copybook. His thick hair and scraggy neck gave witness of -unreadiness and through his misty glasses weak eyes looked up pleading. -On his cheek, dull and bloodless, a soft stain of ink lay, dateshaped, -recent and damp as a snail's bed. - -He held out his copybook. The word SUMS was written on the -headline. Beneath were sloping figures and at the foot a crooked signature -with blind loops and a blot. Cyril Sargent: his name and seal. - ---Mr Deasy told me to write them out all again, he said, and show them to -you, sir. - -Stephen touched the edges of the book. Futility. - ---Do you understand how to do them now? he asked. - ---Numbers eleven to fifteen, Sargent answered. Mr Deasy said I was to -copy them off the board, sir. - ---Can you do them. yourself? Stephen asked. - ---No, sir. - -Ugly and futile: lean neck and thick hair and a stain of ink, a snail's -bed. Yet someone had loved him, borne him in her arms and in her heart. -But for her the race of the world would have trampled him underfoot, a -squashed boneless snail. She had loved his weak watery blood drained from -her own. Was that then real? The only true thing in life? His mother's -prostrate body the fiery Columbanus in holy zeal bestrode. She was no -more: the trembling skeleton of a twig burnt in the fire, an odour of -rosewood and wetted ashes. She had saved him from being trampled -underfoot and had gone, scarcely having been. A poor soul gone to heaven: -and on a heath beneath winking stars a fox, red reek of rapine in his fur, -with merciless bright eyes scraped in the earth, listened, scraped up the -earth, listened, scraped and scraped. - -Sitting at his side Stephen solved out the problem. He proves by -algebra that Shakespeare's ghost is Hamlet's grandfather. Sargent peered -askance through his slanted glasses. Hockeysticks rattled in the -lumberroom: the hollow knock of a ball and calls from the field. - -Across the page the symbols moved in grave morrice, in the mummery -of their letters, wearing quaint caps of squares and cubes. Give hands, -traverse, bow to partner: so: imps of fancy of the Moors. Gone too from -the world, Averroes and Moses Maimonides, dark men in mien and -movement, flashing in their mocking mirrors the obscure soul of the -world, a darkness shining in brightness which brightness could not -comprehend. - ---Do you understand now? Can you work the second for yourself? - ---Yes, sir. - -In long shaky strokes Sargent copied the data. Waiting always for a -word of help his hand moved faithfully the unsteady symbols, a faint hue -of shame flickering behind his dull skin. AMOR MATRIS: subjective and -objective genitive. With her weak blood and wheysour milk she had fed him -and hid from sight of others his swaddling bands. - -Like him was I, these sloping shoulders, this gracelessness. My -childhood bends beside me. Too far for me to lay a hand there once or -lightly. Mine is far and his secret as our eyes. Secrets, silent, stony -sit in the dark palaces of both our hearts: secrets weary of their -tyranny: tyrants, willing to be dethroned. - -The sum was done. - ---It is very simple, Stephen said as he stood up. - ---Yes, sir. Thanks, Sargent answered. - -He dried the page with a sheet of thin blottingpaper and carried his -copybook back to his bench. - ---You had better get your stick and go out to the others, Stephen said as -he followed towards the door the boy's graceless form. - ---Yes, sir. - -In the corridor his name was heard, called from the playfield. - ---Sargent! - ---Run on, Stephen said. Mr Deasy is calling you. - -He stood in the porch and watched the laggard hurry towards the -scrappy field where sharp voices were in strife. They were sorted in teams -and Mr Deasy came away stepping over wisps of grass with gaitered feet. -When he had reached the schoolhouse voices again contending called to -him. He turned his angry white moustache. - ---What is it now? he cried continually without listening. - ---Cochrane and Halliday are on the same side, sir, Stephen said. - ---Will you wait in my study for a moment, Mr Deasy said, till I restore -order here. - -And as he stepped fussily back across the field his old man's voice -cried sternly: - ---What is the matter? What is it now? - -Their sharp voices cried about him on all sides: their many forms -closed round him, the garish sunshine bleaching the honey of his illdyed -head. - -Stale smoky air hung in the study with the smell of drab abraded -leather of its chairs. As on the first day he bargained with me here. As -it was in the beginning, is now. On the sideboard the tray of Stuart -coins, base treasure of a bog: and ever shall be. And snug in their -spooncase of purple plush, faded, the twelve apostles having preached to -all the gentiles: world without end. - -A hasty step over the stone porch and in the corridor. Blowing out his -rare moustache Mr Deasy halted at the table. - ---First, our little financial settlement, he said. - -He brought out of his coat a pocketbook bound by a leather thong. It -slapped open and he took from it two notes, one of joined halves, and laid -them carefully on the table. - ---Two, he said, strapping and stowing his pocketbook away. - -And now his strongroom for the gold. Stephen's embarrassed hand -moved over the shells heaped in the cold stone mortar: whelks and money -cowries and leopard shells: and this, whorled as an emir's turban, and -this, the scallop of saint James. An old pilgrim's hoard, dead treasure, -hollow shells. - -A sovereign fell, bright and new, on the soft pile of the tablecloth. - ---Three, Mr Deasy said, turning his little savingsbox about in his hand. -These are handy things to have. See. This is for sovereigns. This is for -shillings. Sixpences, halfcrowns. And here crowns. See. - -He shot from it two crowns and two shillings. - ---Three twelve, he said. I think you'll find that's right. - ---Thank you, sir, Stephen said, gathering the money together with shy -haste and putting it all in a pocket of his trousers. - ---No thanks at all, Mr Deasy said. You have earned it. - -Stephen's hand, free again, went back to the hollow shells. Symbols -too of beauty and of power. A lump in my pocket: symbols soiled by greed -and misery. - ---Don't carry it like that, Mr Deasy said. You'll pull it out somewhere -and lose it. You just buy one of these machines. You'll find them very -handy. - -Answer something. - ---Mine would be often empty, Stephen said. - -The same room and hour, the same wisdom: and I the same. Three -times now. Three nooses round me here. Well? I can break them in this -instant if I will. - ---Because you don't save, Mr Deasy said, pointing his finger. You don't -know yet what money is. Money is power. When you have lived as long as I -have. I know, I know. If youth but knew. But what does Shakespeare say? -PUT BUT MONEY IN THY PURSE. - ---Iago, Stephen murmured. - -He lifted his gaze from the idle shells to the old man's stare. - ---He knew what money was, Mr Deasy said. He made money. A poet, yes, -but an Englishman too. Do you know what is the pride of the English? Do -you know what is the proudest word you will ever hear from an -Englishman's mouth? - -The seas' ruler. His seacold eyes looked on the empty bay: it seems -history is to blame: on me and on my words, unhating. - ---That on his empire, Stephen said, the sun never sets. - ---Ba! Mr Deasy cried. That's not English. A French Celt said that. He -tapped his savingsbox against his thumbnail. - ---I will tell you, he said solemnly, what is his proudest boast. I PAID -MY WAY. - -Good man, good man. - ---I PAID MY WAY. I NEVER BORROWED A SHILLING IN MY LIFE. Can you feel -that? I OWE NOTHING. Can you? - -Mulligan, nine pounds, three pairs of socks, one pair brogues, ties. -Curran, ten guineas. McCann, one guinea. Fred Ryan, two shillings. -Temple, two lunches. Russell, one guinea, Cousins, ten shillings, Bob -Reynolds, half a guinea, Koehler, three guineas, Mrs MacKernan, five -weeks' board. The lump I have is useless. - ---For the moment, no, Stephen answered. - -Mr Deasy laughed with rich delight, putting back his savingsbox. - ---I knew you couldn't, he said joyously. But one day you must feel it. We -are a generous people but we must also be just. - ---I fear those big words, Stephen said, which make us so unhappy. - -Mr Deasy stared sternly for some moments over the mantelpiece at -the shapely bulk of a man in tartan filibegs: Albert Edward, prince of -Wales. - ---You think me an old fogey and an old tory, his thoughtful voice said. I -saw three generations since O'Connell's time. I remember the famine -in '46. Do you know that the orange lodges agitated for repeal of the -union twenty years before O'Connell did or before the prelates of your -communion denounced him as a demagogue? You fenians forget some things. - -Glorious, pious and immortal memory. The lodge of Diamond in -Armagh the splendid behung with corpses of papishes. Hoarse, masked and -armed, the planters' covenant. The black north and true blue bible. -Croppies lie down. - -Stephen sketched a brief gesture. - ---I have rebel blood in me too, Mr Deasy said. On the spindle side. But I -am descended from sir John Blackwood who voted for the union. We are all -Irish, all kings' sons. - ---Alas, Stephen said. - ---PER VIAS RECTAS, Mr Deasy said firmly, was his motto. He voted for it -and put on his topboots to ride to Dublin from the Ards of Down to do so. - - - LAL THE RAL THE RA - THE ROCKY ROAD TO DUBLIN. - - -A gruff squire on horseback with shiny topboots. Soft day, sir John! -Soft day, your honour! ... Day! ... Day! ... Two topboots jog dangling -on to Dublin. Lal the ral the ra. Lal the ral the raddy. - ---That reminds me, Mr Deasy said. You can do me a favour, Mr Dedalus, -with some of your literary friends. I have a letter here for the press. -Sit down a moment. I have just to copy the end. - -He went to the desk near the window, pulled in his chair twice and -read off some words from the sheet on the drum of his typewriter. - ---Sit down. Excuse me, he said over his shoulder, THE DICTATES OF COMMON -SENSE. Just a moment. - -He peered from under his shaggy brows at the manuscript by his -elbow and, muttering, began to prod the stiff buttons of the keyboard -slowly, sometimes blowing as he screwed up the drum to erase an error. - -Stephen seated himself noiselessly before the princely presence. -Framed around the walls images of vanished horses stood in homage, their -meek heads poised in air: lord Hastings' Repulse, the duke of -Westminster's Shotover, the duke of Beaufort's Ceylon, PRIX DE PARIS, -1866. Elfin riders sat them, watchful of a sign. He saw their speeds, -backing king's colours, and shouted with the shouts of vanished crowds. - ---Full stop, Mr Deasy bade his keys. But prompt ventilation of this -allimportant question ... - -Where Cranly led me to get rich quick, hunting his winners among -the mudsplashed brakes, amid the bawls of bookies on their pitches and -reek of the canteen, over the motley slush. Fair Rebel! Fair Rebel! Even -money the favourite: ten to one the field. Dicers and thimbleriggers we -hurried by after the hoofs, the vying caps and jackets and past the -meatfaced woman, a butcher's dame, nuzzling thirstily her clove of orange. - -Shouts rang shrill from the boys' playfield and a whirring whistle. - -Again: a goal. I am among them, among their battling bodies in a -medley, the joust of life. You mean that knockkneed mother's darling who -seems to be slightly crawsick? Jousts. Time shocked rebounds, shock by -shock. Jousts, slush and uproar of battles, the frozen deathspew of the -slain, a shout of spearspikes baited with men's bloodied guts. - ---Now then, Mr Deasy said, rising. - -He came to the table, pinning together his sheets. Stephen stood up. - ---I have put the matter into a nutshell, Mr Deasy said. It's about the -foot and mouth disease. Just look through it. There can be no two opinions -on the matter. - -May I trespass on your valuable space. That doctrine of LAISSEZ FAIRE -which so often in our history. Our cattle trade. The way of all our old -industries. Liverpool ring which jockeyed the Galway harbour scheme. -European conflagration. Grain supplies through the narrow waters of the -channel. The pluterperfect imperturbability of the department of -agriculture. Pardoned a classical allusion. Cassandra. By a woman who -was no better than she should be. To come to the point at issue. - ---I don't mince words, do I? Mr Deasy asked as Stephen read on. - -Foot and mouth disease. Known as Koch's preparation. Serum and -virus. Percentage of salted horses. Rinderpest. Emperor's horses at -Murzsteg, lower Austria. Veterinary surgeons. Mr Henry Blackwood Price. -Courteous offer a fair trial. Dictates of common sense. Allimportant -question. In every sense of the word take the bull by the horns. Thanking -you for the hospitality of your columns. - ---I want that to be printed and read, Mr Deasy said. You will see at the -next outbreak they will put an embargo on Irish cattle. And it can be -cured. It is cured. My cousin, Blackwood Price, writes to me it is -regularly treated and cured in Austria by cattledoctors there. They offer -to come over here. I am trying to work up influence with the department. -Now I'm going to try publicity. I am surrounded by difficulties, -by ... intrigues by ... backstairs influence by ... - -He raised his forefinger and beat the air oldly before his voice spoke. - ---Mark my words, Mr Dedalus, he said. England is in the hands of the -jews. In all the highest places: her finance, her press. And they are the -signs of a nation's decay. Wherever they gather they eat up the nation's -vital strength. I have seen it coming these years. As sure as we are -standing here the jew merchants are already at their work of destruction. -Old England is dying. - -He stepped swiftly off, his eyes coming to blue life as they passed a -broad sunbeam. He faced about and back again. - ---Dying, he said again, if not dead by now. - - - THE HARLOT'S CRY FROM STREET TO STREET - SHALL WEAVE OLD ENGLAND'S WINDINGSHEET. - - -His eyes open wide in vision stared sternly across the sunbeam in -which he halted. - ---A merchant, Stephen said, is one who buys cheap and sells dear, jew or -gentile, is he not? - ---They sinned against the light, Mr Deasy said gravely. And you can see -the darkness in their eyes. And that is why they are wanderers on the -earth to this day. - -On the steps of the Paris stock exchange the goldskinned men quoting -prices on their gemmed fingers. Gabble of geese. They swarmed loud, -uncouth about the temple, their heads thickplotting under maladroit silk -hats. Not theirs: these clothes, this speech, these gestures. Their full -slow eyes belied the words, the gestures eager and unoffending, but knew -the rancours massed about them and knew their zeal was vain. Vain patience -to heap and hoard. Time surely would scatter all. A hoard heaped by the -roadside: plundered and passing on. Their eyes knew their years of -wandering and, patient, knew the dishonours of their flesh. - ---Who has not? Stephen said. - ---What do you mean? Mr Deasy asked. - -He came forward a pace and stood by the table. His underjaw fell -sideways open uncertainly. Is this old wisdom? He waits to hear from me. - ---History, Stephen said, is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake. - -From the playfield the boys raised a shout. A whirring whistle: goal. -What if that nightmare gave you a back kick? - ---The ways of the Creator are not our ways, Mr Deasy said. All human -history moves towards one great goal, the manifestation of God. - -Stephen jerked his thumb towards the window, saying: - ---That is God. - -Hooray! Ay! Whrrwhee! - ---What? Mr Deasy asked. - ---A shout in the street, Stephen answered, shrugging his shoulders. - -Mr Deasy looked down and held for awhile the wings of his nose -tweaked between his fingers. Looking up again he set them free. - ---I am happier than you are, he said. We have committed many errors and -many sins. A woman brought sin into the world. For a woman who was no -better than she should be, Helen, the runaway wife of Menelaus, ten years -the Greeks made war on Troy. A faithless wife first brought the strangers -to our shore here, MacMurrough's wife and her leman, O'Rourke, prince of -Breffni. A woman too brought Parnell low. Many errors, many failures but -not the one sin. I am a struggler now at the end of my days. But I will -fight for the right till the end. - - - FOR ULSTER WILL FIGHT - AND ULSTER WILL BE RIGHT. - - -Stephen raised the sheets in his hand. - ---Well, sir, he began ... - ---I foresee, Mr Deasy said, that you will not remain here very long at -this work. You were not born to be a teacher, I think. Perhaps I am -wrong. - ---A learner rather, Stephen said. - -And here what will you learn more? - -Mr Deasy shook his head. - ---Who knows? he said. To learn one must be humble. But life is the great -teacher. - -Stephen rustled the sheets again. - ---As regards these, he began. - ---Yes, Mr Deasy said. You have two copies there. If you can have them -published at once. - -TELEGRAPH. IRISH HOMESTEAD. - ---I will try, Stephen said, and let you know tomorrow. I know two editors -slightly. - ---That will do, Mr Deasy said briskly. I wrote last night to Mr Field, -M.P. There is a meeting of the cattletraders' association today at the -City Arms hotel. I asked him to lay my letter before the meeting. You see -if you can get it into your two papers. What are they? - ---THE EVENING TELEGRAPH ... - ---That will do, Mr Deasy said. There is no time to lose. Now I have to -answer that letter from my cousin. - ---Good morning, sir, Stephen said, putting the sheets in his pocket. -Thank you. - ---Not at all, Mr Deasy said as he searched the papers on his desk. I like -to break a lance with you, old as I am. - ---Good morning, sir, Stephen said again, bowing to his bent back. - -He went out by the open porch and down the gravel path under the -trees, hearing the cries of voices and crack of sticks from the playfield. -The lions couchant on the pillars as he passed out through the gate: -toothless terrors. Still I will help him in his fight. Mulligan will dub -me a new name: the bullockbefriending bard. - ---Mr Dedalus! - -Running after me. No more letters, I hope. - ---Just one moment. - ---Yes, sir, Stephen said, turning back at the gate. - -Mr Deasy halted, breathing hard and swallowing his breath. - ---I just wanted to say, he said. Ireland, they say, has the honour of -being the only country which never persecuted the jews. Do you know that? -No. And do you know why? - -He frowned sternly on the bright air. - ---Why, sir? Stephen asked, beginning to smile. - ---Because she never let them in, Mr Deasy said solemnly. - -A coughball of laughter leaped from his throat dragging after it a -rattling chain of phlegm. He turned back quickly, coughing, laughing, his -lifted arms waving to the air. - ---She never let them in, he cried again through his laughter as he -stamped on gaitered feet over the gravel of the path. That's why. - -On his wise shoulders through the checkerwork of leaves the sun flung -spangles, dancing coins. - - - * * * * * * * - - -Ineluctable modality of the visible: at least that if no more, thought -through my eyes. Signatures of all things I am here to read, seaspawn and -seawrack, the nearing tide, that rusty boot. Snotgreen, bluesilver, rust: -coloured signs. Limits of the diaphane. But he adds: in bodies. Then he -was aware of them bodies before of them coloured. How? By knocking his -sconce against them, sure. Go easy. Bald he was and a millionaire, MAESTRO -DI COLOR CHE SANNO. Limit of the diaphane in. Why in? Diaphane, -adiaphane. If you can put your five fingers through it it is a gate, if -not a door. Shut your eyes and see. - -Stephen closed his eyes to hear his boots crush crackling wrack and -shells. You are walking through it howsomever. I am, a stride at a time. A -very short space of time through very short times of space. Five, six: the -NACHEINANDER. Exactly: and that is the ineluctable modality of the -audible. Open your eyes. No. Jesus! If I fell over a cliff that beetles -o'er his base, fell through the NEBENEINANDER ineluctably! I am getting on -nicely in the dark. My ash sword hangs at my side. Tap with it: they do. -My two feet in his boots are at the ends of his legs, NEBENEINANDER. -Sounds solid: made by the mallet of LOS DEMIURGOS. Am I walking into -eternity along Sandymount strand? Crush, crack, crick, crick. Wild sea -money. Dominie Deasy kens them a'. - - - WON'T YOU COME TO SANDYMOUNT, - MADELINE THE MARE? - - -Rhythm begins, you see. I hear. Acatalectic tetrameter of iambs -marching. No, agallop: DELINE THE MARE. - -Open your eyes now. I will. One moment. Has all vanished since? If I -open and am for ever in the black adiaphane. BASTA! I will see if I can -see. - -See now. There all the time without you: and ever shall be, world -without end. - -They came down the steps from Leahy's terrace prudently, -FRAUENZIMMER: and down the shelving shore flabbily, their splayed feet -sinking in the silted sand. Like me, like Algy, coming down to our mighty -mother. Number one swung lourdily her midwife's bag, the other's gamp -poked in the beach. From the liberties, out for the day. Mrs Florence -MacCabe, relict of the late Patk MacCabe, deeply lamented, of Bride -Street. One of her sisterhood lugged me squealing into life. Creation from -nothing. What has she in the bag? A misbirth with a trailing navelcord, -hushed in ruddy wool. The cords of all link back, strandentwining cable of -all flesh. That is why mystic monks. Will you be as gods? Gaze in your -OMPHALOS. Hello! Kinch here. Put me on to Edenville. Aleph, alpha: nought, -nought, one. - -Spouse and helpmate of Adam Kadmon: Heva, naked Eve. She had -no navel. Gaze. Belly without blemish, bulging big, a buckler of taut -vellum, no, whiteheaped corn, orient and immortal, standing from -everlasting to everlasting. Womb of sin. - -Wombed in sin darkness I was too, made not begotten. By them, the -man with my voice and my eyes and a ghostwoman with ashes on her -breath. They clasped and sundered, did the coupler's will. From before the -ages He willed me and now may not will me away or ever. A LEX ETERNA -stays about Him. Is that then the divine substance wherein Father and Son -are consubstantial? Where is poor dear Arius to try conclusions? Warring -his life long upon the contransmagnificandjewbangtantiality. Illstarred -heresiarch' In a Greek watercloset he breathed his last: euthanasia. With -beaded mitre and with crozier, stalled upon his throne, widower of a -widowed see, with upstiffed omophorion, with clotted hinderparts. - -Airs romped round him, nipping and eager airs. They are coming, -waves. The whitemaned seahorses, champing, brightwindbridled, the steeds -of Mananaan. - -I mustn't forget his letter for the press. And after? The Ship, half -twelve. By the way go easy with that money like a good young imbecile. - -Yes, I must. - -His pace slackened. Here. Am I going to aunt Sara's or not? My -consubstantial father's voice. Did you see anything of your artist brother -Stephen lately? No? Sure he's not down in Strasburg terrace with his aunt - -Sally? Couldn't he fly a bit higher than that, eh? And and and and tell -us, Stephen, how is uncle Si? O, weeping God, the things I married into! -De boys up in de hayloft. The drunken little costdrawer and his brother, -the cornet player. Highly respectable gondoliers! And skeweyed Walter -sirring his father, no less! Sir. Yes, sir. No, sir. Jesus wept: and no -wonder, by Christ! - -I pull the wheezy bell of their shuttered cottage: and wait. They take -me for a dun, peer out from a coign of vantage. - ---It's Stephen, sir. - ---Let him in. Let Stephen in. - -A bolt drawn back and Walter welcomes me. - ---We thought you were someone else. - -In his broad bed nuncle Richie, pillowed and blanketed, extends over -the hillock of his knees a sturdy forearm. Cleanchested. He has washed the -upper moiety. - ---Morrow, nephew. - -He lays aside the lapboard whereon he drafts his bills of costs for the -eyes of master Goff and master Shapland Tandy, filing consents and -common searches and a writ of DUCES TECUM. A bogoak frame over his bald -head: Wilde's REQUIESCAT. The drone of his misleading whistle brings -Walter back. - ---Yes, sir? - ---Malt for Richie and Stephen, tell mother. Where is she? - ---Bathing Crissie, sir. - -Papa's little bedpal. Lump of love. - ---No, uncle Richie ... - ---Call me Richie. Damn your lithia water. It lowers. Whusky! - ---Uncle Richie, really ... - ---Sit down or by the law Harry I'll knock you down. - -Walter squints vainly for a chair. - ---He has nothing to sit down on, sir. - ---He has nowhere to put it, you mug. Bring in our chippendale chair. -Would you like a bite of something? None of your damned lawdeedaw airs -here. The rich of a rasher fried with a herring? Sure? So much the better. -We have nothing in the house but backache pills. - -ALL'ERTA! - -He drones bars of Ferrando's ARIA DI SORTITA. The grandest number, -Stephen, in the whole opera. Listen. - -His tuneful whistle sounds again, finely shaded, with rushes of the air, -his fists bigdrumming on his padded knees. - -This wind is sweeter. - -Houses of decay, mine, his and all. You told the Clongowes gentry -you had an uncle a judge and an uncle a general in the army. Come out of -them, Stephen. Beauty is not there. Nor in the stagnant bay of Marsh's -library where you read the fading prophecies of Joachim Abbas. For -whom? The hundredheaded rabble of the cathedral close. A hater of his -kind ran from them to the wood of madness, his mane foaming in the -moon, his eyeballs stars. Houyhnhnm, horsenostrilled. The oval equine -faces, Temple, Buck Mulligan, Foxy Campbell, Lanternjaws. Abbas father,-- -furious dean, what offence laid fire to their brains? Paff! DESCENDE, -CALVE, UT NE AMPLIUS DECALVERIS. A garland of grey hair on his comminated -head see him me clambering down to the footpace (DESCENDE!), clutching a -monstrance, basiliskeyed. Get down, baldpoll! A choir gives back menace -and echo, assisting about the altar's horns, the snorted Latin of -jackpriests moving burly in their albs, tonsured and oiled and gelded, fat -with the fat of kidneys of wheat. - -And at the same instant perhaps a priest round the corner is elevating it. -Dringdring! And two streets off another locking it into a pyx. -Dringadring! And in a ladychapel another taking housel all to his own -cheek. Dringdring! Down, up, forward, back. Dan Occam thought of that, -invincible doctor. A misty English morning the imp hypostasis tickled his -brain. Bringing his host down and kneeling he heard twine with his second -bell the first bell in the transept (he is lifting his) and, rising, heard -(now I am lifting) their two bells (he is kneeling) twang in diphthong. - -Cousin Stephen, you will never be a saint. Isle of saints. You were -awfully holy, weren't you? You prayed to the Blessed Virgin that you might -not have a red nose. You prayed to the devil in Serpentine avenue that the -fubsy widow in front might lift her clothes still more from the wet -street. O SI, CERTO! Sell your soul for that, do, dyed rags pinned round a -squaw. More tell me, more still!! On the top of the Howth tram alone -crying to the rain: Naked women! NAKED WOMEN! What about that, eh? - -What about what? What else were they invented for? - -Reading two pages apiece of seven books every night, eh? I was -young. You bowed to yourself in the mirror, stepping forward to applause -earnestly, striking face. Hurray for the Goddamned idiot! Hray! No-one -saw: tell no-one. Books you were going to write with letters for titles. -Have you read his F? O yes, but I prefer Q. Yes, but W is wonderful. -O yes, W. Remember your epiphanies written on green oval leaves, deeply -deep, copies to be sent if you died to all the great libraries of the -world, including Alexandria? Someone was to read them there after a few -thousand years, a mahamanvantara. Pico della Mirandola like. Ay, very like -a whale. When one reads these strange pages of one long gone one feels -that one is at one with one who once ... - -The grainy sand had gone from under his feet. His boots trod again a -damp crackling mast, razorshells, squeaking pebbles, that on the -unnumbered pebbles beats, wood sieved by the shipworm, lost Armada. -Unwholesome sandflats waited to suck his treading soles, breathing upward -sewage breath, a pocket of seaweed smouldered in seafire under a midden -of man's ashes. He coasted them, walking warily. A porterbottle stood up, -stogged to its waist, in the cakey sand dough. A sentinel: isle of -dreadful thirst. Broken hoops on the shore; at the land a maze of dark -cunning nets; farther away chalkscrawled backdoors and on the higher beach -a dryingline with two crucified shirts. Ringsend: wigwams of brown -steersmen and master mariners. Human shells. - -He halted. I have passed the way to aunt Sara's. Am I not going -there? Seems not. No-one about. He turned northeast and crossed the -firmer sand towards the Pigeonhouse. - ---QUI VOUS A MIS DANS CETTE FICHUE POSITION? - ---C'EST LE PIGEON, JOSEPH. - -Patrice, home on furlough, lapped warm milk with me in the bar -MacMahon. Son of the wild goose, Kevin Egan of Paris. My father's a bird, -he lapped the sweet LAIT CHAUD with pink young tongue, plump bunny's face. -Lap, LAPIN. He hopes to win in the GROS LOTS. About the nature of women he -read in Michelet. But he must send me LA VIE DE JESUS by M. Leo Taxil. -Lent it to his friend. - ---C'EST TORDANT, VOUS SAVEZ. MOI, JE SUIS SOCIALISTE. JE NE CROIS PAS EN -L'EXISTENCE DE DIEU. FAUT PAS LE DIRE A MON P-RE. - ---IL CROIT? - ---MON PERE, OUI. - -SCHLUSS. He laps. - -My Latin quarter hat. God, we simply must dress the character. I -want puce gloves. You were a student, weren't you? Of what in the other -devil's name? Paysayenn. P. C. N., you know: PHYSIQUES, CHIMIQUES ET -NATURELLES. Aha. Eating your groatsworth of MOU EN CIVET, fleshpots of -Egypt, elbowed by belching cabmen. Just say in the most natural tone: -when I was in Paris; BOUL' MICH', I used to. Yes, used to carry punched -tickets to prove an alibi if they arrested you for murder somewhere. -Justice. On the night of the seventeenth of February 1904 the prisoner was -seen by two witnesses. Other fellow did it: other me. Hat, tie, overcoat, -nose. LUI, C'EST MOI. You seem to have enjoyed yourself. - -Proudly walking. Whom were you trying to walk like? Forget: a -dispossessed. With mother's money order, eight shillings, the banging door -of the post office slammed in your face by the usher. Hunger toothache. -ENCORE DEUX MINUTES. Look clock. Must get. FERME. Hired dog! Shoot him -to bloody bits with a bang shotgun, bits man spattered walls all brass -buttons. Bits all khrrrrklak in place clack back. Not hurt? O, that's all -right. Shake hands. See what I meant, see? O, that's all right. Shake a -shake. O, that's all only all right. - -You were going to do wonders, what? Missionary to Europe after -fiery Columbanus. Fiacre and Scotus on their creepystools in heaven spilt -from their pintpots, loudlatinlaughing: EUGE! EUGE! Pretending to speak -broken English as you dragged your valise, porter threepence, across the -slimy pier at Newhaven. COMMENT? Rich booty you brought back; LE TUTU, -five tattered numbers of PANTALON BLANC ET CULOTTE ROUGE; a blue -French telegram, curiosity to show: - ---Mother dying come home father. - -The aunt thinks you killed your mother. That's why she won't. - - - THEN HERE'S A HEALTH TO MULLIGAN'S AUNT - AND I'LL TELL YOU THE REASON WHY. - SHE ALWAYS KEPT THINGS DECENT IN - THE HANNIGAN FAMILEYE. - - -His feet marched in sudden proud rhythm over the sand furrows, -along by the boulders of the south wall. He stared at them proudly, piled -stone mammoth skulls. Gold light on sea, on sand, on boulders. The sun is -there, the slender trees, the lemon houses. - -Paris rawly waking, crude sunlight on her lemon streets. Moist pith of -farls of bread, the froggreen wormwood, her matin incense, court the air. -Belluomo rises from the bed of his wife's lover's wife, the kerchiefed -housewife is astir, a saucer of acetic acid in her hand. In Rodot's Yvonne -and Madeleine newmake their tumbled beauties, shattering with gold teeth -CHAUSSONS of pastry, their mouths yellowed with the PUS of FLAN BRETON. -Faces of Paris men go by, their wellpleased pleasers, curled -conquistadores. - -Noon slumbers. Kevin Egan rolls gunpowder cigarettes through -fingers smeared with printer's ink, sipping his green fairy as Patrice his -white. About us gobblers fork spiced beans down their gullets. UN DEMI -SETIER! A jet of coffee steam from the burnished caldron. She serves me at -his beck. IL EST IRLANDAIS. HOLLANDAIS? NON FROMAGE. DEUX IRLANDAIS, NOUS, -IRLANDE, VOUS SAVEZ AH, OUI! She thought you wanted a cheese HOLLANDAIS. -Your postprandial, do you know that word? Postprandial. There was a -fellow I knew once in Barcelona, queer fellow, used to call it his -postprandial. Well: SLAINTE! Around the slabbed tables the tangle of wined -breaths and grumbling gorges. His breath hangs over our saucestained -plates, the green fairy's fang thrusting between his lips. Of Ireland, the -Dalcassians, of hopes, conspiracies, of Arthur Griffith now, A E, -pimander, good shepherd of men. To yoke me as his yokefellow, our crimes -our common cause. You're your father's son. I know the voice. His fustian -shirt, sanguineflowered, trembles its Spanish tassels at his secrets. M. -Drumont, famous journalist, Drumont, know what he called queen -Victoria? Old hag with the yellow teeth. VIEILLE OGRESSE with the DENTS -JAUNES. Maud Gonne, beautiful woman, LA PATRIE, M. Millevoye, Felix -Faure, know how he died? Licentious men. The froeken, BONNE A TOUT FAIRE, -who rubs male nakedness in the bath at Upsala. MOI FAIRE, she said, TOUS -LES MESSIEURS. Not this MONSIEUR, I said. Most licentious custom. Bath a -most private thing. I wouldn't let my brother, not even my own brother, -most lascivious thing. Green eyes, I see you. Fang, I feel. Lascivious -people. - -The blue fuse burns deadly between hands and burns clear. Loose -tobaccoshreds catch fire: a flame and acrid smoke light our corner. Raw -facebones under his peep of day boy's hat. How the head centre got away, -authentic version. Got up as a young bride, man, veil, orangeblossoms, -drove out the road to Malahide. Did, faith. Of lost leaders, the betrayed, -wild escapes. Disguises, clutched at, gone, not here. - -Spurned lover. I was a strapping young gossoon at that time, I tell -you. I'll show you my likeness one day. I was, faith. Lover, for her love -he prowled with colonel Richard Burke, tanist of his sept, under the walls -of Clerkenwell and, crouching, saw a flame of vengeance hurl them upward -in the fog. Shattered glass and toppling masonry. In gay Paree he hides, -Egan of Paris, unsought by any save by me. Making his day's stations, the -dingy printingcase, his three taverns, the Montmartre lair he sleeps short -night in, rue de la Goutte-d'Or, damascened with flyblown faces of the -gone. Loveless, landless, wifeless. She is quite nicey comfy without her -outcast man, madame in rue Git-le-Coeur, canary and two buck lodgers. -Peachy cheeks, a zebra skirt, frisky as a young thing's. Spurned and -undespairing. Tell Pat you saw me, won't you? I wanted to get poor Pat a -job one time. MON FILS, soldier of France. I taught him to sing THE BOYS -OF KILKENNY ARE STOUT ROARING BLADES. Know that old lay? I taught Patrice -that. Old Kilkenny: saint Canice, Strongbow's castle on the Nore. Goes -like this. O, O. He takes me, Napper Tandy, by the hand. - - - O, O THE BOYS OF - KILKENNY ... - - -Weak wasting hand on mine. They have forgotten Kevin Egan, not he -them. Remembering thee, O Sion. - -He had come nearer the edge of the sea and wet sand slapped his -boots. The new air greeted him, harping in wild nerves, wind of wild air -of seeds of brightness. Here, I am not walking out to the Kish lightship, -am I? He stood suddenly, his feet beginning to sink slowly in the quaking -soil. Turn back. - -Turning, he scanned the shore south, his feet sinking again slowly in -new sockets. The cold domed room of the tower waits. Through the -barbacans the shafts of light are moving ever, slowly ever as my feet are -sinking, creeping duskward over the dial floor. Blue dusk, nightfall, deep -blue night. In the darkness of the dome they wait, their pushedback -chairs, my obelisk valise, around a board of abandoned platters. Who to -clear it? He has the key. I will not sleep there when this night comes. -A shut door of a silent tower, entombing their--blind bodies, the -panthersahib and his pointer. Call: no answer. He lifted his feet up from -the suck and turned back by the mole of boulders. Take all, keep all. My -soul walks with me, form of forms. So in the moon's midwatches I pace the -path above the rocks, in sable silvered, hearing Elsinore's tempting -flood. - -The flood is following me. I can watch it flow past from here. Get -back then by the Poolbeg road to the strand there. He climbed over the -sedge and eely oarweeds and sat on a stool of rock, resting his ashplant -in a grike. - -A bloated carcass of a dog lay lolled on bladderwrack. Before him the -gunwale of a boat, sunk in sand. UN COCHE ENSABLE Louis Veuillot called -Gautier's prose. These heavy sands are language tide and wind have silted -here. And these, the stoneheaps of dead builders, a warren of weasel rats. -Hide gold there. Try it. You have some. Sands and stones. Heavy of the -past. Sir Lout's toys. Mind you don't get one bang on the ear. I'm the -bloody well gigant rolls all them bloody well boulders, bones for my -steppingstones. Feefawfum. I zmellz de bloodz odz an Iridzman. - -A point, live dog, grew into sight running across the sweep of sand. -Lord, is he going to attack me? Respect his liberty. You will not be -master of others or their slave. I have my stick. Sit tight. From farther -away, walking shoreward across from the crested tide, figures, two. The -two maries. They have tucked it safe mong the bulrushes. Peekaboo. I see -you. No, the dog. He is running back to them. Who? - -Galleys of the Lochlanns ran here to beach, in quest of prey, their -bloodbeaked prows riding low on a molten pewter surf. Dane vikings, torcs -of tomahawks aglitter on their breasts when Malachi wore the collar of -gold. A school of turlehide whales stranded in hot noon, spouting, -hobbling in the shallows. Then from the starving cagework city a horde of -jerkined dwarfs, my people, with flayers' knives, running, scaling, -hacking in green blubbery whalemeat. Famine, plague and slaughters. Their -blood is in me, their lusts my waves. I moved among them on the frozen -Liffey, that I, a changeling, among the spluttering resin fires. I spoke -to no-one: none to me. - -The dog's bark ran towards him, stopped, ran back. Dog of my -enemy. I just simply stood pale, silent, bayed about. TERRIBILIA MEDITANS. -A primrose doublet, fortune's knave, smiled on my fear. For that are you -pining, the bark of their applause? Pretenders: live their lives. The -Bruce's brother, Thomas Fitzgerald, silken knight, Perkin Warbeck, York's -false scion, in breeches of silk of whiterose ivory, wonder of a day, and -Lambert Simnel, with a tail of nans and sutlers, a scullion crowned. All -kings' sons. Paradise of pretenders then and now. He saved men from -drowning and you shake at a cur's yelping. But the courtiers who mocked -Guido in Or san Michele were in their own house. House of ... We don't -want any of your medieval abstrusiosities. Would you do what he did? A -boat would be near, a lifebuoy. NATURLICH, put there for you. Would you or -would you not? The man that was drowned nine days ago off Maiden's rock. -They are waiting for him now. The truth, spit it out. I would want to. -I would try. I am not a strong swimmer. Water cold soft. When I put my -face into it in the basin at Clongowes. Can't see! Who's behind me? Out -quickly, quickly! Do you see the tide flowing quickly in on all sides, -sheeting the lows of sand quickly, shellcocoacoloured? If I had land under -my feet. I want his life still to be his, mine to be mine. A drowning man. -His human eyes scream to me out of horror of his death. I ... With him -together down ... I could not save her. Waters: bitter death: lost. - -A woman and a man. I see her skirties. Pinned up, I bet. - -Their dog ambled about a bank of dwindling sand, trotting, sniffing -on all sides. Looking for something lost in a past life. Suddenly he made -off like a bounding hare, ears flung back, chasing the shadow of a -lowskimming gull. The man's shrieked whistle struck his limp ears. He -turned, bounded back, came nearer, trotted on twinkling shanks. On a field -tenney a buck, trippant, proper, unattired. At the lacefringe of the tide -he halted with stiff forehoofs, seawardpointed ears. His snout lifted -barked at the wavenoise, herds of seamorse. They serpented towards his -feet, curling, unfurling many crests, every ninth, breaking, plashing, -from far, from farther out, waves and waves. - -Cocklepickers. They waded a little way in the water and, stooping, -soused their bags and, lifting them again, waded out. The dog yelped -running to them, reared up and pawed them, dropping on all fours, again -reared up at them with mute bearish fawning. Unheeded he kept by them as -they came towards the drier sand, a rag of wolf's tongue redpanting from -his jaws. His speckled body ambled ahead of them and then loped off at a -calf's gallop. The carcass lay on his path. He stopped, sniffed, stalked -round it, brother, nosing closer, went round it, sniffling rapidly like a -dog all over the dead dog's bedraggled fell. Dogskull, dogsniff, eyes on -the ground, moves to one great goal. Ah, poor dogsbody! Here lies poor -dogsbody's body. - ---Tatters! Out of that, you mongrel! - -The cry brought him skulking back to his master and a blunt bootless -kick sent him unscathed across a spit of sand, crouched in flight. He -slunk back in a curve. Doesn't see me. Along by the edge of the mole he -lolloped, dawdled, smelt a rock. and from under a cocked hindleg pissed -against it. He trotted forward and, lifting again his hindleg, pissed -quick short at an unsmelt rock. The simple pleasures of the poor. His -hindpaws then scattered the sand: then his forepaws dabbled and delved. -Something he buried there, his grandmother. He rooted in the sand, -dabbling, delving and stopped to listen to the air, scraped up the sand -again with a fury of his claws, soon ceasing, a pard, a panther, got in -spousebreach, vulturing the dead. - -After he woke me last night same dream or was it? Wait. Open -hallway. Street of harlots. Remember. Haroun al Raschid. I am almosting -it. That man led me, spoke. I was not afraid. The melon he had he held -against my face. Smiled: creamfruit smell. That was the rule, said. In. -Come. Red carpet spread. You will see who. - -Shouldering their bags they trudged, the red Egyptians. His blued -feet out of turnedup trousers slapped the clammy sand, a dull brick -muffler strangling his unshaven neck. With woman steps she followed: the -ruffian and his strolling mort. Spoils slung at her back. Loose sand and -shellgrit crusted her bare feet. About her windraw face hair trailed. -Behind her lord, his helpmate, bing awast to Romeville. When night hides -her body's flaws calling under her brown shawl from an archway where dogs -have mired. Her fancyman is treating two Royal Dublins in O'Loughlin's of -Blackpitts. Buss her, wap in rogues' rum lingo, for, O, my dimber wapping -dell! A shefiend's whiteness under her rancid rags. Fumbally's lane that -night: the tanyard smells. - - - WHITE THY FAMBLES, RED THY GAN - AND THY QUARRONS DAINTY IS. - COUCH A HOGSHEAD WITH ME THEN. - IN THE DARKMANS CLIP AND KISS. - - -Morose delectation Aquinas tunbelly calls this, FRATE PORCOSPINO. -Unfallen Adam rode and not rutted. Call away let him: THY QUARRONS DAINTY -IS. Language no whit worse than his. Monkwords, marybeads jabber on -their girdles: roguewords, tough nuggets patter in their pockets. - -Passing now. - -A side eye at my Hamlet hat. If I were suddenly naked here as I sit? I -am not. Across the sands of all the world, followed by the sun's flaming -sword, to the west, trekking to evening lands. She trudges, schlepps, -trains, drags, trascines her load. A tide westering, moondrawn, in her -wake. Tides, myriadislanded, within her, blood not mine, OINOPA PONTON, -a winedark sea. Behold the handmaid of the moon. In sleep the wet sign -calls her hour, bids her rise. Bridebed, childbed, bed of death, -ghostcandled. OMNIS CARO AD TE VENIET. He comes, pale vampire, through -storm his eyes, his bat sails bloodying the sea, mouth to her mouth's -kiss. - -Here. Put a pin in that chap, will you? My tablets. Mouth to her kiss. - -No. Must be two of em. Glue em well. Mouth to her mouth's kiss. - -His lips lipped and mouthed fleshless lips of air: mouth to her -moomb. Oomb, allwombing tomb. His mouth moulded issuing breath, -unspeeched: ooeeehah: roar of cataractic planets, globed, blazing, roaring -wayawayawayawayaway. Paper. The banknotes, blast them. Old Deasy's -letter. Here. Thanking you for the hospitality tear the blank end off. -Turning his back to the sun he bent over far to a table of rock and -scribbled words. That's twice I forgot to take slips from the library -counter. - -His shadow lay over the rocks as he bent, ending. Why not endless till -the farthest star? Darkly they are there behind this light, darkness -shining in the brightness, delta of Cassiopeia, worlds. Me sits there with -his augur's rod of ash, in borrowed sandals, by day beside a livid sea, -unbeheld, in violet night walking beneath a reign of uncouth stars. -I throw this ended shadow from me, manshape ineluctable, call it back. -Endless, would it be mine, form of my form? Who watches me here? Who ever -anywhere will read these written words? Signs on a white field. Somewhere -to someone in your flutiest voice. The good bishop of Cloyne took the veil -of the temple out of his shovel hat: veil of space with coloured emblems -hatched on its field. Hold hard. Coloured on a flat: yes, that's right. -Flat I see, then think distance, near, far, flat I see, east, back. Ah, -see now! Falls back suddenly, frozen in stereoscope. Click does the trick. -You find my words dark. Darkness is in our souls do you not think? -Flutier. Our souls, shamewounded by our sins, cling to us yet more, -a woman to her lover clinging, the more the more. - -She trusts me, her hand gentle, the longlashed eyes. Now where the blue -hell am I bringing her beyond the veil? Into the ineluctable modality -of the ineluctable visuality. She, she, she. What she? The virgin -at Hodges Figgis' window on Monday looking in for one of the alphabet -books you were going to write. Keen glance you gave her. Wrist through -the braided jesse of her sunshade. She lives in Leeson park with -a grief and kickshaws, a lady of letters. Talk that to someone else, -Stevie: a pickmeup. Bet she wears those curse of God stays suspenders -and yellow stockings, darned with lumpy wool. Talk about apple dumplings, -PIUTTOSTO. Where are your wits? - -Touch me. Soft eyes. Soft soft soft hand. I am lonely here. O, touch -me soon, now. What is that word known to all men? I am quiet here alone. -Sad too. Touch, touch me. - -He lay back at full stretch over the sharp rocks, cramming the -scribbled note and pencil into a pock his hat. His hat down on his eyes. -That is Kevin Egan's movement I made, nodding for his nap, sabbath sleep. -ET VIDIT DEUS. ET ERANT VALDE BONA. Alo! BONJOUR. Welcome as the flowers -in May. Under its leaf he watched through peacocktwittering lashes the -southing sun. I am caught in this burning scene. Pan's hour, the faunal -noon. Among gumheavy serpentplants, milkoozing fruits, where on the -tawny waters leaves lie wide. Pain is far. - -AND NO MORE TURN ASIDE AND BROOD. - -His gaze brooded on his broadtoed boots, a buck's castoffs, -NEBENEINANDER. He counted the creases of rucked leather wherein another's -foot had nested warm. The foot that beat the ground in tripudium, foot I -dislove. But you were delighted when Esther Osvalt's shoe went on you: -girl I knew in Paris. TIENS, QUEL PETIT PIED! Staunch friend, a brother -soul: Wilde's love that dare not speak its name. His arm: Cranly's arm. He -now will leave me. And the blame? As I am. As I am. All or not at all. - -In long lassoes from the Cock lake the water flowed full, covering -greengoldenly lagoons of sand, rising, flowing. My ashplant will float -away. I shall wait. No, they will pass on, passing, chafing against the -low rocks, swirling, passing. Better get this job over quick. Listen: a -fourworded wavespeech: seesoo, hrss, rsseeiss, ooos. Vehement breath of -waters amid seasnakes, rearing horses, rocks. In cups of rocks it slops: -flop, slop, slap: bounded in barrels. And, spent, its speech ceases. It -flows purling, widely flowing, floating foampool, flower unfurling. - -Under the upswelling tide he saw the writhing weeds lift languidly -and sway reluctant arms, hising up their petticoats, in whispering water -swaying and upturning coy silver fronds. Day by day: night by night: -lifted, flooded and let fall. Lord, they are weary; and, whispered to, -they sigh. Saint Ambrose heard it, sigh of leaves and waves, waiting, -awaiting the fullness of their times, DIEBUS AC NOCTIBUS INIURIAS PATIENS -INGEMISCIT. To no end gathered; vainly then released, forthflowing, -wending back: loom of the moon. Weary too in sight of lovers, lascivious -men, a naked woman shining in her courts, she draws a toil of waters. - -Five fathoms out there. Full fathom five thy father lies. At one, he -said. Found drowned. High water at Dublin bar. Driving before it a loose -drift of rubble, fanshoals of fishes, silly shells. A corpse rising -saltwhite from the undertow, bobbing a pace a pace a porpoise landward. -There he is. Hook it quick. Pull. Sunk though he be beneath the watery -floor. We have him. Easy now. - -Bag of corpsegas sopping in foul brine. A quiver of minnows, fat of a -spongy titbit, flash through the slits of his buttoned trouserfly. God -becomes man becomes fish becomes barnacle goose becomes featherbed -mountain. Dead breaths I living breathe, tread dead dust, devour a urinous -offal from all dead. Hauled stark over the gunwale he breathes upward the -stench of his green grave, his leprous nosehole snoring to the sun. - -A seachange this, brown eyes saltblue. Seadeath, mildest of all deaths -known to man. Old Father Ocean. PRIX DE PARIS: beware of imitations. Just -you give it a fair trial. We enjoyed ourselves immensely. - -Come. I thirst. Clouding over. No black clouds anywhere, are there? -Thunderstorm. Allbright he falls, proud lightning of the intellect, -LUCIFER, DICO, QUI NESCIT OCCASUM. No. My cockle hat and staff and hismy -sandal shoon. Where? To evening lands. Evening will find itself. - -He took the hilt of his ashplant, lunging with it softly, dallying still. -Yes, evening will find itself in me, without me. All days make their end. -By the way next when is it Tuesday will be the longest day. Of all the -glad new year, mother, the rum tum tiddledy tum. Lawn Tennyson, gentleman -poet. GIA. For the old hag with the yellow teeth. And Monsieur Drumont, -gentleman journalist. GIA. My teeth are very bad. Why, I wonder. Feel. -That one is going too. Shells. Ought I go to a dentist, I wonder, with -that money? That one. This. Toothless Kinch, the superman. Why is that, I -wonder, or does it mean something perhaps? - -My handkerchief. He threw it. I remember. Did I not take it up? - -His hand groped vainly in his pockets. No, I didn't. Better buy one. - -He laid the dry snot picked from his nostril on a ledge of rock, -carefully. For the rest let look who will. - -Behind. Perhaps there is someone. - -He turned his face over a shoulder, rere regardant. Moving through -the air high spars of a threemaster, her sails brailed up on the -crosstrees, homing, upstream, silently moving, a silent ship. - - - -- II -- - - -Mr Leopold Bloom ate with relish the inner organs of beasts and fowls. He -liked thick giblet soup, nutty gizzards, a stuffed roast heart, -liverslices fried with crustcrumbs, fried hencods' roes. Most of all he -liked grilled mutton kidneys which gave to his palate a fine tang of -faintly scented urine. - -Kidneys were in his mind as he moved about the kitchen softly, righting -her breakfast things on the humpy tray. Gelid light and air were in the -kitchen but out of doors gentle summer morning everywhere. Made him feel -a bit peckish. - -The coals were reddening. - -Another slice of bread and butter: three, four: right. She didn't like -her plate full. Right. He turned from the tray, lifted the kettle off the -hob and set it sideways on the fire. It sat there, dull and squat, its -spout stuck out. Cup of tea soon. Good. Mouth dry. The cat walked stiffly -round a leg of the table with tail on high. - ---Mkgnao! - ---O, there you are, Mr Bloom said, turning from the fire. - -The cat mewed in answer and stalked again stiffly round a leg of the -table, mewing. Just how she stalks over my writingtable. Prr. Scratch my -head. Prr. - -Mr Bloom watched curiously, kindly the lithe black form. Clean to see: -the gloss of her sleek hide, the white button under the butt of her tail, -the green flashing eyes. He bent down to her, his hands on his knees. - ---Milk for the pussens, he said. - ---Mrkgnao! the cat cried. - -They call them stupid. They understand what we say better than we -understand them. She understands all she wants to. Vindictive too. Cruel. -Her nature. Curious mice never squeal. Seem to like it. Wonder what I -look like to her. Height of a tower? No, she can jump me. - ---Afraid of the chickens she is, he said mockingly. Afraid of the -chookchooks. I never saw such a stupid pussens as the pussens. - -Cruel. Her nature. Curious mice never squeal. Seem to like it. - ---Mrkrgnao! the cat said loudly. - -She blinked up out of her avid shameclosing eyes, mewing plaintively and -long, showing him her milkwhite teeth. He watched the dark eyeslits -narrowing with greed till her eyes were green stones. Then he went to the -dresser, took the jug Hanlon's milkman had just filled for him, poured -warmbubbled milk on a saucer and set it slowly on the floor. - ---Gurrhr! she cried, running to lap. - -He watched the bristles shining wirily in the weak light as she tipped -three times and licked lightly. Wonder is it true if you clip them they -can't mouse after. Why? They shine in the dark, perhaps, the tips. Or -kind of feelers in the dark, perhaps. - -He listened to her licking lap. Ham and eggs, no. No good eggs with this -drouth. Want pure fresh water. Thursday: not a good day either for a -mutton kidney at Buckley's. Fried with butter, a shake of pepper. Better -a pork kidney at Dlugacz's. While the kettle is boiling. She lapped -slower, then licking the saucer clean. Why are their tongues so rough? To -lap better, all porous holes. Nothing she can eat? He glanced round him. -No. - -On quietly creaky boots he went up the staircase to the hall, paused by -the bedroom door. She might like something tasty. Thin bread and butter -she likes in the morning. Still perhaps: once in a way. - -He said softly in the bare hall: - ---I'm going round the corner. Be back in a minute. - -And when he had heard his voice say it he added: - ---You don't want anything for breakfast? - -A sleepy soft grunt answered: - ---Mn. - -No. She didn't want anything. He heard then a warm heavy sigh, softer, as -she turned over and the loose brass quoits of the bedstead jingled. Must -get those settled really. Pity. All the way from Gibraltar. Forgotten any -little Spanish she knew. Wonder what her father gave for it. Old style. -Ah yes! of course. Bought it at the governor's auction. Got a short -knock. Hard as nails at a bargain, old Tweedy. Yes, sir. At Plevna that -was. I rose from the ranks, sir, and I'm proud of it. Still he had brains -enough to make that corner in stamps. Now that was farseeing. - -His hand took his hat from the peg over his initialled heavy overcoat and -his lost property office secondhand waterproof. Stamps: stickyback -pictures. Daresay lots of officers are in the swim too. Course they do. -The sweated legend in the crown of his hat told him mutely: Plasto's high -grade ha. He peeped quickly inside the leather headband. White slip of -paper. Quite safe. - -On the doorstep he felt in his hip pocket for the latchkey. Not there. In -the trousers I left off. Must get it. Potato I have. Creaky wardrobe. No -use disturbing her. She turned over sleepily that time. He pulled the -halldoor to after him very quietly, more, till the footleaf dropped -gently over the threshold, a limp lid. Looked shut. All right till I come -back anyhow. - -He crossed to the bright side, avoiding the loose cellarflap of number -seventyfive. The sun was nearing the steeple of George's church. Be a -warm day I fancy. Specially in these black clothes feel it more. Black -conducts, reflects, (refracts is it?), the heat. But I couldn't go in -that light suit. Make a picnic of it. His eyelids sank quietly often as -he walked in happy warmth. Boland's breadvan delivering with trays our -daily but she prefers yesterday's loaves turnovers crisp crowns hot. -Makes you feel young. Somewhere in the east: early morning: set off at -dawn. Travel round in front of the sun, steal a day's march on him. Keep -it up for ever never grow a day older technically. Walk along a strand, -strange land, come to a city gate, sentry there, old ranker too, old -Tweedy's big moustaches, leaning on a long kind of a spear. Wander -through awned streets. Turbaned faces going by. Dark caves of carpet -shops, big man, Turko the terrible, seated crosslegged, smoking a coiled -pipe. Cries of sellers in the streets. Drink water scented with fennel, -sherbet. Dander along all day. Might meet a robber or two. Well, meet -him. Getting on to sundown. The shadows of the mosques among the pillars: -priest with a scroll rolled up. A shiver of the trees, signal, the -evening wind. I pass on. Fading gold sky. A mother watches me from her -doorway. She calls her children home in their dark language. High wall: -beyond strings twanged. Night sky, moon, violet, colour of Molly's new -garters. Strings. Listen. A girl playing one of those instruments what do -you call them: dulcimers. I pass. - -Probably not a bit like it really. Kind of stuff you read: in the track -of the sun. Sunburst on the titlepage. He smiled, pleasing himself. What -Arthur Griffith said about the headpiece over the FREEMAN leader: a -homerule sun rising up in the northwest from the laneway behind the bank -of Ireland. He prolonged his pleased smile. Ikey touch that: homerule sun -rising up in the north-west. - -He approached Larry O'Rourke's. From the cellar grating floated up the -flabby gush of porter. Through the open doorway the bar squirted out -whiffs of ginger, teadust, biscuitmush. Good house, however: just the end -of the city traffic. For instance M'Auley's down there: n. g. as -position. Of course if they ran a tramline along the North Circular from -the cattlemarket to the quays value would go up like a shot. - -Baldhead over the blind. Cute old codger. No use canvassing him for an -ad. Still he knows his own business best. There he is, sure enough, my -bold Larry, leaning against the sugarbin in his shirtsleeves watching the -aproned curate swab up with mop and bucket. Simon Dedalus takes him off -to a tee with his eyes screwed up. Do you know what I'm going to tell -you? What's that, Mr O'Rourke? Do you know what? The Russians, they'd -only be an eight o'clock breakfast for the Japanese. - -Stop and say a word: about the funeral perhaps. Sad thing about poor -Dignam, Mr O'Rourke. - -Turning into Dorset street he said freshly in greeting through the -doorway: - ---Good day, Mr O'Rourke. - ---Good day to you. - ---Lovely weather, sir. - ---'Tis all that. - -Where do they get the money? Coming up redheaded curates from the county -Leitrim, rinsing empties and old man in the cellar. Then, lo and behold, -they blossom out as Adam Findlaters or Dan Tallons. Then thin of the -competition. General thirst. Good puzzle would be cross Dublin without -passing a pub. Save it they can't. Off the drunks perhaps. Put down three -and carry five. What is that, a bob here and there, dribs and drabs. On -the wholesale orders perhaps. Doing a double shuffle with the town -travellers. Square it you with the boss and we'll split the job, see? - -How much would that tot to off the porter in the month? Say ten barrels -of stuff. Say he got ten per cent off. O more. Fifteen. He passed Saint -Joseph's National school. Brats' clamour. Windows open. Fresh air helps -memory. Or a lilt. Ahbeesee defeegee kelomen opeecue rustyouvee -doubleyou. Boys are they? Yes. Inishturk. Inishark. Inishboffin. At their -joggerfry. Mine. Slieve Bloom. - -He halted before Dlugacz's window, staring at the hanks of sausages, -polonies, black and white. Fifteen multiplied by. The figures whitened in -his mind, unsolved: displeased, he let them fade. The shiny links, packed -with forcemeat, fed his gaze and he breathed in tranquilly the lukewarm -breath of cooked spicy pigs' blood. - -A kidney oozed bloodgouts on the willowpatterned dish: the last. He stood -by the nextdoor girl at the counter. Would she buy it too, calling the -items from a slip in her hand? Chapped: washingsoda. And a pound and a -half of Denny's sausages. His eyes rested on her vigorous hips. Woods his -name is. Wonder what he does. Wife is oldish. New blood. No followers -allowed. Strong pair of arms. Whacking a carpet on the clothesline. She -does whack it, by George. The way her crooked skirt swings at each whack. - -The ferreteyed porkbutcher folded the sausages he had snipped off with -blotchy fingers, sausagepink. Sound meat there: like a stallfed heifer. - -He took a page up from the pile of cut sheets: the model farm at -Kinnereth on the lakeshore of Tiberias. Can become ideal winter -sanatorium. Moses Montefiore. I thought he was. Farmhouse, wall round it, -blurred cattle cropping. He held the page from him: interesting: read it -nearer, the title, the blurred cropping cattle, the page rustling. A -young white heifer. Those mornings in the cattlemarket, the beasts lowing -in their pens, branded sheep, flop and fall of dung, the breeders in -hobnailed boots trudging through the litter, slapping a palm on a -ripemeated hindquarter, there's a prime one, unpeeled switches in their -hands. He held the page aslant patiently, bending his senses and his -will, his soft subject gaze at rest. The crooked skirt swinging, whack by -whack by whack. - -The porkbutcher snapped two sheets from the pile, wrapped up her prime -sausages and made a red grimace. - ---Now, my miss, he said. - -She tendered a coin, smiling boldly, holding her thick wrist out. - ---Thank you, my miss. And one shilling threepence change. For you, -please? - -Mr Bloom pointed quickly. To catch up and walk behind her if she went -slowly, behind her moving hams. Pleasant to see first thing in the -morning. Hurry up, damn it. Make hay while the sun shines. She stood -outside the shop in sunlight and sauntered lazily to the right. He sighed -down his nose: they never understand. Sodachapped hands. Crusted toenails -too. Brown scapulars in tatters, defending her both ways. The sting of -disregard glowed to weak pleasure within his breast. For another: a -constable off duty cuddling her in Eccles lane. They like them sizeable. -Prime sausage. O please, Mr Policeman, I'm lost in the wood. - ---Threepence, please. - -His hand accepted the moist tender gland and slid it into a sidepocket. -Then it fetched up three coins from his trousers' pocket and laid them on -the rubber prickles. They lay, were read quickly and quickly slid, disc -by disc, into the till. - ---Thank you, sir. Another time. - -A speck of eager fire from foxeyes thanked him. He withdrew his gaze -after an instant. No: better not: another time. - ---Good morning, he said, moving away. - ---Good morning, sir. - -No sign. Gone. What matter? - -He walked back along Dorset street, reading gravely. Agendath Netaim: -planters' company. To purchase waste sandy tracts from Turkish government -and plant with eucalyptus trees. Excellent for shade, fuel and -construction. Orangegroves and immense melonfields north of Jaffa. You -pay eighty marks and they plant a dunam of land for you with olives, -oranges, almonds or citrons. Olives cheaper: oranges need artificial -irrigation. Every year you get a sending of the crop. Your name entered -for life as owner in the book of the union. Can pay ten down and the -balance in yearly instalments. Bleibtreustrasse 34, Berlin, W. 15. - -Nothing doing. Still an idea behind it. - -He looked at the cattle, blurred in silver heat. Silverpowdered -olivetrees. Quiet long days: pruning, ripening. Olives are packed in -jars, eh? I have a few left from Andrews. Molly spitting them out. Knows -the taste of them now. Oranges in tissue paper packed in crates. Citrons -too. Wonder is poor Citron still in Saint Kevin's parade. And Mastiansky -with the old cither. Pleasant evenings we had then. Molly in Citron's -basketchair. Nice to hold, cool waxen fruit, hold in the hand, lift it to -the nostrils and smell the perfume. Like that, heavy, sweet, wild -perfume. Always the same, year after year. They fetched high prices too, -Moisel told me. Arbutus place: Pleasants street: pleasant old times. Must -be without a flaw, he said. Coming all that way: Spain, Gibraltar, -Mediterranean, the Levant. Crates lined up on the quayside at Jaffa, chap -ticking them off in a book, navvies handling them barefoot in soiled -dungarees. There's whatdoyoucallhim out of. How do you? Doesn't see. Chap -you know just to salute bit of a bore. His back is like that Norwegian -captain's. Wonder if I'll meet him today. Watering cart. To provoke the -rain. On earth as it is in heaven. - -A cloud began to cover the sun slowly, wholly. Grey. Far. - -No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead -sea: no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth. No wind could lift those -waves, grey metal, poisonous foggy waters. Brimstone they called it -raining down: the cities of the plain: Sodom, Gomorrah, Edom. All dead -names. A dead sea in a dead land, grey and old. Old now. It bore the -oldest, the first race. A bent hag crossed from Cassidy's, clutching a -naggin bottle by the neck. The oldest people. Wandered far away over all -the earth, captivity to captivity, multiplying, dying, being born -everywhere. It lay there now. Now it could bear no more. Dead: an old -woman's: the grey sunken cunt of the world. - -Desolation. - -Grey horror seared his flesh. Folding the page into his pocket he turned -into Eccles street, hurrying homeward. Cold oils slid along his veins, -chilling his blood: age crusting him with a salt cloak. Well, I am here -now. Yes, I am here now. Morning mouth bad images. Got up wrong side of -the bed. Must begin again those Sandow's exercises. On the hands down. -Blotchy brown brick houses. Number eighty still unlet. Why is that? -Valuation is only twenty-eight. Towers, Battersby, North, MacArthur: -parlour windows plastered with bills. Plasters on a sore eye. To smell -the gentle smoke of tea, fume of the pan, sizzling butter. Be near her -ample bedwarmed flesh. Yes, yes. - -Quick warm sunlight came running from Berkeley road, swiftly, in slim -sandals, along the brightening footpath. Runs, she runs to meet me, a -girl with gold hair on the wind. - -Two letters and a card lay on the hallfloor. He stooped and gathered -them. Mrs Marion Bloom. His quickened heart slowed at once. Bold hand. -Mrs Marion. - ---Poldy! - -Entering the bedroom he halfclosed his eyes and walked through warm -yellow twilight towards her tousled head. - ---Who are the letters for? - -He looked at them. Mullingar. Milly. - ---A letter for me from Milly, he said carefully, and a card to you. And a -letter for you. - -He laid her card and letter on the twill bedspread near the curve of her -knees. - ---Do you want the blind up? - -Letting the blind up by gentle tugs halfway his backward eye saw her -glance at the letter and tuck it under her pillow. - ---That do? he asked, turning. - -She was reading the card, propped on her elbow. - ---She got the things, she said. - -He waited till she had laid the card aside and curled herself back slowly -with a snug sigh. - ---Hurry up with that tea, she said. I'm parched. - ---The kettle is boiling, he said. - -But he delayed to clear the chair: her striped petticoat, tossed soiled -linen: and lifted all in an armful on to the foot of the bed. - -As he went down the kitchen stairs she called: - ---Poldy! - ---What? - ---Scald the teapot. - -On the boil sure enough: a plume of steam from the spout. He scalded and -rinsed out the teapot and put in four full spoons of tea, tilting the -kettle then to let the water flow in. Having set it to draw he took off -the kettle, crushed the pan flat on the live coals and watched the lump -of butter slide and melt. While he unwrapped the kidney the cat mewed -hungrily against him. Give her too much meat she won't mouse. Say they -won't eat pork. Kosher. Here. He let the bloodsmeared paper fall to her -and dropped the kidney amid the sizzling butter sauce. Pepper. He -sprinkled it through his fingers ringwise from the chipped eggcup. - -Then he slit open his letter, glancing down the page and over. Thanks: -new tam: Mr Coghlan: lough Owel picnic: young student: Blazes Boylan's -seaside girls. - -The tea was drawn. He filled his own moustachecup, sham crown - -Derby, smiling. Silly Milly's birthday gift. Only five she was then. No, -wait: four. I gave her the amberoid necklace she broke. Putting pieces of -folded brown paper in the letterbox for her. He smiled, pouring. - - - O, MILLY BLOOM, YOU ARE MY DARLING. - YOU ARE MY LOOKINGGLASS FROM NIGHT TO MORNING. - I'D RATHER HAVE YOU WITHOUT A FARTHING - THAN KATEY KEOGH WITH HER ASS AND GARDEN. - - -Poor old professor Goodwin. Dreadful old case. Still he was a courteous -old chap. Oldfashioned way he used to bow Molly off the platform. And the -little mirror in his silk hat. The night Milly brought it into the -parlour. O, look what I found in professor Goodwin's hat! All we laughed. -Sex breaking out even then. Pert little piece she was. - -He prodded a fork into the kidney and slapped it over: then fitted the -teapot on the tray. Its hump bumped as he took it up. Everything on it? -Bread and butter, four, sugar, spoon, her cream. Yes. He carried it -upstairs, his thumb hooked in the teapot handle. - -Nudging the door open with his knee he carried the tray in and set it on -the chair by the bedhead. - ---What a time you were! she said. - -She set the brasses jingling as she raised herself briskly, an elbow on -the pillow. He looked calmly down on her bulk and between her large soft -bubs, sloping within her nightdress like a shegoat's udder. The warmth of -her couched body rose on the air, mingling with the fragrance of the tea -she poured. - -A strip of torn envelope peeped from under the dimpled pillow. In the act -of going he stayed to straighten the bedspread. - ---Who was the letter from? he asked. - -Bold hand. Marion. - ---O, Boylan, she said. He's bringing the programme. - ---What are you singing? - ---LA CI DAREM with J. C. Doyle, she said, and LOVE'S OLD SWEET SONG. - -Her full lips, drinking, smiled. Rather stale smell that incense leaves -next day. Like foul flowerwater. - ---Would you like the window open a little? - -She doubled a slice of bread into her mouth, asking: - ---What time is the funeral? - ---Eleven, I think, he answered. I didn't see the paper. - -Following the pointing of her finger he took up a leg of her soiled -drawers from the bed. No? Then, a twisted grey garter looped round a -stocking: rumpled, shiny sole. - ---No: that book. - -Other stocking. Her petticoat. - ---It must have fell down, she said. - -He felt here and there. VOGLIO E NON VORREI. Wonder if she pronounces -that right: VOGLIO. Not in the bed. Must have slid down. He stooped and -lifted the valance. The book, fallen, sprawled against the bulge of the -orangekeyed chamberpot. - ---Show here, she said. I put a mark in it. There's a word I wanted to ask -you. - -She swallowed a draught of tea from her cup held by nothandle and, having -wiped her fingertips smartly on the blanket, began to search the text -with the hairpin till she reached the word. - ---Met him what? he asked. - ---Here, she said. What does that mean? - -He leaned downward and read near her polished thumbnail. - ---Metempsychosis? - ---Yes. Who's he when he's at home? - ---Metempsychosis, he said, frowning. It's Greek: from the Greek. That -means the transmigration of souls. - ---O, rocks! she said. Tell us in plain words. - -He smiled, glancing askance at her mocking eyes. The same young eyes. The -first night after the charades. Dolphin's Barn. He turned over the -smudged pages. RUBY: THE PRIDE OF THE RING. Hello. Illustration. Fierce -Italian with carriagewhip. Must be Ruby pride of the on the floor naked. -Sheet kindly lent. THE MONSTER MAFFEI DESISTED AND FLUNG HIS VICTIM FROM -HIM WITH AN OATH. Cruelty behind it all. Doped animals. Trapeze at -Hengler's. Had to look the other way. Mob gaping. Break your neck and -we'll break our sides. Families of them. Bone them young so they -metamspychosis. That we live after death. Our souls. That a man's soul -after he dies. Dignam's soul ... - ---Did you finish it? he asked. - ---Yes, she said. There's nothing smutty in it. Is she in love with the -first fellow all the time? - ---Never read it. Do you want another? - ---Yes. Get another of Paul de Kock's. Nice name he has. - -She poured more tea into her cup, watching it flow sideways. - -Must get that Capel street library book renewed or they'll write to -Kearney, my guarantor. Reincarnation: that's the word. - ---Some people believe, he said, that we go on living in another body -after death, that we lived before. They call it reincarnation. That we -all lived before on the earth thousands of years ago or some other -planet. They say we have forgotten it. Some say they remember their past -lives. - -The sluggish cream wound curdling spirals through her tea. Bette remind -her of the word: metempsychosis. An example would be better. An example? - -The BATH OF THE NYMPH over the bed. Given away with the Easter number of -PHOTO BITS: Splendid masterpiece in art colours. Tea before you put milk -in. Not unlike her with her hair down: slimmer. Three and six I gave for -the frame. She said it would look nice over the bed. Naked nymphs: -Greece: and for instance all the people that lived then. - -He turned the pages back. - ---Metempsychosis, he said, is what the ancient Greeks called it. They -used to believe you could be changed into an animal or a tree, for -instance. What they called nymphs, for example. - -Her spoon ceased to stir up the sugar. She gazed straight before her, -inhaling through her arched nostrils. - ---There's a smell of burn, she said. Did you leave anything on the fire? - ---The kidney! he cried suddenly. - -He fitted the book roughly into his inner pocket and, stubbing his toes -against the broken commode, hurried out towards the smell, stepping -hastily down the stairs with a flurried stork's legs. Pungent smoke shot -up in an angry jet from a side of the pan. By prodding a prong of the -fork under the kidney he detached it and turned it turtle on its back. -Only a little burnt. He tossed it off the pan on to a plate and let the -scanty brown gravy trickle over it. - -Cup of tea now. He sat down, cut and buttered a slice of the loaf. He -shore away the burnt flesh and flung it to the cat. Then he put a forkful -into his mouth, chewing with discernment the toothsome pliant meat. Done -to a turn. A mouthful of tea. Then he cut away dies of bread, sopped one -in the gravy and put it in his mouth. What was that about some young -student and a picnic? He creased out the letter at his side, reading it -slowly as he chewed, sopping another die of bread in the gravy and -raising it to his mouth. - - - Dearest Papli - -Thanks ever so much for the lovely birthday present. It suits me -splendid. Everyone says I am quite the belle in my new tam. I got mummy's -Iovely box of creams and am writing. They are lovely. I am getting on -swimming in the photo business now. Mr Coghlan took one of me and Mrs. -Will send when developed. We did great biz yesterday. Fair day and all -the beef to the heels were in. We are going to lough Owel on Monday with -a few friends to make a scrap picnic. Give my love to mummy and to -yourself a big kiss and thanks. I hear them at the piano downstairs. -There is to be a concert in the Greville Arms on Saturday. There is a -young student comes here some evenings named Bannon his cousins or -something are big swells and he sings Boylan's (I was on the pop of -writing Blazes Boylan's) song about those seaside girls. Tell him silly -Milly sends my best respects. I must now close with fondest love - - -Your fond daughter, MILLY. - - -P. S. Excuse bad writing am in hurry. Byby. M. - - -Fifteen yesterday. Curious, fifteenth of the month too. Her first -birthday away from home. Separation. Remember the summer morning she was -born, running to knock up Mrs Thornton in Denzille street. Jolly old -woman. Lot of babies she must have helped into the world. She knew from -the first poor little Rudy wouldn't live. Well, God is good, sir. She -knew at once. He would be eleven now if he had lived. - -His vacant face stared pityingly at the postscript. Excuse bad writing. -Hurry. Piano downstairs. Coming out of her shell. Row with her in the XL -Cafe about the bracelet. Wouldn't eat her cakes or speak or look. -Saucebox. He sopped other dies of bread in the gravy and ate piece after -piece of kidney. Twelve and six a week. Not much. Still, she might do -worse. Music hall stage. Young student. He drank a draught of cooler tea -to wash down his meal. Then he read the letter again: twice. - -O, well: she knows how to mind herself. But if not? No, nothing has -happened. Of course it might. Wait in any case till it does. A wild piece -of goods. Her slim legs running up the staircase. Destiny. Ripening now. - -Vain: very. - -He smiled with troubled affection at the kitchen window. Day I caught her -in the street pinching her cheeks to make them red. Anemic a little. Was -given milk too long. On the ERIN'S KING that day round the Kish. Damned -old tub pitching about. Not a bit funky. Her pale blue scarf loose in the -wind with her hair. - - - ALL DIMPLED CHEEKS AND CURLS, - YOUR HEAD IT SIMPLY SWIRLS. - - -Seaside girls. Torn envelope. Hands stuck in his trousers' pockets, -jarvey off for the day, singing. Friend of the family. Swurls, he says. -Pier with lamps, summer evening, band, - - - THOSE GIRLS, THOSE GIRLS, - THOSE LOVELY SEASIDE GIRLS. - - -Milly too. Young kisses: the first. Far away now past. Mrs Marion. -Reading, lying back now, counting the strands of her hair, smiling, -braiding. - -A soft qualm, regret, flowed down his backbone, increasing. Will happen, -yes. Prevent. Useless: can't move. Girl's sweet light lips. Will happen -too. He felt the flowing qualm spread over him. Useless to move now. Lips -kissed, kissing, kissed. Full gluey woman's lips. - -Better where she is down there: away. Occupy her. Wanted a dog to pass -the time. Might take a trip down there. August bank holiday, only two and -six return. Six weeks off, however. Might work a press pass. Or through -M'Coy. - -The cat, having cleaned all her fur, returned to the meatstained paper, -nosed at it and stalked to the door. She looked back at him, mewing. -Wants to go out. Wait before a door sometime it will open. Let her wait. -Has the fidgets. Electric. Thunder in the air. Was washing at her ear -with her back to the fire too. - -He felt heavy, full: then a gentle loosening of his bowels. He stood up, -undoing the waistband of his trousers. The cat mewed to him. - ---Miaow! he said in answer. Wait till I'm ready. - -Heaviness: hot day coming. Too much trouble to fag up the stairs to the -landing. - -A paper. He liked to read at stool. Hope no ape comes knocking just as -I'm. - -In the tabledrawer he found an old number of TITBITS. He folded it under -his armpit, went to the door and opened it. The cat went up in soft -bounds. Ah, wanted to go upstairs, curl up in a ball on the bed. - -Listening, he heard her voice: - ---Come, come, pussy. Come. - -He went out through the backdoor into the garden: stood to listen towards -the next garden. No sound. Perhaps hanging clothes out to dry. The maid -was in the garden. Fine morning. - -He bent down to regard a lean file of spearmint growing by the wall. Make -a summerhouse here. Scarlet runners. Virginia creepers. Want to manure -the whole place over, scabby soil. A coat of liver of sulphur. All soil -like that without dung. Household slops. Loam, what is this that is? The -hens in the next garden: their droppings are very good top dressing. Best -of all though are the cattle, especially when they are fed on those -oilcakes. Mulch of dung. Best thing to clean ladies' kid gloves. Dirty -cleans. Ashes too. Reclaim the whole place. Grow peas in that corner -there. Lettuce. Always have fresh greens then. Still gardens have their -drawbacks. That bee or bluebottle here Whitmonday. - -He walked on. Where is my hat, by the way? Must have put it back on the -peg. Or hanging up on the floor. Funny I don't remember that. Hallstand -too full. Four umbrellas, her raincloak. Picking up the letters. Drago's -shopbell ringing. Queer I was just thinking that moment. Brown -brillantined hair over his collar. Just had a wash and brushup. Wonder -have I time for a bath this morning. Tara street. Chap in the paybox -there got away James Stephens, they say. O'Brien. - -Deep voice that fellow Dlugacz has. Agendath what is it? Now, my miss. -Enthusiast. - -He kicked open the crazy door of the jakes. Better be careful not to get -these trousers dirty for the funeral. He went in, bowing his head under -the low lintel. Leaving the door ajar, amid the stench of mouldy limewash -and stale cobwebs he undid his braces. Before sitting down he peered -through a chink up at the nextdoor windows. The king was in his -countinghouse. Nobody. - -Asquat on the cuckstool he folded out his paper, turning its pages over -on his bared knees. Something new and easy. No great hurry. Keep it a -bit. Our prize titbit: MATCHAM'S MASTERSTROKE. Written by Mr Philip -Beaufoy, Playgoers' Club, London. Payment at the rate of one guinea a -column has been made to the writer. Three and a half. Three pounds three. -Three pounds, thirteen and six. - -Quietly he read, restraining himself, the first column and, yielding but -resisting, began the second. Midway, his last resistance yielding, he -allowed his bowels to ease themselves quietly as he read, reading still -patiently that slight constipation of yesterday quite gone. Hope it's not -too big bring on piles again. No, just right. So. Ah! Costive. One -tabloid of cascara sagrada. Life might be so. It did not move or touch -him but it was something quick and neat. Print anything now. Silly -season. He read on, seated calm above his own rising smell. Neat -certainly. MATCHAM OFTEN THINKS OF THE MASTERSTROKE BY WHICH HE WON THE -LAUGHING WITCH WHO NOW. Begins and ends morally. HAND IN HAND. Smart. He -glanced back through what he had read and, while feeling his water flow -quietly, he envied kindly Mr Beaufoy who had written it and received -payment of three pounds, thirteen and six. - -Might manage a sketch. By Mr and Mrs L. M. Bloom. Invent a story for some -proverb. Which? Time I used to try jotting down on my cuff what she said -dressing. Dislike dressing together. Nicked myself shaving. Biting her -nether lip, hooking the placket of her skirt. Timing her. 9.l5. Did -Roberts pay you yet? 9.20. What had Gretta Conroy on? 9.23. What -possessed me to buy this comb? 9.24. I'm swelled after that cabbage. A -speck of dust on the patent leather of her boot. - -Rubbing smartly in turn each welt against her stockinged calf. Morning -after the bazaar dance when May's band played Ponchielli's dance of the -hours. Explain that: morning hours, noon, then evening coming on, then -night hours. Washing her teeth. That was the first night. Her head -dancing. Her fansticks clicking. Is that Boylan well off? He has money. -Why? I noticed he had a good rich smell off his breath dancing. No use -humming then. Allude to it. Strange kind of music that last night. The -mirror was in shadow. She rubbed her handglass briskly on her woollen -vest against her full wagging bub. Peering into it. Lines in her eyes. It -wouldn't pan out somehow. - -Evening hours, girls in grey gauze. Night hours then: black with daggers -and eyemasks. Poetical idea: pink, then golden, then grey, then black. -Still, true to life also. Day: then the night. - -He tore away half the prize story sharply and wiped himself with it. Then -he girded up his trousers, braced and buttoned himself. He pulled back -the jerky shaky door of the jakes and came forth from the gloom into the -air. - -In the bright light, lightened and cooled in limb, he eyed carefully his -black trousers: the ends, the knees, the houghs of the knees. What time -is the funeral? Better find out in the paper. - -A creak and a dark whirr in the air high up. The bells of George's -church. They tolled the hour: loud dark iron. - - - HEIGHO! HEIGHO! - HEIGHO! HEIGHO! - HEIGHO! HEIGHO! - - -Quarter to. There again: the overtone following through the air, a third. - -Poor Dignam! - - - * * * * * * * - - -By lorries along sir John Rogerson's quay Mr Bloom walked soberly, past -Windmill lane, Leask's the linseed crusher, the postal telegraph office. -Could have given that address too. And past the sailors' home. He turned -from the morning noises of the quayside and walked through Lime street. -By Brady's cottages a boy for the skins lolled, his bucket of offal -linked, smoking a chewed fagbutt. A smaller girl with scars of eczema on -her forehead eyed him, listlessly holding her battered caskhoop. Tell him -if he smokes he won't grow. O let him! His life isn't such a bed of -roses. Waiting outside pubs to bring da home. Come home to ma, da. Slack -hour: won't be many there. He crossed Townsend street, passed the -frowning face of Bethel. El, yes: house of: Aleph, Beth. And past -Nichols' the undertaker. At eleven it is. Time enough. Daresay Corny -Kelleher bagged the job for O'Neill's. Singing with his eyes shut. Corny. -Met her once in the park. In the dark. What a lark. Police tout. Her name -and address she then told with my tooraloom tooraloom tay. O, surely he -bagged it. Bury him cheap in a whatyoumaycall. With my tooraloom, -tooraloom, tooraloom, tooraloom. - -In Westland row he halted before the window of the Belfast and Oriental -Tea Company and read the legends of leadpapered packets: choice blend, -finest quality, family tea. Rather warm. Tea. Must get some from Tom -Kernan. Couldn't ask him at a funeral, though. While his eyes still read -blandly he took off his hat quietly inhaling his hairoil and sent his -right hand with slow grace over his brow and hair. Very warm morning. -Under their dropped lids his eyes found the tiny bow of the leather -headband inside his high grade ha. Just there. His right hand came down -into the bowl of his hat. His fingers found quickly a card behind the -headband and transferred it to his waistcoat pocket. - -So warm. His right hand once more more slowly went over his brow and -hair. Then he put on his hat again, relieved: and read again: choice -blend, made of the finest Ceylon brands. The far east. Lovely spot it -must be: the garden of the world, big lazy leaves to float about on, -cactuses, flowery meads, snaky lianas they call them. Wonder is it like -that. Those Cinghalese lobbing about in the sun in DOLCE FAR NIENTE, not -doing a hand's turn all day. Sleep six months out of twelve. Too hot to -quarrel. Influence of the climate. Lethargy. Flowers of idleness. The air -feeds most. Azotes. Hothouse in Botanic gardens. Sensitive plants. -Waterlilies. Petals too tired to. Sleeping sickness in the air. Walk on -roseleaves. Imagine trying to eat tripe and cowheel. Where was the chap I -saw in that picture somewhere? Ah yes, in the dead sea floating on his -back, reading a book with a parasol open. Couldn't sink if you tried: so -thick with salt. Because the weight of the water, no, the weight of the -body in the water is equal to the weight of the what? Or is it the volume -is equal to the weight? It's a law something like that. Vance in High -school cracking his fingerjoints, teaching. The college curriculum. -Cracking curriculum. What is weight really when you say the weight? -Thirtytwo feet per second per second. Law of falling bodies: per second -per second. They all fall to the ground. The earth. It's the force of -gravity of the earth is the weight. - -He turned away and sauntered across the road. How did she walk with her -sausages? Like that something. As he walked he took the folded FREEMAN -from his sidepocket, unfolded it, rolled it lengthwise in a baton and -tapped it at each sauntering step against his trouserleg. Careless air: -just drop in to see. Per second per second. Per second for every second -it means. From the curbstone he darted a keen glance through the door of -the postoffice. Too late box. Post here. No-one. In. - -He handed the card through the brass grill. - ---Are there any letters for me? he asked. - -While the postmistress searched a pigeonhole he gazed at the recruiting -poster with soldiers of all arms on parade: and held the tip of his baton -against his nostrils, smelling freshprinted rag paper. No answer -probably. Went too far last time. - -The postmistress handed him back through the grill his card with a -letter. He thanked her and glanced rapidly at the typed envelope. - - -Henry Flower Esq, -c/o P. O. Westland Row, -City. - - -Answered anyhow. He slipped card and letter into his sidepocket, -reviewing again the soldiers on parade. Where's old Tweedy's regiment? -Castoff soldier. There: bearskin cap and hackle plume. No, he's a -grenadier. Pointed cuffs. There he is: royal Dublin fusiliers. Redcoats. -Too showy. That must be why the women go after them. Uniform. Easier to -enlist and drill. Maud Gonne's letter about taking them off O'Connell -street at night: disgrace to our Irish capital. Griffith's paper is on -the same tack now: an army rotten with venereal disease: overseas or -halfseasover empire. Half baked they look: hypnotised like. Eyes front. -Mark time. Table: able. Bed: ed. The King's own. Never see him dressed up -as a fireman or a bobby. A mason, yes. - -He strolled out of the postoffice and turned to the right. Talk: as if -that would mend matters. His hand went into his pocket and a forefinger -felt its way under the flap of the envelope, ripping it open in jerks. -Women will pay a lot of heed, I don't think. His fingers drew forth the -letter the letter and crumpled the envelope in his pocket. Something -pinned on: photo perhaps. Hair? No. - -M'Coy. Get rid of him quickly. Take me out of my way. Hate company when -you. - ---Hello, Bloom. Where are you off to? - ---Hello, M'Coy. Nowhere in particular. - ---How's the body? - ---Fine. How are you? - ---Just keeping alive, M'Coy said. - -His eyes on the black tie and clothes he asked with low respect: - ---Is there any ... no trouble I hope? I see you're ... - ---O, no, Mr Bloom said. Poor Dignam, you know. The funeral is today. - ---To be sure, poor fellow. So it is. What time? - -A photo it isn't. A badge maybe. - ---E ... eleven, Mr Bloom answered. - ---I must try to get out there, M'Coy said. Eleven, is it? I only heard it -last night. Who was telling me? Holohan. You know Hoppy? - ---I know. - -Mr Bloom gazed across the road at the outsider drawn up before the door -of the Grosvenor. The porter hoisted the valise up on the well. She stood -still, waiting, while the man, husband, brother, like her, searched his -pockets for change. Stylish kind of coat with that roll collar, warm for -a day like this, looks like blanketcloth. Careless stand of her with her -hands in those patch pockets. Like that haughty creature at the polo -match. Women all for caste till you touch the spot. Handsome is and -handsome does. Reserved about to yield. The honourable Mrs and Brutus is -an honourable man. Possess her once take the starch out of her. - ---I was with Bob Doran, he's on one of his periodical bends, and what do -you call him Bantam Lyons. Just down there in Conway's we were. - -Doran Lyons in Conway's. She raised a gloved hand to her hair. In came -Hoppy. Having a wet. Drawing back his head and gazing far from beneath -his vailed eyelids he saw the bright fawn skin shine in the glare, the -braided drums. Clearly I can see today. Moisture about gives long sight -perhaps. Talking of one thing or another. Lady's hand. Which side will -she get up? - ---And he said: SAD THING ABOUT OUR POOR FRIEND PADDY! WHAT PADDY? I said. -POOR LITTLE PADDY DIGNAM, he said. - -Off to the country: Broadstone probably. High brown boots with laces -dangling. Wellturned foot. What is he foostering over that change for? -Sees me looking. Eye out for other fellow always. Good fallback. Two -strings to her bow. - ---WHY? I said. WHAT'S WRONG WITH HIM? I said. - -Proud: rich: silk stockings. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. - -He moved a little to the side of M'Coy's talking head. Getting up in a -minute. - ---WHAT'S WRONG WITH HIM? He said. HE'S DEAD, he said. And, faith, he -filled up. IS IT PADDY DIGNAM? I said. I couldn't believe it when I heard -it. I was with him no later than Friday last or Thursday was it in the -Arch. YES, he said. HE'S GONE. HE DIED ON MONDAY, POOR FELLOW. Watch! -Watch! Silk flash rich stockings white. Watch! - -A heavy tramcar honking its gong slewed between. - -Lost it. Curse your noisy pugnose. Feels locked out of it. Paradise and -the peri. Always happening like that. The very moment. Girl in Eustace -street hallway Monday was it settling her garter. Her friend covering the -display of. ESPRIT DE CORPS. Well, what are you gaping at? - ---Yes, yes, Mr Bloom said after a dull sigh. Another gone. - ---One of the best, M'Coy said. - -The tram passed. They drove off towards the Loop Line bridge, her rich -gloved hand on the steel grip. Flicker, flicker: the laceflare of her hat -in the sun: flicker, flick. - ---Wife well, I suppose? M'Coy's changed voice said. - ---O, yes, Mr Bloom said. Tiptop, thanks. - -He unrolled the newspaper baton idly and read idly: - - - WHAT IS HOME WITHOUT - PLUMTREE'S POTTED MEAT? - INCOMPLETE - WITH IT AN ABODE OF BLISS. - - ---My missus has just got an engagement. At least it's not settled yet. - -Valise tack again. By the way no harm. I'm off that, thanks. - -Mr Bloom turned his largelidded eyes with unhasty friendliness. - ---My wife too, he said. She's going to sing at a swagger affair in the -Ulster Hall, Belfast, on the twenty-fifth. - ---That so? M'Coy said. Glad to hear that, old man. Who's getting it up? - -Mrs Marion Bloom. Not up yet. Queen was in her bedroom eating bread and. -No book. Blackened court cards laid along her thigh by sevens. Dark lady -and fair man. Letter. Cat furry black ball. Torn strip of envelope. - - - LOVE'S - OLD - SWEET - SONG - COMES LO-OVE'S OLD ... - - ---It's a kind of a tour, don't you see, Mr Bloom said thoughtfully. -SWEEEET SONG. There's a committee formed. Part shares and part profits. - -M'Coy nodded, picking at his moustache stubble. - ---O, well, he said. That's good news. - -He moved to go. - ---Well, glad to see you looking fit, he said. Meet you knocking around. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. - ---Tell you what, M'Coy said. You might put down my name at the funeral, -will you? I'd like to go but I mightn't be able, you see. There's a -drowning case at Sandycove may turn up and then the coroner and myself -would have to go down if the body is found. You just shove in my name if -I'm not there, will you? - ---I'll do that, Mr Bloom said, moving to get off. That'll be all right. - ---Right, M'Coy said brightly. Thanks, old man. I'd go if I possibly -could. Well, tolloll. Just C. P. M'Coy will do. - ---That will be done, Mr Bloom answered firmly. - -Didn't catch me napping that wheeze. The quick touch. Soft mark. I'd like -my job. Valise I have a particular fancy for. Leather. Capped corners, -rivetted edges, double action lever lock. Bob Cowley lent him his for the -Wicklow regatta concert last year and never heard tidings of it from that -good day to this. - -Mr Bloom, strolling towards Brunswick street, smiled. My missus has just -got an. Reedy freckled soprano. Cheeseparing nose. Nice enough in its -way: for a little ballad. No guts in it. You and me, don't you know: in -the same boat. Softsoaping. Give you the needle that would. Can't he hear -the difference? Think he's that way inclined a bit. Against my grain -somehow. Thought that Belfast would fetch him. I hope that smallpox up -there doesn't get worse. Suppose she wouldn't let herself be vaccinated -again. Your wife and my wife. - -Wonder is he pimping after me? - -Mr Bloom stood at the corner, his eyes wandering over the multicoloured -hoardings. Cantrell and Cochrane's Ginger Ale (Aromatic). Clery's Summer -Sale. No, he's going on straight. Hello. LEAH tonight. Mrs Bandmann -Palmer. Like to see her again in that. HAMLET she played last night. Male -impersonator. Perhaps he was a woman. Why Ophelia committed suicide. Poor -papa! How he used to talk of Kate Bateman in that. Outside the Adelphi in -London waited all the afternoon to get in. Year before I was born that -was: sixtyfive. And Ristori in Vienna. What is this the right name is? By -Mosenthal it is. Rachel, is it? No. The scene he was always talking about -where the old blind Abraham recognises the voice and puts his fingers on -his face. - -Nathan's voice! His son's voice! I hear the voice of Nathan who left his -father to die of grief and misery in my arms, who left the house of his -father and left the God of his father. - -Every word is so deep, Leopold. - -Poor papa! Poor man! I'm glad I didn't go into the room to look at his -face. That day! O, dear! O, dear! Ffoo! Well, perhaps it was best for -him. - -Mr Bloom went round the corner and passed the drooping nags of the -hazard. No use thinking of it any more. Nosebag time. Wish I hadn't met -that M'Coy fellow. - -He came nearer and heard a crunching of gilded oats, the gently champing -teeth. Their full buck eyes regarded him as he went by, amid the sweet -oaten reek of horsepiss. Their Eldorado. Poor jugginses! Damn all they -know or care about anything with their long noses stuck in nosebags. Too -full for words. Still they get their feed all right and their doss. -Gelded too: a stump of black guttapercha wagging limp between their -haunches. Might be happy all the same that way. Good poor brutes they -look. Still their neigh can be very irritating. - -He drew the letter from his pocket and folded it into the newspaper he -carried. Might just walk into her here. The lane is safer. - -He passed the cabman's shelter. Curious the life of drifting cabbies. All -weathers, all places, time or setdown, no will of their own. VOGLIO E -NON. Like to give them an odd cigarette. Sociable. Shout a few flying -syllables as they pass. He hummed: - - - LA CI DAREM LA MANO - LA LA LALA LA LA. - - -He turned into Cumberland street and, going on some paces, halted -in the lee of the station wall. No-one. Meade's timberyard. Piled balks. -Ruins and tenements. With careful tread he passed over a hopscotch court -with its forgotten pickeystone. Not a sinner. Near the timberyard a -squatted child at marbles, alone, shooting the taw with a cunnythumb. A -wise tabby, a blinking sphinx, watched from her warm sill. Pity to disturb -them. Mohammed cut a piece out of his mantle not to wake her. Open it. -And once I played marbles when I went to that old dame's school. She liked -mignonette. Mrs Ellis's. And Mr? He opened the letter within the -newspaper. - -A flower. I think it's a. A yellow flower with flattened petals. Not -annoyed then? What does she say? - - - Dear Henry - -I got your last letter to me and thank you very much for it. I am sorry -you did not like my last letter. Why did you enclose the stamps? I am -awfully angry with you. I do wish I could punish you for that. I called -you naughty boy because I do not like that other world. Please tell me -what is the real meaning of that word? Are you not happy in your home you -poor little naughty boy? I do wish I could do something for you. Please -tell me what you think of poor me. I often think of the beautiful name you -have. Dear Henry, when will we meet? I think of you so often you have no -idea. I have never felt myself so much drawn to a man as you. I feel so -bad about. Please write me a long letter and tell me more. Remember if you -do not I will punish you. So now you know what I will do to you, you -naughty boy, if you do not wrote. O how I long to meet you. Henry dear, do -not deny my request before my patience are exhausted. Then I will tell you -all. Goodbye now, naughty darling, I have such a bad headache. today. and -write BY RETURN to your longing - - - Martha - -P. S. Do tell me what kind of perfume does your wife use. I want to know. - - -He tore the flower gravely from its pinhold smelt its almost no smell -and placed it in his heart pocket. Language of flowers. They like it -because no-one can hear. Or a poison bouquet to strike him down. Then -walking slowly forward he read the letter again, murmuring here and there -a word. Angry tulips with you darling manflower punish your cactus if you -don't please poor forgetmenot how I long violets to dear roses when we -soon anemone meet all naughty nightstalk wife Martha's perfume. Having -read it all he took it from the newspaper and put it back in his -sidepocket. - -Weak joy opened his lips. Changed since the first letter. Wonder -did she wrote it herself. Doing the indignant: a girl of good -family like me, respectable character. Could meet one Sunday after the -rosary. Thank you: not having any. Usual love scrimmage. Then running -round corners. Bad as a row with Molly. Cigar has a cooling effect. -Narcotic. Go further next time. Naughty boy: punish: afraid of words, of -course. Brutal, why not? Try it anyhow. A bit at a time. - -Fingering still the letter in his pocket he drew the pin out of it. -Common pin, eh? He threw it on the road. Out of her clothes somewhere: -pinned together. Queer the number of pins they always have. No roses -without thorns. - -Flat Dublin voices bawled in his head. Those two sluts that night in -the Coombe, linked together in the rain. - - - O, MARY LOST THE PIN OF HER DRAWERS. - SHE DIDN'T KNOW WHAT TO DO - TO KEEP IT UP - TO KEEP IT UP. - - -It? Them. Such a bad headache. Has her roses probably. Or sitting all day -typing. Eyefocus bad for stomach nerves. What perfume does your wife -use. Now could you make out a thing like that? - - TO KEEP IT UP. - -Martha, Mary. I saw that picture somewhere I forget now old master or -faked for money. He is sitting in their house, talking. Mysterious. Also -the two sluts in the Coombe would listen. - - TO KEEP IT UP. - -Nice kind of evening feeling. No more wandering about. Just loll there: -quiet dusk: let everything rip. Forget. Tell about places you have been, -strange customs. The other one, jar on her head, was getting the supper: -fruit, olives, lovely cool water out of a well, stonecold like the hole in -the wall at Ashtown. Must carry a paper goblet next time I go to the -trottingmatches. She listens with big dark soft eyes. Tell her: more and -more: all. Then a sigh: silence. Long long long rest. - -Going under the railway arch he took out the envelope, tore it swiftly -in shreds and scattered them towards the road. The shreds fluttered away, -sank in the dank air: a white flutter, then all sank. - -Henry Flower. You could tear up a cheque for a hundred pounds in -the same way. Simple bit of paper. Lord Iveagh once cashed a sevenfigure -cheque for a million in the bank of Ireland. Shows you the money to be -made out of porter. Still the other brother lord Ardilaun has to change -his shirt four times a day, they say. Skin breeds lice or vermin. A -million pounds, wait a moment. Twopence a pint, fourpence a quart, -eightpence a gallon of porter, no, one and fourpence a gallon of porter. -One and four into twenty: fifteen about. Yes, exactly. Fifteen millions of -barrels of porter. - -What am I saying barrels? Gallons. About a million barrels all the same. - -An incoming train clanked heavily above his head, coach after coach. -Barrels bumped in his head: dull porter slopped and churned inside. The -bungholes sprang open and a huge dull flood leaked out, flowing together, -winding through mudflats all over the level land, a lazy pooling swirl of -liquor bearing along wideleaved flowers of its froth. - -He had reached the open backdoor of All Hallows. Stepping into the -porch he doffed his hat, took the card from his pocket and tucked it again -behind the leather headband. Damn it. I might have tried to work M'Coy -for a pass to Mullingar. - -Same notice on the door. Sermon by the very reverend John Conmee -S.J. on saint Peter Claver S.J. and the African Mission. Prayers for the -conversion of Gladstone they had too when he was almost unconscious. -The protestants are the same. Convert Dr William J. Walsh D.D. to the -true religion. Save China's millions. Wonder how they explain it to the -heathen Chinee. Prefer an ounce of opium. Celestials. Rank heresy for -them. Buddha their god lying on his side in the museum. Taking it easy -with hand under his cheek. Josssticks burning. Not like Ecce Homo. Crown -of thorns and cross. Clever idea Saint Patrick the shamrock. Chopsticks? -Conmee: Martin Cunningham knows him: distinguishedlooking. Sorry I -didn't work him about getting Molly into the choir instead of that Father -Farley who looked a fool but wasn't. They're taught that. He's not going -out in bluey specs with the sweat rolling off him to baptise blacks, is -he? The glasses would take their fancy, flashing. Like to see them sitting -round in a ring with blub lips, entranced, listening. Still life. Lap it -up like milk, I suppose. - - -The cold smell of sacred stone called him. He trod the worn steps, -pushed the swingdoor and entered softly by the rere. - -Something going on: some sodality. Pity so empty. Nice discreet place -to be next some girl. Who is my neighbour? Jammed by the hour to slow -music. That woman at midnight mass. Seventh heaven. Women knelt in the -benches with crimson halters round their necks, heads bowed. A batch knelt -at the altarrails. The priest went along by them, murmuring, holding the -thing in his hands. He stopped at each, took out a communion, shook a -drop or two (are they in water?) off it and put it neatly into her mouth. -Her hat and head sank. Then the next one. Her hat sank at once. Then the -next one: a small old woman. The priest bent down to put it into her -mouth, murmuring all the time. Latin. The next one. Shut your eyes and -open your mouth. What? CORPUS: body. Corpse. Good idea the Latin. -Stupefies them first. Hospice for the dying. They don't seem to chew it: -only swallow it down. Rum idea: eating bits of a corpse. Why the cannibals -cotton to it. - -He stood aside watching their blind masks pass down the aisle, one by -one, and seek their places. He approached a bench and seated himself in -its corner, nursing his hat and newspaper. These pots we have to wear. We -ought to have hats modelled on our heads. They were about him here and -there, with heads still bowed in their crimson halters, waiting for it to -melt in their stomachs. Something like those mazzoth: it's that sort of -bread: unleavened shewbread. Look at them. Now I bet it makes them feel -happy. Lollipop. It does. Yes, bread of angels it's called. There's a big -idea behind it, kind of kingdom of God is within you feel. First -communicants. Hokypoky penny a lump. Then feel all like one family party, -same in the theatre, all in the same swim. They do. I'm sure of that. Not -so lonely. In our confraternity. Then come out a bit spreeish. Let off -steam. Thing is if you really believe in it. Lourdes cure, waters of -oblivion, and the Knock apparition, statues bleeding. Old fellow asleep -near that confessionbox. Hence those snores. Blind faith. Safe in the arms -of kingdom come. Lulls all pain. Wake this time next year. - -He saw the priest stow the communion cup away, well in, and kneel -an instant before it, showing a large grey bootsole from under the lace -affair he had on. Suppose he lost the pin of his. He wouldn't know what to -do to. Bald spot behind. Letters on his back: I.N.R.I? No: I.H.S. -Molly told me one time I asked her. I have sinned: or no: I have suffered, -it is. And the other one? Iron nails ran in. - -Meet one Sunday after the rosary. Do not deny my request. Turn up -with a veil and black bag. Dusk and the light behind her. She might be -here with a ribbon round her neck and do the other thing all the same on -the sly. Their character. That fellow that turned queen's evidence on the -invincibles he used to receive the, Carey was his name, the communion -every morning. This very church. Peter Carey, yes. No, Peter Claver I am -thinking of. Denis Carey. And just imagine that. Wife and six children -at home. And plotting that murder all the time. Those crawthumpers, -now that's a good name for them, there's always something shiftylooking -about them. They're not straight men of business either. O, no, she's -not here: the flower: no, no. By the way, did I tear up that envelope? -Yes: under the bridge. - -The priest was rinsing out the chalice: then he tossed off the dregs -smartly. Wine. Makes it more aristocratic than for example if he drank -what they are used to Guinness's porter or some temperance beverage -Wheatley's Dublin hop bitters or Cantrell and Cochrane's ginger ale -(aromatic). Doesn't give them any of it: shew wine: only the other. Cold -comfort. Pious fraud but quite right: otherwise they'd have one old booser -worse than another coming along, cadging for a drink. Queer the whole -atmosphere of the. Quite right. Perfectly right that is. - -Mr Bloom looked back towards the choir. Not going to be any music. -Pity. Who has the organ here I wonder? Old Glynn he knew how to make -that instrument talk, the VIBRATO: fifty pounds a year they say he had in -Gardiner street. Molly was in fine voice that day, the STABAT MATER of -Rossini. Father Bernard Vaughan's sermon first. Christ or Pilate? Christ, -but don't keep us all night over it. Music they wanted. Footdrill stopped. -Could hear a pin drop. I told her to pitch her voice against that corner. -I could feel the thrill in the air, the full, the people looking up: - -QUIS EST HOMO. - -Some of that old sacred music splendid. Mercadante: seven last -words. Mozart's twelfth mass: GLORIA in that. Those old popes keen on -music, on art and statues and pictures of all kinds. Palestrina for -example too. They had a gay old time while it lasted. Healthy too, -chanting, regular hours, then brew liqueurs. Benedictine. Green -Chartreuse. Still, having eunuchs in their choir that was coming it a bit -thick. What kind of voice is it? Must be curious to hear after their own -strong basses. Connoisseurs. Suppose they wouldn't feel anything after. -Kind of a placid. No worry. Fall into flesh, don't they? Gluttons, tall, -long legs. Who knows? Eunuch. One way out of it. - -He saw the priest bend down and kiss the altar and then face about -and bless all the people. All crossed themselves and stood up. Mr Bloom -glanced about him and then stood up, looking over the risen hats. Stand up -at the gospel of course. Then all settled down on their knees again and he -sat back quietly in his bench. The priest came down from the altar, -holding the thing out from him, and he and the massboy answered each other -in Latin. Then the priest knelt down and began to read off a card: - ---O God, our refuge and our strength ... - -Mr Bloom put his face forward to catch the words. English. Throw -them the bone. I remember slightly. How long since your last mass? -Glorious and immaculate virgin. Joseph, her spouse. Peter and Paul. More -interesting if you understood what it was all about. Wonderful -organisation certainly, goes like clockwork. Confession. Everyone wants -to. Then I will tell you all. Penance. Punish me, please. Great weapon in -their hands. More than doctor or solicitor. Woman dying to. And I -schschschschschsch. And did you chachachachacha? And why did you? Look -down at her ring to find an excuse. Whispering gallery walls have ears. -Husband learn to his surprise. God's little joke. Then out she comes. -Repentance skindeep. Lovely shame. Pray at an altar. Hail Mary and -Holy Mary. Flowers, incense, candles melting. Hide her blushes. -Salvation army blatant imitation. Reformed prostitute will address -the meeting. How I found the Lord. Squareheaded chaps those must be -in Rome: they work the whole show. And don't they rake in the money too? -Bequests also: to the P.P. for the time being in his absolute discretion. -Masses for the repose of my soul to be said publicly with open doors. -Monasteries and convents. The priest in that Fermanagh will case in -the witnessbox. No browbeating him. He had his answer pat for everything. -Liberty and exaltation of our holy mother the church. The doctors of the -church: they mapped out the whole theology of it. - -The priest prayed: - ---Blessed Michael, archangel, defend us in the hour of conflict. Be our -safeguard against the wickedness and snares of the devil (may God restrain -him, we humbly pray!): and do thou, O prince of the heavenly host, by the -power of God thrust Satan down to hell and with him those other wicked -spirits who wander through the world for the ruin of souls. - -The priest and the massboy stood up and walked off. All over. The -women remained behind: thanksgiving. - -Better be shoving along. Brother Buzz. Come around with the plate -perhaps. Pay your Easter duty. - -He stood up. Hello. Were those two buttons of my waistcoat open all -the time? Women enjoy it. Never tell you. But we. Excuse, miss, there's a -(whh!) just a (whh!) fluff. Or their skirt behind, placket unhooked. -Glimpses of the moon. Annoyed if you don't. Why didn't you tell me -before. Still like you better untidy. Good job it wasn't farther south. He -passed, discreetly buttoning, down the aisle and out through the main door -into the light. He stood a moment unseeing by the cold black marble bowl -while before him and behind two worshippers dipped furtive hands in the -low tide of holy water. Trams: a car of Prescott's dyeworks: a widow in -her weeds. Notice because I'm in mourning myself. He covered himself. How -goes the time? Quarter past. Time enough yet. Better get that lotion made -up. Where is this? Ah yes, the last time. Sweny's in Lincoln place. -Chemists rarely move. Their green and gold beaconjars too heavy to stir. -Hamilton Long's, founded in the year of the flood. Huguenot churchyard -near there. Visit some day. - -He walked southward along Westland row. But the recipe is in the -other trousers. O, and I forgot that latchkey too. Bore this funeral -affair. O well, poor fellow, it's not his fault. When was it I got it made -up last? Wait. I changed a sovereign I remember. First of the month it -must have been or the second. O, he can look it up in the prescriptions -book. - -The chemist turned back page after page. Sandy shrivelled smell he -seems to have. Shrunken skull. And old. Quest for the philosopher's stone. -The alchemists. Drugs age you after mental excitement. Lethargy then. -Why? Reaction. A lifetime in a night. Gradually changes your character. -Living all the day among herbs, ointments, disinfectants. All his -alabaster lilypots. Mortar and pestle. Aq. Dist. Fol. Laur. Te Virid. -Smell almost cure you like the dentist's doorbell. Doctor Whack. He ought -to physic himself a bit. Electuary or emulsion. The first fellow that -picked an herb to cure himself had a bit of pluck. Simples. Want to be -careful. Enough stuff here to chloroform you. Test: turns blue litmus -paper red. Chloroform. Overdose of laudanum. Sleeping draughts. -Lovephiltres. Paragoric poppysyrup bad for cough. Clogs the pores or the -phlegm. Poisons the only cures. Remedy where you least expect it. Clever -of nature. - ---About a fortnight ago, sir? - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. - -He waited by the counter, inhaling slowly the keen reek of drugs, the -dusty dry smell of sponges and loofahs. Lot of time taken up telling your -aches and pains. - ---Sweet almond oil and tincture of benzoin, Mr Bloom said, and then -orangeflower water ... - -It certainly did make her skin so delicate white like wax. - ---And white wax also, he said. - -Brings out the darkness of her eyes. Looking at me, the sheet up to -her eyes, Spanish, smelling herself, when I was fixing the links in my -cuffs. Those homely recipes are often the best: strawberries for the -teeth: nettles and rainwater: oatmeal they say steeped in buttermilk. -Skinfood. One of the old queen's sons, duke of Albany was it? had only one -skin. Leopold, yes. Three we have. Warts, bunions and pimples to make it -worse. But you want a perfume too. What perfume does your? PEAU D'ESPAGNE. -That orangeflower water is so fresh. Nice smell these soaps have. Pure -curd soap. Time to get a bath round the corner. Hammam. Turkish. Massage. -Dirt gets rolled up in your navel. Nicer if a nice girl did it. Also I -think I. Yes I. Do it in the bath. Curious longing I. Water to water. -Combine business with pleasure. Pity no time for massage. Feel fresh then -all the day. Funeral be rather glum. - ---Yes, sir, the chemist said. That was two and nine. Have you brought a -bottle? - ---No, Mr Bloom said. Make it up, please. I'll call later in the day and -I'll take one of these soaps. How much are they? - ---Fourpence, sir. - -Mr Bloom raised a cake to his nostrils. Sweet lemony wax. - ---I'll take this one, he said. That makes three and a penny. - ---Yes, sir, the chemist said. You can pay all together, sir, when you -come back. - ---Good, Mr Bloom said. - -He strolled out of the shop, the newspaper baton under his armpit, -the coolwrappered soap in his left hand. - -At his armpit Bantam Lyons' voice and hand said: - ---Hello, Bloom. What's the best news? Is that today's? Show us a minute. - -Shaved off his moustache again, by Jove! Long cold upper lip. To -look younger. He does look balmy. Younger than I am. - -Bantam Lyons's yellow blacknailed fingers unrolled the baton. Wants -a wash too. Take off the rough dirt. Good morning, have you used Pears' -soap? Dandruff on his shoulders. Scalp wants oiling. - ---I want to see about that French horse that's running today, Bantam -Lyons said. Where the bugger is it? - -He rustled the pleated pages, jerking his chin on his high collar. -Barber's itch. Tight collar he'll lose his hair. Better leave him the -paper and get shut of him. - ---You can keep it, Mr Bloom said. - ---Ascot. Gold cup. Wait, Bantam Lyons muttered. Half a mo. Maximum -the second. - ---I was just going to throw it away, Mr Bloom said. - -Bantam Lyons raised his eyes suddenly and leered weakly. - ---What's that? his sharp voice said. - ---I say you can keep it, Mr Bloom answered. I was going to throw it away -that moment. - -Bantam Lyons doubted an instant, leering: then thrust the outspread -sheets back on Mr Bloom's arms. - ---I'll risk it, he said. Here, thanks. - -He sped off towards Conway's corner. God speed scut. - -Mr Bloom folded the sheets again to a neat square and lodged the -soap in it, smiling. Silly lips of that chap. Betting. Regular hotbed of -it lately. Messenger boys stealing to put on sixpence. Raffle for large -tender turkey. Your Christmas dinner for threepence. Jack Fleming -embezzling to gamble then smuggled off to America. Keeps a hotel now. They -never come back. Fleshpots of Egypt. - -He walked cheerfully towards the mosque of the baths. Remind you -of a mosque, redbaked bricks, the minarets. College sports today I see. He -eyed the horseshoe poster over the gate of college park: cyclist doubled -up like a cod in a pot. Damn bad ad. Now if they had made it round like a -wheel. Then the spokes: sports, sports, sports: and the hub big: college. -Something to catch the eye. - -There's Hornblower standing at the porter's lodge. Keep him on -hands: might take a turn in there on the nod. How do you do, Mr -Hornblower? How do you do, sir? - -Heavenly weather really. If life was always like that. Cricket weather. -Sit around under sunshades. Over after over. Out. They can't play it here. -Duck for six wickets. Still Captain Culler broke a window in the Kildare -street club with a slog to square leg. Donnybrook fair more in their line. -And the skulls we were acracking when M'Carthy took the floor. -Heatwave. Won't last. Always passing, the stream of life, which in the -stream of life we trace is dearer than them all. - -Enjoy a bath now: clean trough of water, cool enamel, the gentle -tepid stream. This is my body. - -He foresaw his pale body reclined in it at full, naked, in a womb of -warmth, oiled by scented melting soap, softly laved. He saw his trunk and -limbs riprippled over and sustained, buoyed lightly upward, lemonyellow: -his navel, bud of flesh: and saw the dark tangled curls of his bush -floating, floating hair of the stream around the limp father of thousands, -a languid floating flower. - - - * * * * * * * - - -Martin Cunningham, first, poked his silkhatted head into the creaking -carriage and, entering deftly, seated himself. Mr Power stepped in after -him, curving his height with care. - ---Come on, Simon. - ---After you, Mr Bloom said. - -Mr Dedalus covered himself quickly and got in, saying: - -Yes, yes. - ---Are we all here now? Martin Cunningham asked. Come along, Bloom. - -Mr Bloom entered and sat in the vacant place. He pulled the door to -after him and slammed it twice till it shut tight. He passed an arm -through the armstrap and looked seriously from the open carriagewindow at -the lowered blinds of the avenue. One dragged aside: an old woman peeping. -Nose whiteflattened against the pane. Thanking her stars she was passed -over. Extraordinary the interest they take in a corpse. Glad to see us go -we give them such trouble coming. Job seems to suit them. Huggermugger in -corners. Slop about in slipperslappers for fear he'd wake. Then getting it -ready. Laying it out. Molly and Mrs Fleming making the bed. Pull it more -to your side. Our windingsheet. Never know who will touch you dead. -Wash and shampoo. I believe they clip the nails and the hair. Keep a bit -in an envelope. Grows all the same after. Unclean job. - -All waited. Nothing was said. Stowing in the wreaths probably. I am -sitting on something hard. Ah, that soap: in my hip pocket. Better shift -it out of that. Wait for an opportunity. - -All waited. Then wheels were heard from in front, turning: then -nearer: then horses' hoofs. A jolt. Their carriage began to move, creaking -and swaying. Other hoofs and creaking wheels started behind. The blinds -of the avenue passed and number nine with its craped knocker, door ajar. -At walking pace. - -They waited still, their knees jogging, till they had turned and were -passing along the tramtracks. Tritonville road. Quicker. The wheels -rattled rolling over the cobbled causeway and the crazy glasses shook -rattling in the doorframes. - ---What way is he taking us? Mr Power asked through both windows. - ---Irishtown, Martin Cunningham said. Ringsend. Brunswick street. - -Mr Dedalus nodded, looking out. - ---That's a fine old custom, he said. I am glad to see it has not died out. - -All watched awhile through their windows caps and hats lifted by -passers. Respect. The carriage swerved from the tramtrack to the smoother -road past Watery lane. Mr Bloom at gaze saw a lithe young man, clad in -mourning, a wide hat. - ---There's a friend of yours gone by, Dedalus, he said. - ---Who is that? - ---Your son and heir. - ---Where is he? Mr Dedalus said, stretching over across. - -The carriage, passing the open drains and mounds of rippedup -roadway before the tenement houses, lurched round the corner and, -swerving back to the tramtrack, rolled on noisily with chattering wheels. -Mr Dedalus fell back, saying: - ---Was that Mulligan cad with him? His FIDUS ACHATES! - ---No, Mr Bloom said. He was alone. - ---Down with his aunt Sally, I suppose, Mr Dedalus said, the Goulding -faction, the drunken little costdrawer and Crissie, papa's little lump of -dung, the wise child that knows her own father. - -Mr Bloom smiled joylessly on Ringsend road. Wallace Bros: the -bottleworks: Dodder bridge. - -Richie Goulding and the legal bag. Goulding, Collis and Ward he -calls the firm. His jokes are getting a bit damp. Great card he was. -Waltzing in Stamer street with Ignatius Gallaher on a Sunday morning, the -landlady's two hats pinned on his head. Out on the rampage all night. -Beginning to tell on him now: that backache of his, I fear. Wife ironing -his back. Thinks he'll cure it with pills. All breadcrumbs they are. -About six hundred per cent profit. - ---He's in with a lowdown crowd, Mr Dedalus snarled. That Mulligan is a -contaminated bloody doubledyed ruffian by all accounts. His name stinks -all over Dublin. But with the help of God and His blessed mother I'll make -it my business to write a letter one of those days to his mother or his -aunt or whatever she is that will open her eye as wide as a gate. I'll -tickle his catastrophe, believe you me. - -He cried above the clatter of the wheels: - ---I won't have her bastard of a nephew ruin my son. A counterjumper's -son. Selling tapes in my cousin, Peter Paul M'Swiney's. Not likely. - -He ceased. Mr Bloom glanced from his angry moustache to Mr Power's -mild face and Martin Cunningham's eyes and beard, gravely shaking. -Noisy selfwilled man. Full of his son. He is right. Something to -hand on. If little Rudy had lived. See him grow up. Hear his voice in the -house. Walking beside Molly in an Eton suit. My son. Me in his eyes. -Strange feeling it would be. From me. Just a chance. Must have been that -morning in Raymond terrace she was at the window watching the two dogs -at it by the wall of the cease to do evil. And the sergeant grinning up. -She had that cream gown on with the rip she never stitched. Give us a -touch, Poldy. God, I'm dying for it. How life begins. - -Got big then. Had to refuse the Greystones concert. My son inside -her. I could have helped him on in life. I could. Make him independent. -Learn German too. - ---Are we late? Mr Power asked. - ---Ten minutes, Martin Cunningham said, looking at his watch. - -Molly. Milly. Same thing watered down. Her tomboy oaths. O jumping -Jupiter! Ye gods and little fishes! Still, she's a dear girl. Soon -be a woman. Mullingar. Dearest Papli. Young student. Yes, yes: a woman -too. Life, life. - -The carriage heeled over and back, their four trunks swaying. - ---Corny might have given us a more commodious yoke, Mr Power said. - ---He might, Mr Dedalus said, if he hadn't that squint troubling him. Do -you follow me? - -He closed his left eye. Martin Cunningham began to brush away -crustcrumbs from under his thighs. - ---What is this, he said, in the name of God? Crumbs? - ---Someone seems to have been making a picnic party here lately, Mr Power -said. - -All raised their thighs and eyed with disfavour the mildewed -buttonless leather of the seats. Mr Dedalus, twisting his nose, frowned -downward and said: - ---Unless I'm greatly mistaken. What do you think, Martin? - ---It struck me too, Martin Cunningham said. - -Mr Bloom set his thigh down. Glad I took that bath. Feel my feet -quite clean. But I wish Mrs Fleming had darned these socks better. - -Mr Dedalus sighed resignedly. - ---After all, he said, it's the most natural thing in the world. - ---Did Tom Kernan turn up? Martin Cunningham asked, twirling the peak -of his beard gently. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom answered. He's behind with Ned Lambert and Hynes. - ---And Corny Kelleher himself? Mr Power asked. - ---At the cemetery, Martin Cunningham said. - ---I met M'Coy this morning, Mr Bloom said. He said he'd try to come. - -The carriage halted short. - ---What's wrong? - ---We're stopped. - ---Where are we? - -Mr Bloom put his head out of the window. - ---The grand canal, he said. - -Gasworks. Whooping cough they say it cures. Good job Milly never -got it. Poor children! Doubles them up black and blue in convulsions. -Shame really. Got off lightly with illnesses compared. Only measles. -Flaxseed tea. Scarlatina, influenza epidemics. Canvassing for death. Don't -miss this chance. Dogs' home over there. Poor old Athos! Be good to Athos, -Leopold, is my last wish. Thy will be done. We obey them in the grave. A -dying scrawl. He took it to heart, pined away. Quiet brute. Old men's dogs -usually are. - -A raindrop spat on his hat. He drew back and saw an instant of -shower spray dots over the grey flags. Apart. Curious. Like through a -colander. I thought it would. My boots were creaking I remember now. - ---The weather is changing, he said quietly. - ---A pity it did not keep up fine, Martin Cunningham said. - ---Wanted for the country, Mr Power said. There's the sun again coming out. - -Mr Dedalus, peering through his glasses towards the veiled sun, -hurled a mute curse at the sky. - ---It's as uncertain as a child's bottom, he said. - ---We're off again. - -The carriage turned again its stiff wheels and their trunks swayed -gently. Martin Cunningham twirled more quickly the peak of his beard. - ---Tom Kernan was immense last night, he said. And Paddy Leonard taking -him off to his face. - ---O, draw him out, Martin, Mr Power said eagerly. Wait till you hear him, -Simon, on Ben Dollard's singing of THE CROPPY BOY. - ---Immense, Martin Cunningham said pompously. HIS SINGING OF THAT SIMPLE -BALLAD, MARTIN, IS THE MOST TRENCHANT RENDERING I EVER HEARD IN THE WHOLE -COURSE OF MY EXPERIENCE. - ---Trenchant, Mr Power said laughing. He's dead nuts on that. And the -retrospective arrangement. - ---Did you read Dan Dawson's speech? Martin Cunningham asked. - ---I did not then, Mr Dedalus said. Where is it? - ---In the paper this morning. - -Mr Bloom took the paper from his inside pocket. That book I must -change for her. - ---No, no, Mr Dedalus said quickly. Later on please. - -Mr Bloom's glance travelled down the edge of the paper, scanning the -deaths: Callan, Coleman, Dignam, Fawcett, Lowry, Naumann, Peake, what -Peake is that? is it the chap was in Crosbie and Alleyne's? no, Sexton, -Urbright. Inked characters fast fading on the frayed breaking paper. -Thanks to the Little Flower. Sadly missed. To the inexpressible grief of -his. Aged 88 after a long and tedious illness. Month's mind: Quinlan. -On whose soul Sweet Jesus have mercy. - - - IT IS NOW A MONTH SINCE DEAR HENRY FLED - TO HIS HOME UP ABOVE IN THE SKY - WHILE HIS FAMILY WEEPS AND MOURNS HIS LOSS - HOPING SOME DAY TO MEET HIM ON HIGH. - - -I tore up the envelope? Yes. Where did I put her letter after I read it in -the bath? He patted his waistcoatpocket. There all right. Dear Henry fled. -Before my patience are exhausted. - -National school. Meade's yard. The hazard. Only two there now. -Nodding. Full as a tick. Too much bone in their skulls. The other trotting -round with a fare. An hour ago I was passing there. The jarvies raised -their hats. - -A pointsman's back straightened itself upright suddenly against a -tramway standard by Mr Bloom's window. Couldn't they invent something -automatic so that the wheel itself much handier? Well but that fellow -would lose his job then? Well but then another fellow would get a job -making the new invention? - -Antient concert rooms. Nothing on there. A man in a buff suit with a -crape armlet. Not much grief there. Quarter mourning. People in law -perhaps. - -They went past the bleak pulpit of saint Mark's, under the railway -bridge, past the Queen's theatre: in silence. Hoardings: Eugene Stratton, -Mrs Bandmann Palmer. Could I go to see LEAH tonight, I wonder. I said I. -Or the LILY OF KILLARNEY? Elster Grimes Opera Company. Big powerful -change. Wet bright bills for next week. FUN ON THE BRISTOL. Martin -Cunningham could work a pass for the Gaiety. Have to stand a drink or -two. As broad as it's long. - -He's coming in the afternoon. Her songs. - -Plasto's. Sir Philip Crampton's memorial fountain bust. Who was he? - ---How do you do? Martin Cunningham said, raising his palm to his brow -in salute. - ---He doesn't see us, Mr Power said. Yes, he does. How do you do? - ---Who? Mr Dedalus asked. - ---Blazes Boylan, Mr Power said. There he is airing his quiff. - -Just that moment I was thinking. - -Mr Dedalus bent across to salute. From the door of the Red Bank the -white disc of a straw hat flashed reply: spruce figure: passed. - -Mr Bloom reviewed the nails of his left hand, then those of his right -hand. The nails, yes. Is there anything more in him that they she sees? -Fascination. Worst man in Dublin. That keeps him alive. They sometimes -feel what a person is. Instinct. But a type like that. My nails. I am just -looking at them: well pared. And after: thinking alone. Body getting a bit -softy. I would notice that: from remembering. What causes that? I suppose -the skin can't contract quickly enough when the flesh falls off. But the -shape is there. The shape is there still. Shoulders. Hips. Plump. Night of -the dance dressing. Shift stuck between the cheeks behind. - -He clasped his hands between his knees and, satisfied, sent his vacant -glance over their faces. - -Mr Power asked: - ---How is the concert tour getting on, Bloom? - ---O, very well, Mr Bloom said. I hear great accounts of it. It's a good -idea, you see ... - ---Are you going yourself? - ---Well no, Mr Bloom said. In point of fact I have to go down to the -county Clare on some private business. You see the idea is to tour the -chief towns. What you lose on one you can make up on the other. - ---Quite so, Martin Cunningham said. Mary Anderson is up there now. - -Have you good artists? - ---Louis Werner is touring her, Mr Bloom said. O yes, we'll have all -topnobbers. J. C. Doyle and John MacCormack I hope and. The best, in -fact. - ---And MADAME, Mr Power said smiling. Last but not least. - -Mr Bloom unclasped his hands in a gesture of soft politeness and -clasped them. Smith O'Brien. Someone has laid a bunch of flowers there. -Woman. Must be his deathday. For many happy returns. The carriage -wheeling by Farrell's statue united noiselessly their unresisting knees. - -Oot: a dullgarbed old man from the curbstone tendered his wares, his -mouth opening: oot. - ---Four bootlaces for a penny. - -Wonder why he was struck off the rolls. Had his office in Hume -street. Same house as Molly's namesake, Tweedy, crown solicitor for -Waterford. Has that silk hat ever since. Relics of old decency. Mourning -too. Terrible comedown, poor wretch! Kicked about like snuff at a wake. -O'Callaghan on his last legs. - -And MADAME. Twenty past eleven. Up. Mrs Fleming is in to clean. -Doing her hair, humming. VOGLIO E NON VORREI. No. VORREI E NON. Looking -at the tips of her hairs to see if they are split. MI TREMA UN POCO IL. -Beautiful on that TRE her voice is: weeping tone. A thrush. A throstle. -There is a word throstle that expresses that. - -His eyes passed lightly over Mr Power's goodlooking face. Greyish -over the ears. MADAME: smiling. I smiled back. A smile goes a long way. -Only politeness perhaps. Nice fellow. Who knows is that true about the -woman he keeps? Not pleasant for the wife. Yet they say, who was it told -me, there is no carnal. You would imagine that would get played out pretty -quick. Yes, it was Crofton met him one evening bringing her a pound of -rumpsteak. What is this she was? Barmaid in Jury's. Or the Moira, was it? - -They passed under the hugecloaked Liberator's form. - -Martin Cunningham nudged Mr Power. - ---Of the tribe of Reuben, he said. - -A tall blackbearded figure, bent on a stick, stumping round the corner -of Elvery's Elephant house, showed them a curved hand open on his spine. - ---In all his pristine beauty, Mr Power said. - -Mr Dedalus looked after the stumping figure and said mildly: - ---The devil break the hasp of your back! - -Mr Power, collapsing in laughter, shaded his face from the window as -the carriage passed Gray's statue. - ---We have all been there, Martin Cunningham said broadly. - -His eyes met Mr Bloom's eyes. He caressed his beard, adding: - ---Well, nearly all of us. - -Mr Bloom began to speak with sudden eagerness to his companions' faces. - ---That's an awfully good one that's going the rounds about Reuben J and -the son. - ---About the boatman? Mr Power asked. - ---Yes. Isn't it awfully good? - ---What is that? Mr Dedalus asked. I didn't hear it. - ---There was a girl in the case, Mr Bloom began, and he determined to send -him to the Isle of Man out of harm's way but when they were both ... - ---What? Mr Dedalus asked. That confirmed bloody hobbledehoy is it? - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. They were both on the way to the boat and he tried -to drown ... - ---Drown Barabbas! Mr Dedalus cried. I wish to Christ he did! - -Mr Power sent a long laugh down his shaded nostrils. - ---No, Mr Bloom said, the son himself ... - -Martin Cunningham thwarted his speech rudely: - ---Reuben and the son were piking it down the quay next the river on their -way to the Isle of Man boat and the young chiseller suddenly got loose and -over the wall with him into the Liffey. - ---For God's sake! Mr Dedalus exclaimed in fright. Is he dead? - ---Dead! Martin Cunningham cried. Not he! A boatman got a pole and -fished him out by the slack of the breeches and he was landed up to the -father on the quay more dead than alive. Half the town was there. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. But the funny part is ... - ---And Reuben J, Martin Cunningham said, gave the boatman a florin for -saving his son's life. - -A stifled sigh came from under Mr Power's hand. - ---O, he did, Martin Cunningham affirmed. Like a hero. A silver florin. - ---Isn't it awfully good? Mr Bloom said eagerly. - ---One and eightpence too much, Mr Dedalus said drily. - -Mr Power's choked laugh burst quietly in the carriage. - -Nelson's pillar. - ---Eight plums a penny! Eight for a penny! - ---We had better look a little serious, Martin Cunningham said. - -Mr Dedalus sighed. - ---Ah then indeed, he said, poor little Paddy wouldn't grudge us a laugh. -Many a good one he told himself. - ---The Lord forgive me! Mr Power said, wiping his wet eyes with his -fingers. Poor Paddy! I little thought a week ago when I saw him last and -he was in his usual health that I'd be driving after him like this. He's -gone from us. - ---As decent a little man as ever wore a hat, Mr Dedalus said. He went -very suddenly. - ---Breakdown, Martin Cunningham said. Heart. - -He tapped his chest sadly. - -Blazing face: redhot. Too much John Barleycorn. Cure for a red -nose. Drink like the devil till it turns adelite. A lot of money he spent -colouring it. - -Mr Power gazed at the passing houses with rueful apprehension. - ---He had a sudden death, poor fellow, he said. - ---The best death, Mr Bloom said. - -Their wide open eyes looked at him. - ---No suffering, he said. A moment and all is over. Like dying in sleep. - -No-one spoke. - -Dead side of the street this. Dull business by day, land agents, -temperance hotel, Falconer's railway guide, civil service college, Gill's, -catholic club, the industrious blind. Why? Some reason. Sun or wind. At -night too. Chummies and slaveys. Under the patronage of the late Father -Mathew. Foundation stone for Parnell. Breakdown. Heart. - -White horses with white frontlet plumes came round the Rotunda -corner, galloping. A tiny coffin flashed by. In a hurry to bury. A -mourning coach. Unmarried. Black for the married. Piebald for bachelors. -Dun for a nun. - ---Sad, Martin Cunningham said. A child. - -A dwarf's face, mauve and wrinkled like little Rudy's was. Dwarf's -body, weak as putty, in a whitelined deal box. Burial friendly society -pays. Penny a week for a sod of turf. Our. Little. Beggar. Baby. -Meant nothing. Mistake of nature. If it's healthy it's from the mother. -If not from the man. Better luck next time. - ---Poor little thing, Mr Dedalus said. It's well out of it. - -The carriage climbed more slowly the hill of Rutland square. Rattle -his bones. Over the stones. Only a pauper. Nobody owns. - ---In the midst of life, Martin Cunningham said. - ---But the worst of all, Mr Power said, is the man who takes his own life. - -Martin Cunningham drew out his watch briskly, coughed and put it back. - ---The greatest disgrace to have in the family, Mr Power added. - ---Temporary insanity, of course, Martin Cunningham said decisively. We -must take a charitable view of it. - ---They say a man who does it is a coward, Mr Dedalus said. - ---It is not for us to judge, Martin Cunningham said. - -Mr Bloom, about to speak, closed his lips again. Martin Cunningham's -large eyes. Looking away now. Sympathetic human man he is. Intelligent. -Like Shakespeare's face. Always a good word to say. They have no -mercy on that here or infanticide. Refuse christian burial. They -used to drive a stake of wood through his heart in the grave. As if it -wasn't broken already. Yet sometimes they repent too late. Found in the -riverbed clutching rushes. He looked at me. And that awful drunkard of a -wife of his. Setting up house for her time after time and then pawning the -furniture on him every Saturday almost. Leading him the life of the -damned. Wear the heart out of a stone, that. Monday morning. Start afresh. -Shoulder to the wheel. Lord, she must have looked a sight that night -Dedalus told me he was in there. Drunk about the place and capering with -Martin's umbrella. - - - AND THEY CALL ME THE JEWEL OF ASIA, - OF ASIA, - THE GEISHA. - - -He looked away from me. He knows. Rattle his bones. - -That afternoon of the inquest. The redlabelled bottle on the table. The -room in the hotel with hunting pictures. Stuffy it was. Sunlight through -the slats of the Venetian blind. The coroner's sunlit ears, big and hairy. -Boots giving evidence. Thought he was asleep first. Then saw like yellow -streaks on his face. Had slipped down to the foot of the bed. Verdict: -overdose. Death by misadventure. The letter. For my son Leopold. - -No more pain. Wake no more. Nobody owns. - -The carriage rattled swiftly along Blessington street. Over the stones. - ---We are going the pace, I think, Martin Cunningham said. - ---God grant he doesn't upset us on the road, Mr Power said. - ---I hope not, Martin Cunningham said. That will be a great race tomorrow -in Germany. The Gordon Bennett. - ---Yes, by Jove, Mr Dedalus said. That will be worth seeing, faith. - -As they turned into Berkeley street a streetorgan near the Basin sent -over and after them a rollicking rattling song of the halls. Has anybody -here seen Kelly? Kay ee double ell wy. Dead March from SAUL. He's as bad -as old Antonio. He left me on my ownio. Pirouette! The MATER -MISERICORDIAE. Eccles street. My house down there. Big place. Ward for -incurables there. Very encouraging. Our Lady's Hospice for the dying. -Deadhouse handy underneath. Where old Mrs Riordan died. They look -terrible the women. Her feeding cup and rubbing her mouth with the -spoon. Then the screen round her bed for her to die. Nice young student -that was dressed that bite the bee gave me. He's gone over to the lying-in -hospital they told me. From one extreme to the other. The carriage -galloped round a corner: stopped. - ---What's wrong now? - -A divided drove of branded cattle passed the windows, lowing, -slouching by on padded hoofs, whisking their tails slowly on their clotted -bony croups. Outside them and through them ran raddled sheep bleating -their fear. - ---Emigrants, Mr Power said. - ---Huuuh! the drover's voice cried, his switch sounding on their flanks. - -Huuuh! out of that! - -Thursday, of course. Tomorrow is killing day. Springers. Cuffe sold -them about twentyseven quid each. For Liverpool probably. Roastbeef for -old England. They buy up all the juicy ones. And then the fifth quarter -lost: all that raw stuff, hide, hair, horns. Comes to a big thing in a -year. Dead meat trade. Byproducts of the slaughterhouses for tanneries, -soap, margarine. Wonder if that dodge works now getting dicky meat off the -train at Clonsilla. - -The carriage moved on through the drove. - ---I can't make out why the corporation doesn't run a tramline from the -parkgate to the quays, Mr Bloom said. All those animals could be taken in -trucks down to the boats. - ---Instead of blocking up the thoroughfare, Martin Cunningham said. Quite -right. They ought to. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said, and another thing I often thought, is to have -municipal funeral trams like they have in Milan, you know. Run the line -out to the cemetery gates and have special trams, hearse and carriage and -all. Don't you see what I mean? - ---O, that be damned for a story, Mr Dedalus said. Pullman car and saloon -diningroom. - ---A poor lookout for Corny, Mr Power added. - ---Why? Mr Bloom asked, turning to Mr Dedalus. Wouldn't it be more -decent than galloping two abreast? - ---Well, there's something in that, Mr Dedalus granted. - ---And, Martin Cunningham said, we wouldn't have scenes like that when -the hearse capsized round Dunphy's and upset the coffin on to the road. - ---That was terrible, Mr Power's shocked face said, and the corpse fell -about the road. Terrible! - ---First round Dunphy's, Mr Dedalus said, nodding. Gordon Bennett cup. - ---Praises be to God! Martin Cunningham said piously. - -Bom! Upset. A coffin bumped out on to the road. Burst open. Paddy -Dignam shot out and rolling over stiff in the dust in a brown habit too -large for him. Red face: grey now. Mouth fallen open. Asking what's up -now. Quite right to close it. Looks horrid open. Then the insides -decompose quickly. Much better to close up all the orifices. Yes, also. -With wax. The sphincter loose. Seal up all. - ---Dunphy's, Mr Power announced as the carriage turned right. - -Dunphy's corner. Mourning coaches drawn up, drowning their grief. -A pause by the wayside. Tiptop position for a pub. Expect we'll pull up -here on the way back to drink his health. Pass round the consolation. -Elixir of life. - -But suppose now it did happen. Would he bleed if a nail say cut him in -the knocking about? He would and he wouldn't, I suppose. Depends on -where. The circulation stops. Still some might ooze out of an artery. It -would be better to bury them in red: a dark red. - -In silence they drove along Phibsborough road. An empty hearse -trotted by, coming from the cemetery: looks relieved. - -Crossguns bridge: the royal canal. - -Water rushed roaring through the sluices. A man stood on his -dropping barge, between clamps of turf. On the towpath by the lock a -slacktethered horse. Aboard of the BUGABU. - -Their eyes watched him. On the slow weedy waterway he had floated -on his raft coastward over Ireland drawn by a haulage rope past beds of -reeds, over slime, mudchoked bottles, carrion dogs. Athlone, Mullingar, -Moyvalley, I could make a walking tour to see Milly by the canal. Or cycle -down. Hire some old crock, safety. Wren had one the other day at the -auction but a lady's. Developing waterways. James M'Cann's hobby to row -me o'er the ferry. Cheaper transit. By easy stages. Houseboats. Camping -out. Also hearses. To heaven by water. Perhaps I will without writing. -Come as a surprise, Leixlip, Clonsilla. Dropping down lock by lock to -Dublin. With turf from the midland bogs. Salute. He lifted his brown straw -hat, saluting Paddy Dignam. - -They drove on past Brian Boroimhe house. Near it now. - ---I wonder how is our friend Fogarty getting on, Mr Power said. - ---Better ask Tom Kernan, Mr Dedalus said. - ---How is that? Martin Cunningham said. Left him weeping, I suppose? - ---Though lost to sight, Mr Dedalus said, to memory dear. - -The carriage steered left for Finglas road. - -The stonecutter's yard on the right. Last lap. Crowded on the spit of -land silent shapes appeared, white, sorrowful, holding out calm hands, -knelt in grief, pointing. Fragments of shapes, hewn. In white silence: -appealing. The best obtainable. Thos. H. Dennany, monumental builder and -sculptor. - -Passed. - -On the curbstone before Jimmy Geary, the sexton's, an old tramp sat, -grumbling, emptying the dirt and stones out of his huge dustbrown -yawning boot. After life's journey. - -Gloomy gardens then went by: one by one: gloomy houses. - -Mr Power pointed. - ---That is where Childs was murdered, he said. The last house. - ---So it is, Mr Dedalus said. A gruesome case. Seymour Bushe got him off. -Murdered his brother. Or so they said. - ---The crown had no evidence, Mr Power said. - ---Only circumstantial, Martin Cunningham added. That's the maxim of -the law. Better for ninetynine guilty to escape than for one innocent -person to be wrongfully condemned. - -They looked. Murderer's ground. It passed darkly. Shuttered, -tenantless, unweeded garden. Whole place gone to hell. Wrongfully -condemned. Murder. The murderer's image in the eye of the murdered. -They love reading about it. Man's head found in a garden. Her clothing -consisted of. How she met her death. Recent outrage. The weapon used. -Murderer is still at large. Clues. A shoelace. The body to be exhumed. -Murder will out. - -Cramped in this carriage. She mightn't like me to come that way -without letting her know. Must be careful about women. Catch them once -with their pants down. Never forgive you after. Fifteen. - -The high railings of Prospect rippled past their gaze. Dark poplars, -rare white forms. Forms more frequent, white shapes thronged amid the -trees, white forms and fragments streaming by mutely, sustaining vain -gestures on the air. - -The felly harshed against the curbstone: stopped. Martin -Cunningham put out his arm and, wrenching back the handle, shoved the -door open with his knee. He stepped out. Mr Power and Mr Dedalus -followed. - -Change that soap now. Mr Bloom's hand unbuttoned his hip pocket -swiftly and transferred the paperstuck soap to his inner handkerchief -pocket. He stepped out of the carriage, replacing the newspaper his other -hand still held. - -Paltry funeral: coach and three carriages. It's all the same. -Pallbearers, gold reins, requiem mass, firing a volley. Pomp of death. -Beyond the hind carriage a hawker stood by his barrow of cakes and fruit. -Simnel cakes those are, stuck together: cakes for the dead. Dogbiscuits. -Who ate them? Mourners coming out. - -He followed his companions. Mr Kernan and Ned Lambert followed, -Hynes walking after them. Corny Kelleher stood by the opened hearse and -took out the two wreaths. He handed one to the boy. - -Where is that child's funeral disappeared to? - -A team of horses passed from Finglas with toiling plodding tread, -dragging through the funereal silence a creaking waggon on which lay a -granite block. The waggoner marching at their head saluted. - -Coffin now. Got here before us, dead as he is. Horse looking round at it -with his plume skeowways. Dull eye: collar tight on his neck, pressing on -a bloodvessel or something. Do they know what they cart out here every -day? Must be twenty or thirty funerals every day. Then Mount Jerome for -the protestants. Funerals all over the world everywhere every minute. -Shovelling them under by the cartload doublequick. Thousands every hour. -Too many in the world. - -Mourners came out through the gates: woman and a girl. Leanjawed -harpy, hard woman at a bargain, her bonnet awry. Girl's face stained with -dirt and tears, holding the woman's arm, looking up at her for a sign to -cry. Fish's face, bloodless and livid. - -The mutes shouldered the coffin and bore it in through the gates. So -much dead weight. Felt heavier myself stepping out of that bath. First the -stiff: then the friends of the stiff. Corny Kelleher and the boy followed -with their wreaths. Who is that beside them? Ah, the brother-in-law. - -All walked after. - -Martin Cunningham whispered: - ---I was in mortal agony with you talking of suicide before Bloom. - ---What? Mr Power whispered. How so? - ---His father poisoned himself, Martin Cunningham whispered. Had the -Queen's hotel in Ennis. You heard him say he was going to Clare. -Anniversary. - ---O God! Mr Power whispered. First I heard of it. Poisoned himself? - -He glanced behind him to where a face with dark thinking eyes -followed towards the cardinal's mausoleum. Speaking. - ---Was he insured? Mr Bloom asked. - ---I believe so, Mr Kernan answered. But the policy was heavily mortgaged. -Martin is trying to get the youngster into Artane. - ---How many children did he leave? - ---Five. Ned Lambert says he'll try to get one of the girls into Todd's. - ---A sad case, Mr Bloom said gently. Five young children. - ---A great blow to the poor wife, Mr Kernan added. - ---Indeed yes, Mr Bloom agreed. - -Has the laugh at him now. - -He looked down at the boots he had blacked and polished. She had -outlived him. Lost her husband. More dead for her than for me. One must -outlive the other. Wise men say. There are more women than men in the -world. Condole with her. Your terrible loss. I hope you'll soon follow -him. For Hindu widows only. She would marry another. Him? No. Yet who -knows after. Widowhood not the thing since the old queen died. Drawn on -a guncarriage. Victoria and Albert. Frogmore memorial mourning. But in -the end she put a few violets in her bonnet. Vain in her heart of hearts. -All for a shadow. Consort not even a king. Her son was the substance. -Something new to hope for not like the past she wanted back, waiting. It -never comes. One must go first: alone, under the ground: and lie no more -in her warm bed. - ---How are you, Simon? Ned Lambert said softly, clasping hands. Haven't -seen you for a month of Sundays. - ---Never better. How are all in Cork's own town? - ---I was down there for the Cork park races on Easter Monday, Ned -Lambert said. Same old six and eightpence. Stopped with Dick Tivy. - ---And how is Dick, the solid man? - ---Nothing between himself and heaven, Ned Lambert answered. - ---By the holy Paul! Mr Dedalus said in subdued wonder. Dick Tivy bald? - ---Martin is going to get up a whip for the youngsters, Ned Lambert said, -pointing ahead. A few bob a skull. Just to keep them going till the -insurance is cleared up. - ---Yes, yes, Mr Dedalus said dubiously. Is that the eldest boy in front? - ---Yes, Ned Lambert said, with the wife's brother. John Henry Menton is -behind. He put down his name for a quid. - ---I'll engage he did, Mr Dedalus said. I often told poor Paddy he ought -to mind that job. John Henry is not the worst in the world. - ---How did he lose it? Ned Lambert asked. Liquor, what? - ---Many a good man's fault, Mr Dedalus said with a sigh. - -They halted about the door of the mortuary chapel. Mr Bloom stood -behind the boy with the wreath looking down at his sleekcombed hair and -at the slender furrowed neck inside his brandnew collar. Poor boy! Was he -there when the father? Both unconscious. Lighten up at the last moment -and recognise for the last time. All he might have done. I owe three -shillings to O'Grady. Would he understand? The mutes bore the coffin into -the chapel. Which end is his head? - -After a moment he followed the others in, blinking in the screened -light. The coffin lay on its bier before the chancel, four tall yellow -candles at its corners. Always in front of us. Corny Kelleher, laying a -wreath at each fore corner, beckoned to the boy to kneel. The mourners -knelt here and there in prayingdesks. Mr Bloom stood behind near the font -and, when all had knelt, dropped carefully his unfolded newspaper from his -pocket and knelt his right knee upon it. He fitted his black hat gently on -his left knee and, holding its brim, bent over piously. - -A server bearing a brass bucket with something in it came out through -a door. The whitesmocked priest came after him, tidying his stole with one -hand, balancing with the other a little book against his toad's belly. -Who'll read the book? I, said the rook. - -They halted by the bier and the priest began to read out of his book -with a fluent croak. - -Father Coffey. I knew his name was like a coffin. DOMINE-NAMINE. -Bully about the muzzle he looks. Bosses the show. Muscular christian. Woe -betide anyone that looks crooked at him: priest. Thou art Peter. Burst -sideways like a sheep in clover Dedalus says he will. With a belly on him -like a poisoned pup. Most amusing expressions that man finds. Hhhn: burst -sideways. - ---NON INTRES IN JUDICIUM CUM SERVO TUO, DOMINE. - -Makes them feel more important to be prayed over in Latin. Requiem -mass. Crape weepers. Blackedged notepaper. Your name on the altarlist. -Chilly place this. Want to feed well, sitting in there all the morning in -the gloom kicking his heels waiting for the next please. Eyes of a toad -too. What swells him up that way? Molly gets swelled after cabbage. Air of -the place maybe. Looks full up of bad gas. Must be an infernal lot of bad -gas round the place. Butchers, for instance: they get like raw beefsteaks. -Who was telling me? Mervyn Browne. Down in the vaults of saint Werburgh's -lovely old organ hundred and fifty they have to bore a hole in the coffins -sometimes to let out the bad gas and burn it. Out it rushes: blue. One -whiff of that and you're a doner. - -My kneecap is hurting me. Ow. That's better. - -The priest took a stick with a knob at the end of it out of the boy's -bucket and shook it over the coffin. Then he walked to the other end and -shook it again. Then he came back and put it back in the bucket. As you -were before you rested. It's all written down: he has to do it. - ---ET NE NOS INDUCAS IN TENTATIONEM. - -The server piped the answers in the treble. I often thought it would be -better to have boy servants. Up to fifteen or so. After that, of -course ... - -Holy water that was, I expect. Shaking sleep out of it. He must be fed -up with that job, shaking that thing over all the corpses they trot up. -What harm if he could see what he was shaking it over. Every mortal day a -fresh batch: middleaged men, old women, children, women dead in -childbirth, men with beards, baldheaded businessmen, consumptive girls -with little sparrows' breasts. All the year round he prayed the same thing -over them all and shook water on top of them: sleep. On Dignam now. - ---IN PARADISUM. - -Said he was going to paradise or is in paradise. Says that over everybody. -Tiresome kind of a job. But he has to say something. - -The priest closed his book and went off, followed by the server. -Corny Kelleher opened the sidedoors and the gravediggers came in, hoisted -the coffin again, carried it out and shoved it on their cart. Corny -Kelleher gave one wreath to the boy and one to the brother-in-law. All -followed them out of the sidedoors into the mild grey air. Mr Bloom came -last folding his paper again into his pocket. He gazed gravely at the -ground till the coffincart wheeled off to the left. The metal wheels -ground the gravel with a sharp grating cry and the pack of blunt boots -followed the trundled barrow along a lane of sepulchres. - -The ree the ra the ree the ra the roo. Lord, I mustn't lilt here. - ---The O'Connell circle, Mr Dedalus said about him. - -Mr Power's soft eyes went up to the apex of the lofty cone. - ---He's at rest, he said, in the middle of his people, old Dan O'. But his -heart is buried in Rome. How many broken hearts are buried here, Simon! - ---Her grave is over there, Jack, Mr Dedalus said. I'll soon be stretched -beside her. Let Him take me whenever He likes. - -Breaking down, he began to weep to himself quietly, stumbling a little -in his walk. Mr Power took his arm. - ---She's better where she is, he said kindly. - ---I suppose so, Mr Dedalus said with a weak gasp. I suppose she is in -heaven if there is a heaven. - -Corny Kelleher stepped aside from his rank and allowed the mourners to -plod by. - ---Sad occasions, Mr Kernan began politely. - -Mr Bloom closed his eyes and sadly twice bowed his head. - ---The others are putting on their hats, Mr Kernan said. I suppose we can -do so too. We are the last. This cemetery is a treacherous place. - -They covered their heads. - ---The reverend gentleman read the service too quickly, don't you think? -Mr Kernan said with reproof. - -Mr Bloom nodded gravely looking in the quick bloodshot eyes. Secret -eyes, secretsearching. Mason, I think: not sure. Beside him again. We are -the last. In the same boat. Hope he'll say something else. - -Mr Kernan added: - ---The service of the Irish church used in Mount Jerome is simpler, more -impressive I must say. - -Mr Bloom gave prudent assent. The language of course was another thing. - -Mr Kernan said with solemnity: - ---I AM THE RESURRECTION AND THE LIFE. That touches a man's inmost heart. - ---It does, Mr Bloom said. - -Your heart perhaps but what price the fellow in the six feet by two -with his toes to the daisies? No touching that. Seat of the affections. -Broken heart. A pump after all, pumping thousands of gallons of blood -every day. One fine day it gets bunged up: and there you are. Lots of -them lying around here: lungs, hearts, livers. Old rusty pumps: damn the -thing else. The resurrection and the life. Once you are dead you are dead. -That last day idea. Knocking them all up out of their graves. Come forth, -Lazarus! And he came fifth and lost the job. Get up! Last day! Then every -fellow mousing around for his liver and his lights and the rest of his -traps. Find damn all of himself that morning. Pennyweight of powder in -a skull. Twelve grammes one pennyweight. Troy measure. - -Corny Kelleher fell into step at their side. - ---Everything went off A1, he said. What? - -He looked on them from his drawling eye. Policeman's shoulders. With -your tooraloom tooraloom. - ---As it should be, Mr Kernan said. - ---What? Eh? Corny Kelleher said. - -Mr Kernan assured him. - ---Who is that chap behind with Tom Kernan? John Henry Menton asked. I -know his face. - -Ned Lambert glanced back. - ---Bloom, he said, Madame Marion Tweedy that was, is, I mean, the -soprano. She's his wife. - ---O, to be sure, John Henry Menton said. I haven't seen her for some time. -he was a finelooking woman. I danced with her, wait, fifteen seventeen -golden years ago, at Mat Dillon's in Roundtown. And a good armful she -was. - -He looked behind through the others. - ---What is he? he asked. What does he do? Wasn't he in the stationery line? -I fell foul of him one evening, I remember, at bowls. - -Ned Lambert smiled. - ---Yes, he was, he said, in Wisdom Hely's. A traveller for blottingpaper. - ---In God's name, John Henry Menton said, what did she marry a coon like -that for? She had plenty of game in her then. - ---Has still, Ned Lambert said. He does some canvassing for ads. - -John Henry Menton's large eyes stared ahead. - -The barrow turned into a side lane. A portly man, ambushed among -the grasses, raised his hat in homage. The gravediggers touched their -caps. - ---John O'Connell, Mr Power said pleased. He never forgets a friend. - -Mr O'Connell shook all their hands in silence. Mr Dedalus said: - ---I am come to pay you another visit. - ---My dear Simon, the caretaker answered in a low voice. I don't want your -custom at all. - -Saluting Ned Lambert and John Henry Menton he walked on at Martin -Cunningham's side puzzling two long keys at his back. - ---Did you hear that one, he asked them, about Mulcahy from the Coombe? - ---I did not, Martin Cunningham said. - -They bent their silk hats in concert and Hynes inclined his ear. The -caretaker hung his thumbs in the loops of his gold watchchain and spoke in -a discreet tone to their vacant smiles. - ---They tell the story, he said, that two drunks came out here one foggy -evening to look for the grave of a friend of theirs. They asked for -Mulcahy from the Coombe and were told where he was buried. After traipsing -about in the fog they found the grave sure enough. One of the drunks spelt -out the name: Terence Mulcahy. The other drunk was blinking up at a statue -of Our Saviour the widow had got put up. - -The caretaker blinked up at one of the sepulchres they passed. He -resumed: - ---And, after blinking up at the sacred figure, NOT A BLOODY BIT LIKE THE -MAN, says he. THAT'S NOT MULCAHY, says he, WHOEVER DONE IT. - -Rewarded by smiles he fell back and spoke with Corny Kelleher, accepting -the dockets given him, turning them over and scanning them as he walked. - ---That's all done with a purpose, Martin Cunningham explained to Hynes. - ---I know, Hynes said. I know that. - ---To cheer a fellow up, Martin Cunningham said. It's pure goodheartedness: -damn the thing else. - -Mr Bloom admired the caretaker's prosperous bulk. All want to be on -good terms with him. Decent fellow, John O'Connell, real good sort. Keys: -like Keyes's ad: no fear of anyone getting out. No passout checks. HABEAS -CORPUS. I must see about that ad after the funeral. Did I write -Ballsbridge on the envelope I took to cover when she disturbed me writing -to Martha? Hope it's not chucked in the dead letter office. Be the better -of a shave. Grey sprouting beard. That's the first sign when the hairs -come out grey. And temper getting cross. Silver threads among the grey. -Fancy being his wife. Wonder he had the gumption to propose to any girl. -Come out and live in the graveyard. Dangle that before her. It might -thrill her first. Courting death ... Shades of night hovering here with -all the dead stretched about. The shadows of the tombs when churchyards -yawn and Daniel O'Connell must be a descendant I suppose who is this used -to say he was a queer breedy man great catholic all the same like a big -giant in the dark. Will o' the wisp. Gas of graves. Want to keep her mind -off it to conceive at all. Women especially are so touchy. Tell her a -ghost story in bed to make her sleep. Have you ever seen a ghost? Well, I -have. It was a pitchdark night. The clock was on the stroke of twelve. -Still they'd kiss all right if properly keyed up. Whores in Turkish -graveyards. Learn anything if taken young. You might pick up a young -widow here. Men like that. Love among the tombstones. Romeo. Spice of -pleasure. In the midst of death we are in life. Both ends meet. -Tantalising for the poor dead. Smell of grilled beefsteaks to the -starving. Gnawing their vitals. Desire to grig people. Molly wanting to -do it at the window. Eight children he has anyway. - -He has seen a fair share go under in his time, lying around him field -after field. Holy fields. More room if they buried them standing. Sitting -or kneeling you couldn't. Standing? His head might come up some day above -ground in a landslip with his hand pointing. All honeycombed the ground -must be: oblong cells. And very neat he keeps it too: trim grass and -edgings. His garden Major Gamble calls Mount Jerome. Well, so it is. -Ought to be flowers of sleep. Chinese cemeteries with giant poppies -growing produce the best opium Mastiansky told me. The Botanic Gardens -are just over there. It's the blood sinking in the earth gives new life. -Same idea those jews they said killed the christian boy. Every man -his price. Well preserved fat corpse, gentleman, epicure, invaluable -for fruit garden. A bargain. By carcass of William Wilkinson, auditor -and accountant, lately deceased, three pounds thirteen and six. -With thanks. - -I daresay the soil would be quite fat with corpsemanure, bones, flesh, -nails. Charnelhouses. Dreadful. Turning green and pink decomposing. Rot -quick in damp earth. The lean old ones tougher. Then a kind of a tallowy -kind of a cheesy. Then begin to get black, black treacle oozing out of -them. Then dried up. Deathmoths. Of course the cells or whatever they are -go on living. Changing about. Live for ever practically. Nothing to feed -on feed on themselves. - -But they must breed a devil of a lot of maggots. Soil must be simply -swirling with them. Your head it simply swurls. Those pretty little -seaside gurls. He looks cheerful enough over it. Gives him a sense of -power seeing all the others go under first. Wonder how he looks at life. -Cracking his jokes too: warms the cockles of his heart. The one about the -bulletin. Spurgeon went to heaven 4 a.m. this morning. 11 p.m. -(closing time). Not arrived yet. Peter. The dead themselves the men -anyhow would like to hear an odd joke or the women to know what's in -fashion. A juicy pear or ladies' punch, hot, strong and sweet. Keep out -the damp. You must laugh sometimes so better do it that way. Gravediggers -in HAMLET. Shows the profound knowledge of the human heart. Daren't joke -about the dead for two years at least. DE MORTUIS NIL NISI PRIUS. Go out -of mourning first. Hard to imagine his funeral. Seems a sort of a joke. -Read your own obituary notice they say you live longer. Gives you second -wind. New lease of life. - ---How many have-you for tomorrow? the caretaker asked. - ---Two, Corny Kelleher said. Half ten and eleven. - -The caretaker put the papers in his pocket. The barrow had ceased to -trundle. The mourners split and moved to each side of the hole, stepping -with care round the graves. The gravediggers bore the coffin and set its -nose on the brink, looping the bands round it. - -Burying him. We come to bury Caesar. His ides of March or June. -He doesn't know who is here nor care. -Now who is that lankylooking galoot over there in the macintosh? -Now who is he I'd like to know? Now I'd give a trifle to know who he is. -Always someone turns up you never dreamt of. A fellow could live on his -lonesome all his life. Yes, he could. Still he'd have to get someone to -sod him after he died though he could dig his own grave. We all do. Only -man buries. No, ants too. First thing strikes anybody. Bury the dead. Say -Robinson Crusoe was true to life. Well then Friday buried him. Every -Friday buries a Thursday if you come to look at it. - - - O, POOR ROBINSON CRUSOE! - HOW COULD YOU POSSIBLY DO SO? - - -Poor Dignam! His last lie on the earth in his box. When you think of -them all it does seem a waste of wood. All gnawed through. They could -invent a handsome bier with a kind of panel sliding, let it down that way. -Ay but they might object to be buried out of another fellow's. They're so -particular. Lay me in my native earth. Bit of clay from the holy land. -Only a mother and deadborn child ever buried in the one coffin. I see what -it means. I see. To protect him as long as possible even in the earth. The -Irishman's house is his coffin. Embalming in catacombs, mummies the same -idea. - -Mr Bloom stood far back, his hat in his hand, counting the bared -heads. Twelve. I'm thirteen. No. The chap in the macintosh is thirteen. -Death's number. Where the deuce did he pop out of? He wasn't in the -chapel, that I'll swear. Silly superstition that about thirteen. - -Nice soft tweed Ned Lambert has in that suit. Tinge of purple. I had -one like that when we lived in Lombard street west. Dressy fellow he was -once. Used to change three suits in the day. Must get that grey suit of -mine turned by Mesias. Hello. It's dyed. His wife I forgot he's not -married or his landlady ought to have picked out those threads for him. - -The coffin dived out of sight, eased down by the men straddled on the -gravetrestles. They struggled up and out: and all uncovered. Twenty. - -Pause. - -If we were all suddenly somebody else. - -Far away a donkey brayed. Rain. No such ass. Never see a dead one, -they say. Shame of death. They hide. Also poor papa went away. - -Gentle sweet air blew round the bared heads in a whisper. Whisper. -The boy by the gravehead held his wreath with both hands staring quietly -in the black open space. Mr Bloom moved behind the portly kindly -caretaker. Wellcut frockcoat. Weighing them up perhaps to see which will -go next. Well, it is a long rest. Feel no more. It's the moment you feel. -Must be damned unpleasant. Can't believe it at first. Mistake must be: -someone else. Try the house opposite. Wait, I wanted to. I haven't yet. -Then darkened deathchamber. Light they want. Whispering around you. Would -you like to see a priest? Then rambling and wandering. Delirium all you -hid all your life. The death struggle. His sleep is not natural. Press his -lower eyelid. Watching is his nose pointed is his jaw sinking are the -soles of his feet yellow. Pull the pillow away and finish it off on the -floor since he's doomed. Devil in that picture of sinner's death showing -him a woman. Dying to embrace her in his shirt. Last act of LUCIA. -SHALL I NEVERMORE BEHOLD THEE? Bam! He expires. Gone at last. People -talk about you a bit: forget you. Don't forget to pray for him. -Remember him in your prayers. Even Parnell. Ivy day dying out. Then -they follow: dropping into a hole, one after the other. - -We are praying now for the repose of his soul. Hoping you're well -and not in hell. Nice change of air. Out of the fryingpan of life into the -fire of purgatory. - -Does he ever think of the hole waiting for himself? They say you do -when you shiver in the sun. Someone walking over it. Callboy's warning. -Near you. Mine over there towards Finglas, the plot I bought. Mamma, -poor mamma, and little Rudy. - -The gravediggers took up their spades and flung heavy clods of clay -in on the coffin. Mr Bloom turned away his face. And if he was alive all -the time? Whew! By jingo, that would be awful! No, no: he is dead, of -course. Of course he is dead. Monday he died. They ought to have -some law to pierce the heart and make sure or an electric clock or -a telephone in the coffin and some kind of a canvas airhole. Flag of -distress. Three days. Rather long to keep them in summer. Just as well -to get shut of them as soon as you are sure there's no. - -The clay fell softer. Begin to be forgotten. Out of sight, out of mind. - -The caretaker moved away a few paces and put on his hat. Had -enough of it. The mourners took heart of grace, one by one, covering -themselves without show. Mr Bloom put on his hat and saw the portly -figure make its way deftly through the maze of graves. Quietly, sure of -his ground, he traversed the dismal fields. - -Hynes jotting down something in his notebook. Ah, the names. But he -knows them all. No: coming to me. - ---I am just taking the names, Hynes said below his breath. What is your -christian name? I'm not sure. - ---L, Mr Bloom said. Leopold. And you might put down M'Coy's name too. -He asked me to. - ---Charley, Hynes said writing. I know. He was on the FREEMAN once. - -So he was before he got the job in the morgue under Louis Byrne. -Good idea a postmortem for doctors. Find out what they imagine they -know. He died of a Tuesday. Got the run. Levanted with the cash of a few -ads. Charley, you're my darling. That was why he asked me to. O well, -does no harm. I saw to that, M'Coy. Thanks, old chap: much obliged. -Leave him under an obligation: costs nothing. - ---And tell us, Hynes said, do you know that fellow in the, fellow was -over there in the ... - -He looked around. - ---Macintosh. Yes, I saw him, Mr Bloom said. Where is he now? - ---M'Intosh, Hynes said scribbling. I don't know who he is. Is that -his name? - -He moved away, looking about him. - ---No, Mr Bloom began, turning and stopping. I say, Hynes! - -Didn't hear. What? Where has he disappeared to? Not a sign. Well of -all the. Has anybody here seen? Kay ee double ell. Become invisible. Good -Lord, what became of him? - -A seventh gravedigger came beside Mr Bloom to take up an idle spade. - ---O, excuse me! - -He stepped aside nimbly. - -Clay, brown, damp, began to be seen in the hole. It rose. Nearly over. -A mound of damp clods rose more, rose, and the gravediggers rested their -spades. All uncovered again for a few instants. The boy propped his wreath -against a corner: the brother-in-law his on a lump. The gravediggers put -on their caps and carried their earthy spades towards the barrow. Then -knocked the blades lightly on the turf: clean. One bent to pluck from the -haft a long tuft of grass. One, leaving his mates, walked slowly on with -shouldered weapon, its blade blueglancing. Silently at the gravehead -another coiled the coffinband. His navelcord. The brother-in-law, turning -away, placed something in his free hand. Thanks in silence. Sorry, sir: -trouble. Headshake. I know that. For yourselves just. - -The mourners moved away slowly without aim, by devious paths, -staying at whiles to read a name on a tomb. - ---Let us go round by the chief's grave, Hynes said. We have time. - ---Let us, Mr Power said. - -They turned to the right, following their slow thoughts. With awe Mr -Power's blank voice spoke: - ---Some say he is not in that grave at all. That the coffin was filled -with stones. That one day he will come again. - -Hynes shook his head. - ---Parnell will never come again, he said. He's there, all that was mortal -of him. Peace to his ashes. - -Mr Bloom walked unheeded along his grove by saddened angels, -crosses, broken pillars, family vaults, stone hopes praying with upcast -eyes, old Ireland's hearts and hands. More sensible to spend the money on -some charity for the living. Pray for the repose of the soul of. Does -anybody really? Plant him and have done with him. Like down a coalshoot. -Then lump them together to save time. All souls' day. Twentyseventh I'll -be at his grave. Ten shillings for the gardener. He keeps it free of -weeds. Old man himself. Bent down double with his shears clipping. Near -death's door. Who passed away. Who departed this life. As if they did it -of their own accord. Got the shove, all of them. Who kicked the bucket. -More interesting if they told you what they were. So and So, wheelwright. -I travelled for cork lino. I paid five shillings in the pound. Or a -woman's with her saucepan. I cooked good Irish stew. Eulogy in a country -churchyard it ought to be that poem of whose is it Wordsworth or Thomas -Campbell. Entered into rest the protestants put it. Old Dr Murren's. -The great physician called him home. Well it's God's acre for them. -Nice country residence. Newly plastered and painted. Ideal spot to -have a quiet smoke and read the CHURCH TIMES. Marriage ads they never -try to beautify. Rusty wreaths hung on knobs, garlands of bronzefoil. -Better value that for the money. Still, the flowers are more poetical. -The other gets rather tiresome, never withering. Expresses nothing. -Immortelles. - -A bird sat tamely perched on a poplar branch. Like stuffed. Like the -wedding present alderman Hooper gave us. Hoo! Not a budge out of him. -Knows there are no catapults to let fly at him. Dead animal even sadder. -Silly-Milly burying the little dead bird in the kitchen matchbox, a -daisychain and bits of broken chainies on the grave. - -The Sacred Heart that is: showing it. Heart on his sleeve. Ought to be -sideways and red it should be painted like a real heart. Ireland was -dedicated to it or whatever that. Seems anything but pleased. Why this -infliction? Would birds come then and peck like the boy with the basket of -fruit but he said no because they ought to have been afraid of the boy. -Apollo that was. - -How many! All these here once walked round Dublin. Faithful departed. -As you are now so once were we. - -Besides how could you remember everybody? Eyes, walk, voice. Well, -the voice, yes: gramophone. Have a gramophone in every grave or keep it -in the house. After dinner on a Sunday. Put on poor old greatgrandfather. -Kraahraark! Hellohellohello amawfullyglad kraark awfullygladaseeagain -hellohello amawf krpthsth. Remind you of the voice like the photograph -reminds you of the face. Otherwise you couldn't remember the face after -fifteen years, say. For instance who? For instance some fellow that died -when I was in Wisdom Hely's. - -Rtststr! A rattle of pebbles. Wait. Stop! - -He looked down intently into a stone crypt. Some animal. Wait. -There he goes. - -An obese grey rat toddled along the side of the crypt, moving the -pebbles. An old stager: greatgrandfather: he knows the ropes. The grey -alive crushed itself in under the plinth, wriggled itself in under it. -Good hidingplace for treasure. - -Who lives there? Are laid the remains of Robert Emery. Robert -Emmet was buried here by torchlight, wasn't he? Making his rounds. - -Tail gone now. - -One of those chaps would make short work of a fellow. Pick the -bones clean no matter who it was. Ordinary meat for them. A corpse is -meat gone bad. Well and what's cheese? Corpse of milk. I read in that -VOYAGES IN CHINA that the Chinese say a white man smells like a corpse. -Cremation better. Priests dead against it. Devilling for the other firm. -Wholesale burners and Dutch oven dealers. Time of the plague. Quicklime -feverpits to eat them. Lethal chamber. Ashes to ashes. Or bury at sea. -Where is that Parsee tower of silence? Eaten by birds. Earth, fire, water. -Drowning they say is the pleasantest. See your whole life in a flash. But -being brought back to life no. Can't bury in the air however. Out of a -flying machine. Wonder does the news go about whenever a fresh one is let -down. Underground communication. We learned that from them. Wouldn't be -surprised. Regular square feed for them. Flies come before he's well dead. -Got wind of Dignam. They wouldn't care about the smell of it. Saltwhite -crumbling mush of corpse: smell, taste like raw white turnips. - -The gates glimmered in front: still open. Back to the world again. -Enough of this place. Brings you a bit nearer every time. Last time I was -here was Mrs Sinico's funeral. Poor papa too. The love that kills. And -even scraping up the earth at night with a lantern like that case I read -of to get at fresh buried females or even putrefied with running -gravesores. Give you the creeps after a bit. I will appear to you after -death. You will see my ghost after death. My ghost will haunt you after -death. There is another world after death named hell. I do not like that -other world she wrote. No more do I. Plenty to see and hear and feel yet. -Feel live warm beings near you. Let them sleep in their maggoty beds. They -are not going to get me this innings. Warm beds: warm fullblooded life. - -Martin Cunningham emerged from a sidepath, talking gravely. - -Solicitor, I think. I know his face. Menton, John Henry, solicitor, -commissioner for oaths and affidavits. Dignam used to be in his office. -Mat Dillon's long ago. Jolly Mat. Convivial evenings. Cold fowl, cigars, -the Tantalus glasses. Heart of gold really. Yes, Menton. Got his rag out -that evening on the bowlinggreen because I sailed inside him. Pure fluke -of mine: the bias. Why he took such a rooted dislike to me. Hate at first -sight. Molly and Floey Dillon linked under the lilactree, laughing. -Fellow always like that, mortified if women are by. - -Got a dinge in the side of his hat. Carriage probably. - ---Excuse me, sir, Mr Bloom said beside them. - -They stopped. - ---Your hat is a little crushed, Mr Bloom said pointing. - -John Henry Menton stared at him for an instant without moving. - ---There, Martin Cunningham helped, pointing also. John Henry Menton took -off his hat, bulged out the dinge and smoothed the nap with care on his -coatsleeve. He clapped the hat on his head again. - ---It's all right now, Martin Cunningham said. - -John Henry Menton jerked his head down in acknowledgment. - ---Thank you, he said shortly. - -They walked on towards the gates. Mr Bloom, chapfallen, drew -behind a few paces so as not to overhear. Martin laying down the law. -Martin could wind a sappyhead like that round his little finger, without -his seeing it. - -Oyster eyes. Never mind. Be sorry after perhaps when it dawns on him. -Get the pull over him that way. - -Thank you. How grand we are this morning! - - - * * * * * * * - - - IN THE HEART OF THE HIBERNIAN METROPOLIS - - -Before Nelson's pillar trams slowed, shunted, changed trolley, started -for Blackrock, Kingstown and Dalkey, Clonskea, Rathgar and Terenure, -Palmerston Park and upper Rathmines, Sandymount Green, Rathmines, -Ringsend and Sandymount Tower, Harold's Cross. The hoarse Dublin -United Tramway Company's timekeeper bawled them off: - ---Rathgar and Terenure! - ---Come on, Sandymount Green! - -Right and left parallel clanging ringing a doubledecker and a -singledeck moved from their railheads, swerved to the down line, glided -parallel. - ---Start, Palmerston Park! - - - THE WEARER OF THE CROWN - - -Under the porch of the general post office shoeblacks called and -polished. Parked in North Prince's street His Majesty's vermilion -mailcars, bearing on their sides the royal initials, E. R., received -loudly flung sacks of letters, postcards, lettercards, parcels, insured -and paid, for local, provincial, British and overseas delivery. - - - GENTLEMEN OF THE PRESS - - -Grossbooted draymen rolled barrels dullthudding out of Prince's -stores and bumped them up on the brewery float. On the brewery float -bumped dullthudding barrels rolled by grossbooted draymen out of -Prince's stores. - ---There it is, Red Murray said. Alexander Keyes. - ---Just cut it out, will you? Mr Bloom said, and I'll take it round to the -TELEGRAPH office. - -The door of Ruttledge's office creaked again. Davy Stephens, minute -in a large capecoat, a small felt hat crowning his ringlets, passed out -with a roll of papers under his cape, a king's courier. - -Red Murray's long shears sliced out the advertisement from the -newspaper in four clean strokes. Scissors and paste. - ---I'll go through the printingworks, Mr Bloom said, taking the cut square. - ---Of course, if he wants a par, Red Murray said earnestly, a pen behind -his ear, we can do him one. - ---Right, Mr Bloom said with a nod. I'll rub that in. - -We. - - - WILLIAM BRAYDEN, - ESQUIRE, OF OAKLANDS, SANDYMOUNT - - -Red Murray touched Mr Bloom's arm with the shears and whispered: - ---Brayden. - -Mr Bloom turned and saw the liveried porter raise his lettered cap as a -stately figure entered between the newsboards of the WEEKLY FREEMAN AND -NATIONAL PRESS and the FREEMAN'S JOURNAL AND NATIONAL PRESS. Dullthudding -Guinness's barrels. It passed statelily up the staircase, steered by an -umbrella, a solemn beardframed face. The broadcloth back ascended each -step: back. All his brains are in the nape of his neck, Simon Dedalus -says. Welts of flesh behind on him. Fat folds of neck, fat, neck, fat, -neck. - ---Don't you think his face is like Our Saviour? Red Murray whispered. - -The door of Ruttledge's office whispered: ee: cree. They always build -one door opposite another for the wind to. Way in. Way out. - -Our Saviour: beardframed oval face: talking in the dusk. Mary, -Martha. Steered by an umbrella sword to the footlights: Mario the tenor. - ---Or like Mario, Mr Bloom said. - ---Yes, Red Murray agreed. But Mario was said to be the picture of Our -Saviour. - -Jesusmario with rougy cheeks, doublet and spindle legs. Hand on his -heart. In MARTHA. - - - CO-OME THOU LOST ONE, - CO-OME THOU DEAR ONE! - - - THE CROZIER AND THE PEN - - ---His grace phoned down twice this morning, Red Murray said gravely. - -They watched the knees, legs, boots vanish. Neck. - -A telegram boy stepped in nimbly, threw an envelope on the counter -and stepped off posthaste with a word: - ---FREEMAN! - -Mr Bloom said slowly: - ---Well, he is one of our saviours also. - -A meek smile accompanied him as he lifted the counterflap, as he -passed in through a sidedoor and along the warm dark stairs and passage, -along the now reverberating boards. But will he save the circulation? -Thumping. Thumping. - -He pushed in the glass swingdoor and entered, stepping over strewn -packing paper. Through a lane of clanking drums he made his way towards -Nannetti's reading closet. - -Hynes here too: account of the funeral probably. Thumping. Thump. - - - WITH UNFEIGNED REGRET IT IS WE ANNOUNCE THE DISSOLUTION - OF A MOST RESPECTED DUBLIN BURGESS - - -This morning the remains of the late Mr Patrick Dignam. Machines. -Smash a man to atoms if they got him caught. Rule the world today. His -machineries are pegging away too. Like these, got out of hand: fermenting. -Working away, tearing away. And that old grey rat tearing to get in. - - - HOW A GREAT DAILY ORGAN IS TURNED OUT - - -Mr Bloom halted behind the foreman's spare body, admiring a glossy crown. - -Strange he never saw his real country. Ireland my country. Member -for College green. He boomed that workaday worker tack for all it was -worth. It's the ads and side features sell a weekly, not the stale news in -the official gazette. Queen Anne is dead. Published by authority in the -year one thousand and. Demesne situate in the townland of Rosenallis, -barony of Tinnahinch. To all whom it may concern schedule pursuant to -statute showing return of number of mules and jennets exported from -Ballina. Nature notes. Cartoons. Phil Blake's weekly Pat and Bull story. -Uncle Toby's page for tiny tots. Country bumpkin's queries. Dear Mr -Editor, what is a good cure for flatulence? I'd like that part. Learn a -lot teaching others. The personal note. M. A. P. Mainly all pictures. -Shapely bathers on golden strand. World's biggest balloon. Double marriage -of sisters celebrated. Two bridegrooms laughing heartily at each other. -Cuprani too, printer. More Irish than the Irish. - -The machines clanked in threefour time. Thump, thump, thump. -Now if he got paralysed there and no-one knew how to stop them they'd -clank on and on the same, print it over and over and up and back. -Monkeydoodle the whole thing. Want a cool head. - ---Well, get it into the evening edition, councillor, Hynes said. - -Soon be calling him my lord mayor. Long John is backing him, they say. - -The foreman, without answering, scribbled press on a corner of the -sheet and made a sign to a typesetter. He handed the sheet silently over -the dirty glass screen. - ---Right: thanks, Hynes said moving off. - -Mr Bloom stood in his way. - ---If you want to draw the cashier is just going to lunch, he said, -pointing backward with his thumb. - ---Did you? Hynes asked. - ---Mm, Mr Bloom said. Look sharp and you'll catch him. - ---Thanks, old man, Hynes said. I'll tap him too. - -He hurried on eagerly towards the FREEMAN'S JOURNAL. - -Three bob I lent him in Meagher's. Three weeks. Third hint. - - - WE SEE THE CANVASSER AT WORK - - -Mr Bloom laid his cutting on Mr Nannetti's desk. - ---Excuse me, councillor, he said. This ad, you see. Keyes, you remember? - -Mr Nannetti considered the cutting awhile and nodded. - ---He wants it in for July, Mr Bloom said. - -The foreman moved his pencil towards it. - ---But wait, Mr Bloom said. He wants it changed. Keyes, you see. He wants -two keys at the top. - -Hell of a racket they make. He doesn't hear it. Nannan. Iron nerves. -Maybe he understands what I. - -The foreman turned round to hear patiently and, lifting an elbow, -began to scratch slowly in the armpit of his alpaca jacket. - ---Like that, Mr Bloom said, crossing his forefingers at the top. - -Let him take that in first. - -Mr Bloom, glancing sideways up from the cross he had made, saw the -foreman's sallow face, think he has a touch of jaundice, and beyond the -obedient reels feeding in huge webs of paper. Clank it. Clank it. Miles of -it unreeled. What becomes of it after? O, wrap up meat, parcels: various -uses, thousand and one things. - -Slipping his words deftly into the pauses of the clanking he drew -swiftly on the scarred woodwork. - - - HOUSE OF KEY(E)S - - ---Like that, see. Two crossed keys here. A circle. Then here the name. -Alexander Keyes, tea, wine and spirit merchant. So on. - -Better not teach him his own business. - ---You know yourself, councillor, just what he wants. Then round the top -in leaded: the house of keys. You see? Do you think that's a good idea? - -The foreman moved his scratching hand to his lower ribs and scratched -there quietly. - ---The idea, Mr Bloom said, is the house of keys. You know, councillor, -the Manx parliament. Innuendo of home rule. Tourists, you know, from the -isle of Man. Catches the eye, you see. Can you do that? - -I could ask him perhaps about how to pronounce that VOGLIO. But -then if he didn't know only make it awkward for him. Better not. - ---We can do that, the foreman said. Have you the design? - ---I can get it, Mr Bloom said. It was in a Kilkenny paper. He has a house -there too. I'll just run out and ask him. Well, you can do that and just a -little par calling attention. You know the usual. Highclass licensed -premises. Longfelt want. So on. - -The foreman thought for an instant. - ---We can do that, he said. Let him give us a three months' renewal. - -A typesetter brought him a limp galleypage. He began to check it -silently. Mr Bloom stood by, hearing the loud throbs of cranks, watching -the silent typesetters at their cases. - - - ORTHOGRAPHICAL - - -Want to be sure of his spelling. Proof fever. Martin Cunningham -forgot to give us his spellingbee conundrum this morning. It is amusing to -view the unpar one ar alleled embarra two ars is it? double ess ment of a -harassed pedlar while gauging au the symmetry with a y of a peeled pear -under a cemetery wall. Silly, isn't it? Cemetery put in of course on -account of the symmetry. - -I should have said when he clapped on his topper. Thank you. I ought -to have said something about an old hat or something. No. I could have -said. Looks as good as new now. See his phiz then. - -Sllt. The nethermost deck of the first machine jogged forward its -flyboard with sllt the first batch of quirefolded papers. Sllt. Almost -human the way it sllt to call attention. Doing its level best to speak. -That door too sllt creaking, asking to be shut. Everything speaks in its -own way. Sllt. - - - NOTED CHURCHMAN AN OCCASIONAL CONTRIBUTOR - - -The foreman handed back the galleypage suddenly, saying: - ---Wait. Where's the archbishop's letter? It's to be repeated in the -TELEGRAPH. Where's what's his name? - -He looked about him round his loud unanswering machines. - ---Monks, sir? a voice asked from the castingbox. - ---Ay. Where's Monks? - ---Monks! - -Mr Bloom took up his cutting. Time to get out. - ---Then I'll get the design, Mr Nannetti, he said, and you'll give it a -good place I know. - ---Monks! - ---Yes, sir. - -Three months' renewal. Want to get some wind off my chest first. Try -it anyhow. Rub in August: good idea: horseshow month. Ballsbridge. -Tourists over for the show. - - - A DAYFATHER - - -He walked on through the caseroom passing an old man, bowed, -spectacled, aproned. Old Monks, the dayfather. Queer lot of stuff he must -have put through his hands in his time: obituary notices, pubs' ads, -speeches, divorce suits, found drowned. Nearing the end of his tether now. -Sober serious man with a bit in the savingsbank I'd say. Wife a good cook -and washer. Daughter working the machine in the parlour. Plain Jane, no -damn nonsense. - - - AND IT WAS THE FEAST OF THE PASSOVER - - -He stayed in his walk to watch a typesetter neatly distributing type. -Reads it backwards first. Quickly he does it. Must require some practice -that. mangiD kcirtaP. Poor papa with his hagadah book, reading -backwards with his finger to me. Pessach. Next year in Jerusalem. Dear, O -dear! All that long business about that brought us out of the land of -Egypt and into the house of bondage ALLELUIA. SHEMA ISRAEL ADONAI ELOHENU. -No, that's the other. Then the twelve brothers, Jacob's sons. And then the -lamb and the cat and the dog and the stick and the water and the butcher. -And then the angel of death kills the butcher and he kills the ox and the -dog kills the cat. Sounds a bit silly till you come to look into it well. -Justice it means but it's everybody eating everyone else. That's what life -is after all. How quickly he does that job. Practice makes perfect. Seems -to see with his fingers. - -Mr Bloom passed on out of the clanking noises through the gallery on -to the landing. Now am I going to tram it out all the way and then catch -him out perhaps. Better phone him up first. Number? Yes. Same as Citron's -house. Twentyeight. Twentyeight double four. - - - ONLY ONCE MORE THAT SOAP - - -He went down the house staircase. Who the deuce scrawled all over -those walls with matches? Looks as if they did it for a bet. Heavy greasy -smell there always is in those works. Lukewarm glue in Thom's next door -when I was there. - -He took out his handkerchief to dab his nose. Citronlemon? Ah, the -soap I put there. Lose it out of that pocket. Putting back his -handkerchief he took out the soap and stowed it away, buttoned, into the -hip pocket of his trousers. - -What perfume does your wife use? I could go home still: tram: -something I forgot. Just to see: before: dressing. No. Here. No. - -A sudden screech of laughter came from the EVENING TELEGRAPH office. Know -who that is. What's up? Pop in a minute to phone. Ned Lambert it is. - -He entered softly. - - - ERIN, GREEN GEM OF THE SILVER SEA - - ---The ghost walks, professor MacHugh murmured softly, biscuitfully to -the dusty windowpane. - -Mr Dedalus, staring from the empty fireplace at Ned Lambert's -quizzing face, asked of it sourly: - ---Agonising Christ, wouldn't it give you a heartburn on your arse? - -Ned Lambert, seated on the table, read on: - ---OR AGAIN, NOTE THE MEANDERINGS OF SOME PURLING RILL AS IT BABBLES ON -ITS WAY, THO' QUARRELLING WITH THE STONY OBSTACLES, TO THE TUMBLING WATERS -OF NEPTUNE'S BLUE DOMAIN, 'MID MOSSY BANKS, FANNED BY GENTLEST ZEPHYRS, -PLAYED ON BY THE GLORIOUS SUNLIGHT OR 'NEATH THE SHADOWS CAST O'ER ITS -PENSIVE BOSOM BY THE OVERARCHING LEAFAGE OF THE GIANTS OF THE FOREST. What -about that, Simon? he asked over the fringe of his newspaper. How's that -for high? - ---Changing his drink, Mr Dedalus said. - -Ned Lambert, laughing, struck the newspaper on his knees, repeating: - ---THE PENSIVE BOSOM AND THE OVERARSING LEAFAGE. O boys! O boys! - ---And Xenophon looked upon Marathon, Mr Dedalus said, looking again -on the fireplace and to the window, and Marathon looked on the sea. - ---That will do, professor MacHugh cried from the window. I don't want to -hear any more of the stuff. - -He ate off the crescent of water biscuit he had been nibbling and, -hungered, made ready to nibble the biscuit in his other hand. - -High falutin stuff. Bladderbags. Ned Lambert is taking a day off I -see. Rather upsets a man's day, a funeral does. He has influence they say. -Old Chatterton, the vicechancellor, is his granduncle or his -greatgranduncle. Close on ninety they say. Subleader for his death written -this long time perhaps. Living to spite them. Might go first himself. -Johnny, make room for your uncle. The right honourable Hedges Eyre -Chatterton. Daresay he writes him an odd shaky cheque or two on gale days. -Windfall when he kicks out. Alleluia. - ---Just another spasm, Ned Lambert said. - ---What is it? Mr Bloom asked. - ---A recently discovered fragment of Cicero, professor MacHugh answered -with pomp of tone. OUR LOVELY LAND. - - - SHORT BUT TO THE POINT - - ---Whose land? Mr Bloom said simply. - ---Most pertinent question, the professor said between his chews. With an -accent on the whose. - ---Dan Dawson's land Mr Dedalus said. - ---Is it his speech last night? Mr Bloom asked. - -Ned Lambert nodded. - ---But listen to this, he said. - -The doorknob hit Mr Bloom in the small of the back as the door was -pushed in. - ---Excuse me, J. J. O'Molloy said, entering. - -Mr Bloom moved nimbly aside. - ---I beg yours, he said. - ---Good day, Jack. - ---Come in. Come in. - ---Good day. - ---How are you, Dedalus? - ---Well. And yourself? - -J. J. O'Molloy shook his head. - - - SAD - - -Cleverest fellow at the junior bar he used to be. Decline, poor chap. -That hectic flush spells finis for a man. Touch and go with him. What's in -the wind, I wonder. Money worry. - ---OR AGAIN IF WE BUT CLIMB THE SERRIED MOUNTAIN PEAKS. - ---You're looking extra. - ---Is the editor to be seen? J. J. O'Molloy asked, looking towards the -inner door. - ---Very much so, professor MacHugh said. To be seen and heard. He's in -his sanctum with Lenehan. - -J. J. O'Molloy strolled to the sloping desk and began to turn back the -pink pages of the file. - -Practice dwindling. A mighthavebeen. Losing heart. Gambling. Debts -of honour. Reaping the whirlwind. Used to get good retainers from D. and -T. Fitzgerald. Their wigs to show the grey matter. Brains on their sleeve -like the statue in Glasnevin. Believe he does some literary work for the -EXPRESS with Gabriel Conroy. Wellread fellow. Myles Crawford began on -the INDEPENDENT. Funny the way those newspaper men veer about when -they get wind of a new opening. Weathercocks. Hot and cold in the same -breath. Wouldn't know which to believe. One story good till you hear the -next. Go for one another baldheaded in the papers and then all blows over. -Hail fellow well met the next moment. - ---Ah, listen to this for God' sake, Ned Lambert pleaded. OR AGAIN IF WE -BUT CLIMB THE SERRIED MOUNTAIN PEAKS ... - ---Bombast! the professor broke in testily. Enough of the inflated -windbag! - ---PEAKS, Ned Lambert went on, TOWERING HIGH ON HIGH, TO BATHE OUR SOULS, -AS IT WERE ... - ---Bathe his lips, Mr Dedalus said. Blessed and eternal God! Yes? Is he -taking anything for it? - ---AS 'TWERE, IN THE PEERLESS PANORAMA OF IRELAND'S PORTFOLIO, UNMATCHED, -DESPITE THEIR WELLPRAISED PROTOTYPES IN OTHER VAUNTED PRIZE REGIONS, FOR -VERY BEAUTY, OF BOSKY GROVE AND UNDULATING PLAIN AND LUSCIOUS PASTURELAND -OF VERNAL GREEN, STEEPED IN THE TRANSCENDENT TRANSLUCENT GLOW OF OUR MILD -MYSTERIOUS IRISH TWILIGHT ... - - - HIS NATIVE DORIC - - ---The moon, professor MacHugh said. He forgot Hamlet. - ---THAT MANTLES THE VISTA FAR AND WIDE AND WAIT TILL THE GLOWING ORB OF -THE MOON SHINE FORTH TO IRRADIATE HER SILVER EFFULGENCE ... - ---O! Mr Dedalus cried, giving vent to a hopeless groan. Shite and onions! -That'll do, Ned. Life is too short. - -He took off his silk hat and, blowing out impatiently his bushy -moustache, welshcombed his hair with raking fingers. - -Ned Lambert tossed the newspaper aside, chuckling with delight. An -instant after a hoarse bark of laughter burst over professor MacHugh's -unshaven blackspectacled face. - ---Doughy Daw! he cried. - - - WHAT WETHERUP SAID - - -All very fine to jeer at it now in cold print but it goes down like hot -cake that stuff. He was in the bakery line too, wasn't he? Why they call -him Doughy Daw. Feathered his nest well anyhow. Daughter engaged to that -chap in the inland revenue office with the motor. Hooked that nicely. -Entertainments. Open house. Big blowout. Wetherup always said that. Get -a grip of them by the stomach. - -The inner door was opened violently and a scarlet beaked face, -crested by a comb of feathery hair, thrust itself in. The bold blue eyes -stared about them and the harsh voice asked: - ---What is it? - ---And here comes the sham squire himself! professor MacHugh said grandly. - ---Getonouthat, you bloody old pedagogue! the editor said in recognition. - ---Come, Ned, Mr Dedalus said, putting on his hat. I must get a drink -after that. - ---Drink! the editor cried. No drinks served before mass. - ---Quite right too, Mr Dedalus said, going out. Come on, Ned. - -Ned Lambert sidled down from the table. The editor's blue eyes roved -towards Mr Bloom's face, shadowed by a smile. - ---Will you join us, Myles? Ned Lambert asked. - - - MEMORABLE BATTLES RECALLED - - ---North Cork militia! the editor cried, striding to the mantelpiece. We -won every time! North Cork and Spanish officers! - ---Where was that, Myles? Ned Lambert asked with a reflective glance at -his toecaps. - ---In Ohio! the editor shouted. - ---So it was, begad, Ned Lambert agreed. - -Passing out he whispered to J. J. O'Molloy: - ---Incipient jigs. Sad case. - ---Ohio! the editor crowed in high treble from his uplifted scarlet face. -My Ohio! - ---A perfect cretic! the professor said. Long, short and long. - - - O, HARP EOLIAN! - - -He took a reel of dental floss from his waistcoat pocket and, breaking -off a piece, twanged it smartly between two and two of his resonant -unwashed teeth. - ---Bingbang, bangbang. - -Mr Bloom, seeing the coast clear, made for the inner door. - ---Just a moment, Mr Crawford, he said. I just want to phone about an ad. - -He went in. - ---What about that leader this evening? professor MacHugh asked, coming -to the editor and laying a firm hand on his shoulder. - ---That'll be all right, Myles Crawford said more calmly. Never you fret. -Hello, Jack. That's all right. - ---Good day, Myles, J. J. O'Molloy said, letting the pages he held slip -limply back on the file. Is that Canada swindle case on today? - -The telephone whirred inside. - ---Twentyeight ... No, twenty ... Double four ... Yes. - - - SPOT THE WINNER - - -Lenehan came out of the inner office with SPORT'S tissues. - ---Who wants a dead cert for the Gold cup? he asked. Sceptre with O. -Madden up. - -He tossed the tissues on to the table. - -Screams of newsboys barefoot in the hall rushed near and the door -was flung open. - ---Hush, Lenehan said. I hear feetstoops. - -Professor MacHugh strode across the room and seized the cringing -urchin by the collar as the others scampered out of the hall and down the -steps. The tissues rustled up in the draught, floated softly in the air -blue scrawls and under the table came to earth. - ---It wasn't me, sir. It was the big fellow shoved me, sir. - ---Throw him out and shut the door, the editor said. There's a hurricane -blowing. - -Lenehan began to paw the tissues up from the floor, grunting as he -stooped twice. - ---Waiting for the racing special, sir, the newsboy said. It was Pat -Farrell shoved me, sir. - -He pointed to two faces peering in round the doorframe. - ---Him, sir. - ---Out of this with you, professor MacHugh said gruffly. - -He hustled the boy out and banged the door to. - -J. J. O'Molloy turned the files crackingly over, murmuring, seeking: - ---Continued on page six, column four. - ---Yes, EVENING TELEGRAPH here, Mr Bloom phoned from the inner office. Is -the boss ...? Yes, TELEGRAPH ... To where? Aha! Which auction rooms? ... -Aha! I see ... Right. I'll catch him. - - - A COLLISION ENSUES - - -The bell whirred again as he rang off. He came in quickly and -bumped against Lenehan who was struggling up with the second tissue. - ---PARDON, MONSIEUR, Lenehan said, clutching him for an instant and making -a grimace. - ---My fault, Mr Bloom said, suffering his grip. Are you hurt? I'm in a -hurry. - ---Knee, Lenehan said. - -He made a comic face and whined, rubbing his knee: - ---The accumulation of the ANNO DOMINI. - ---Sorry, Mr Bloom said. - -He went to the door and, holding it ajar, paused. J. J. O'Molloy -slapped the heavy pages over. The noise of two shrill voices, a -mouthorgan, echoed in the bare hallway from the newsboys squatted on the -doorsteps: - - - --WE ARE THE BOYS OF WEXFORD - WHO FOUGHT WITH HEART AND HAND. - - - EXIT BLOOM - - ---I'm just running round to Bachelor's walk, Mr Bloom said, about this ad -of Keyes's. Want to fix it up. They tell me he's round there in Dillon's. - -He looked indecisively for a moment at their faces. The editor who, -leaning against the mantelshelf, had propped his head on his hand, -suddenly stretched forth an arm amply. - ---Begone! he said. The world is before you. - ---Back in no time, Mr Bloom said, hurrying out. - -J. J. O'Molloy took the tissues from Lenehan's hand and read them, -blowing them apart gently, without comment. - ---He'll get that advertisement, the professor said, staring through his -blackrimmed spectacles over the crossblind. Look at the young scamps after -him. - ---Show. Where? Lenehan cried, running to the window. - - - A STREET CORTEGE - - -Both smiled over the crossblind at the file of capering newsboys in Mr -Bloom's wake, the last zigzagging white on the breeze a mocking kite, a -tail of white bowknots. - ---Look at the young guttersnipe behind him hue and cry, Lenehan said, and -you'll kick. O, my rib risible! Taking off his flat spaugs and the walk. -Small nines. Steal upon larks. - -He began to mazurka in swift caricature across the floor on sliding -feet past the fireplace to J. J. O'Molloy who placed the tissues in his -receiving hands. - ---What's that? Myles Crawford said with a start. Where are the other two -gone? - ---Who? the professor said, turning. They're gone round to the Oval for a -drink. Paddy Hooper is there with Jack Hall. Came over last night. - ---Come on then, Myles Crawford said. Where's my hat? - -He walked jerkily into the office behind, parting the vent of his jacket, -jingling his keys in his back pocket. They jingled then in the air and -against the wood as he locked his desk drawer. - ---He's pretty well on, professor MacHugh said in a low voice. - ---Seems to be, J. J. O'Molloy said, taking out a cigarettecase in -murmuring meditation, but it is not always as it seems. Who has the most -matches? - - - THE CALUMET OF PEACE - - -He offered a cigarette to the professor and took one himself. Lenehan -promptly struck a match for them and lit their cigarettes in turn. J. J. -O'Molloy opened his case again and offered it. - ---THANKY VOUS, Lenehan said, helping himself. - -The editor came from the inner office, a straw hat awry on his brow. -He declaimed in song, pointing sternly at professor MacHugh: - - - --'TWAS RANK AND FAME THAT TEMPTED THEE, - 'TWAS EMPIRE CHARMED THY HEART. - - -The professor grinned, locking his long lips. - ---Eh? You bloody old Roman empire? Myles Crawford said. - -He took a cigarette from the open case. Lenehan, lighting it for him -with quick grace, said: - ---Silence for my brandnew riddle! - ---IMPERIUM ROMANUM, J. J. O'Molloy said gently. It sounds nobler than -British or Brixton. The word reminds one somehow of fat in the fire. - -Myles Crawford blew his first puff violently towards the ceiling. - ---That's it, he said. We are the fat. You and I are the fat in the fire. -We haven't got the chance of a snowball in hell. - - - THE GRANDEUR THAT WAS ROME - - ---Wait a moment, professor MacHugh said, raising two quiet claws. We -mustn't be led away by words, by sounds of words. We think of Rome, -imperial, imperious, imperative. - -He extended elocutionary arms from frayed stained shirtcuffs, pausing: - ---What was their civilisation? Vast, I allow: but vile. Cloacae: sewers. -The Jews in the wilderness and on the mountaintop said: IT IS MEET TO BE -HERE. LET US BUILD AN ALTAR TO JEHOVAH. The Roman, like the Englishman who -follows in his footsteps, brought to every new shore on which he set his -foot (on our shore he never set it) only his cloacal obsession. He gazed -about him in his toga and he said: IT IS MEET TO BE HERE. LET US CONSTRUCT -A WATERCLOSET. - ---Which they accordingly did do, Lenehan said. Our old ancient ancestors, -as we read in the first chapter of Guinness's, were partial to the running -stream. - ---They were nature's gentlemen, J. J. O'Molloy murmured. But we have -also Roman law. - ---And Pontius Pilate is its prophet, professor MacHugh responded. - ---Do you know that story about chief baron Palles? J. J. O'Molloy asked. -It was at the royal university dinner. Everything was going -swimmingly ... - ---First my riddle, Lenehan said. Are you ready? - -Mr O'Madden Burke, tall in copious grey of Donegal tweed, came in -from the hallway. Stephen Dedalus, behind him, uncovered as he entered. - ---ENTREZ, MES ENFANTS! Lenehan cried. - ---I escort a suppliant, Mr O'Madden Burke said melodiously. Youth led by -Experience visits Notoriety. - ---How do you do? the editor said, holding out a hand. Come in. Your -governor is just gone. - - - ? ? ? - - -Lenehan said to all: - ---Silence! What opera resembles a railwayline? Reflect, ponder, -excogitate, reply. - -Stephen handed over the typed sheets, pointing to the title and signature. - ---Who? the editor asked. - -Bit torn off. - ---Mr Garrett Deasy, Stephen said. - ---That old pelters, the editor said. Who tore it? Was he short taken? - - - ON SWIFT SAIL FLAMING - FROM STORM AND SOUTH - HE COMES, PALE VAMPIRE, - MOUTH TO MY MOUTH. - - ---Good day, Stephen, the professor said, coming to peer over their -shoulders. Foot and mouth? Are you turned ...? - -Bullockbefriending bard. - - - SHINDY IN WELLKNOWN RESTAURANT - - ---Good day, sir, Stephen answered blushing. The letter is not mine. Mr -Garrett Deasy asked me to ... - ---O, I know him, Myles Crawford said, and I knew his wife too. The -bloodiest old tartar God ever made. By Jesus, she had the foot and mouth -disease and no mistake! The night she threw the soup in the waiter's face -in the Star and Garter. Oho! - -A woman brought sin into the world. For Helen, the runaway wife of -Menelaus, ten years the Greeks. O'Rourke, prince of Breffni. - ---Is he a widower? Stephen asked. - ---Ay, a grass one, Myles Crawford said, his eye running down the -typescript. Emperor's horses. Habsburg. An Irishman saved his life on the -ramparts of Vienna. Don't you forget! Maximilian Karl O'Donnell, graf -von Tirconnell in Ireland. Sent his heir over to make the king an Austrian -fieldmarshal now. Going to be trouble there one day. Wild geese. O yes, -every time. Don't you forget that! - ---The moot point is did he forget it, J. J. O'Molloy said quietly, -turning a horseshoe paperweight. Saving princes is a thank you job. - -Professor MacHugh turned on him. - ---And if not? he said. - ---I'll tell you how it was, Myles Crawford began. A Hungarian it was one -day ... - - - LOST CAUSES - - - NOBLE MARQUESS MENTIONED - - ---We were always loyal to lost causes, the professor said. Success for us -is the death of the intellect and of the imagination. We were never loyal -to the successful. We serve them. I teach the blatant Latin language. I -speak the tongue of a race the acme of whose mentality is the maxim: time -is money. Material domination. DOMINUS! Lord! Where is the spirituality? -Lord Jesus? Lord Salisbury? A sofa in a westend club. But the Greek! - - - KYRIE ELEISON! - - -A smile of light brightened his darkrimmed eyes, lengthened his long -lips. - ---The Greek! he said again. KYRIOS! Shining word! The vowels the Semite -and the Saxon know not. KYRIE! The radiance of the intellect. I ought to -profess Greek, the language of the mind. KYRIE ELEISON! The closetmaker -and the cloacamaker will never be lords of our spirit. We are liege -subjects of the catholic chivalry of Europe that foundered at Trafalgar -and of the empire of the spirit, not an IMPERIUM, that went under with the -Athenian fleets at Aegospotami. Yes, yes. They went under. Pyrrhus, misled -by an oracle, made a last attempt to retrieve the fortunes of Greece. -Loyal to a lost cause. - -He strode away from them towards the window. - ---They went forth to battle, Mr O'Madden Burke said greyly, but they -always fell. - ---Boohoo! Lenehan wept with a little noise. Owing to a brick received in -the latter half of the MATINEE. Poor, poor, poor Pyrrhus! - -He whispered then near Stephen's ear: - - - LENEHAN'S LIMERICK - - --THERE'S A PONDEROUS PUNDIT MACHUGH - WHO WEARS GOGGLES OF EBONY HUE. - AS HE MOSTLY SEES DOUBLE - TO WEAR THEM WHY TROUBLE? - I CAN'T SEE THE JOE MILLER. CAN YOU? - - -In mourning for Sallust, Mulligan says. Whose mother is beastly dead. - -Myles Crawford crammed the sheets into a sidepocket. - ---That'll be all right, he said. I'll read the rest after. That'll be all -right. - -Lenehan extended his hands in protest. - ---But my riddle! he said. What opera is like a railwayline? - ---Opera? Mr O'Madden Burke's sphinx face reriddled. - -Lenehan announced gladly: - - ---THE ROSE OF CASTILE. See the wheeze? Rows of cast steel. Gee! - -He poked Mr O'Madden Burke mildly in the spleen. Mr O'Madden Burke -fell back with grace on his umbrella, feigning a gasp. - ---Help! he sighed. I feel a strong weakness. - -Lenehan, rising to tiptoe, fanned his face rapidly with the rustling -tissues. - -The professor, returning by way of the files, swept his hand across -Stephen's and Mr O'Madden Burke's loose ties. - ---Paris, past and present, he said. You look like communards. - ---Like fellows who had blown up the Bastile, J. J. O'Molloy said in quiet -mockery. Or was it you shot the lord lieutenant of Finland between you? -You look as though you had done the deed. General Bobrikoff. - - - OMNIUM GATHERUM - - ---We were only thinking about it, Stephen said. - ---All the talents, Myles Crawford said. Law, the classics ... - ---The turf, Lenehan put in. - ---Literature, the press. - ---If Bloom were here, the professor said. The gentle art of advertisement. - ---And Madam Bloom, Mr O'Madden Burke added. The vocal muse. Dublin's -prime favourite. - - Lenehan gave a loud cough. - ---Ahem! he said very softly. O, for a fresh of breath air! I caught a -cold in the park. The gate was open. - - - YOU CAN DO IT! - - -The editor laid a nervous hand on Stephen's shoulder. - ---I want you to write something for me, he said. Something with a bite in -it. You can do it. I see it in your face. IN THE LEXICON OF YOUTH ... - -See it in your face. See it in your eye. Lazy idle little schemer. - ---Foot and mouth disease! the editor cried in scornful invective. Great -nationalist meeting in Borris-in-Ossory. All balls! Bulldosing the public! -Give them something with a bite in it. Put us all into it, damn its soul. -Father, Son and Holy Ghost and Jakes M'Carthy. - ---We can all supply mental pabulum, Mr O'Madden Burke said. - -Stephen raised his eyes to the bold unheeding stare. - ---He wants you for the pressgang, J. J. O'Molloy said. - - - THE GREAT GALLAHER - - ---You can do it, Myles Crawford repeated, clenching his hand in emphasis. -Wait a minute. We'll paralyse Europe as Ignatius Gallaher used to say when -he was on the shaughraun, doing billiardmarking in the Clarence. Gallaher, -that was a pressman for you. That was a pen. You know how he made his -mark? I'll tell you. That was the smartest piece of journalism ever known. -That was in eightyone, sixth of May, time of the invincibles, murder in -the Phoenix park, before you were born, I suppose. I'll show you. - -He pushed past them to the files. - ---Look at here, he said turning. The NEW YORK WORLD cabled for a special. -Remember that time? - -Professor MacHugh nodded. - ---NEW YORK WORLD, the editor said, excitedly pushing back his straw hat. -Where it took place. Tim Kelly, or Kavanagh I mean. Joe Brady and the -rest of them. Where Skin-the-Goat drove the car. Whole route, see? - ---Skin-the-Goat, Mr O'Madden Burke said. Fitzharris. He has that -cabman's shelter, they say, down there at Butt bridge. Holohan told me. -You know Holohan? - ---Hop and carry one, is it? Myles Crawford said. - ---And poor Gumley is down there too, so he told me, minding stones for -the corporation. A night watchman. - -Stephen turned in surprise. - ---Gumley? he said. You don't say so? A friend of my father's, is it? - ---Never mind Gumley, Myles Crawford cried angrily. Let Gumley mind -the stones, see they don't run away. Look at here. What did Ignatius -Gallaher do? I'll tell you. Inspiration of genius. Cabled right away. Have -you WEEKLY FREEMAN of 17 March? Right. Have you got that? - -He flung back pages of the files and stuck his finger on a point. - ---Take page four, advertisement for Bransome's coffee, let us say. Have -you got that? Right. - -The telephone whirred. - - - A DISTANT VOICE - - ---I'll answer it, the professor said, going. - ---B is parkgate. Good. - -His finger leaped and struck point after point, vibrating. - ---T is viceregal lodge. C is where murder took place. K is Knockmaroon -gate. - -The loose flesh of his neck shook like a cock's wattles. An illstarched -dicky jutted up and with a rude gesture he thrust it back into his -waistcoat. - ---Hello? EVENING TELEGRAPH here ... Hello?... Who's there? ... -Yes ... Yes ... Yes. - ---F to P is the route Skin-the-Goat drove the car for an alibi, Inchicore, -Roundtown, Windy Arbour, Palmerston Park, Ranelagh. F.A.B.P. Got that? -X is Davy's publichouse in upper Leeson street. - -The professor came to the inner door. - ---Bloom is at the telephone, he said. - ---Tell him go to hell, the editor said promptly. X is Davy's publichouse, -see? - - - CLEVER, VERY - - ---Clever, Lenehan said. Very. - ---Gave it to them on a hot plate, Myles Crawford said, the whole bloody -history. - -Nightmare from which you will never awake. - ---I saw it, the editor said proudly. I was present. Dick Adams, the -besthearted bloody Corkman the Lord ever put the breath of life in, and -myself. - -Lenehan bowed to a shape of air, announcing: - ---Madam, I'm Adam. And Able was I ere I saw Elba. - ---History! Myles Crawford cried. The Old Woman of Prince's street was -there first. There was weeping and gnashing of teeth over that. Out of an -advertisement. Gregor Grey made the design for it. That gave him the leg -up. Then Paddy Hooper worked Tay Pay who took him on to the STAR. -Now he's got in with Blumenfeld. That's press. That's talent. Pyatt! He -was all their daddies! - ---The father of scare journalism, Lenehan confirmed, and the -brother-in-law of Chris Callinan. - ---Hello? ... Are you there? ... Yes, he's here still. Come across -yourself. - ---Where do you find a pressman like that now, eh? the editor cried. -He flung the pages down. - ---Clamn dever, Lenehan said to Mr O'Madden Burke. - ---Very smart, Mr O'Madden Burke said. - -Professor MacHugh came from the inner office. - ---Talking about the invincibles, he said, did you see that some hawkers -were up before the recorder ... - ---O yes, J. J. O'Molloy said eagerly. Lady Dudley was walking home -through the park to see all the trees that were blown down by that cyclone -last year and thought she'd buy a view of Dublin. And it turned out to be -a commemoration postcard of Joe Brady or Number One or Skin-the-Goat. -Right outside the viceregal lodge, imagine! - ---They're only in the hook and eye department, Myles Crawford said. -Psha! Press and the bar! Where have you a man now at the bar like those -fellows, like Whiteside, like Isaac Butt, like silvertongued O'Hagan. Eh? -Ah, bloody nonsense. Psha! Only in the halfpenny place. - -His mouth continued to twitch unspeaking in nervous curls of disdain. - -Would anyone wish that mouth for her kiss? How do you know? Why did -you write it then? - - - RHYMES AND REASONS - - -Mouth, south. Is the mouth south someway? Or the south a mouth? -Must be some. South, pout, out, shout, drouth. Rhymes: two men dressed -the same, looking the same, two by two. - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .LA TUA PACE - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CHE PARLAR TI PIACE - . . . . .MENTREM CHE IL VENTO, COME FA, SI TACE. - - -He saw them three by three, approaching girls, in green, in rose, in -russet, entwining, PER L'AER PERSO, in mauve, in purple, QUELLA PACIFICA -ORIAFIAMMA, gold of oriflamme, DI RIMIRAR FE PIU ARDENTI. But I old men, -penitent, leadenfooted, underdarkneath the night: mouth south: tomb womb. - ---Speak up for yourself, Mr O'Madden Burke said. - - - SUFFICIENT FOR THE DAY ... - - -J. J. O'Molloy, smiling palely, took up the gage. - ---My dear Myles, he said, flinging his cigarette aside, you put a false -construction on my words. I hold no brief, as at present advised, for the -third profession qua profession but your Cork legs are running away with -you. Why not bring in Henry Grattan and Flood and Demosthenes and -Edmund Burke? Ignatius Gallaher we all know and his Chapelizod boss, -Harmsworth of the farthing press, and his American cousin of the Bowery -guttersheet not to mention PADDY KELLY'S BUDGET, PUE'S OCCURRENCES and our -watchful friend THE SKIBBEREEN EAGLE. Why bring in a master of forensic -eloquence like Whiteside? Sufficient for the day is the newspaper thereof. - - - LINKS WITH BYGONE DAYS OF YORE - - ---Grattan and Flood wrote for this very paper, the editor cried in his -face. Irish volunteers. Where are you now? Established 1763. Dr Lucas. -Who have you now like John Philpot Curran? Psha! - ---Well, J. J. O'Molloy said, Bushe K.C., for example. - ---Bushe? the editor said. Well, yes: Bushe, yes. He has a strain of it in -his blood. Kendal Bushe or I mean Seymour Bushe. - ---He would have been on the bench long ago, the professor said, only -for ... But no matter. - -J. J. O'Molloy turned to Stephen and said quietly and slowly: - ---One of the most polished periods I think I ever listened to in my life -fell from the lips of Seymour Bushe. It was in that case of fratricide, -the Childs murder case. Bushe defended him. - - - AND IN THE PORCHES OF MINE EAR DID POUR. - - -By the way how did he find that out? He died in his sleep. Or the -other story, beast with two backs? - ---What was that? the professor asked. - - - ITALIA, MAGISTRA ARTIUM - - ---He spoke on the law of evidence, J. J. O'Molloy said, of Roman justice -as contrasted with the earlier Mosaic code, the LEX TALIONIS. And he cited -the Moses of Michelangelo in the vatican. - ---Ha. - ---A few wellchosen words, Lenehan prefaced. Silence! - -Pause. J. J. O'Molloy took out his cigarettecase. - -False lull. Something quite ordinary. - -Messenger took out his matchbox thoughtfully and lit his cigar. - -I have often thought since on looking back over that strange time that -it was that small act, trivial in itself, that striking of that match, -that determined the whole aftercourse of both our lives. - - - A POLISHED PERIOD - - -J. J. O'Molloy resumed, moulding his words: - ---He said of it: THAT STONY EFFIGY IN FROZEN MUSIC, HORNED AND TERRIBLE, -OF THE HUMAN FORM DIVINE, THAT ETERNAL SYMBOL OF WISDOM AND OF PROPHECY -WHICH, IF AUGHT THAT THE IMAGINATION OR THE HAND OF SCULPTOR HAS WROUGHT -IN MARBLE OF SOULTRANSFIGURED AND OF SOULTRANSFIGURING DESERVES TO LIVE, -DESERVES TO LIVE. - -His slim hand with a wave graced echo and fall. - ---Fine! Myles Crawford said at once. - ---The divine afflatus, Mr O'Madden Burke said. - ---You like it? J. J. O'Molloy asked Stephen. - -Stephen, his blood wooed by grace of language and gesture, blushed. -He took a cigarette from the case. J. J. O'Molloy offered his case to -Myles Crawford. Lenehan lit their cigarettes as before and took his -trophy, saying: - ---Muchibus thankibus. - - - A MAN OF HIGH MORALE - - ---Professor Magennis was speaking to me about you, J. J. O'Molloy said to -Stephen. What do you think really of that hermetic crowd, the opal hush -poets: A. E. the mastermystic? That Blavatsky woman started it. She was a -nice old bag of tricks. A. E. has been telling some yankee interviewer -that you came to him in the small hours of the morning to ask him about -planes of consciousness. Magennis thinks you must have been pulling -A. E.'s leg. He is a man of the very highest morale, Magennis. - -Speaking about me. What did he say? What did he say? What did he -say about me? Don't ask. - ---No, thanks, professor MacHugh said, waving the cigarettecase aside. -Wait a moment. Let me say one thing. The finest display of oratory I ever -heard was a speech made by John F Taylor at the college historical -society. Mr Justice Fitzgibbon, the present lord justice of appeal, had -spoken and the paper under debate was an essay (new for those days), -advocating the revival of the Irish tongue. - -He turned towards Myles Crawford and said: - ---You know Gerald Fitzgibbon. Then you can imagine the style of his -discourse. - ---He is sitting with Tim Healy, J. J. O'Molloy said, rumour has it, on -the Trinity college estates commission. - ---He is sitting with a sweet thing, Myles Crawford said, in a child's -frock. Go on. Well? - ---It was the speech, mark you, the professor said, of a finished orator, -full of courteous haughtiness and pouring in chastened diction I will not -say the vials of his wrath but pouring the proud man's contumely upon the -new movement. It was then a new movement. We were weak, therefore -worthless. - -He closed his long thin lips an instant but, eager to be on, raised an -outspanned hand to his spectacles and, with trembling thumb and -ringfinger touching lightly the black rims, steadied them to a new focus. - - - IMPROMPTU - - -In ferial tone he addressed J. J. O'Molloy: - ---Taylor had come there, you must know, from a sickbed. That he had -prepared his speech I do not believe for there was not even one -shorthandwriter in the hall. His dark lean face had a growth of shaggy -beard round it. He wore a loose white silk neckcloth and altogether he -looked (though he was not) a dying man. - -His gaze turned at once but slowly from J. J. O'Molloy's towards -Stephen's face and then bent at once to the ground, seeking. His unglazed -linen collar appeared behind his bent head, soiled by his withering hair. -Still seeking, he said: - ---When Fitzgibbon's speech had ended John F Taylor rose to reply. -Briefly, as well as I can bring them to mind, his words were these. - -He raised his head firmly. His eyes bethought themselves once more. -Witless shellfish swam in the gross lenses to and fro, seeking outlet. - -He began: - ---MR CHAIRMAN, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: GREAT WAS MY ADMIRATION IN LISTENING -TO THE REMARKS ADDRESSED TO THE YOUTH OF IRELAND A MOMENT SINCE BY MY -LEARNED FRIEND. IT SEEMED TO ME THAT I HAD BEEN TRANSPORTED INTO A COUNTRY -FAR AWAY FROM THIS COUNTRY, INTO AN AGE REMOTE FROM THIS AGE, THAT I STOOD -IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND THAT I WAS LISTENING TO THE SPEECH OF SOME HIGHPRIEST -OF THAT LAND ADDRESSED TO THE YOUTHFUL MOSES. - -His listeners held their cigarettes poised to hear, their smokes -ascending in frail stalks that flowered with his speech. And let our -crooked smokes. Noble words coming. Look out. Could you try your hand at -it yourself? - ---AND IT SEEMED TO ME THAT I HEARD THE VOICE OF THAT EGYPTIAN HIGHPRIEST -RAISED IN A TONE OF LIKE HAUGHTINESS AND LIKE PRIDE. I HEARD HIS WORDS AND -THEIR MEANING WAS REVEALED TO ME. - - - FROM THE FATHERS - - -It was revealed to me that those things are good which yet are -corrupted which neither if they were supremely good nor unless they were -good could be corrupted. Ah, curse you! That's saint Augustine. - ---WHY WILL YOU JEWS NOT ACCEPT OUR CULTURE, OUR RELIGION AND OUR -LANGUAGE? YOU ARE A TRIBE OF NOMAD HERDSMEN: WE ARE A MIGHTY PEOPLE. YOU -HAVE NO CITIES NOR NO WEALTH: OUR CITIES ARE HIVES OF HUMANITY AND OUR -GALLEYS, TRIREME AND QUADRIREME, LADEN WITH ALL MANNER MERCHANDISE FURROW -THE WATERS OF THE KNOWN GLOBE. YOU HAVE BUT EMERGED FROM PRIMITIVE -CONDITIONS: WE HAVE A LITERATURE, A PRIESTHOOD, AN AGELONG HISTORY AND A -POLITY. - -Nile. - -Child, man, effigy. - -By the Nilebank the babemaries kneel, cradle of bulrushes: a man -supple in combat: stonehorned, stonebearded, heart of stone. - ---YOU PRAY TO A LOCAL AND OBSCURE IDOL: OUR TEMPLES, MAJESTIC AND -MYSTERIOUS, ARE THE ABODES OF ISIS AND OSIRIS, OF HORUS AND AMMON RA. -YOURS SERFDOM, AWE AND HUMBLENESS: OURS THUNDER AND THE SEAS. ISRAEL IS -WEAK AND FEW ARE HER CHILDREN: EGYPT IS AN HOST AND TERRIBLE ARE HER ARMS. - VAGRANTS AND DAYLABOURERS ARE YOU CALLED: THE WORLD TREMBLES AT OUR NAME. - -A dumb belch of hunger cleft his speech. He lifted his voice above it -boldly: - ---BUT, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, HAD THE YOUTHFUL MOSES LISTENED TO AND -ACCEPTED THAT VIEW OF LIFE, HAD HE BOWED HIS HEAD AND BOWED HIS WILL AND -BOWED HIS SPIRIT BEFORE THAT ARROGANT ADMONITION HE WOULD NEVER HAVE -BROUGHT THE CHOSEN PEOPLE OUT OF THEIR HOUSE OF BONDAGE, NOR FOLLOWED THE -PILLAR OF THE CLOUD BY DAY. HE WOULD NEVER HAVE SPOKEN WITH THE ETERNAL -AMID LIGHTNINGS ON SINAI'S MOUNTAINTOP NOR EVER HAVE COME DOWN WITH THE -LIGHT OF INSPIRATION SHINING IN HIS COUNTENANCE AND BEARING IN HIS ARMS -THE TABLES OF THE LAW, GRAVEN IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE OUTLAW. - -He ceased and looked at them, enjoying a silence. - - - OMINOUS--FOR HIM! - - -J. J. O'Molloy said not without regret: - ---And yet he died without having entered the land of promise. - ---A sudden--at--the--moment--though--from--lingering--illness-- -often--previously--expectorated--demise, Lenehan added. And with a -great future behind him. - -The troop of bare feet was heard rushing along the hallway and -pattering up the staircase. - ---That is oratory, the professor said uncontradicted. Gone with the wind. -Hosts at Mullaghmast and Tara of the kings. Miles of ears of porches. -The tribune's words, howled and scattered to the four winds. A people -sheltered within his voice. Dead noise. Akasic records of all that ever -anywhere wherever was. Love and laud him: me no more. - -I have money. - ---Gentlemen, Stephen said. As the next motion on the agenda paper may I -suggest that the house do now adjourn? - ---You take my breath away. It is not perchance a French compliment? Mr -O'Madden Burke asked. 'Tis the hour, methinks, when the winejug, -metaphorically speaking, is most grateful in Ye ancient hostelry. - ---That it be and hereby is resolutely resolved. All that are in favour -say ay, Lenehan announced. The contrary no. I declare it carried. To which -particular boosing shed? ... My casting vote is: Mooney's! - -He led the way, admonishing: - ---We will sternly refuse to partake of strong waters, will we not? Yes, -we will not. By no manner of means. - -Mr O'Madden Burke, following close, said with an ally's lunge of his -umbrella: - ---Lay on, Macduff! - ---Chip of the old block! the editor cried, clapping Stephen on the -shoulder. Let us go. Where are those blasted keys? - -He fumbled in his pocket pulling out the crushed typesheets. - ---Foot and mouth. I know. That'll be all right. That'll go in. Where are -they? That's all right. - -He thrust the sheets back and went into the inner office. - - - LET US HOPE - - -J. J. O'Molloy, about to follow him in, said quietly to Stephen: - ---I hope you will live to see it published. Myles, one moment. - -He went into the inner office, closing the door behind him. - ---Come along, Stephen, the professor said. That is fine, isn't it? It has -the prophetic vision. FUIT ILIUM! The sack of windy Troy. Kingdoms of this -world. The masters of the Mediterranean are fellaheen today. - -The first newsboy came pattering down the stairs at their heels and -rushed out into the street, yelling: - ---Racing special! - -Dublin. I have much, much to learn. - -They turned to the left along Abbey street. - ---I have a vision too, Stephen said. - ---Yes? the professor said, skipping to get into step. Crawford will -follow. - -Another newsboy shot past them, yelling as he ran: - ---Racing special! - - - DEAR DIRTY DUBLIN - - -Dubliners. - ---Two Dublin vestals, Stephen said, elderly and pious, have lived fifty -and fiftythree years in Fumbally's lane. - ---Where is that? the professor asked. - ---Off Blackpitts, Stephen said. - -Damp night reeking of hungry dough. Against the wall. Face -glistering tallow under her fustian shawl. Frantic hearts. Akasic records. -Quicker, darlint! - -On now. Dare it. Let there be life. - ---They want to see the views of Dublin from the top of Nelson's pillar. -They save up three and tenpence in a red tin letterbox moneybox. They -shake out the threepenny bits and sixpences and coax out the pennies with -the blade of a knife. Two and three in silver and one and seven in -coppers. They put on their bonnets and best clothes and take their -umbrellas for fear it may come on to rain. - ---Wise virgins, professor MacHugh said. - - - LIFE ON THE RAW - - ---They buy one and fourpenceworth of brawn and four slices of panloaf at -the north city diningrooms in Marlborough street from Miss Kate Collins, -proprietress ... They purchase four and twenty ripe plums from a girl at -the foot of Nelson's pillar to take off the thirst of the brawn. They give -two threepenny bits to the gentleman at the turnstile and begin to waddle -slowly up the winding staircase, grunting, encouraging each other, afraid -of the dark, panting, one asking the other have you the brawn, praising -God and the Blessed Virgin, threatening to come down, peeping at the -airslits. Glory be to God. They had no idea it was that high. - -Their names are Anne Kearns and Florence MacCabe. Anne Kearns -has the lumbago for which she rubs on Lourdes water, given her by a lady -who got a bottleful from a passionist father. Florence MacCabe takes a -crubeen and a bottle of double X for supper every Saturday. - ---Antithesis, the professor said nodding twice. Vestal virgins. I can see -them. What's keeping our friend? - -He turned. - -A bevy of scampering newsboys rushed down the steps, scattering in -all directions, yelling, their white papers fluttering. Hard after them -Myles Crawford appeared on the steps, his hat aureoling his scarlet face, -talking with J. J. O'Molloy. - ---Come along, the professor cried, waving his arm. - -He set off again to walk by Stephen's side. - - - RETURN OF BLOOM - - ---Yes, he said. I see them. - -Mr Bloom, breathless, caught in a whirl of wild newsboys near the -offices of the IRISH CATHOLIC AND DUBLIN PENNY JOURNAL, called: - ---Mr Crawford! A moment! - ---TELEGRAPH! Racing special! - ---What is it? Myles Crawford said, falling back a pace. - -A newsboy cried in Mr Bloom's face: - ---Terrible tragedy in Rathmines! A child bit by a bellows! - - - - INTERVIEW WITH THE EDITOR - - ---Just this ad, Mr Bloom said, pushing through towards the steps, -puffing, and taking the cutting from his pocket. I spoke with Mr Keyes -just now. He'll give a renewal for two months, he says. After he'll see. -But he wants a par to call attention in the TELEGRAPH too, the Saturday -pink. And he wants it copied if it's not too late I told councillor -Nannetti from the KILKENNY PEOPLE. I can have access to it in the national -library. House of keys, don't you see? His name is Keyes. It's a play on -the name. But he practically promised he'd give the renewal. But he wants -just a little puff. What will I tell him, Mr Crawford? - - - - K.M.A. - - ---Will you tell him he can kiss my arse? Myles Crawford said throwing out -his arm for emphasis. Tell him that straight from the stable. - -A bit nervy. Look out for squalls. All off for a drink. Arm in arm. -Lenehan's yachting cap on the cadge beyond. Usual blarney. Wonder is -that young Dedalus the moving spirit. Has a good pair of boots on him -today. Last time I saw him he had his heels on view. Been walking in muck -somewhere. Careless chap. What was he doing in Irishtown? - ---Well, Mr Bloom said, his eyes returning, if I can get the design I -suppose it's worth a short par. He'd give the ad, I think. I'll tell -him ... - - - K.M.R.I.A. - - ---He can kiss my royal Irish arse, Myles Crawford cried loudly over his -shoulder. Any time he likes, tell him. - -While Mr Bloom stood weighing the point and about to smile he strode -on jerkily. - - - RAISING THE WIND - - ---NULLA BONA, Jack, he said, raising his hand to his chin. I'm up to -here. I've been through the hoop myself. I was looking for a fellow to -back a bill for me no later than last week. Sorry, Jack. You must take the -will for the deed. With a heart and a half if I could raise the wind -anyhow. - -J. J. O'Molloy pulled a long face and walked on silently. They caught -up on the others and walked abreast. - ---When they have eaten the brawn and the bread and wiped their twenty -fingers in the paper the bread was wrapped in they go nearer to the -railings. - ---Something for you, the professor explained to Myles Crawford. Two old -Dublin women on the top of Nelson's pillar. - - - SOME COLUMN!-- - THAT'S WHAT WADDLER ONE SAID - - ---That's new, Myles Crawford said. That's copy. Out for the waxies -Dargle. Two old trickies, what? - ---But they are afraid the pillar will fall, Stephen went on. They see the -roofs and argue about where the different churches are: Rathmines' blue -dome, Adam and Eve's, saint Laurence O'Toole's. But it makes them giddy to -look so they pull up their skirts ... - - - THOSE SLIGHTLY RAMBUNCTIOUS FEMALES - - ---Easy all, Myles Crawford said. No poetic licence. We're in the -archdiocese here. - ---And settle down on their striped petticoats, peering up at the statue -of the onehandled adulterer. - ---Onehandled adulterer! the professor cried. I like that. I see the idea. -I see what you mean. - - - DAMES DONATE DUBLIN'S CITS SPEEDPILLS - VELOCITOUS AEROLITHS, BELIEF - - ---It gives them a crick in their necks, Stephen said, and they are too -tired to look up or down or to speak. They put the bag of plums between -them and eat the plums out of it, one after another, wiping off with their -handkerchiefs the plumjuice that dribbles out of their mouths and spitting -the plumstones slowly out between the railings. - -He gave a sudden loud young laugh as a close. Lenehan and Mr O'Madden -Burke, hearing, turned, beckoned and led on across towards Mooney's. - ---Finished? Myles Crawford said. So long as they do no worse. - - - SOPHIST WALLOPS HAUGHTY HELEN SQUARE ON - PROBOSCIS. SPARTANS GNASH MOLARS. ITHACANS - VOW PEN IS CHAMP. - - ---You remind me of Antisthenes, the professor said, a disciple of -Gorgias, the sophist. It is said of him that none could tell if he were -bitterer against others or against himself. He was the son of a noble and -a bondwoman. And he wrote a book in which he took away the palm of beauty -from Argive Helen and handed it to poor Penelope. - -Poor Penelope. Penelope Rich. - -They made ready to cross O'Connell street. - - - HELLO THERE, CENTRAL! - - -At various points along the eight lines tramcars with motionless -trolleys stood in their tracks, bound for or from Rathmines, Rathfarnham, -Blackrock, Kingstown and Dalkey, Sandymount Green, Ringsend and -Sandymount Tower, Donnybrook, Palmerston Park and Upper Rathmines, -all still, becalmed in short circuit. Hackney cars, cabs, delivery -waggons, mailvans, private broughams, aerated mineral water floats with -rattling crates of bottles, rattled, rolled, horsedrawn, rapidly. - - - - WHAT?--AND LIKEWISE--WHERE? - - ---But what do you call it? Myles Crawford asked. Where did they get the -plums? - - - VIRGILIAN, SAYS PEDAGOGUE. - SOPHOMORE PLUMPS FOR OLD MAN MOSES. - - ---Call it, wait, the professor said, opening his long lips wide to -reflect. Call it, let me see. Call it: DEUS NOBIS HAEC OTIA FECIT. - ---No, Stephen said. I call it A PISGAH SIGHT OF PALESTINE OR THE PARABLE -OF THE PLUMS. - ---I see, the professor said. - -He laughed richly. - ---I see, he said again with new pleasure. Moses and the promised land. We -gave him that idea, he added to J. J. O'Molloy. - - - HORATIO IS CYNOSURE THIS FAIR JUNE DAY - - -J. J. O'Molloy sent a weary sidelong glance towards the statue and -held his peace. - ---I see, the professor said. - -He halted on sir John Gray's pavement island and peered aloft at Nelson -through the meshes of his wry smile. - - - DIMINISHED DIGITS PROVE TOO TITILLATING - FOR FRISKY FRUMPS. ANNE WIMBLES, FLO - WANGLES--YET CAN YOU BLAME THEM? - - ---Onehandled adulterer, he said smiling grimly. That tickles me, I must -say. - ---Tickled the old ones too, Myles Crawford said, if the God Almighty's -truth was known. - - - * * * * * * * - - -Pineapple rock, lemon platt, butter scotch. A sugarsticky girl -shovelling scoopfuls of creams for a christian brother. Some school treat. -Bad for their tummies. Lozenge and comfit manufacturer to His Majesty -the King. God. Save. Our. Sitting on his throne sucking red jujubes white. - -A sombre Y.M.C.A. young man, watchful among the warm sweet -fumes of Graham Lemon's, placed a throwaway in a hand of Mr Bloom. - -Heart to heart talks. - -Bloo ... Me? No. - -Blood of the Lamb. - -His slow feet walked him riverward, reading. Are you saved? All are -washed in the blood of the lamb. God wants blood victim. Birth, hymen, -martyr, war, foundation of a building, sacrifice, kidney burntoffering, -druids' altars. Elijah is coming. Dr John Alexander Dowie restorer of the -church in Zion is coming. - - - IS COMING! IS COMING!! IS COMING!!! - ALL HEARTILY WELCOME. - - -Paying game. Torry and Alexander last year. Polygamy. His wife will -put the stopper on that. Where was that ad some Birmingham firm the -luminous crucifix. Our Saviour. Wake up in the dead of night and see him -on the wall, hanging. Pepper's ghost idea. Iron nails ran in. - -Phosphorus it must be done with. If you leave a bit of codfish for -instance. I could see the bluey silver over it. Night I went down to the -pantry in the kitchen. Don't like all the smells in it waiting to rush -out. What was it she wanted? The Malaga raisins. Thinking of Spain. Before -Rudy was born. The phosphorescence, that bluey greeny. Very good for the -brain. - -From Butler's monument house corner he glanced along Bachelor's -walk. Dedalus' daughter there still outside Dillon's auctionrooms. Must be -selling off some old furniture. Knew her eyes at once from the father. -Lobbing about waiting for him. Home always breaks up when the mother -goes. Fifteen children he had. Birth every year almost. That's in their -theology or the priest won't give the poor woman the confession, the -absolution. Increase and multiply. Did you ever hear such an idea? Eat you -out of house and home. No families themselves to feed. Living on the fat -of the land. Their butteries and larders. I'd like to see them do the -black fast Yom Kippur. Crossbuns. One meal and a collation for fear he'd -collapse on the altar. A housekeeper of one of those fellows if you could -pick it out of her. Never pick it out of her. Like getting l.s.d. out of -him. Does himself well. No guests. All for number one. Watching his water. -Bring your own bread and butter. His reverence: mum's the word. - -Good Lord, that poor child's dress is in flitters. Underfed she looks -too. Potatoes and marge, marge and potatoes. It's after they feel it. -Proof of the pudding. Undermines the constitution. - -As he set foot on O'Connell bridge a puffball of smoke plumed up -from the parapet. Brewery barge with export stout. England. Sea air sours -it, I heard. Be interesting some day get a pass through Hancock to see the -brewery. Regular world in itself. Vats of porter wonderful. Rats get in -too. Drink themselves bloated as big as a collie floating. Dead drunk on -the porter. Drink till they puke again like christians. Imagine drinking -that! Rats: vats. Well, of course, if we knew all the things. - -Looking down he saw flapping strongly, wheeling between the gaunt -quaywalls, gulls. Rough weather outside. If I threw myself down? -Reuben J's son must have swallowed a good bellyful of that sewage. One and -eightpence too much. Hhhhm. It's the droll way he comes out with the -things. Knows how to tell a story too. - -They wheeled lower. Looking for grub. Wait. - -He threw down among them a crumpled paper ball. Elijah thirtytwo -feet per sec is com. Not a bit. The ball bobbed unheeded on the wake of -swells, floated under by the bridgepiers. Not such damn fools. Also the -day I threw that stale cake out of the Erin's King picked it up in the -wake fifty yards astern. Live by their wits. They wheeled, flapping. - - THE HUNGRY FAMISHED GULL - FLAPS O'ER THE WATERS DULL. - - -That is how poets write, the similar sounds. But then Shakespeare has -no rhymes: blank verse. The flow of the language it is. The thoughts. -Solemn. - - - HAMLET, I AM THY FATHER'S SPIRIT - DOOMED FOR A CERTAIN TIME TO WALK THE EARTH. - - ---Two apples a penny! Two for a penny! - -His gaze passed over the glazed apples serried on her stand. -Australians they must be this time of year. Shiny peels: polishes them up -with a rag or a handkerchief. - -Wait. Those poor birds. - -He halted again and bought from the old applewoman two Banbury -cakes for a penny and broke the brittle paste and threw its fragments down -into the Liffey. See that? The gulls swooped silently, two, then all from -their heights, pouncing on prey. Gone. Every morsel. - -Aware of their greed and cunning he shook the powdery crumb from his -hands. They never expected that. Manna. Live on fish, fishy flesh -they have, all seabirds, gulls, seagoose. Swans from Anna Liffey swim -down here sometimes to preen themselves. No accounting for tastes. -Wonder what kind is swanmeat. Robinson Crusoe had to live on them. - -They wheeled flapping weakly. I'm not going to throw any more. -Penny quite enough. Lot of thanks I get. Not even a caw. They spread foot -and mouth disease too. If you cram a turkey say on chestnutmeal it tastes -like that. Eat pig like pig. But then why is it that saltwater fish are -not salty? How is that? - -His eyes sought answer from the river and saw a rowboat rock at anchor -on the treacly swells lazily its plastered board. - -KINO'S -11/- -TROUSERS - -Good idea that. Wonder if he pays rent to the corporation. How can -you own water really? It's always flowing in a stream, never the same, -which in the stream of life we trace. Because life is a stream. All kinds -of places are good for ads. That quack doctor for the clap used to be -stuck up in all the greenhouses. Never see it now. Strictly confidential. -Dr Hy Franks. Didn't cost him a red like Maginni the dancing master self -advertisement. Got fellows to stick them up or stick them up himself for -that matter on the q. t. running in to loosen a button. Flybynight. Just -the place too. POST NO BILLS. POST 110 PILLS. Some chap with a dose -burning him. - -If he ...? - -O! - -Eh? - -No ... No. - -No, no. I don't believe it. He wouldn't surely? - -No, no. - -Mr Bloom moved forward, raising his troubled eyes. Think no more about -that. After one. Timeball on the ballastoffice is down. Dunsink time. -Fascinating little book that is of sir Robert Ball's. Parallax. I never -exactly understood. There's a priest. Could ask him. Par it's Greek: -parallel, parallax. Met him pike hoses she called it till I told her about -the transmigration. O rocks! - -Mr Bloom smiled O rocks at two windows of the ballastoffice. She's -right after all. Only big words for ordinary things on account of the -sound. She's not exactly witty. Can be rude too. Blurt out what I was -thinking. Still, I don't know. She used to say Ben Dollard had a base -barreltone voice. He has legs like barrels and you'd think he was singing -into a barrel. Now, isn't that wit. They used to call him big Ben. Not -half as witty as calling him base barreltone. Appetite like an albatross. -Get outside of a baron of beef. Powerful man he was at stowing away number -one Bass. Barrel of Bass. See? It all works out. - - - A procession of whitesmocked sandwichmen marched slowly towards -him along the gutter, scarlet sashes across their boards. Bargains. Like -that priest they are this morning: we have sinned: we have suffered. He -read the scarlet letters on their five tall white hats: H. E. L. Y. S. -Wisdom Hely's. Y lagging behind drew a chunk of bread from under his -foreboard, crammed it into his mouth and munched as he walked. Our staple -food. Three bob a day, walking along the gutters, street after street. -Just keep skin and bone together, bread and skilly. They are not Boyl: -no, M Glade's men. Doesn't bring in any business either. I suggested -to him about a transparent showcart with two smart girls sitting -inside writing letters, copybooks, envelopes, blottingpaper. I bet that -would have caught on. Smart girls writing something catch the eye at once. -Everyone dying to know what she's writing. Get twenty of them round you -if you stare at nothing. Have a finger in the pie. Women too. Curiosity. -Pillar of salt. Wouldn't have it of course because he didn't think -of it himself first. Or the inkbottle I suggested with a false stain -of black celluloid. His ideas for ads like Plumtree's potted under -the obituaries, cold meat department. You can't lick 'em. What? Our -envelopes. Hello, Jones, where are you going? Can't stop, Robinson, -I am hastening to purchase the only reliable inkeraser KANSELL, -sold by Hely's Ltd, 85 Dame street. Well out of that ruck I am. -Devil of a job it was collecting accounts of those convents. Tranquilla -convent. That was a nice nun there, really sweet face. Wimple suited her -small head. Sister? Sister? I am sure she was crossed in love by her eyes. -Very hard to bargain with that sort of a woman. I disturbed her at her -devotions that morning. But glad to communicate with the outside world. -Our great day, she said. Feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. Sweet name -too: caramel. She knew I, I think she knew by the way she. If she had -married she would have changed. I suppose they really were short of -money. Fried everything in the best butter all the same. No lard for them. -My heart's broke eating dripping. They like buttering themselves in and -out. Molly tasting it, her veil up. Sister? Pat Claffey, the pawnbroker's -daughter. It was a nun they say invented barbed wire. - -He crossed Westmoreland street when apostrophe S had plodded by. -Rover cycleshop. Those races are on today. How long ago is that? Year -Phil Gilligan died. We were in Lombard street west. Wait: was in Thom's. -Got the job in Wisdom Hely's year we married. Six years. Ten years ago: -ninetyfour he died yes that's right the big fire at Arnott's. Val Dillon -was lord mayor. The Glencree dinner. Alderman Robert O'Reilly emptying the -port into his soup before the flag fell. Bobbob lapping it for the inner -alderman. Couldn't hear what the band played. For what we have already -received may the Lord make us. Milly was a kiddy then. Molly had that -elephantgrey dress with the braided frogs. Mantailored with selfcovered -buttons. She didn't like it because I sprained my ankle first day she wore -choir picnic at the Sugarloaf. As if that. Old Goodwin's tall hat done up -with some sticky stuff. Flies' picnic too. Never put a dress on her back -like it. Fitted her like a glove, shoulders and hips. Just beginning to -plump it out well. Rabbitpie we had that day. People looking after her. - -Happy. Happier then. Snug little room that was with the red -wallpaper. Dockrell's, one and ninepence a dozen. Milly's tubbing night. -American soap I bought: elderflower. Cosy smell of her bathwater. Funny -she looked soaped all over. Shapely too. Now photography. Poor papa's -daguerreotype atelier he told me of. Hereditary taste. - -He walked along the curbstone. - -Stream of life. What was the name of that priestylooking chap was -always squinting in when he passed? Weak eyes, woman. Stopped in -Citron's saint Kevin's parade. Pen something. Pendennis? My memory is -getting. Pen ...? Of course it's years ago. Noise of the trams probably. -Well, if he couldn't remember the dayfather's name that he sees every day. - -Bartell d'Arcy was the tenor, just coming out then. Seeing her home -after practice. Conceited fellow with his waxedup moustache. Gave her that -song WINDS THAT BLOW FROM THE SOUTH. - -Windy night that was I went to fetch her there was that lodge meeting -on about those lottery tickets after Goodwin's concert in the supperroom -or oakroom of the Mansion house. He and I behind. Sheet of her music blew -out of my hand against the High school railings. Lucky it didn't. Thing -like that spoils the effect of a night for her. Professor Goodwin linking -her in front. Shaky on his pins, poor old sot. His farewell concerts. -Positively last appearance on any stage. May be for months and may be for -never. Remember her laughing at the wind, her blizzard collar up. Corner -of Harcourt road remember that gust. Brrfoo! Blew up all her skirts and -her boa nearly smothered old Goodwin. She did get flushed in the wind. -Remember when we got home raking up the fire and frying up those pieces -of lap of mutton for her supper with the Chutney sauce she liked. And the -mulled rum. Could see her in the bedroom from the hearth unclamping the -busk of her stays: white. - -Swish and soft flop her stays made on the bed. Always warm from -her. Always liked to let her self out. Sitting there after till near two -taking out her hairpins. Milly tucked up in beddyhouse. Happy. Happy. -That was the night ... - ---O, Mr Bloom, how do you do? - ---O, how do you do, Mrs Breen? - ---No use complaining. How is Molly those times? Haven't seen her for ages. - ---In the pink, Mr Bloom said gaily. Milly has a position down in -Mullingar, you know. - ---Go away! Isn't that grand for her? - ---Yes. In a photographer's there. Getting on like a house on fire. How are -all your charges? - ---All on the baker's list, Mrs Breen said. - -How many has she? No other in sight. - ---You're in black, I see. You have no ... - ---No, Mr Bloom said. I have just come from a funeral. - -Going to crop up all day, I foresee. Who's dead, when and what did -he die of? Turn up like a bad penny. - ---O, dear me, Mrs Breen said. I hope it wasn't any near relation. - -May as well get her sympathy. - ---Dignam, Mr Bloom said. An old friend of mine. He died quite suddenly, -poor fellow. Heart trouble, I believe. Funeral was this morning. - - - YOUR FUNERAL'S TOMORROW - WHILE YOU'RE COMING THROUGH THE RYE. - DIDDLEDIDDLE DUMDUM - DIDDLEDIDDLE ... - - ---Sad to lose the old friends, Mrs Breen's womaneyes said melancholily. - -Now that's quite enough about that. Just: quietly: husband. - ---And your lord and master? - -Mrs Breen turned up her two large eyes. Hasn't lost them anyhow. - ---O, don't be talking! she said. He's a caution to rattlesnakes. He's in -there now with his lawbooks finding out the law of libel. He has me -heartscalded. Wait till I show you. - -Hot mockturtle vapour and steam of newbaked jampuffs rolypoly -poured out from Harrison's. The heavy noonreek tickled the top of Mr -Bloom's gullet. Want to make good pastry, butter, best flour, Demerara -sugar, or they'd taste it with the hot tea. Or is it from her? A barefoot -arab stood over the grating, breathing in the fumes. Deaden the gnaw of -hunger that way. Pleasure or pain is it? Penny dinner. Knife and fork -chained to the table. - -Opening her handbag, chipped leather. Hatpin: ought to have a -guard on those things. Stick it in a chap's eye in the tram. Rummaging. -Open. Money. Please take one. Devils if they lose sixpence. Raise Cain. -Husband barging. Where's the ten shillings I gave you on Monday? Are -you feeding your little brother's family? Soiled handkerchief: -medicinebottle. Pastille that was fell. What is she? ... - ---There must be a new moon out, she said. He's always bad then. Do you -know what he did last night? - -Her hand ceased to rummage. Her eyes fixed themselves on him, wide -in alarm, yet smiling. - ---What? Mr Bloom asked. - -Let her speak. Look straight in her eyes. I believe you. Trust me. - ---Woke me up in the night, she said. Dream he had, a nightmare. - -Indiges. - ---Said the ace of spades was walking up the stairs. - ---The ace of spades! Mr Bloom said. - -She took a folded postcard from her handbag. - ---Read that, she said. He got it this morning. - ---What is it? Mr Bloom asked, taking the card. U.P.? - ---U.P.: up, she said. Someone taking a rise out of him. It's a great shame -for them whoever he is. - ---Indeed it is, Mr Bloom said. - -She took back the card, sighing. - ---And now he's going round to Mr Menton's office. He's going to take an -action for ten thousand pounds, he says. - -She folded the card into her untidy bag and snapped the catch. - -Same blue serge dress she had two years ago, the nap bleaching. Seen -its best days. Wispish hair over her ears. And that dowdy toque: three old -grapes to take the harm out of it. Shabby genteel. She used to be a tasty -dresser. Lines round her mouth. Only a year or so older than Molly. - -See the eye that woman gave her, passing. Cruel. The unfair sex. - -He looked still at her, holding back behind his look his discontent. -Pungent mockturtle oxtail mulligatawny. I'm hungry too. Flakes of pastry -on the gusset of her dress: daub of sugary flour stuck to her cheek. -Rhubarb tart with liberal fillings, rich fruit interior. Josie Powell that -was. In Luke Doyle's long ago. Dolphin's Barn, the charades. U.P.: up. - -Change the subject. - ---Do you ever see anything of Mrs Beaufoy? Mr Bloom asked. - ---Mina Purefoy? she said. - -Philip Beaufoy I was thinking. Playgoers' Club. Matcham often -thinks of the masterstroke. Did I pull the chain? Yes. The last act. - ---Yes. - ---I just called to ask on the way in is she over it. She's in the lying-in -hospital in Holles street. Dr Horne got her in. She's three days bad now. - ---O, Mr Bloom said. I'm sorry to hear that. - ---Yes, Mrs Breen said. And a houseful of kids at home. It's a very stiff -birth, the nurse told me. - ----O, Mr Bloom said. - -His heavy pitying gaze absorbed her news. His tongue clacked in -compassion. Dth! Dth! - ---I'm sorry to hear that, he said. Poor thing! Three days! That's terrible -for her. - -Mrs Breen nodded. - ---She was taken bad on the Tuesday ... - -Mr Bloom touched her funnybone gently, warning her: - ---Mind! Let this man pass. - -A bony form strode along the curbstone from the river staring with a -rapt gaze into the sunlight through a heavystringed glass. Tight as a -skullpiece a tiny hat gripped his head. From his arm a folded dustcoat, a -stick and an umbrella dangled to his stride. - ---Watch him, Mr Bloom said. He always walks outside the lampposts. Watch! - ---Who is he if it's a fair question? Mrs Breen asked. Is he dotty? - ---His name is Cashel Boyle O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell, Mr -Bloom said smiling. Watch! - ---He has enough of them, she said. Denis will be like that one of these -days. - -She broke off suddenly. - ---There he is, she said. I must go after him. Goodbye. Remember me to -Molly, won't you? - ---I will, Mr Bloom said. - -He watched her dodge through passers towards the shopfronts. Denis -Breen in skimpy frockcoat and blue canvas shoes shuffled out of Harrison's -hugging two heavy tomes to his ribs. Blown in from the bay. Like old -times. He suffered her to overtake him without surprise and thrust his -dull grey beard towards her, his loose jaw wagging as he spoke earnestly. - -Meshuggah. Off his chump. - -Mr Bloom walked on again easily, seeing ahead of him in sunlight the -tight skullpiece, the dangling stickumbrelladustcoat. Going the two days. -Watch him! Out he goes again. One way of getting on in the world. And -that other old mosey lunatic in those duds. Hard time she must have with -him. - -U.P.: up. I'll take my oath that's Alf Bergan or Richie Goulding. -Wrote it for a lark in the Scotch house I bet anything. Round to Menton's -office. His oyster eyes staring at the postcard. Be a feast for the gods. - -He passed the IRISH TIMES. There might be other answers Iying there. -Like to answer them all. Good system for criminals. Code. At their lunch -now. Clerk with the glasses there doesn't know me. O, leave them there to -simmer. Enough bother wading through fortyfour of them. Wanted, smart -lady typist to aid gentleman in literary work. I called you naughty -darling because I do not like that other world. Please tell me what is the -meaning. Please tell me what perfume does your wife. Tell me who made the -world. The way they spring those questions on you. And the other one -Lizzie Twigg. My literary efforts have had the good fortune to meet with -the approval of the eminent poet A. E. (Mr Geo. Russell). No time to do -her hair drinking sloppy tea with a book of poetry. - -Best paper by long chalks for a small ad. Got the provinces now. -Cook and general, exc. cuisine, housemaid kept. Wanted live man for spirit -counter. Resp. girl (R.C.) wishes to hear of post in fruit or pork shop. -James Carlisle made that. Six and a half per cent dividend. Made a big -deal on Coates's shares. Ca' canny. Cunning old Scotch hunks. All the -toady news. Our gracious and popular vicereine. Bought the IRISH FIELD -now. Lady Mountcashel has quite recovered after her confinement and rode -out with the Ward Union staghounds at the enlargement yesterday at -Rathoath. Uneatable fox. Pothunters too. Fear injects juices make it -tender enough for them. Riding astride. Sit her horse like a man. -Weightcarrying huntress. No sidesaddle or pillion for her, not for Joe. -First to the meet and in at the death. Strong as a brood mare some of -those horsey women. Swagger around livery stables. Toss off a glass of -brandy neat while you'd say knife. That one at the Grosvenor this morning. -Up with her on the car: wishswish. Stonewall or fivebarred gate -put her mount to it. Think that pugnosed driver did it out of spite. -Who is this she was like? O yes! Mrs Miriam Dandrade that sold me -her old wraps and black underclothes in the Shelbourne hotel. -Divorced Spanish American. Didn't take a feather out of her -my handling them. As if I was her clotheshorse. Saw her in the -viceregal party when Stubbs the park ranger got me in with Whelan of the -EXPRESS. Scavenging what the quality left. High tea. Mayonnaise I poured -on the plums thinking it was custard. Her ears ought to have tingled for a -few weeks after. Want to be a bull for her. Born courtesan. No nursery -work for her, thanks. - -Poor Mrs Purefoy! Methodist husband. Method in his madness. -Saffron bun and milk and soda lunch in the educational dairy. Y. M. C. A. -Eating with a stopwatch, thirtytwo chews to the minute. And still his -muttonchop whiskers grew. Supposed to be well connected. Theodore's -cousin in Dublin Castle. One tony relative in every family. Hardy annuals -he presents her with. Saw him out at the Three Jolly Topers marching along -bareheaded and his eldest boy carrying one in a marketnet. The squallers. -Poor thing! Then having to give the breast year after year all hours of -the night. Selfish those t.t's are. Dog in the manger. Only one lump of -sugar in my tea, if you please. - -He stood at Fleet street crossing. Luncheon interval. A sixpenny at -Rowe's? Must look up that ad in the national library. An eightpenny in the -Burton. Better. On my way. - -He walked on past Bolton's Westmoreland house. Tea. Tea. Tea. I forgot -to tap Tom Kernan. - -Sss. Dth, dth, dth! Three days imagine groaning on a bed with a -vinegared handkerchief round her forehead, her belly swollen out. Phew! -Dreadful simply! Child's head too big: forceps. Doubled up inside her -trying to butt its way out blindly, groping for the way out. Kill me that -would. Lucky Molly got over hers lightly. They ought to invent something -to stop that. Life with hard labour. Twilight sleep idea: queen Victoria -was given that. Nine she had. A good layer. Old woman that lived in a shoe -she had so many children. Suppose he was consumptive. Time someone thought -about it instead of gassing about the what was it the pensive bosom of the -silver effulgence. Flapdoodle to feed fools on. They could easily have big -establishments whole thing quite painless out of all the taxes give every -child born five quid at compound interest up to twentyone five per cent is -a hundred shillings and five tiresome pounds multiply by twenty decimal -system encourage people to put by money save hundred and ten and a bit -twentyone years want to work it out on paper come to a tidy sum more than -you think. - -Not stillborn of course. They are not even registered. Trouble for -nothing. - -Funny sight two of them together, their bellies out. Molly and Mrs -Moisel. Mothers' meeting. Phthisis retires for the time being, then -returns. How flat they look all of a sudden after. Peaceful eyes. -Weight off their mind. Old Mrs Thornton was a jolly old soul. All -my babies, she said. The spoon of pap in her mouth before she fed -them. O, that's nyumnyum. Got her hand crushed by old Tom Wall's son. -His first bow to the public. Head like a prize pumpkin. Snuffy Dr Murren. -People knocking them up at all hours. For God' sake, doctor. Wife in -her throes. Then keep them waiting months for their fee. To attendance -on your wife. No gratitude in people. Humane doctors, most of them. - -Before the huge high door of the Irish house of parliament a flock of -pigeons flew. Their little frolic after meals. Who will we do it on? I -pick the fellow in black. Here goes. Here's good luck. Must be thrilling -from the air. Apjohn, myself and Owen Goldberg up in the trees near Goose -green playing the monkeys. Mackerel they called me. - -A squad of constables debouched from College street, marching in -Indian file. Goosestep. Foodheated faces, sweating helmets, patting their -truncheons. After their feed with a good load of fat soup under their -belts. Policeman's lot is oft a happy one. They split up in groups and -scattered, saluting, towards their beats. Let out to graze. Best moment to -attack one in pudding time. A punch in his dinner. A squad of others, -marching irregularly, rounded Trinity railings making for the station. -Bound for their troughs. Prepare to receive cavalry. Prepare to receive -soup. - -He crossed under Tommy Moore's roguish finger. They did right to -put him up over a urinal: meeting of the waters. Ought to be places for -women. Running into cakeshops. Settle my hat straight. THERE IS NOT IN -THIS WIDE WORLD A VALLEE. Great song of Julia Morkan's. Kept her voice up -to the very last. Pupil of Michael Balfe's, wasn't she? - -He gazed after the last broad tunic. Nasty customers to tackle. Jack -Power could a tale unfold: father a G man. If a fellow gave them trouble -being lagged they let him have it hot and heavy in the bridewell. Can't -blame them after all with the job they have especially the young hornies. -That horsepoliceman the day Joe Chamberlain was given his degree in -Trinity he got a run for his money. My word he did! His horse's hoofs -clattering after us down Abbey street. Lucky I had the presence of mind to -dive into Manning's or I was souped. He did come a wallop, by George. -Must have cracked his skull on the cobblestones. I oughtn't to have got -myself swept along with those medicals. And the Trinity jibs in their -mortarboards. Looking for trouble. Still I got to know that young Dixon -who dressed that sting for me in the Mater and now he's in Holles street -where Mrs Purefoy. Wheels within wheels. Police whistle in my ears still. -All skedaddled. Why he fixed on me. Give me in charge. Right here it -began. - ---Up the Boers! - ---Three cheers for De Wet! - ---We'll hang Joe Chamberlain on a sourapple tree. - -Silly billies: mob of young cubs yelling their guts out. Vinegar hill. -The Butter exchange band. Few years' time half of them magistrates and -civil servants. War comes on: into the army helterskelter: same fellows -used to. Whether on the scaffold high. - -Never know who you're talking to. Corny Kelleher he has Harvey -Duff in his eye. Like that Peter or Denis or James Carey that blew the -gaff on the invincibles. Member of the corporation too. Egging raw youths -on to get in the know all the time drawing secret service pay from the -castle. Drop him like a hot potato. Why those plainclothes men are always -courting slaveys. Easily twig a man used to uniform. Squarepushing up -against a backdoor. Maul her a bit. Then the next thing on the menu. And -who is the gentleman does be visiting there? Was the young master saying -anything? Peeping Tom through the keyhole. Decoy duck. Hotblooded young -student fooling round her fat arms ironing. - ---Are those yours, Mary? - ---I don't wear such things ... Stop or I'll tell the missus on you. -Out half the night. - ---There are great times coming, Mary. Wait till you see. - ---Ah, gelong with your great times coming. - -Barmaids too. Tobaccoshopgirls. - -James Stephens' idea was the best. He knew them. Circles of ten so -that a fellow couldn't round on more than his own ring. Sinn Fein. Back -out you get the knife. Hidden hand. Stay in. The firing squad. Turnkey's -daughter got him out of Richmond, off from Lusk. Putting up in the -Buckingham Palace hotel under their very noses. Garibaldi. - -You must have a certain fascination: Parnell. Arthur Griffith is a -squareheaded fellow but he has no go in him for the mob. Or gas about our -lovely land. Gammon and spinach. Dublin Bakery Company's tearoom. -Debating societies. That republicanism is the best form of government. -That the language question should take precedence of the economic -question. Have your daughters inveigling them to your house. Stuff them -up with meat and drink. Michaelmas goose. Here's a good lump of thyme -seasoning under the apron for you. Have another quart of goosegrease -before it gets too cold. Halffed enthusiasts. Penny roll and a walk with -the band. No grace for the carver. The thought that the other chap pays -best sauce in the world. Make themselves thoroughly at home. Show us over -those apricots, meaning peaches. The not far distant day. Homerule sun -rising up in the northwest. - -His smile faded as he walked, a heavy cloud hiding the sun slowly, -shadowing Trinity's surly front. Trams passed one another, ingoing, -outgoing, clanging. Useless words. Things go on same, day after day: -squads of police marching out, back: trams in, out. Those two loonies -mooching about. Dignam carted off. Mina Purefoy swollen belly on a bed -groaning to have a child tugged out of her. One born every second -somewhere. Other dying every second. Since I fed the birds five minutes. -Three hundred kicked the bucket. Other three hundred born, washing the -blood off, all are washed in the blood of the lamb, bawling maaaaaa. - -Cityful passing away, other cityful coming, passing away too: other -coming on, passing on. Houses, lines of houses, streets, miles of -pavements, piledup bricks, stones. Changing hands. This owner, that. -Landlord never dies they say. Other steps into his shoes when he gets -his notice to quit. They buy the place up with gold and still they -have all the gold. Swindle in it somewhere. Piled up in cities, worn -away age after age. Pyramids in sand. Built on bread and onions. -Slaves Chinese wall. Babylon. Big stones left. Round towers. Rest rubble, -sprawling suburbs, jerrybuilt. Kerwan's mushroom houses built of breeze. -Shelter, for the night. - -No-one is anything. - -This is the very worst hour of the day. Vitality. Dull, gloomy: hate -this hour. Feel as if I had been eaten and spewed. - -Provost's house. The reverend Dr Salmon: tinned salmon. Well -tinned in there. Like a mortuary chapel. Wouldn't live in it if they paid -me. Hope they have liver and bacon today. Nature abhors a vacuum. - -The sun freed itself slowly and lit glints of light among the silverware -opposite in Walter Sexton's window by which John Howard Parnell passed, -unseeing. - -There he is: the brother. Image of him. Haunting face. Now that's a -coincidence. Course hundreds of times you think of a person and don't -meet him. Like a man walking in his sleep. No-one knows him. Must be a -corporation meeting today. They say he never put on the city marshal's -uniform since he got the job. Charley Kavanagh used to come out on his -high horse, cocked hat, puffed, powdered and shaved. Look at the -woebegone walk of him. Eaten a bad egg. Poached eyes on ghost. I have a -pain. Great man's brother: his brother's brother. He'd look nice on the -city charger. Drop into the D.B.C. probably for his coffee, play chess -there. His brother used men as pawns. Let them all go to pot. Afraid to -pass a remark on him. Freeze them up with that eye of his. That's the -fascination: the name. All a bit touched. Mad Fanny and his other sister -Mrs Dickinson driving about with scarlet harness. Bolt upright lik - surgeon M'Ardle. Still David Sheehy beat him for south Meath. -Apply for the Chiltern Hundreds and retire into public life. The patriot's -banquet. Eating orangepeels in the park. Simon Dedalus said when they put -him in parliament that Parnell would come back from the grave and lead -him out of the house of commons by the arm. - ---Of the twoheaded octopus, one of whose heads is the head upon which -the ends of the world have forgotten to come while the other speaks with a -Scotch accent. The tentacles ... - -They passed from behind Mr Bloom along the curbstone. Beard and -bicycle. Young woman. - -And there he is too. Now that's really a coincidence: second time. -Coming events cast their shadows before. With the approval of the eminent -poet, Mr Geo. Russell. That might be Lizzie Twigg with him. A. E.: what -does that mean? Initials perhaps. Albert Edward, Arthur Edmund, -Alphonsus Eb Ed El Esquire. What was he saying? The ends of the world -with a Scotch accent. Tentacles: octopus. Something occult: symbolism. -Holding forth. She's taking it all in. Not saying a word. To aid gentleman -in literary work. - -His eyes followed the high figure in homespun, beard and bicycle, a -listening woman at his side. Coming from the vegetarian. Only -weggebobbles and fruit. Don't eat a beefsteak. If you do the eyes of that -cow will pursue you through all eternity. They say it's healthier. -Windandwatery though. Tried it. Keep you on the run all day. Bad as a -bloater. Dreams all night. Why do they call that thing they gave me -nutsteak? Nutarians. Fruitarians. To give you the idea you are eating -rumpsteak. Absurd. Salty too. They cook in soda. Keep you sitting by the -tap all night. - -Her stockings are loose over her ankles. I detest that: so tasteless. -Those literary etherial people they are all. Dreamy, cloudy, symbolistic. -Esthetes they are. I wouldn't be surprised if it was that kind of food you -see produces the like waves of the brain the poetical. For example one of -those policemen sweating Irish stew into their shirts you couldn't squeeze -a line of poetry out of him. Don't know what poetry is even. Must be in a -certain mood. - - - THE DREAMY CLOUDY GULL - WAVES O'ER THE WATERS DULL. - - -He crossed at Nassau street corner and stood before the window of -Yeates and Son, pricing the fieldglasses. Or will I drop into old Harris's -and have a chat with young Sinclair? Wellmannered fellow. Probably at his -lunch. Must get those old glasses of mine set right. Goerz lenses six -guineas. Germans making their way everywhere. Sell on easy terms to -capture trade. Undercutting. Might chance on a pair in the railway lost -property office. Astonishing the things people leave behind them in trains -and cloakrooms. What do they be thinking about? Women too. Incredible. -Last year travelling to Ennis had to pick up that farmer's daughter's ba - and hand it to her at Limerick junction. Unclaimed money too. There's a -little watch up there on the roof of the bank to test those glasses by. - -His lids came down on the lower rims of his irides. Can't see it. If you -imagine it's there you can almost see it. Can't see it. - -He faced about and, standing between the awnings, held out his right -hand at arm's length towards the sun. Wanted to try that often. Yes: -completely. The tip of his little finger blotted out the sun's disk. Must -be the focus where the rays cross. If I had black glasses. Interesting. -There was a lot of talk about those sunspots when we were in Lombard -street west. Looking up from the back garden. Terrific explosions they -are. There will be a total eclipse this year: autumn some time. - -Now that I come to think of it that ball falls at Greenwich time. It's -the clock is worked by an electric wire from Dunsink. Must go out there -some first Saturday of the month. If I could get an introduction to -professor Joly or learn up something about his family. That would do to: -man always feels complimented. Flattery where least expected. Nobleman -proud to be descended from some king's mistress. His foremother. Lay it on -with a trowel. Cap in hand goes through the land. Not go in and blurt out -what you know you're not to: what's parallax? Show this gentleman the -door. - -Ah. - -His hand fell to his side again. - -Never know anything about it. Waste of time. Gasballs spinning -about, crossing each other, passing. Same old dingdong always. Gas: then -solid: then world: then cold: then dead shell drifting around, frozen -rock, like that pineapple rock. The moon. Must be a new moon out, she -said. I believe there is. - -He went on by la maison Claire. - -Wait. The full moon was the night we were Sunday fortnight exactly -there is a new moon. Walking down by the Tolka. Not bad for a Fairview -moon. She was humming. The young May moon she's beaming, love. He -other side of her. Elbow, arm. He. Glowworm's la-amp is gleaming, love. -Touch. Fingers. Asking. Answer. Yes. - -Stop. Stop. If it was it was. Must. - -Mr Bloom, quickbreathing, slowlier walking passed Adam court. - -With a keep quiet relief his eyes took note this is the street here -middle of the day of Bob Doran's bottle shoulders. On his annual bend, -M Coy said. They drink in order to say or do something or CHERCHEZ LA -FEMME. Up in the Coombe with chummies and streetwalkers and then the -rest of the year sober as a judge. - -Yes. Thought so. Sloping into the Empire. Gone. Plain soda would do -him good. Where Pat Kinsella had his Harp theatre before Whitbred ran -the Queen's. Broth of a boy. Dion Boucicault business with his -harvestmoon face in a poky bonnet. Three Purty Maids from School. How -time flies, eh? Showing long red pantaloons under his skirts. Drinkers, -drinking, laughed spluttering, their drink against their breath. More -power, Pat. Coarse red: fun for drunkards: guffaw and smoke. Take off that -white hat. His parboiled eyes. Where is he now? Beggar somewhere. The harp -that once did starve us all. - -I was happier then. Or was that I? Or am I now I? Twentyeight I was. -She twentythree. When we left Lombard street west something changed. -Could never like it again after Rudy. Can't bring back time. Like holding -water in your hand. Would you go back to then? Just beginning then. -Would you? Are you not happy in your home you poor little naughty boy? -Wants to sew on buttons for me. I must answer. Write it in the library. - -Grafton street gay with housed awnings lured his senses. Muslin -prints, silkdames and dowagers, jingle of harnesses, hoofthuds lowringing -in the baking causeway. Thick feet that woman has in the white stockings. -Hope the rain mucks them up on her. Countrybred chawbacon. All the beef -to the heels were in. Always gives a woman clumsy feet. Molly looks out of -plumb. - -He passed, dallying, the windows of Brown Thomas, silk mercers. -Cascades of ribbons. Flimsy China silks. A tilted urn poured from its -mouth a flood of bloodhued poplin: lustrous blood. The huguenots brought -that here. LA CAUSA E SANTA! Tara Tara. Great chorus that. Taree tara. -Must be washed in rainwater. Meyerbeer. Tara: bom bom bom. - -Pincushions. I'm a long time threatening to buy one. Sticking them all -over the place. Needles in window curtains. - -He bared slightly his left forearm. Scrape: nearly gone. Not today -anyhow. Must go back for that lotion. For her birthday perhaps. -Junejulyaugseptember eighth. Nearly three months off. Then she mightn't -like it. Women won't pick up pins. Say it cuts lo. - -Gleaming silks, petticoats on slim brass rails, rays of flat silk -stockings. - -Useless to go back. Had to be. Tell me all. - -High voices. Sunwarm silk. Jingling harnesses. All for a woman, -home and houses, silkwebs, silver, rich fruits spicy from Jaffa. Agendath -Netaim. Wealth of the world. - -A warm human plumpness settled down on his brain. His brain -yielded. Perfume of embraces all him assailed. With hungered flesh -obscurely, he mutely craved to adore. - -Duke street. Here we are. Must eat. The Burton. Feel better then. - -He turned Combridge's corner, still pursued. Jingling, hoofthuds. -Perfumed bodies, warm, full. All kissed, yielded: in deep summer fields, -tangled pressed grass, in trickling hallways of tenements, along sofas, -creaking beds. - ---Jack, love! - ---Darling! - ---Kiss me, Reggy! - ---My boy! - ---Love! - -His heart astir he pushed in the door of the Burton restaurant. Stink -gripped his trembling breath: pungent meatjuice, slush of greens. See the -animals feed. - -Men, men, men. - -Perched on high stools by the bar, hats shoved back, at the tables -calling for more bread no charge, swilling, wolfing gobfuls of sloppy -food, their eyes bulging, wiping wetted moustaches. A pallid suetfaced -young man polished his tumbler knife fork and spoon with his napkin. New -set of microbes. A man with an infant's saucestained napkin tucked round -him shovelled gurgling soup down his gullet. A man spitting back on his -plate: halfmasticated gristle: gums: no teeth to chewchewchew it. Chump -chop from the grill. Bolting to get it over. Sad booser's eyes. Bitten off -more than he can chew. Am I like that? See ourselves as others see us. -Hungry man is an angry man. Working tooth and jaw. Don't! O! A bone! That -last pagan king of Ireland Cormac in the schoolpoem choked himself at -Sletty southward of the Boyne. Wonder what he was eating. Something -galoptious. Saint Patrick converted him to Christianity. Couldn't swallow -it all however. - ---Roast beef and cabbage. - ---One stew. - -Smells of men. Spaton sawdust, sweetish warmish cigarette smoke, reek of -plug, spilt beer, men's beery piss, the stale of ferment. - -His gorge rose. - -Couldn't eat a morsel here. Fellow sharpening knife and fork to eat -all before him, old chap picking his tootles. Slight spasm, full, chewing -the cud. Before and after. Grace after meals. Look on this picture then on -that. Scoffing up stewgravy with sopping sippets of bread. Lick it off the -plate, man! Get out of this. - -He gazed round the stooled and tabled eaters, tightening the wings of -his nose. - ---Two stouts here. - ---One corned and cabbage. - -That fellow ramming a knifeful of cabbage down as if his life -depended on it. Good stroke. Give me the fidgets to look. Safer to eat -from his three hands. Tear it limb from limb. Second nature to him. Born -with a silver knife in his mouth. That's witty, I think. Or no. Silver -means born rich. Born with a knife. But then the allusion is lost. - -An illgirt server gathered sticky clattering plates. Rock, the head -bailiff, standing at the bar blew the foamy crown from his tankard. Well -up: it splashed yellow near his boot. A diner, knife and fork upright, -elbows on table, ready for a second helping stared towards the foodlift -across his stained square of newspaper. Other chap telling him something -with his mouth full. Sympathetic listener. Table talk. I munched hum un -thu Unchster Bunk un Munchday. Ha? Did you, faith? - -Mr Bloom raised two fingers doubtfully to his lips. His eyes said: - ---Not here. Don't see him. - -Out. I hate dirty eaters. - -He backed towards the door. Get a light snack in Davy Byrne's. Stopgap. -Keep me going. Had a good breakfast. - ---Roast and mashed here. - ---Pint of stout. - -Every fellow for his own, tooth and nail. Gulp. Grub. Gulp. Gobstuff. - -He came out into clearer air and turned back towards Grafton street. -Eat or be eaten. Kill! Kill! - -Suppose that communal kitchen years to come perhaps. All trotting -down with porringers and tommycans to be filled. Devour contents in the -street. John Howard Parnell example the provost of Trinity every mother's -son don't talk of your provosts and provost of Trinity women and children -cabmen priests parsons fieldmarshals archbishops. From Ailesbury road, -Clyde road, artisans' dwellings, north Dublin union, lord mayor in his -gingerbread coach, old queen in a bathchair. My plate's empty. After you -with our incorporated drinkingcup. Like sir Philip Crampton's fountain. -Rub off the microbes with your handkerchief. Next chap rubs on a new -batch with his. Father O'Flynn would make hares of them all. Have rows -all the same. All for number one. Children fighting for the scrapings of -the pot. Want a souppot as big as the Phoenix park. Harpooning flitches -and hindquarters out of it. Hate people all round you. City Arms hotel -TABLE D'HOTE she called it. Soup, joint and sweet. Never know whose -thoughts you're chewing. Then who'd wash up all the plates and forks? -Might be all feeding on tabloids that time. Teeth getting worse and worse. - -After all there's a lot in that vegetarian fine flavour of things from the -earth garlic of course it stinks after Italian organgrinders crisp of -onions mushrooms truffles. Pain to the animal too. Pluck and draw fowl. -Wretched brutes there at the cattlemarket waiting for the poleaxe to split -their skulls open. Moo. Poor trembling calves. Meh. Staggering bob. Bubble -and squeak. Butchers' buckets wobbly lights. Give us that brisket off the -hook. Plup. Rawhead and bloody bones. Flayed glasseyed sheep hung from -their haunches, sheepsnouts bloodypapered snivelling nosejam on sawdust. -Top and lashers going out. Don't maul them pieces, young one. - -Hot fresh blood they prescribe for decline. Blood always needed. -Insidious. Lick it up smokinghot, thick sugary. Famished ghosts. - -Ah, I'm hungry. - -He entered Davy Byrne's. Moral pub. He doesn't chat. Stands a -drink now and then. But in leapyear once in four. Cashed a cheque for me -once. - -What will I take now? He drew his watch. Let me see now. Shandygaff? - ---Hello, Bloom, Nosey Flynn said from his nook. - ---Hello, Flynn. - ---How's things? - ---Tiptop ... Let me see. I'll take a glass of burgundy and ... let -me see. - -Sardines on the shelves. Almost taste them by looking. Sandwich? -Ham and his descendants musterred and bred there. Potted meats. What is -home without Plumtree's potted meat? Incomplete. What a stupid ad! -Under the obituary notices they stuck it. All up a plumtree. Dignam's -potted meat. Cannibals would with lemon and rice. White missionary too -salty. Like pickled pork. Expect the chief consumes the parts of honour. -Ought to be tough from exercise. His wives in a row to watch the effect. -THERE WAS A RIGHT ROYAL OLD NIGGER. WHO ATE OR SOMETHING THE SOMETHINGS OF -THE REVEREND MR MACTRIGGER. With it an abode of bliss. Lord knows what -concoction. Cauls mouldy tripes windpipes faked and minced up. Puzzle -find the meat. Kosher. No meat and milk together. Hygiene that was what -they call now. Yom Kippur fast spring cleaning of inside. Peace and war -depend on some fellow's digestion. Religions. Christmas turkeys and geese. -Slaughter of innocents. Eat drink and be merry. Then casual wards full -after. Heads bandaged. Cheese digests all but itself. Mity cheese. - ---Have you a cheese sandwich? - ---Yes, sir. - -Like a few olives too if they had them. Italian I prefer. Good glass of -burgundy take away that. Lubricate. A nice salad, cool as a cucumber, Tom -Kernan can dress. Puts gusto into it. Pure olive oil. Milly served me that -cutlet with a sprig of parsley. Take one Spanish onion. God made food, the -devil the cooks. Devilled crab. - ---Wife well? - ---Quite well, thanks ... A cheese sandwich, then. Gorgonzola, have you? - ---Yes, sir. - -Nosey Flynn sipped his grog. - ---Doing any singing those times? - -Look at his mouth. Could whistle in his own ear. Flap ears to match. -Music. Knows as much about it as my coachman. Still better tell him. Does -no harm. Free ad. - ---She's engaged for a big tour end of this month. You may have heard -perhaps. - ---No. O, that's the style. Who's getting it up? - -The curate served. - ---How much is that? - ---Seven d., sir ... Thank you, sir. - -Mr Bloom cut his sandwich into slender strips. MR MACTRIGGER. Easier -than the dreamy creamy stuff. HIS FIVE HUNDRED WIVES. HAD THE TIME OF -THEIR LIVES. - ---Mustard, sir? - ---Thank you. - -He studded under each lifted strip yellow blobs. THEIR LIVES. I have it. -IT GREW BIGGER AND BIGGER AND BIGGER. - ---Getting it up? he said. Well, it's like a company idea, you see. Part -shares and part profits. - ---Ay, now I remember, Nosey Flynn said, putting his hand in his pocket to -scratch his groin. Who is this was telling me? Isn't Blazes Boylan mixed -up in it? - -A warm shock of air heat of mustard hanched on Mr Bloom's heart. -He raised his eyes and met the stare of a bilious clock. Two. Pub clock -five minutes fast. Time going on. Hands moving. Two. Not yet. - -His midriff yearned then upward, sank within him, yearned more longly, -longingly. - -Wine. - -He smellsipped the cordial juice and, bidding his throat strongly to -speed it, set his wineglass delicately down. - ---Yes, he said. He's the organiser in point of fact. - -No fear: no brains. - -Nosey Flynn snuffled and scratched. Flea having a good square meal. - ---He had a good slice of luck, Jack Mooney was telling me, over that -boxingmatch Myler Keogh won again that soldier in the Portobello -barracks. By God, he had the little kipper down in the county Carlow he -was telling me ... - -Hope that dewdrop doesn't come down into his glass. No, snuffled it -up. - ---For near a month, man, before it came off. Sucking duck eggs by God till -further orders. Keep him off the boose, see? O, by God, Blazes is a hairy -chap. - -Davy Byrne came forward from the hindbar in tuckstitched -shirtsleeves, cleaning his lips with two wipes of his napkin. Herring's -blush. Whose smile upon each feature plays with such and such replete. -Too much fat on the parsnips. - ---And here's himself and pepper on him, Nosey Flynn said. Can you give -us a good one for the Gold cup? - ---I'm off that, Mr Flynn, Davy Byrne answered. I never put anything on a -horse. - ---You're right there, Nosey Flynn said. - -Mr Bloom ate his strips of sandwich, fresh clean bread, with relish of -disgust pungent mustard, the feety savour of green cheese. Sips of his -wine soothed his palate. Not logwood that. Tastes fuller this weather with -the chill off. - -Nice quiet bar. Nice piece of wood in that counter. Nicely planed. -Like the way it curves there. - ---I wouldn't do anything at all in that line, Davy Byrne said. It ruined -many a man, the same horses. - -Vintners' sweepstake. Licensed for the sale of beer, wine and spirits -for consumption on the premises. Heads I win tails you lose. - ---True for you, Nosey Flynn said. Unless you're in the know. There's no -straight sport going now. Lenehan gets some good ones. He's giving -Sceptre today. Zinfandel's the favourite, lord Howard de Walden's, won at -Epsom. Morny Cannon is riding him. I could have got seven to one against -Saint Amant a fortnight before. - ---That so? Davy Byrne said ... - -He went towards the window and, taking up the pettycash book, scanned -its pages. - ---I could, faith, Nosey Flynn said, snuffling. That was a rare bit of -horseflesh. Saint Frusquin was her sire. She won in a thunderstorm, -Rothschild's filly, with wadding in her ears. Blue jacket and yellow cap. -Bad luck to big Ben Dollard and his John O'Gaunt. He put me off it. Ay. - -He drank resignedly from his tumbler, running his fingers down the flutes. - ---Ay, he said, sighing. - -Mr Bloom, champing, standing, looked upon his sigh. Nosey -numbskull. Will I tell him that horse Lenehan? He knows already. Better -let him forget. Go and lose more. Fool and his money. Dewdrop coming down -again. Cold nose he'd have kissing a woman. Still they might like. Prickly -beards they like. Dogs' cold noses. Old Mrs Riordan with the rumbling -stomach's Skye terrier in the City Arms hotel. Molly fondling him in her -lap. O, the big doggybowwowsywowsy! - -Wine soaked and softened rolled pith of bread mustard a moment -mawkish cheese. Nice wine it is. Taste it better because I'm not thirsty. -Bath of course does that. Just a bite or two. Then about six o'clock I can. -Six. Six. Time will be gone then. She ... - -Mild fire of wine kindled his veins. I wanted that badly. Felt so off -colour. His eyes unhungrily saw shelves of tins: sardines, gaudy -lobsters' claws. All the odd things people pick up for food. Out of -shells, periwinkles with a pin, off trees, snails out of the ground the -French eat, out of the sea with bait on a hook. Silly fish learn nothing -in a thousand years. If you didn't know risky putting anything into your -mouth. Poisonous berries. Johnny Magories. Roundness you think good. -Gaudy colour warns you off. One fellow told another and so on. Try it on -the dog first. Led on by the smell or the look. Tempting fruit. Ice -cones. Cream. Instinct. Orangegroves for instance. Need artificial -irrigation. Bleibtreustrasse. Yes but what about oysters. Unsightly like -a clot of phlegm. Filthy shells. Devil to open them too. Who found them -out? Garbage, sewage they feed on. Fizz and Red bank oysters. Effect on -the sexual. Aphrodis. He was in the Red Bank this morning. Was he oysters -old fish at table perhaps he young flesh in bed no June has no ar no -oysters. But there are people like things high. Tainted game. Jugged -hare. First catch your hare. Chinese eating eggs fifty years old, blue -and green again. Dinner of thirty courses. Each dish harmless might mix -inside. Idea for a poison mystery. That archduke Leopold was it no yes or -was it Otto one of those Habsburgs? Or who was it used to eat the scruff -off his own head? Cheapest lunch in town. Of course aristocrats, then the -others copy to be in the fashion. Milly too rock oil and flour. Raw -pastry I like myself. Half the catch of oysters they throw back in the -sea to keep up the price. Cheap no-one would buy. Caviare. Do the grand. -Hock in green glasses. Swell blowout. Lady this. Powdered bosom pearls. -The ELITE. CREME DE LA CREME. They want special dishes to pretend -they're. Hermit with a platter of pulse keep down the stings of the -flesh. Know me come eat with me. Royal sturgeon high sheriff, Coffey, the -butcher, right to venisons of the forest from his ex. Send him back the -half of a cow. Spread I saw down in the Master of the Rolls' kitchen -area. Whitehatted CHEF like a rabbi. Combustible duck. Curly cabbage A LA -DUCHESSE DE PARME. Just as well to write it on the bill of fare so you -can know what you've eaten. Too many drugs spoil the broth. I know it -myself. Dosing it with Edwards' desiccated soup. Geese stuffed silly for -them. Lobsters boiled alive. Do ptake some ptarmigan. Wouldn't mind being -a waiter in a swell hotel. Tips, evening dress, halfnaked ladies. May I -tempt you to a little more filleted lemon sole, miss Dubedat? Yes, do -bedad. And she did bedad. Huguenot name I expect that. A miss Dubedat -lived in Killiney, I remember. DU, DE LA French. Still it's the same fish -perhaps old Micky Hanlon of Moore street ripped the guts out of making -money hand over fist finger in fishes' gills can't write his name on a -cheque think he was painting the landscape with his mouth twisted. -Moooikill A Aitcha Ha ignorant as a kish of brogues, worth fifty thousand -pounds. - -Stuck on the pane two flies buzzed, stuck. - -Glowing wine on his palate lingered swallowed. Crushing in the winepress -grapes of Burgundy. Sun's heat it is. Seems to a secret touch telling me -memory. Touched his sense moistened remembered. Hidden under wild ferns -on Howth below us bay sleeping: sky. No sound. The sky. The bay purple by -the Lion's head. Green by Drumleck. Yellowgreen towards Sutton. Fields of -undersea, the lines faint brown in grass, buried cities. Pillowed on my -coat she had her hair, earwigs in the heather scrub my hand under her -nape, you'll toss me all. O wonder! Coolsoft with ointments her hand -touched me, caressed: her eyes upon me did not turn away. Ravished over -her I lay, full lips full open, kissed her mouth. Yum. Softly she gave me -in my mouth the seedcake warm and chewed. Mawkish pulp her mouth had -mumbled sweetsour of her spittle. Joy: I ate it: joy. Young life, her -lips that gave me pouting. Soft warm sticky gumjelly lips. Flowers her -eyes were, take me, willing eyes. Pebbles fell. She lay still. A goat. -No-one. High on Ben Howth rhododendrons a nannygoat walking surefooted, -dropping currants. Screened under ferns she laughed warmfolded. Wildly I -lay on her, kissed her: eyes, her lips, her stretched neck beating, -woman's breasts full in her blouse of nun's veiling, fat nipples upright. -Hot I tongued her. She kissed me. I was kissed. All yielding she tossed -my hair. Kissed, she kissed me. - -Me. And me now. - -Stuck, the flies buzzed. - -His downcast eyes followed the silent veining of the oaken slab. Beauty: -it curves: curves are beauty. Shapely goddesses, Venus, Juno: curves the -world admires. Can see them library museum standing in the round hall, -naked goddesses. Aids to digestion. They don't care what man looks. All -to see. Never speaking. I mean to say to fellows like Flynn. Suppose she -did Pygmalion and Galatea what would she say first? Mortal! Put you in -your proper place. Quaffing nectar at mess with gods golden dishes, all -ambrosial. Not like a tanner lunch we have, boiled mutton, carrots and -turnips, bottle of Allsop. Nectar imagine it drinking electricity: gods' -food. Lovely forms of women sculped Junonian. Immortal lovely. And we -stuffing food in one hole and out behind: food, chyle, blood, dung, -earth, food: have to feed it like stoking an engine. They have no. Never -looked. I'll look today. Keeper won't see. Bend down let something drop -see if she. - -Dribbling a quiet message from his bladder came to go to do not to do -there to do. A man and ready he drained his glass to the lees and walked, -to men too they gave themselves, manly conscious, lay with men lovers, a -youth enjoyed her, to the yard. - -When the sound of his boots had ceased Davy Byrne said from his book: - ---What is this he is? Isn't he in the insurance line? - ---He's out of that long ago, Nosey Flynn said. He does canvassing for the -FREEMAN. - ---I know him well to see, Davy Byrne said. Is he in trouble? - ---Trouble? Nosey Flynn said. Not that I heard of. Why? - ---I noticed he was in mourning. - ---Was he? Nosey Flynn said. So he was, faith. I asked him how was all at -home. You're right, by God. So he was. - ---I never broach the subject, Davy Byrne said humanely, if I see a -gentleman is in trouble that way. It only brings it up fresh in their -minds. - ---It's not the wife anyhow, Nosey Flynn said. I met him the day before -yesterday and he coming out of that Irish farm dairy John Wyse Nolan's -wife has in Henry street with a jar of cream in his hand taking it home -to his better half. She's well nourished, I tell you. Plovers on toast. - ---And is he doing for the FREEMAN? Davy Byrne said. - -Nosey Flynn pursed his lips. - ----He doesn't buy cream on the ads he picks up. You can make bacon of -that. - ---How so? Davy Byrne asked, coming from his book. - -Nosey Flynn made swift passes in the air with juggling fingers. He -winked. - ---He's in the craft, he said. - ----Do you tell me so? Davy Byrne said. - ---Very much so, Nosey Flynn said. Ancient free and accepted order. He's -an excellent brother. Light, life and love, by God. They give him a leg -up. I was told that by a--well, I won't say who. - ---Is that a fact? - ---O, it's a fine order, Nosey Flynn said. They stick to you when you're -down. I know a fellow was trying to get into it. But they're as close as -damn it. By God they did right to keep the women out of it. - -Davy Byrne smiledyawnednodded all in one: - ---Iiiiiichaaaaaaach! - ---There was one woman, Nosey Flynn said, hid herself in a clock to find -out what they do be doing. But be damned but they smelt her out and swore -her in on the spot a master mason. That was one of the saint Legers of -Doneraile. - -Davy Byrne, sated after his yawn, said with tearwashed eyes: - ---And is that a fact? Decent quiet man he is. I often saw him in here and -I never once saw him--you know, over the line. - ---God Almighty couldn't make him drunk, Nosey Flynn said firmly. Slips -off when the fun gets too hot. Didn't you see him look at his watch? Ah, -you weren't there. If you ask him to have a drink first thing he does he -outs with the watch to see what he ought to imbibe. Declare to God he -does. - ---There are some like that, Davy Byrne said. He's a safe man, I'd say. - ---He's not too bad, Nosey Flynn said, snuffling it up. He's been known to -put his hand down too to help a fellow. Give the devil his due. O, Bloom -has his good points. But there's one thing he'll never do. - -His hand scrawled a dry pen signature beside his grog. - ---I know, Davy Byrne said. - ---Nothing in black and white, Nosey Flynn said. - -Paddy Leonard and Bantam Lyons came in. Tom Rochford followed frowning, a -plaining hand on his claret waistcoat. - ---Day, Mr Byrne. - ---Day, gentlemen. - -They paused at the counter. - ---Who's standing? Paddy Leonard asked. - ---I'm sitting anyhow, Nosey Flynn answered. - ---Well, what'll it be? Paddy Leonard asked. - ---I'll take a stone ginger, Bantam Lyons said. - ---How much? Paddy Leonard cried. Since when, for God' sake? What's yours, -Tom? - ---How is the main drainage? Nosey Flynn asked, sipping. - -For answer Tom Rochford pressed his hand to his breastbone and hiccupped. - ---Would I trouble you for a glass of fresh water, Mr Byrne? he said. - ---Certainly, sir. - -Paddy Leonard eyed his alemates. - ---Lord love a duck, he said. Look at what I'm standing drinks to! Cold -water and gingerpop! Two fellows that would suck whisky off a sore leg. -He has some bloody horse up his sleeve for the Gold cup. A dead snip. - ---Zinfandel is it? Nosey Flynn asked. - -Tom Rochford spilt powder from a twisted paper into the water set before -him. - ---That cursed dyspepsia, he said before drinking. - ---Breadsoda is very good, Davy Byrne said. - -Tom Rochford nodded and drank. - ---Is it Zinfandel? - ---Say nothing! Bantam Lyons winked. I'm going to plunge five bob on my -own. - ---Tell us if you're worth your salt and be damned to you, Paddy Leonard -said. Who gave it to you? - -Mr Bloom on his way out raised three fingers in greeting. - ---So long! Nosey Flynn said. - -The others turned. - ---That's the man now that gave it to me, Bantam Lyons whispered. - ---Prrwht! Paddy Leonard said with scorn. Mr Byrne, sir, we'll take two of -your small Jamesons after that and a ... - ---Stone ginger, Davy Byrne added civilly. - ---Ay, Paddy Leonard said. A suckingbottle for the baby. - -Mr Bloom walked towards Dawson street, his tongue brushing his teeth -smooth. Something green it would have to be: spinach, say. Then with -those Rontgen rays searchlight you could. - -At Duke lane a ravenous terrier choked up a sick knuckly cud on the -cobblestones and lapped it with new zest. Surfeit. Returned with thanks -having fully digested the contents. First sweet then savoury. Mr Bloom -coasted warily. Ruminants. His second course. Their upper jaw they move. -Wonder if Tom Rochford will do anything with that invention of his? -Wasting time explaining it to Flynn's mouth. Lean people long mouths. -Ought to be a hall or a place where inventors could go in and invent -free. Course then you'd have all the cranks pestering. - -He hummed, prolonging in solemn echo the closes of the bars: - - - DON GIOVANNI, A CENAR TECO - M'INVITASTI. - - -Feel better. Burgundy. Good pick me up. Who distilled first? Some chap in -the blues. Dutch courage. That KILKENNY PEOPLE in the national library -now I must. - -Bare clean closestools waiting in the window of William Miller, plumber, -turned back his thoughts. They could: and watch it all the way down, -swallow a pin sometimes come out of the ribs years after, tour round the -body changing biliary duct spleen squirting liver gastric juice coils of -intestines like pipes. But the poor buffer would have to stand all the -time with his insides entrails on show. Science. - ---A CENAR TECO. - -What does that TECO mean? Tonight perhaps. - - - DON GIOVANNI, THOU HAST ME INVITED - TO COME TO SUPPER TONIGHT, - THE RUM THE RUMDUM. - - -Doesn't go properly. - -Keyes: two months if I get Nannetti to. That'll be two pounds ten about -two pounds eight. Three Hynes owes me. Two eleven. Prescott's dyeworks -van over there. If I get Billy Prescott's ad: two fifteen. Five guineas -about. On the pig's back. - -Could buy one of those silk petticoats for Molly, colour of her new -garters. - -Today. Today. Not think. - -Tour the south then. What about English wateringplaces? Brighton, -Margate. Piers by moonlight. Her voice floating out. Those lovely seaside -girls. Against John Long's a drowsing loafer lounged in heavy thought, -gnawing a crusted knuckle. Handy man wants job. Small wages. Will eat -anything. - -Mr Bloom turned at Gray's confectioner's window of unbought tarts and -passed the reverend Thomas Connellan's bookstore. WHY I LEFT THE CHURCH -OF ROME? BIRDS' NEST. Women run him. They say they used to give pauper -children soup to change to protestants in the time of the potato blight. -Society over the way papa went to for the conversion of poor jews. Same -bait. Why we left the church of Rome. - -A blind stripling stood tapping the curbstone with his slender cane. No -tram in sight. Wants to cross. - ---Do you want to cross? Mr Bloom asked. - -The blind stripling did not answer. His wallface frowned weakly. He moved -his head uncertainly. - ---You're in Dawson street, Mr Bloom said. Molesworth street is opposite. -Do you want to cross? There's nothing in the way. - -The cane moved out trembling to the left. Mr Bloom's eye followed its -line and saw again the dyeworks' van drawn up before Drago's. Where I saw -his brillantined hair just when I was. Horse drooping. Driver in John -Long's. Slaking his drouth. - ---There's a van there, Mr Bloom said, but it's not moving. I'll see you -across. Do you want to go to Molesworth street? - ---Yes, the stripling answered. South Frederick street. - ---Come, Mr Bloom said. - -He touched the thin elbow gently: then took the limp seeing hand to guide -it forward. - -Say something to him. Better not do the condescending. They mistrust what -you tell them. Pass a common remark. - ---The rain kept off. - -No answer. - -Stains on his coat. Slobbers his food, I suppose. Tastes all different -for him. Have to be spoonfed first. Like a child's hand, his hand. Like -Milly's was. Sensitive. Sizing me up I daresay from my hand. Wonder if he -has a name. Van. Keep his cane clear of the horse's legs: tired drudge -get his doze. That's right. Clear. Behind a bull: in front of a horse. - ---Thanks, sir. - -Knows I'm a man. Voice. - ---Right now? First turn to the left. - -The blind stripling tapped the curbstone and went on his way, drawing his -cane back, feeling again. - -Mr Bloom walked behind the eyeless feet, a flatcut suit of herringbone -tweed. Poor young fellow! How on earth did he know that van was there? -Must have felt it. See things in their forehead perhaps: kind of sense of -volume. Weight or size of it, something blacker than the dark. Wonder -would he feel it if something was removed. Feel a gap. Queer idea of -Dublin he must have, tapping his way round by the stones. Could he walk -in a beeline if he hadn't that cane? Bloodless pious face like a fellow -going in to be a priest. - -Penrose! That was that chap's name. - -Look at all the things they can learn to do. Read with their fingers. -Tune pianos. Or we are surprised they have any brains. Why we think a -deformed person or a hunchback clever if he says something we might say. -Of course the other senses are more. Embroider. Plait baskets. People -ought to help. Workbasket I could buy for Molly's birthday. Hates sewing. -Might take an objection. Dark men they call them. - -Sense of smell must be stronger too. Smells on all sides, bunched -together. Each street different smell. Each person too. Then the spring, -the summer: smells. Tastes? They say you can't taste wines with your eyes -shut or a cold in the head. Also smoke in the dark they say get no -pleasure. - -And with a woman, for instance. More shameless not seeing. That girl -passing the Stewart institution, head in the air. Look at me. I have them -all on. Must be strange not to see her. Kind of a form in his mind's eye. -The voice, temperatures: when he touches her with his fingers must almost -see the lines, the curves. His hands on her hair, for instance. Say it -was black, for instance. Good. We call it black. Then passing over her -white skin. Different feel perhaps. Feeling of white. - -Postoffice. Must answer. Fag today. Send her a postal order two -shillings, half a crown. Accept my little present. Stationer's just here -too. Wait. Think over it. - -With a gentle finger he felt ever so slowly the hair combed back above -his ears. Again. Fibres of fine fine straw. Then gently his finger felt -the skin of his right cheek. Downy hair there too. Not smooth enough. The -belly is the smoothest. No-one about. There he goes into Frederick -street. Perhaps to Levenston's dancing academy piano. Might be settling -my braces. - -Walking by Doran's publichouse he slid his hand between his waistcoat and -trousers and, pulling aside his shirt gently, felt a slack fold of his -belly. But I know it's whitey yellow. Want to try in the dark to see. - -He withdrew his hand and pulled his dress to. - -Poor fellow! Quite a boy. Terrible. Really terrible. What dreams would he -have, not seeing? Life a dream for him. Where is the justice being born -that way? All those women and children excursion beanfeast burned and -drowned in New York. Holocaust. Karma they call that transmigration for -sins you did in a past life the reincarnation met him pike hoses. Dear, -dear, dear. Pity, of course: but somehow you can't cotton on to them -someway. - -Sir Frederick Falkiner going into the freemasons' hall. Solemn as Troy. -After his good lunch in Earlsfort terrace. Old legal cronies cracking a -magnum. Tales of the bench and assizes and annals of the bluecoat school. -I sentenced him to ten years. I suppose he'd turn up his nose at that -stuff I drank. Vintage wine for them, the year marked on a dusty bottle. -Has his own ideas of justice in the recorder's court. Wellmeaning old -man. Police chargesheets crammed with cases get their percentage -manufacturing crime. Sends them to the rightabout. The devil on -moneylenders. Gave Reuben J. a great strawcalling. Now he's really what -they call a dirty jew. Power those judges have. Crusty old topers in -wigs. Bear with a sore paw. And may the Lord have mercy on your soul. - -Hello, placard. Mirus bazaar. His Excellency the lord lieutenant. -Sixteenth. Today it is. In aid of funds for Mercer's hospital. THE -MESSIAH was first given for that. Yes. Handel. What about going out -there: Ballsbridge. Drop in on Keyes. No use sticking to him like a -leech. Wear out my welcome. Sure to know someone on the gate. - -Mr Bloom came to Kildare street. First I must. Library. - -Straw hat in sunlight. Tan shoes. Turnedup trousers. It is. It is. - -His heart quopped softly. To the right. Museum. Goddesses. He swerved to -the right. - -Is it? Almost certain. Won't look. Wine in my face. Why did I? Too heady. -Yes, it is. The walk. Not see. Get on. - -Making for the museum gate with long windy steps he lifted his eyes. -Handsome building. Sir Thomas Deane designed. Not following me? - -Didn't see me perhaps. Light in his eyes. - -The flutter of his breath came forth in short sighs. Quick. Cold statues: -quiet there. Safe in a minute. - -No. Didn't see me. After two. Just at the gate. - -My heart! - -His eyes beating looked steadfastly at cream curves of stone. Sir Thomas -Deane was the Greek architecture. - -Look for something I. - -His hasty hand went quick into a pocket, took out, read unfolded Agendath -Netaim. Where did I? - -Busy looking. - -He thrust back quick Agendath. - -Afternoon she said. - -I am looking for that. Yes, that. Try all pockets. Handker. FREEMAN. -Where did I? Ah, yes. Trousers. Potato. Purse. Where? - -Hurry. Walk quietly. Moment more. My heart. - -His hand looking for the where did I put found in his hip pocket soap -lotion have to call tepid paper stuck. Ah soap there I yes. Gate. - -Safe! - - - * * * * * * * - - -Urbane, to comfort them, the quaker librarian purred: - ---And we have, have we not, those priceless pages of WILHELM MEISTER. A -great poet on a great brother poet. A hesitating soul taking arms against -a sea of troubles, torn by conflicting doubts, as one sees in real life. - -He came a step a sinkapace forward on neatsleather creaking and a step -backward a sinkapace on the solemn floor. - -A noiseless attendant setting open the door but slightly made him a -noiseless beck. - ---Directly, said he, creaking to go, albeit lingering. The beautiful -ineffectual dreamer who comes to grief against hard facts. One always -feels that Goethe's judgments are so true. True in the larger analysis. - -Twicreakingly analysis he corantoed off. Bald, most zealous by the door -he gave his large ear all to the attendant's words: heard them: and was -gone. - -Two left. - ---Monsieur de la Palice, Stephen sneered, was alive fifteen minutes -before his death. - ---Have you found those six brave medicals, John Eglinton asked with -elder's gall, to write PARADISE LOST at your dictation? THE SORROWS OF -SATAN he calls it. - -Smile. Smile Cranly's smile. - - - FIRST HE TICKLED HER - THEN HE PATTED HER - THEN HE PASSED THE FEMALE CATHETER. - FOR HE WAS A MEDICAL - JOLLY OLD MEDI ... - - ---I feel you would need one more for HAMLET. Seven is dear to the mystic -mind. The shining seven W.B. calls them. - -Glittereyed his rufous skull close to his greencapped desklamp sought the -face bearded amid darkgreener shadow, an ollav, holyeyed. He laughed low: -a sizar's laugh of Trinity: unanswered. - - - ORCHESTRAL SATAN, WEEPING MANY A ROOD - TEARS SUCH AS ANGELS WEEP. - ED EGLI AVEA DEL CUL FATTO TROMBETTA. - - -He holds my follies hostage. - -Cranly's eleven true Wicklowmen to free their sireland. Gaptoothed -Kathleen, her four beautiful green fields, the stranger in her house. And -one more to hail him: AVE, RABBI: the Tinahely twelve. In the shadow of -the glen he cooees for them. My soul's youth I gave him, night by night. -God speed. Good hunting. - -Mulligan has my telegram. - -Folly. Persist. - ---Our young Irish bards, John Eglinton censured, have yet to create a -figure which the world will set beside Saxon Shakespeare's Hamlet though -I admire him, as old Ben did, on this side idolatry. - ---All these questions are purely academic, Russell oracled out of his -shadow. I mean, whether Hamlet is Shakespeare or James I or Essex. -Clergymen's discussions of the historicity of Jesus. Art has to reveal to -us ideas, formless spiritual essences. The supreme question about a work -of art is out of how deep a life does it spring. The painting of Gustave -Moreau is the painting of ideas. The deepest poetry of Shelley, the words -of Hamlet bring our minds into contact with the eternal wisdom, Plato's -world of ideas. All the rest is the speculation of schoolboys for -schoolboys. - -A. E. has been telling some yankee interviewer. Wall, tarnation strike -me! - ---The schoolmen were schoolboys first, Stephen said superpolitely. -Aristotle was once Plato's schoolboy. - ---And has remained so, one should hope, John Eglinton sedately said. One -can see him, a model schoolboy with his diploma under his arm. - -He laughed again at the now smiling bearded face. - -Formless spiritual. Father, Word and Holy Breath. Allfather, the heavenly -man. Hiesos Kristos, magician of the beautiful, the Logos who suffers in -us at every moment. This verily is that. I am the fire upon the altar. I -am the sacrificial butter. - -Dunlop, Judge, the noblest Roman of them all, A.E., Arval, the Name -Ineffable, in heaven hight: K.H., their master, whose identity is no -secret to adepts. Brothers of the great white lodge always watching to -see if they can help. The Christ with the bridesister, moisture of light, -born of an ensouled virgin, repentant sophia, departed to the plane of -buddhi. The life esoteric is not for ordinary person. O.P. must work off -bad karma first. Mrs Cooper Oakley once glimpsed our very illustrious -sister H.P.B.'s elemental. - -O, fie! Out on't! PFUITEUFEL! You naughtn't to look, missus, so you -naughtn't when a lady's ashowing of her elemental. - -Mr Best entered, tall, young, mild, light. He bore in his hand with grace -a notebook, new, large, clean, bright. - ---That model schoolboy, Stephen said, would find Hamlet's musings about -the afterlife of his princely soul, the improbable, insignificant and -undramatic monologue, as shallow as Plato's. - -John Eglinton, frowning, said, waxing wroth: - ---Upon my word it makes my blood boil to hear anyone compare Aristotle -with Plato. - ---Which of the two, Stephen asked, would have banished me from his -commonwealth? - -Unsheathe your dagger definitions. Horseness is the whatness of allhorse. -Streams of tendency and eons they worship. God: noise in the street: very -peripatetic. Space: what you damn well have to see. Through spaces -smaller than red globules of man's blood they creepycrawl after Blake's -buttocks into eternity of which this vegetable world is but a shadow. -Hold to the now, the here, through which all future plunges to the past. - -Mr Best came forward, amiable, towards his colleague. - ---Haines is gone, he said. - ---Is he? - ---I was showing him Jubainville's book. He's quite enthusiastic, don't -you know, about Hyde's LOVESONGS OF CONNACHT. I couldn't bring him in to -hear the discussion. He's gone to Gill's to buy it. - - - BOUND THEE FORTH, MY BOOKLET, QUICK - TO GREET THE CALLOUS PUBLIC. - WRIT, I WEEN, 'TWAS NOT MY WISH - IN LEAN UNLOVELY ENGLISH. - - ---The peatsmoke is going to his head, John Eglinton opined. - -We feel in England. Penitent thief. Gone. I smoked his baccy. Green -twinkling stone. An emerald set in the ring of the sea. - ---People do not know how dangerous lovesongs can be, the auric egg of -Russell warned occultly. The movements which work revolutions in the -world are born out of the dreams and visions in a peasant's heart on the -hillside. For them the earth is not an exploitable ground but the living -mother. The rarefied air of the academy and the arena produce the -sixshilling novel, the musichall song. France produces the finest flower -of corruption in Mallarme but the desirable life is revealed only to the -poor of heart, the life of Homer's Phaeacians. - -From these words Mr Best turned an unoffending face to Stephen. - ---Mallarme, don't you know, he said, has written those wonderful prose -poems Stephen MacKenna used to read to me in Paris. The one about HAMLET. -He says: IL SE PROMENE, LISANT AU LIVRE DE LUI-MEME, don't you know, -READING THE BOOK OF HIMSELF. He describes HAMLET given in a French town, -don't you know, a provincial town. They advertised it. - -His free hand graciously wrote tiny signs in air. - - - HAMLET - OU - LE DISTRAIT - PIECE DE SHAKESPEARE - - - He repeated to John Eglinton's newgathered frown: - ---PIECE DE SHAKESPEARE, don't you know. It's so French. The French point -of view. HAMLET OU ... - ---The absentminded beggar, Stephen ended. - - John Eglinton laughed. - ---Yes, I suppose it would be, he said. Excellent people, no doubt, but -distressingly shortsighted in some matters. - - Sumptuous and stagnant exaggeration of murder. - ---A deathsman of the soul Robert Greene called him, Stephen said. Not for -nothing was he a butcher's son, wielding the sledded poleaxe and spitting -in his palms. Nine lives are taken off for his father's one. Our Father -who art in purgatory. Khaki Hamlets don't hesitate to shoot. The -bloodboltered shambles in act five is a forecast of the concentration -camp sung by Mr Swinburne. - -Cranly, I his mute orderly, following battles from afar. - - WHELPS AND DAMS OF MURDEROUS FOES WHOM NONE - BUT WE HAD SPARED ... - - -Between the Saxon smile and yankee yawp. The devil and the deep sea. - ---He will have it that HAMLET is a ghoststory, John Eglinton said for Mr -Best's behoof. Like the fat boy in Pickwick he wants to make our flesh -creep. - - - LIST! LIST! O LIST! - - -My flesh hears him: creeping, hears. - - - IF THOU DIDST EVER ... - - ---What is a ghost? Stephen said with tingling energy. One who has faded -into impalpability through death, through absence, through change of -manners. Elizabethan London lay as far from Stratford as corrupt Paris -lies from virgin Dublin. Who is the ghost from LIMBO PATRUM, returning to -the world that has forgotten him? Who is King Hamlet? - -John Eglinton shifted his spare body, leaning back to judge. - -Lifted. - ---It is this hour of a day in mid June, Stephen said, begging with a -swift glance their hearing. The flag is up on the playhouse by the -bankside. The bear Sackerson growls in the pit near it, Paris garden. -Canvasclimbers who sailed with Drake chew their sausages among the -groundlings. - -Local colour. Work in all you know. Make them accomplices. - ---Shakespeare has left the huguenot's house in Silver street and walks by -the swanmews along the riverbank. But he does not stay to feed the pen -chivying her game of cygnets towards the rushes. The swan of Avon has -other thoughts. - -Composition of place. Ignatius Loyola, make haste to help me! - ---The play begins. A player comes on under the shadow, made up in the -castoff mail of a court buck, a wellset man with a bass voice. It is the -ghost, the king, a king and no king, and the player is Shakespeare who -has studied HAMLET all the years of his life which were not vanity in -order to play the part of the spectre. He speaks the words to Burbage, -the young player who stands before him beyond the rack of cerecloth, -calling him by a name: - - HAMLET, I AM THY FATHER'S SPIRIT, - -bidding him list. To a son he speaks, the son of his soul, the prince, -young Hamlet and to the son of his body, Hamnet Shakespeare, who has died -in Stratford that his namesake may live for ever. - -Is it possible that that player Shakespeare, a ghost by absence, and in -the vesture of buried Denmark, a ghost by death, speaking his own words -to his own son's name (had Hamnet Shakespeare lived he would have been -prince Hamlet's twin), is it possible, I want to know, or probable that -he did not draw or foresee the logical conclusion of those premises: you -are the dispossessed son: I am the murdered father: your mother is the -guilty queen, Ann Shakespeare, born Hathaway? - ---But this prying into the family life of a great man, Russell began -impatiently. - -Art thou there, truepenny? - ---Interesting only to the parish clerk. I mean, we have the plays. I mean -when we read the poetry of KING LEAR what is it to us how the poet lived? -As for living our servants can do that for us, Villiers de l'Isle has -said. Peeping and prying into greenroom gossip of the day, the poet's -drinking, the poet's debts. We have KING LEAR: and it is immortal. - -Mr Best's face, appealed to, agreed. - - - FLOW OVER THEM WITH YOUR WAVES AND WITH YOUR WATERS, MANANAAN, - MANANAAN MACLIR ... - - -How now, sirrah, that pound he lent you when you were hungry? - -Marry, I wanted it. - -Take thou this noble. - -Go to! You spent most of it in Georgina Johnson's bed, clergyman's -daughter. Agenbite of inwit. - -Do you intend to pay it back? - -O, yes. - -When? Now? - -Well ... No. - -When, then? - -I paid my way. I paid my way. - -Steady on. He's from beyant Boyne water. The northeast corner. You owe -it. - -Wait. Five months. Molecules all change. I am other I now. Other I got -pound. - -Buzz. Buzz. - -But I, entelechy, form of forms, am I by memory because under -everchanging forms. - -I that sinned and prayed and fasted. - -A child Conmee saved from pandies. - -I, I and I. I. - -A.E.I.O.U. - ---Do you mean to fly in the face of the tradition of three centuries? -John Eglinton's carping voice asked. Her ghost at least has been laid for -ever. She died, for literature at least, before she was born. - ---She died, Stephen retorted, sixtyseven years after she was born. She -saw him into and out of the world. She took his first embraces. She bore -his children and she laid pennies on his eyes to keep his eyelids closed -when he lay on his deathbed. - -Mother's deathbed. Candle. The sheeted mirror. Who brought me into this -world lies there, bronzelidded, under few cheap flowers. LILIATA -RUTILANTIUM. - -I wept alone. - -John Eglinton looked in the tangled glowworm of his lamp. - ---The world believes that Shakespeare made a mistake, he said, and got -out of it as quickly and as best he could. - ---Bosh! Stephen said rudely. A man of genius makes no mistakes. His -errors are volitional and are the portals of discovery. - -Portals of discovery opened to let in the quaker librarian, -softcreakfooted, bald, eared and assiduous. - ---A shrew, John Eglinton said shrewdly, is not a useful portal of -discovery, one should imagine. What useful discovery did Socrates learn -from Xanthippe? - ---Dialectic, Stephen answered: and from his mother how to bring thoughts -into the world. What he learnt from his other wife Myrto (ABSIT NOMEN!), -Socratididion's Epipsychidion, no man, not a woman, will ever know. But -neither the midwife's lore nor the caudlelectures saved him from the -archons of Sinn Fein and their naggin of hemlock. - ---But Ann Hathaway? Mr Best's quiet voice said forgetfully. Yes, we seem -to be forgetting her as Shakespeare himself forgot her. - -His look went from brooder's beard to carper's skull, to remind, to chide -them not unkindly, then to the baldpink lollard costard, guiltless though -maligned. - ---He had a good groatsworth of wit, Stephen said, and no truant memory. -He carried a memory in his wallet as he trudged to Romeville whistling -THE GIRL I LEFT BEHIND ME. If the earthquake did not time it we should -know where to place poor Wat, sitting in his form, the cry of hounds, the -studded bridle and her blue windows. That memory, VENUS AND ADONIS, lay -in the bedchamber of every light-of-love in London. Is Katharine the -shrew illfavoured? Hortensio calls her young and beautiful. Do you think -the writer of ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA, a passionate pilgrim, had his eyes in -the back of his head that he chose the ugliest doxy in all Warwickshire -to lie withal? Good: he left her and gained the world of men. But his -boywomen are the women of a boy. Their life, thought, speech are lent -them by males. He chose badly? He was chosen, it seems to me. If others -have their will Ann hath a way. By cock, she was to blame. She put the -comether on him, sweet and twentysix. The greyeyed goddess who bends over -the boy Adonis, stooping to conquer, as prologue to the swelling act, is -a boldfaced Stratford wench who tumbles in a cornfield a lover younger -than herself. - -And my turn? When? - -Come! - ---Ryefield, Mr Best said brightly, gladly, raising his new book, gladly, -brightly. - -He murmured then with blond delight for all: - - - BETWEEN THE ACRES OF THE RYE - THESE PRETTY COUNTRYFOLK WOULD LIE. - - -Paris: the wellpleased pleaser. - -A tall figure in bearded homespun rose from shadow and unveiled its -cooperative watch. - ---I am afraid I am due at the HOMESTEAD. - -Whither away? Exploitable ground. - ---Are you going? John Eglinton's active eyebrows asked. Shall we see you -at Moore's tonight? Piper is coming. - ---Piper! Mr Best piped. Is Piper back? - -Peter Piper pecked a peck of pick of peck of pickled pepper. - ---I don't know if I can. Thursday. We have our meeting. If I can get away -in time. - -Yogibogeybox in Dawson chambers. ISIS UNVEILED. Their Pali book we tried -to pawn. Crosslegged under an umbrel umbershoot he thrones an Aztec -logos, functioning on astral levels, their oversoul, mahamahatma. The -faithful hermetists await the light, ripe for chelaship, ringroundabout -him. Louis H. Victory. T. Caulfield Irwin. Lotus ladies tend them i'the -eyes, their pineal glands aglow. Filled with his god, he thrones, Buddh -under plantain. Gulfer of souls, engulfer. Hesouls, shesouls, shoals of -souls. Engulfed with wailing creecries, whirled, whirling, they bewail. - - - IN QUINTESSENTIAL TRIVIALITY - FOR YEARS IN THIS FLESHCASE A SHESOUL DWELT. - - ---They say we are to have a literary surprise, the quaker librarian said, -friendly and earnest. Mr Russell, rumour has it, is gathering together a -sheaf of our younger poets' verses. We are all looking forward anxiously. - -Anxiously he glanced in the cone of lamplight where three faces, lighted, -shone. - -See this. Remember. - -Stephen looked down on a wide headless caubeen, hung on his -ashplanthandle over his knee. My casque and sword. Touch lightly with two -index fingers. Aristotle's experiment. One or two? Necessity is that in -virtue of which it is impossible that one can be otherwise. Argal, one -hat is one hat. - -Listen. - -Young Colum and Starkey. George Roberts is doing the commercial part. -Longworth will give it a good puff in the EXPRESS. O, will he? I liked -Colum's DROVER. Yes, I think he has that queer thing genius. Do you think -he has genius really? Yeats admired his line: AS IN WILD EARTH A GRECIAN -VASE. Did he? I hope you'll be able to come tonight. Malachi Mulligan is -coming too. Moore asked him to bring Haines. Did you hear Miss Mitchell's -joke about Moore and Martyn? That Moore is Martyn's wild oats? Awfully -clever, isn't it? They remind one of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. Our -national epic has yet to be written, Dr Sigerson says. Moore is the man -for it. A knight of the rueful countenance here in Dublin. With a saffron -kilt? O'Neill Russell? O, yes, he must speak the grand old tongue. And -his Dulcinea? James Stephens is doing some clever sketches. We are -becoming important, it seems. - -Cordelia. CORDOGLIO. Lir's loneliest daughter. - -Nookshotten. Now your best French polish. - ---Thank you very much, Mr Russell, Stephen said, rising. If you will be -so kind as to give the letter to Mr Norman ... - ---O, yes. If he considers it important it will go in. We have so much -correspondence. - ---I understand, Stephen said. Thanks. - -God ild you. The pigs' paper. Bullockbefriending. - -Synge has promised me an article for DANA too. Are we going to be read? I -feel we are. The Gaelic league wants something in Irish. I hope you will -come round tonight. Bring Starkey. - -Stephen sat down. - -The quaker librarian came from the leavetakers. Blushing, his mask said: - ---Mr Dedalus, your views are most illuminating. - -He creaked to and fro, tiptoing up nearer heaven by the altitude of a -chopine, and, covered by the noise of outgoing, said low: - ---Is it your view, then, that she was not faithful to the poet? - -Alarmed face asks me. Why did he come? Courtesy or an inward light? - ---Where there is a reconciliation, Stephen said, there must have been -first a sundering. - ---Yes. - -Christfox in leather trews, hiding, a runaway in blighted treeforks, from -hue and cry. Knowing no vixen, walking lonely in the chase. Women he won -to him, tender people, a whore of Babylon, ladies of justices, bully -tapsters' wives. Fox and geese. And in New Place a slack dishonoured body -that once was comely, once as sweet, as fresh as cinnamon, now her leaves -falling, all, bare, frighted of the narrow grave and unforgiven. - ---Yes. So you think ... - -The door closed behind the outgoer. - -Rest suddenly possessed the discreet vaulted cell, rest of warm and -brooding air. - -A vestal's lamp. - -Here he ponders things that were not: what Caesar would have lived to do -had he believed the soothsayer: what might have been: possibilities of -the possible as possible: things not known: what name Achilles bore when -he lived among women. - -Coffined thoughts around me, in mummycases, embalmed in spice of words. -Thoth, god of libraries, a birdgod, moonycrowned. And I heard the voice -of that Egyptian highpriest. IN PAINTED CHAMBERS LOADED WITH TILEBOOKS. - -They are still. Once quick in the brains of men. Still: but an itch of -death is in them, to tell me in my ear a maudlin tale, urge me to wreak -their will. - ---Certainly, John Eglinton mused, of all great men he is the most -enigmatic. We know nothing but that he lived and suffered. Not even so -much. Others abide our question. A shadow hangs over all the rest. - ---But HAMLET is so personal, isn't it? Mr Best pleaded. I mean, a kind of -private paper, don't you know, of his private life. I mean, I don't care -a button, don't you know, who is killed or who is guilty ... - -He rested an innocent book on the edge of the desk, smiling his defiance. -His private papers in the original. TA AN BAD AR AN TIR. TAIM IN MO -SHAGART. Put beurla on it, littlejohn. - -Quoth littlejohn Eglinton: - ---I was prepared for paradoxes from what Malachi Mulligan told us but I -may as well warn you that if you want to shake my belief that Shakespeare -is Hamlet you have a stern task before you. - -Bear with me. - -Stephen withstood the bane of miscreant eyes glinting stern under -wrinkled brows. A basilisk. E QUANDO VEDE L'UOMO L'ATTOSCA. Messer -Brunetto, I thank thee for the word. - ---As we, or mother Dana, weave and unweave our bodies, Stephen said, from -day to day, their molecules shuttled to and fro, so does the artist weave -and unweave his image. And as the mole on my right breast is where it was -when I was born, though all my body has been woven of new stuff time -after time, so through the ghost of the unquiet father the image of the -unliving son looks forth. In the intense instant of imagination, when the -mind, Shelley says, is a fading coal, that which I was is that which I am -and that which in possibility I may come to be. So in the future, the -sister of the past, I may see myself as I sit here now but by reflection -from that which then I shall be. - -Drummond of Hawthornden helped you at that stile. - ---Yes, Mr Best said youngly. I feel Hamlet quite young. The bitterness -might be from the father but the passages with Ophelia are surely from -the son. - -Has the wrong sow by the lug. He is in my father. I am in his son. - ---That mole is the last to go, Stephen said, laughing. - -John Eglinton made a nothing pleasing mow. - ---If that were the birthmark of genius, he said, genius would be a drug -in the market. The plays of Shakespeare's later years which Renan admired -so much breathe another spirit. - ---The spirit of reconciliation, the quaker librarian breathed. - ---There can be no reconciliation, Stephen said, if there has not been a -sundering. - -Said that. - ---If you want to know what are the events which cast their shadow over -the hell of time of KING LEAR, OTHELLO, HAMLET, TROILUS AND CRESSIDA, -look to see when and how the shadow lifts. What softens the heart of a -man, shipwrecked in storms dire, Tried, like another Ulysses, Pericles, -prince of Tyre? - -Head, redconecapped, buffeted, brineblinded. - ---A child, a girl, placed in his arms, Marina. - ---The leaning of sophists towards the bypaths of apocrypha is a constant -quantity, John Eglinton detected. The highroads are dreary but they lead -to the town. - -Good Bacon: gone musty. Shakespeare Bacon's wild oats. Cypherjugglers -going the highroads. Seekers on the great quest. What town, good masters? -Mummed in names: A. E., eon: Magee, John Eglinton. East of the sun, west -of the moon: TIR NA N-OG. Booted the twain and staved. - - - HOW MANY MILES TO DUBLIN? - THREE SCORE AND TEN, SIR. - WILL WE BE THERE BY CANDLELIGHT? - - ---Mr Brandes accepts it, Stephen said, as the first play of the closing -period. - ---Does he? What does Mr Sidney Lee, or Mr Simon Lazarus as some aver his -name is, say of it? - ---Marina, Stephen said, a child of storm, Miranda, a wonder, Perdita, -that which was lost. What was lost is given back to him: his daughter's -child. MY DEAREST WIFE, Pericles says, WAS LIKE THIS MAID. Will any man -love the daughter if he has not loved the mother? - ---The art of being a grandfather, Mr Best gan murmur. L'ART D'ETRE GRAND -... - ---Will he not see reborn in her, with the memory of his own youth added, -another image? - -Do you know what you are talking about? Love, yes. Word known to all men. -Amor vero aliquid alicui bonum vult unde et ea quae concupiscimus ... - ---His own image to a man with that queer thing genius is the standard of -all experience, material and moral. Such an appeal will touch him. The -images of other males of his blood will repel him. He will see in them -grotesque attempts of nature to foretell or to repeat himself. - -The benign forehead of the quaker librarian enkindled rosily with hope. - ---I hope Mr Dedalus will work out his theory for the enlightenment of the -public. And we ought to mention another Irish commentator, Mr George -Bernard Shaw. Nor should we forget Mr Frank Harris. His articles on -Shakespeare in the SATURDAY REVIEW were surely brilliant. Oddly enough he -too draws for us an unhappy relation with the dark lady of the sonnets. -The favoured rival is William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. I own that if -the poet must be rejected such a rejection would seem more in harmony -with--what shall I say?--our notions of what ought not to have been. - -Felicitously he ceased and held a meek head among them, auk's egg, prize -of their fray. - -He thous and thees her with grave husbandwords. Dost love, Miriam? Dost -love thy man? - ---That may be too, Stephen said. There's a saying of Goethe's which Mr -Magee likes to quote. Beware of what you wish for in youth because you -will get it in middle life. Why does he send to one who is a BUONAROBA, a -bay where all men ride, a maid of honour with a scandalous girlhood, a -lordling to woo for him? He was himself a lord of language and had made -himself a coistrel gentleman and he had written ROMEO AND JULIET. Why? -Belief in himself has been untimely killed. He was overborne in a -cornfield first (ryefield, I should say) and he will never be a victor in -his own eyes after nor play victoriously the game of laugh and lie down. -Assumed dongiovannism will not save him. No later undoing will undo the -first undoing. The tusk of the boar has wounded him there where love lies -ableeding. If the shrew is worsted yet there remains to her woman's -invisible weapon. There is, I feel in the words, some goad of the flesh -driving him into a new passion, a darker shadow of the first, darkening -even his own understanding of himself. A like fate awaits him and the two -rages commingle in a whirlpool. - -They list. And in the porches of their ears I pour. - ---The soul has been before stricken mortally, a poison poured in the -porch of a sleeping ear. But those who are done to death in sleep cannot -know the manner of their quell unless their Creator endow their souls -with that knowledge in the life to come. The poisoning and the beast with -two backs that urged it King Hamlet's ghost could not know of were he not -endowed with knowledge by his creator. That is why the speech (his lean -unlovely English) is always turned elsewhere, backward. Ravisher and -ravished, what he would but would not, go with him from Lucrece's -bluecircled ivory globes to Imogen's breast, bare, with its mole -cinquespotted. He goes back, weary of the creation he has piled up to -hide him from himself, an old dog licking an old sore. But, because loss -is his gain, he passes on towards eternity in undiminished personality, -untaught by the wisdom he has written or by the laws he has revealed. His -beaver is up. He is a ghost, a shadow now, the wind by Elsinore's rocks -or what you will, the sea's voice, a voice heard only in the heart of him -who is the substance of his shadow, the son consubstantial with the -father. - ---Amen! was responded from the doorway. - -Hast thou found me, O mine enemy? - -ENTR'ACTE. - -A ribald face, sullen as a dean's, Buck Mulligan came forward, then -blithe in motley, towards the greeting of their smiles. My telegram. - ---You were speaking of the gaseous vertebrate, if I mistake not? he asked -of Stephen. - -Primrosevested he greeted gaily with his doffed Panama as with a bauble. - -They make him welcome. WAS DU VERLACHST WIRST DU NOCH DIENEN. - -Brood of mockers: Photius, pseudomalachi, Johann Most. - -He Who Himself begot middler the Holy Ghost and Himself sent Himself, -Agenbuyer, between Himself and others, Who, put upon by His fiends, -stripped and whipped, was nailed like bat to barndoor, starved on -crosstree, Who let Him bury, stood up, harrowed hell, fared into heaven -and there these nineteen hundred years sitteth on the right hand of His -Own Self but yet shall come in the latter day to doom the quick and dead -when all the quick shall be dead already. - -Glo--o--ri--a in ex--cel--sis De--o. - -He lifts his hands. Veils fall. O, flowers! Bells with bells with bells -aquiring. - ---Yes, indeed, the quaker librarian said. A most instructive discussion. -Mr Mulligan, I'll be bound, has his theory too of the play and of -Shakespeare. All sides of life should be represented. - -He smiled on all sides equally. - -Buck Mulligan thought, puzzled: - ---Shakespeare? he said. I seem to know the name. - -A flying sunny smile rayed in his loose features. - ---To be sure, he said, remembering brightly. The chap that writes like -Synge. - -Mr Best turned to him. - ---Haines missed you, he said. Did you meet him? He'll see you after at -the D. B. C. He's gone to Gill's to buy Hyde's LOVESONGS OF CONNACHT. - ---I came through the museum, Buck Mulligan said. Was he here? - ---The bard's fellowcountrymen, John Eglinton answered, are rather tired -perhaps of our brilliancies of theorising. I hear that an actress played -Hamlet for the fourhundredandeighth time last night in Dublin. Vining -held that the prince was a woman. Has no-one made him out to be an -Irishman? Judge Barton, I believe, is searching for some clues. He swears -(His Highness not His Lordship) by saint Patrick. - ---The most brilliant of all is that story of Wilde's, Mr Best said, -lifting his brilliant notebook. That PORTRAIT OF MR W. H. where he proves -that the sonnets were written by a Willie Hughes, a man all hues. - ---For Willie Hughes, is it not? the quaker librarian asked. - -Or Hughie Wills? Mr William Himself. W. H.: who am I? - ---I mean, for Willie Hughes, Mr Best said, amending his gloss easily. Of -course it's all paradox, don't you know, Hughes and hews and hues, the -colour, but it's so typical the way he works it out. It's the very -essence of Wilde, don't you know. The light touch. - -His glance touched their faces lightly as he smiled, a blond ephebe. Tame -essence of Wilde. - -You're darned witty. Three drams of usquebaugh you drank with Dan Deasy's -ducats. - -How much did I spend? O, a few shillings. - -For a plump of pressmen. Humour wet and dry. - -Wit. You would give your five wits for youth's proud livery he pranks in. -Lineaments of gratified desire. - -There be many mo. Take her for me. In pairing time. Jove, a cool ruttime -send them. Yea, turtledove her. - -Eve. Naked wheatbellied sin. A snake coils her, fang in's kiss. - ---Do you think it is only a paradox? the quaker librarian was asking. The -mocker is never taken seriously when he is most serious. - -They talked seriously of mocker's seriousness. - -Buck Mulligan's again heavy face eyed Stephen awhile. Then, his head -wagging, he came near, drew a folded telegram from his pocket. His mobile -lips read, smiling with new delight. - ---Telegram! he said. Wonderful inspiration! Telegram! A papal bull! - -He sat on a corner of the unlit desk, reading aloud joyfully: - ---THE SENTIMENTALIST IS HE WHO WOULD ENJOY WITHOUT INCURRING THE IMMENSE -DEBTORSHIP FOR A THING DONE. Signed: Dedalus. Where did you launch it -from? The kips? No. College Green. Have you drunk the four quid? The aunt -is going to call on your unsubstantial father. Telegram! Malachi -Mulligan, The Ship, lower Abbey street. O, you peerless mummer! O, you -priestified Kinchite! - -Joyfully he thrust message and envelope into a pocket but keened in a -querulous brogue: - ---It's what I'm telling you, mister honey, it's queer and sick we were, -Haines and myself, the time himself brought it in. 'Twas murmur we did -for a gallus potion would rouse a friar, I'm thinking, and he limp with -leching. And we one hour and two hours and three hours in Connery's -sitting civil waiting for pints apiece. - -He wailed: - ---And we to be there, mavrone, and you to be unbeknownst sending us your -conglomerations the way we to have our tongues out a yard long like the -drouthy clerics do be fainting for a pussful. - -Stephen laughed. - -Quickly, warningfully Buck Mulligan bent down. - ---The tramper Synge is looking for you, he said, to murder you. He heard -you pissed on his halldoor in Glasthule. He's out in pampooties to murder -you. - ---Me! Stephen exclaimed. That was your contribution to literature. - -Buck Mulligan gleefully bent back, laughing to the dark eavesdropping -ceiling. - ---Murder you! he laughed. - -Harsh gargoyle face that warred against me over our mess of hash of -lights in rue Saint-Andre-des-Arts. In words of words for words, -palabras. Oisin with Patrick. Faunman he met in Clamart woods, -brandishing a winebottle. C'EST VENDREDI SAINT! Murthering Irish. His -image, wandering, he met. I mine. I met a fool i'the forest. - ---Mr Lyster, an attendant said from the door ajar. - --- ... in which everyone can find his own. So Mr Justice Madden in his -DIARY OF MASTER WILLIAM SILENCE has found the hunting terms ... Yes? What -is it? - ---There's a gentleman here, sir, the attendant said, coming forward and -offering a card. From the FREEMAN. He wants to see the files of the -KILKENNY PEOPLE for last year. - ---Certainly, certainly, certainly. Is the gentleman? ... - -He took the eager card, glanced, not saw, laid down unglanced, looked, -asked, creaked, asked: - ---Is he? ... O, there! - -Brisk in a galliard he was off, out. In the daylit corridor he talked -with voluble pains of zeal, in duty bound, most fair, most kind, most -honest broadbrim. - ---This gentleman? FREEMAN'S JOURNAL? KILKENNY PEOPLE? To be sure. Good -day, sir. KILKENNY ... We have certainly ... - -A patient silhouette waited, listening. - ---All the leading provincial ... NORTHERN WHIG, CORK EXAMINER, -ENNISCORTHY GUARDIAN, 1903 ... Will you please? ... Evans, conduct this -gentleman ... If you just follow the atten ... Or, please allow me ... -This way ... Please, sir ... - -Voluble, dutiful, he led the way to all the provincial papers, a bowing -dark figure following his hasty heels. - -The door closed. - ---The sheeny! Buck Mulligan cried. - -He jumped up and snatched the card. - ---What's his name? Ikey Moses? Bloom. - -He rattled on: - ---Jehovah, collector of prepuces, is no more. I found him over in the -museum where I went to hail the foamborn Aphrodite. The Greek mouth that -has never been twisted in prayer. Every day we must do homage to her. -LIFE OF LIFE, THY LIPS ENKINDLE. - -Suddenly he turned to Stephen: - ---He knows you. He knows your old fellow. O, I fear me, he is Greeker -than the Greeks. His pale Galilean eyes were upon her mesial groove. -Venus Kallipyge. O, the thunder of those loins! THE GOD PURSUING THE -MAIDEN HID. - ---We want to hear more, John Eglinton decided with Mr Best's approval. We -begin to be interested in Mrs S. Till now we had thought of her, if at -all, as a patient Griselda, a Penelope stayathome. - ---Antisthenes, pupil of Gorgias, Stephen said, took the palm of beauty -from Kyrios Menelaus' brooddam, Argive Helen, the wooden mare of Troy in -whom a score of heroes slept, and handed it to poor Penelope. Twenty -years he lived in London and, during part of that time, he drew a salary -equal to that of the lord chancellor of Ireland. His life was rich. His -art, more than the art of feudalism as Walt Whitman called it, is the art -of surfeit. Hot herringpies, green mugs of sack, honeysauces, sugar of -roses, marchpane, gooseberried pigeons, ringocandies. Sir Walter Raleigh, -when they arrested him, had half a million francs on his back including a -pair of fancy stays. The gombeenwoman Eliza Tudor had underlinen enough -to vie with her of Sheba. Twenty years he dallied there between conjugial -love and its chaste delights and scortatory love and its foul pleasures. -You know Manningham's story of the burgher's wife who bade Dick Burbage -to her bed after she had seen him in RICHARD III and how Shakespeare, -overhearing, without more ado about nothing, took the cow by the horns -and, when Burbage came knocking at the gate, answered from the capon's -blankets: WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR CAME BEFORE RICHARD III. And the gay -lakin, mistress Fitton, mount and cry O, and his dainty birdsnies, lady -Penelope Rich, a clean quality woman is suited for a player, and the -punks of the bankside, a penny a time. - -Cours la Reine. ENCORE VINGT SOUS. NOUS FERONS DE PETITES COCHONNERIES. -MINETTE? TU VEUX? - ---The height of fine society. And sir William Davenant of oxford's mother -with her cup of canary for any cockcanary. - -Buck Mulligan, his pious eyes upturned, prayed: - ---Blessed Margaret Mary Anycock! - ---And Harry of six wives' daughter. And other lady friends from neighbour -seats as Lawn Tennyson, gentleman poet, sings. But all those twenty years -what do you suppose poor Penelope in Stratford was doing behind the -diamond panes? - -Do and do. Thing done. In a rosery of Fetter lane of Gerard, herbalist, -he walks, greyedauburn. An azured harebell like her veins. Lids of Juno's -eyes, violets. He walks. One life is all. One body. Do. But do. Afar, in -a reek of lust and squalor, hands are laid on whiteness. - -Buck Mulligan rapped John Eglinton's desk sharply. - ---Whom do you suspect? he challenged. - ---Say that he is the spurned lover in the sonnets. Once spurned twice -spurned. But the court wanton spurned him for a lord, his dearmylove. - -Love that dare not speak its name. - ---As an Englishman, you mean, John sturdy Eglinton put in, he loved a -lord. - -Old wall where sudden lizards flash. At Charenton I watched them. - ---It seems so, Stephen said, when he wants to do for him, and for all -other and singular uneared wombs, the holy office an ostler does for the -stallion. Maybe, like Socrates, he had a midwife to mother as he had a -shrew to wife. But she, the giglot wanton, did not break a bedvow. Two -deeds are rank in that ghost's mind: a broken vow and the dullbrained -yokel on whom her favour has declined, deceased husband's brother. Sweet -Ann, I take it, was hot in the blood. Once a wooer, twice a wooer. - -Stephen turned boldly in his chair. - ---The burden of proof is with you not with me, he said frowning. If you -deny that in the fifth scene of HAMLET he has branded her with infamy -tell me why there is no mention of her during the thirtyfour years -between the day she married him and the day she buried him. All those -women saw their men down and under: Mary, her goodman John, Ann, her poor -dear Willun, when he went and died on her, raging that he was the first -to go, Joan, her four brothers, Judith, her husband and all her sons, -Susan, her husband too, while Susan's daughter, Elizabeth, to use -granddaddy's words, wed her second, having killed her first. - -O, yes, mention there is. In the years when he was living richly in royal -London to pay a debt she had to borrow forty shillings from her father's -shepherd. Explain you then. Explain the swansong too wherein he has -commended her to posterity. - -He faced their silence. - -To whom thus Eglinton: - - - You mean the will. - But that has been explained, I believe, by jurists. - She was entitled to her widow's dower - At common law. His legal knowledge was great - Our judges tell us. - Him Satan fleers, - Mocker: - And therefore he left out her name - From the first draft but he did not leave out - The presents for his granddaughter, for his daughters, - For his sister, for his old cronies in Stratford - And in London. And therefore when he was urged, - As I believe, to name her - He left her his - Secondbest - Bed. - PUNKT. - Leftherhis - Secondbest - Leftherhis - Bestabed - Secabest - Leftabed. - - -Woa! - -AMPLIUS. IN SOCIETATE HUMANA HOC EST MAXIME NECESSARIUM UT SIT AMICITIA -INTER MULTOS. - ---Saint Thomas, Stephen began ... - ---ORA PRO NOBIS, Monk Mulligan groaned, sinking to a chair. - -There he keened a wailing rune. - ---POGUE MAHONE! ACUSHLA MACHREE! It's destroyed we are from this day! -It's destroyed we are surely! - -All smiled their smiles. - ---Saint Thomas, Stephen smiling said, whose gorbellied works I enjoy -reading in the original, writing of incest from a standpoint different -from that of the new Viennese school Mr Magee spoke of, likens it in his -wise and curious way to an avarice of the emotions. He means that the -love so given to one near in blood is covetously withheld from some -stranger who, it may be, hungers for it. Jews, whom christians tax with -avarice, are of all races the most given to intermarriage. Accusations -are made in anger. The christian laws which built up the hoards of the -jews (for whom, as for the lollards, storm was shelter) bound their -affections too with hoops of steel. Whether these be sins or virtues old -Nobodaddy will tell us at doomsday leet. But a man who holds so tightly -to what he calls his rights over what he calls his debts will hold -tightly also to what he calls his rights over her whom he calls his wife. -No sir smile neighbour shall covet his ox or his wife or his manservant -or his maidservant or his jackass. - ---Or his jennyass, Buck Mulligan antiphoned. - ---Gentle Will is being roughly handled, gentle Mr Best said gently. - ---Which will? gagged sweetly Buck Mulligan. We are getting mixed. - ---The will to live, John Eglinton philosophised, for poor Ann, Will's -widow, is the will to die. - ---REQUIESCAT! Stephen prayed. - - - WHAT OF ALL THE WILL TO DO? - IT HAS VANISHED LONG AGO ... - - ---She lies laid out in stark stiffness in that secondbest bed, the mobled -queen, even though you prove that a bed in those days was as rare as a -motorcar is now and that its carvings were the wonder of seven parishes. -In old age she takes up with gospellers (one stayed with her at New Place -and drank a quart of sack the town council paid for but in which bed he -slept it skills not to ask) and heard she had a soul. She read or had -read to her his chapbooks preferring them to the MERRY WIVES and, loosing -her nightly waters on the jordan, she thought over HOOKS AND EYES FOR -BELIEVERS' BREECHES and THE MOST SPIRITUAL SNUFFBOX TO MAKE THE MOST -DEVOUT SOULS SNEEZE. Venus has twisted her lips in prayer. Agenbite of -inwit: remorse of conscience. It is an age of exhausted whoredom groping -for its god. - ---History shows that to be true, INQUIT EGLINTONUS CHRONOLOLOGOS. The -ages succeed one another. But we have it on high authority that a man's -worst enemies shall be those of his own house and family. I feel that -Russell is right. What do we care for his wife or father? I should say -that only family poets have family lives. Falstaff was not a family man. -I feel that the fat knight is his supreme creation. - -Lean, he lay back. Shy, deny thy kindred, the unco guid. Shy, supping -with the godless, he sneaks the cup. A sire in Ultonian Antrim bade it -him. Visits him here on quarter days. Mr Magee, sir, there's a gentleman -to see you. Me? Says he's your father, sir. Give me my Wordsworth. Enter -Magee Mor Matthew, a rugged rough rugheaded kern, in strossers with a -buttoned codpiece, his nether stocks bemired with clauber of ten forests, -a wand of wilding in his hand. - -Your own? He knows your old fellow. The widower. - -Hurrying to her squalid deathlair from gay Paris on the quayside I -touched his hand. The voice, new warmth, speaking. Dr Bob Kenny is -attending her. The eyes that wish me well. But do not know me. - ---A father, Stephen said, battling against hopelessness, is a necessary -evil. He wrote the play in the months that followed his father's death. -If you hold that he, a greying man with two marriageable daughters, with -thirtyfive years of life, NEL MEZZO DEL CAMMIN DI NOSTRA VITA, with fifty -of experience, is the beardless undergraduate from Wittenberg then you -must hold that his seventyyear old mother is the lustful queen. No. The -corpse of John Shakespeare does not walk the night. From hour to hour it -rots and rots. He rests, disarmed of fatherhood, having devised that -mystical estate upon his son. Boccaccio's Calandrino was the first and -last man who felt himself with child. Fatherhood, in the sense of -conscious begetting, is unknown to man. It is a mystical estate, an -apostolic succession, from only begetter to only begotten. On that -mystery and not on the madonna which the cunning Italian intellect flung -to the mob of Europe the church is founded and founded irremovably -because founded, like the world, macro and microcosm, upon the void. Upon -incertitude, upon unlikelihood. AMOR MATRIS, subjective and objective -genitive, may be the only true thing in life. Paternity may be a legal -fiction. Who is the father of any son that any son should love him or he -any son? - -What the hell are you driving at? - -I know. Shut up. Blast you. I have reasons. - -AMPLIUS. ADHUC. ITERUM. POSTEA. - -Are you condemned to do this? - ---They are sundered by a bodily shame so steadfast that the criminal -annals of the world, stained with all other incests and bestialities, -hardly record its breach. Sons with mothers, sires with daughters, lesbic -sisters, loves that dare not speak their name, nephews with grandmothers, -jailbirds with keyholes, queens with prize bulls. The son unborn mars -beauty: born, he brings pain, divides affection, increases care. He is a -new male: his growth is his father's decline, his youth his father's -envy, his friend his father's enemy. - -In rue Monsieur-le-Prince I thought it. - ---What links them in nature? An instant of blind rut. - -Am I a father? If I were? - -Shrunken uncertain hand. - ---Sabellius, the African, subtlest heresiarch of all the beasts of the -field, held that the Father was Himself His Own Son. The bulldog of -Aquin, with whom no word shall be impossible, refutes him. Well: if the -father who has not a son be not a father can the son who has not a father -be a son? When Rutlandbaconsouthamptonshakespeare or another poet of the -same name in the comedy of errors wrote HAMLET he was not the father of -his own son merely but, being no more a son, he was and felt himself the -father of all his race, the father of his own grandfather, the father of -his unborn grandson who, by the same token, never was born, for nature, -as Mr Magee understands her, abhors perfection. - -Eglintoneyes, quick with pleasure, looked up shybrightly. Gladly -glancing, a merry puritan, through the twisted eglantine. - -Flatter. Rarely. But flatter. - ---Himself his own father, Sonmulligan told himself. Wait. I am big with -child. I have an unborn child in my brain. Pallas Athena! A play! The -play's the thing! Let me parturiate! - -He clasped his paunchbrow with both birthaiding hands. - ---As for his family, Stephen said, his mother's name lives in the forest -of Arden. Her death brought from him the scene with Volumnia in -CORIOLANUS. His boyson's death is the deathscene of young Arthur in KING -JOHN. Hamlet, the black prince, is Hamnet Shakespeare. Who the girls in -THE TEMPEST, in PERICLES, in WINTER'S TALE are we know. Who Cleopatra, -fleshpot of Egypt, and Cressid and Venus are we may guess. But there is -another member of his family who is recorded. - ---The plot thickens, John Eglinton said. - -The quaker librarian, quaking, tiptoed in, quake, his mask, quake, with -haste, quake, quack. - -Door closed. Cell. Day. - -They list. Three. They. - -I you he they. - -Come, mess. - -STEPHEN: He had three brothers, Gilbert, Edmund, Richard. Gilbert in his -old age told some cavaliers he got a pass for nowt from Maister Gatherer -one time mass he did and he seen his brud Maister Wull the playwriter up -in Lunnon in a wrastling play wud a man on's back. The playhouse sausage -filled Gilbert's soul. He is nowhere: but an Edmund and a Richard are -recorded in the works of sweet William. - -MAGEEGLINJOHN: Names! What's in a name? - -BEST: That is my name, Richard, don't you know. I hope you are going to -say a good word for Richard, don't you know, for my sake. - - (Laughter) - -BUCKMULLIGAN: (PIANO, DIMINUENDO) - - Then outspoke medical Dick - To his comrade medical Davy ... - -STEPHEN: In his trinity of black Wills, the villain shakebags, Iago, -Richard Crookback, Edmund in KING LEAR, two bear the wicked uncles' -names. Nay, that last play was written or being written while his brother -Edmund lay dying in Southwark. - -BEST: I hope Edmund is going to catch it. I don't want Richard, my -name ... - - (Laughter) - -QUAKERLYSTER: (A TEMPO) But he that filches from me my good name ... - -STEPHEN: (STRINGENDO) He has hidden his own name, a fair name, William, -in the plays, a super here, a clown there, as a painter of old Italy set -his face in a dark corner of his canvas. He has revealed it in the -sonnets where there is Will in overplus. Like John o'Gaunt his name is -dear to him, as dear as the coat and crest he toadied for, on a bend -sable a spear or steeled argent, honorificabilitudinitatibus, dearer than -his glory of greatest shakescene in the country. What's in a name? That -is what we ask ourselves in childhood when we write the name that we are -told is ours. A star, a daystar, a firedrake, rose at his birth. It shone -by day in the heavens alone, brighter than Venus in the night, and by -night it shone over delta in Cassiopeia, the recumbent constellation -which is the signature of his initial among the stars. His eyes watched -it, lowlying on the horizon, eastward of the bear, as he walked by the -slumberous summer fields at midnight returning from Shottery and from her -arms. - - -Both satisfied. I too. - -Don't tell them he was nine years old when it was quenched. - -And from her arms. - -Wait to be wooed and won. Ay, meacock. Who will woo you? - -Read the skies. AUTONTIMORUMENOS. BOUS STEPHANOUMENOS. Where's your -configuration? Stephen, Stephen, cut the bread even. S. D: SUA DONNA. -GIA: DI LUI. GELINDO RISOLVE DI NON AMARE S. D. - ---What is that, Mr Dedalus? the quaker librarian asked. Was it a -celestial phenomenon? - ---A star by night, Stephen said. A pillar of the cloud by day. - -What more's to speak? - -Stephen looked on his hat, his stick, his boots. - -STEPHANOS, my crown. My sword. His boots are spoiling the shape of -my feet. Buy a pair. Holes in my socks. Handkerchief too. - ---You make good use of the name, John Eglinton allowed. Your own name -is strange enough. I suppose it explains your fantastical humour. - -Me, Magee and Mulligan. - -Fabulous artificer. The hawklike man. You flew. Whereto? -Newhaven-Dieppe, steerage passenger. Paris and back. Lapwing. Icarus. -PATER, AIT. Seabedabbled, fallen, weltering. Lapwing you are. Lapwing be. - -Mr Best eagerquietly lifted his book to say: - ---That's very interesting because that brother motive, don't you know, we -find also in the old Irish myths. Just what you say. The three brothers -Shakespeare. In Grimm too, don't you know, the fairytales. The third -brother that always marries the sleeping beauty and wins the best prize. - -Best of Best brothers. Good, better, best. - -The quaker librarian springhalted near. - ---I should like to know, he said, which brother you ... I understand you -to suggest there was misconduct with one of the brothers ... But -perhaps I am anticipating? - -He caught himself in the act: looked at all: refrained. - -An attendant from the doorway called: - ---Mr Lyster! Father Dineen wants ... - ---O, Father Dineen! Directly. - -Swiftly rectly creaking rectly rectly he was rectly gone. - -John Eglinton touched the foil. - ---Come, he said. Let us hear what you have to say of Richard and -Edmund. You kept them for the last, didn't you? - ---In asking you to remember those two noble kinsmen nuncle Richie and -nuncle Edmund, Stephen answered, I feel I am asking too much perhaps. A -brother is as easily forgotten as an umbrella. - -Lapwing. - -Where is your brother? Apothecaries' hall. My whetstone. Him, then -Cranly, Mulligan: now these. Speech, speech. But act. Act speech. They -mock to try you. Act. Be acted on. - -Lapwing. - -I am tired of my voice, the voice of Esau. My kingdom for a drink. - -On. - ---You will say those names were already in the chronicles from which he -took the stuff of his plays. Why did he take them rather than others? -Richard, a whoreson crookback, misbegotten, makes love to a widowed -Ann (what's in a name?), woos and wins her, a whoreson merry widow. -Richard the conqueror, third brother, came after William the conquered. -The other four acts of that play hang limply from that first. Of all his -kings Richard is the only king unshielded by Shakespeare's reverence, -the angel of the world. Why is the underplot of KING LEAR in which Edmund -figures lifted out of Sidney's ARCADIA and spatchcocked on to a Celtic -legend older than history? - ---That was Will's way, John Eglinton defended. We should not now -combine a Norse saga with an excerpt from a novel by George Meredith. -QUE VOULEZ-VOUS? Moore would say. He puts Bohemia on the seacoast and -makes Ulysses quote Aristotle. - ---Why? Stephen answered himself. Because the theme of the false or the -usurping or the adulterous brother or all three in one is to Shakespeare, -what the poor are not, always with him. The note of banishment, -banishment from the heart, banishment from home, sounds uninterruptedly -from THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA onward till Prospero breaks his staff, -buries it certain fathoms in the earth and drowns his book. It doubles -itself in the middle of his life, reflects itself in another, repeats -itself, protasis, epitasis, catastasis, catastrophe. It repeats -itself again when he is near the grave, when his married daughter -Susan, chip of the old block, is accused of adultery. But it was -the original sin that darkened his understanding, weakened his -will and left in him a strong inclination to evil. The words are -those of my lords bishops of Maynooth. An original sin and, like original -sin, committed by another in whose sin he too has sinned. It is between -the lines of his last written words, it is petrified on his tombstone -under which her four bones are not to be laid. Age has not withered it. -Beauty and peace have not done it away. It is in infinite variety -everywhere in the world he has created, in MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING, twice -in AS YOU LIKE IT, in THE TEMPEST, in HAMLET, in MEASURE FOR MEASURE--and -in all the other plays which I have not read. - -He laughed to free his mind from his mind's bondage. - -Judge Eglinton summed up. - ---The truth is midway, he affirmed. He is the ghost and the prince. He is -all in all. - ---He is, Stephen said. The boy of act one is the mature man of act five. -All in all. In CYMBELINE, in OTHELLO he is bawd and cuckold. He acts and -is acted on. Lover of an ideal or a perversion, like Jose he kills the -real Carmen. His unremitting intellect is the hornmad Iago ceaselessly -willing that the moor in him shall suffer. - ---Cuckoo! Cuckoo! Cuck Mulligan clucked lewdly. O word of fear! - -Dark dome received, reverbed. - ---And what a character is Iago! undaunted John Eglinton exclaimed. -When all is said Dumas FILS (or is it Dumas PERE?) is right. After God -Shakespeare has created most. - ---Man delights him not nor woman neither, Stephen said. He returns after -a life of absence to that spot of earth where he was born, where he has -always been, man and boy, a silent witness and there, his journey of life -ended, he plants his mulberrytree in the earth. Then dies. The motion is -ended. Gravediggers bury Hamlet PERE and Hamlet FILS. A king and a -prince at last in death, with incidental music. And, what though murdered -and betrayed, bewept by all frail tender hearts for, Dane or Dubliner, -sorrow for the dead is the only husband from whom they refuse to be -divorced. If you like the epilogue look long on it: prosperous Prospero, -the good man rewarded, Lizzie, grandpa's lump of love, and nuncle Richie, -the bad man taken off by poetic justice to the place where the bad niggers -go. Strong curtain. He found in the world without as actual what was in his -world within as possible. Maeterlinck says: IF SOCRATES LEAVE HIS HOUSE -TODAY HE WILL FIND THE SAGE SEATED ON HIS DOORSTEP. IF JUDAS GO FORTH -TONIGHT IT IS TO JUDAS HIS STEPS WILL TEND. Every life is many days, -day after day. We walk through ourselves, meeting robbers, ghosts, giants, -old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers-in-love, but always meeting -ourselves. The playwright who wrote the folio of this world and wrote it -badly (He gave us light first and the sun two days later), the lord of -things as they are whom the most Roman of catholics call DIO BOIA, -hangman god, is doubtless all in all in all of us, ostler and butcher, -and would be bawd and cuckold too but that in the economy of heaven, -foretold by Hamlet, there are no more marriages, glorified man, an -androgynous angel, being a wife unto himself. - ---EUREKA! Buck Mulligan cried. EUREKA! - -Suddenly happied he jumped up and reached in a stride John Eglinton's -desk. - ---May I? he said. The Lord has spoken to Malachi. - -He began to scribble on a slip of paper. - -Take some slips from the counter going out. - ---Those who are married, Mr Best, douce herald, said, all save one, shall -live. The rest shall keep as they are. - -He laughed, unmarried, at Eglinton Johannes, of arts a bachelor. - -Unwed, unfancied, ware of wiles, they fingerponder nightly each his -variorum edition of THE TAMING OF THE SHREW. - ---You are a delusion, said roundly John Eglinton to Stephen. You have -brought us all this way to show us a French triangle. Do you believe your -own theory? - ---No, Stephen said promptly. - ---Are you going to write it? Mr Best asked. You ought to make it a -dialogue, don't you know, like the Platonic dialogues Wilde wrote. - -John Eclecticon doubly smiled. - ---Well, in that case, he said, I don't see why you should expect payment -for it since you don't believe it yourself. Dowden believes there is some -mystery in HAMLET but will say no more. Herr Bleibtreu, the man Piper met -in Berlin, who is working up that Rutland theory, believes that the secret -is hidden in the Stratford monument. He is going to visit the present -duke, Piper says, and prove to him that his ancestor wrote the plays. -It will come as a surprise to his grace. But he believes his theory. - -I believe, O Lord, help my unbelief. That is, help me to believe or help -me to unbelieve? Who helps to believe? EGOMEN. Who to unbelieve? Other -chap. - ---You are the only contributor to DANA who asks for pieces of silver. Then -I don't know about the next number. Fred Ryan wants space for an article -on economics. - -Fraidrine. Two pieces of silver he lent me. Tide you over. Economics. - ---For a guinea, Stephen said, you can publish this interview. - -Buck Mulligan stood up from his laughing scribbling, laughing: and -then gravely said, honeying malice: - ---I called upon the bard Kinch at his summer residence in upper -Mecklenburgh street and found him deep in the study of the SUMMA CONTRA -GENTILES in the company of two gonorrheal ladies, Fresh Nelly and Rosalie, -the coalquay whore. - -He broke away. - ---Come, Kinch. Come, wandering Aengus of the birds. - -Come, Kinch. You have eaten all we left. Ay. I will serve you your orts -and offals. - -Stephen rose. - -Life is many days. This will end. - ---We shall see you tonight, John Eglinton said. NOTRE AMI Moore says -Malachi Mulligan must be there. - -Buck Mulligan flaunted his slip and panama. - ---Monsieur Moore, he said, lecturer on French letters to the youth of -Ireland. I'll be there. Come, Kinch, the bards must drink. Can you walk -straight? - -Laughing, he ... - -Swill till eleven. Irish nights entertainment. - -Lubber ... - -Stephen followed a lubber ... - -One day in the national library we had a discussion. Shakes. After. -His lub back: I followed. I gall his kibe. - -Stephen, greeting, then all amort, followed a lubber jester, a -wellkempt head, newbarbered, out of the vaulted cell into a shattering -daylight of no thought. - -What have I learned? Of them? Of me? - -Walk like Haines now. - -The constant readers' room. In the readers' book Cashel Boyle -O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell parafes his polysyllables. Item: was -Hamlet mad? The quaker's pate godlily with a priesteen in booktalk. - ---O please do, sir ... I shall be most pleased ... - -Amused Buck Mulligan mused in pleasant murmur with himself, selfnodding: - ---A pleased bottom. - -The turnstile. - -Is that? ... Blueribboned hat ... Idly writing ... What? Looked? ... - -The curving balustrade: smoothsliding Mincius. - -Puck Mulligan, panamahelmeted, went step by step, iambing, trolling: - - - JOHN EGLINTON, MY JO, JOHN, - WHY WON'T YOU WED A WIFE? - - -He spluttered to the air: - ---O, the chinless Chinaman! Chin Chon Eg Lin Ton. We went over to their -playbox, Haines and I, the plumbers' hall. Our players are creating a new -art for Europe like the Greeks or M. Maeterlinck. Abbey Theatre! I smell -the pubic sweat of monks. - -He spat blank. - -Forgot: any more than he forgot the whipping lousy Lucy gave him. -And left the FEMME DE TRENTE ANS. And why no other children born? And his -first child a girl? - -Afterwit. Go back. - -The dour recluse still there (he has his cake) and the douce youngling, -minion of pleasure, Phedo's toyable fair hair. - -Eh ... I just eh ... wanted ... I forgot ... he ... - ---Longworth and M'Curdy Atkinson were there ... - -Puck Mulligan footed featly, trilling: - - I HARDLY HEAR THE PURLIEU CRY - OR A TOMMY TALK AS I PASS ONE BY - BEFORE MY THOUGHTS BEGIN TO RUN - ON F. M'CURDY ATKINSON, - THE SAME THAT HAD THE WOODEN LEG - AND THAT FILIBUSTERING FILIBEG - THAT NEVER DARED TO SLAKE HIS DROUTH, - MAGEE THAT HAD THE CHINLESS MOUTH. - BEING AFRAID TO MARRY ON EARTH - THEY MASTURBATED FOR ALL THEY WERE WORTH. - -Jest on. Know thyself. - -Halted, below me, a quizzer looks at me. I halt. - ---Mournful mummer, Buck Mulligan moaned. Synge has left off wearing -black to be like nature. Only crows, priests and English coal are black. - -A laugh tripped over his lips. - ---Longworth is awfully sick, he said, after what you wrote about that old -hake Gregory. O you inquisitional drunken jewjesuit! She gets you a job on -the paper and then you go and slate her drivel to Jaysus. Couldn't you do -the Yeats touch? - -He went on and down, mopping, chanting with waving graceful arms: - ---The most beautiful book that has come out of our country in my time. -One thinks of Homer. - -He stopped at the stairfoot. - ---I have conceived a play for the mummers, he said solemnly. - -The pillared Moorish hall, shadows entwined. Gone the nine men's -morrice with caps of indices. - -In sweetly varying voices Buck Mulligan read his tablet: - - - EVERYMAN HIS OWN WIFE - OR - A HONEYMOON IN THE HAND - (A NATIONAL IMMORALITY IN THREE ORGASMS) - BY - BALLOCKY MULLIGAN - - -He turned a happy patch's smirk to Stephen, saying: - ---The disguise, I fear, is thin. But listen. - -He read, MARCATO: - ---Characters: - - - TODY TOSTOFF (a ruined Pole) - CRAB (a bushranger) - MEDICAL DICK ) - and ) (two birds with one stone) - MEDICAL DAVY ) - MOTHER GROGAN (a watercarrier) - FRESH NELLY - and - ROSALIE (the coalquay whore). - - -He laughed, lolling a to and fro head, walking on, followed by Stephen: -and mirthfully he told the shadows, souls of men: - ---O, the night in the Camden hall when the daughters of Erin had to lift -their skirts to step over you as you lay in your mulberrycoloured, -multicoloured, multitudinous vomit! - ---The most innocent son of Erin, Stephen said, for whom they ever lifted -them. - -About to pass through the doorway, feeling one behind, he stood aside. - -Part. The moment is now. Where then? If Socrates leave his house -today, if Judas go forth tonight. Why? That lies in space which I in time -must come to, ineluctably. - -My will: his will that fronts me. Seas between. - -A man passed out between them, bowing, greeting. - ---Good day again, Buck Mulligan said. - -The portico. - -Here I watched the birds for augury. Aengus of the birds. They go, -they come. Last night I flew. Easily flew. Men wondered. Street of harlots -after. A creamfruit melon he held to me. In. You will see. - ---The wandering jew, Buck Mulligan whispered with clown's awe. Did you -see his eye? He looked upon you to lust after you. I fear thee, ancient -mariner. O, Kinch, thou art in peril. Get thee a breechpad. - -Manner of Oxenford. - -Day. Wheelbarrow sun over arch of bridge. - -A dark back went before them, step of a pard, down, out by the -gateway, under portcullis barbs. - -They followed. - -Offend me still. Speak on. - -Kind air defined the coigns of houses in Kildare street. No birds. Frail -from the housetops two plumes of smoke ascended, pluming, and in a flaw -of softness softly were blown. - -Cease to strive. Peace of the druid priests of Cymbeline: hierophantic: -from wide earth an altar. - - - LAUD WE THE GODS - AND LET OUR CROOKED SMOKES CLIMB TO THEIR NOSTRILS - FROM OUR BLESS'D ALTARS. - - - * * * * * * * - - -The superior, the very reverend John Conmee S.J. reset his smooth -watch in his interior pocket as he came down the presbytery steps. Five to -three. Just nice time to walk to Artane. What was that boy's name again? -Dignam. Yes. VERE DIGNUM ET IUSTUM EST. Brother Swan was the person to -see. Mr Cunningham's letter. Yes. Oblige him, if possible. Good practical -catholic: useful at mission time. - -A onelegged sailor, swinging himself onward by lazy jerks of his -crutches, growled some notes. He jerked short before the convent of the -sisters of charity and held out a peaked cap for alms towards the very -reverend John Conmee S. J. Father Conmee blessed him in the sun for his -purse held, he knew, one silver crown. - -Father Conmee crossed to Mountjoy square. He thought, but not for -long, of soldiers and sailors, whose legs had been shot off by -cannonballs, ending their days in some pauper ward, and of cardinal -Wolsey's words: IF I HAD SERVED MY GOD AS I HAVE SERVED MY KING HE WOULD -NOT HAVE ABANDONED ME IN MY OLD DAYS. He walked by the treeshade of -sunnywinking leaves: and towards him came the wife of Mr David Sheehy -M.P. - ---Very well, indeed, father. And you, father? - -Father Conmee was wonderfully well indeed. He would go to Buxton -probably for the waters. And her boys, were they getting on well at -Belvedere? Was that so? Father Conmee was very glad indeed to hear that. -And Mr Sheehy himself? Still in London. The house was still sitting, to be -sure it was. Beautiful weather it was, delightful indeed. Yes, it was very -probable that Father Bernard Vaughan would come again to preach. O, -yes: a very great success. A wonderful man really. - -Father Conmee was very glad to see the wife of Mr David Sheehy -M.P. Iooking so well and he begged to be remembered to Mr David Sheehy -M.P. Yes, he would certainly call. - ---Good afternoon, Mrs Sheehy. - -Father Conmee doffed his silk hat and smiled, as he took leave, at the -jet beads of her mantilla inkshining in the sun. And smiled yet again, in -going. He had cleaned his teeth, he knew, with arecanut paste. - -Father Conmee walked and, walking, smiled for he thought on Father -Bernard Vaughan's droll eyes and cockney voice. - ---Pilate! Wy don't you old back that owlin mob? - -A zealous man, however. Really he was. And really did great good in. -his way. Beyond a doubt. He loved Ireland, he said, and he loved the -Irish. Of good family too would one think it? Welsh, were they not? - -O, lest he forget. That letter to father provincial. - -Father Conmee stopped three little schoolboys at the corner of -Mountjoy square. Yes: they were from Belvedere. The little house. Aha. -And were they good boys at school? O. That was very good now. And what -was his name? Jack Sohan. And his name? Ger. Gallaher. And the other -little man? His name was Brunny Lynam. O, that was a very nice name to -have. - -Father Conmee gave a letter from his breast to Master Brunny Lynam -and pointed to the red pillarbox at the corner of Fitzgibbon street. - ---But mind you don't post yourself into the box, little man, he said. - -The boys sixeyed Father Conmee and laughed: - ---O, sir. - ---Well, let me see if you can post a letter, Father Conmee said. - -Master Brunny Lynam ran across the road and put Father Conmee's -letter to father provincial into the mouth of the bright red letterbox. -Father Conmee smiled and nodded and smiled and walked along Mountjoy -square east. - -Mr Denis J Maginni, professor of dancing &c, in silk hat, slate -frockcoat with silk facings, white kerchief tie, tight lavender trousers, -canary gloves and pointed patent boots, walking with grave deportment -most respectfully took the curbstone as he passed lady Maxwell at the -corner of Dignam's court. - -Was that not Mrs M'Guinness? - -Mrs M'Guinness, stately, silverhaired, bowed to Father Conmee from -the farther footpath along which she sailed. And Father Conmee smiled and -saluted. How did she do? - -A fine carriage she had. Like Mary, queen of Scots, something. And to -think that she was a pawnbroker! Well, now! Such a ... what should he -say? ... such a queenly mien. - -Father Conmee walked down Great Charles street and glanced at the -shutup free church on his left. The reverend T. R. Greene B.A. will (D.V.) -speak. The incumbent they called him. He felt it incumbent on him to say a -few words. But one should be charitable. Invincible ignorance. They acted -according to their lights. - -Father Conmee turned the corner and walked along the North -Circular road. It was a wonder that there was not a tramline in such an -important thoroughfare. Surely, there ought to be. - -A band of satchelled schoolboys crossed from Richmond street. All -raised untidy caps. Father Conmee greeted them more than once benignly. -Christian brother boys. - -Father Conmee smelt incense on his right hand as he walked. Saint -Joseph's church, Portland row. For aged and virtuous females. Father -Conmee raised his hat to the Blessed Sacrament. Virtuous: but occasionally -they were also badtempered. - -Near Aldborough house Father Conmee thought of that spendthrift -nobleman. And now it was an office or something. - -Father Conmee began to walk along the North Strand road and was -saluted by Mr William Gallagher who stood in the doorway of his shop. -Father Conmee saluted Mr William Gallagher and perceived the odours -that came from baconflitches and ample cools of butter. He passed -Grogan's the Tobacconist against which newsboards leaned and told of a -dreadful catastrophe in New York. In America those things were -continually happening. Unfortunate people to die like that, unprepared. -Still, an act of perfect contrition. - -Father Conmee went by Daniel Bergin's publichouse against the -window of which two unlabouring men lounged. They saluted him and -were saluted. - -Father Conmee passed H. J. O'Neill's funeral establishment where -Corny Kelleher totted figures in the daybook while he chewed a blade of -hay. A constable on his beat saluted Father Conmee and Father Conmee -saluted the constable. In Youkstetter's, the porkbutcher's, Father Conmee -observed pig's puddings, white and black and red, lie neatly curled in -tubes. - -Moored under the trees of Charleville Mall Father Conmee saw a -turfbarge, a towhorse with pendent head, a bargeman with a hat of dirty -straw seated amidships, smoking and staring at a branch of poplar above -him. It was idyllic: and Father Conmee reflected on the providence of the -Creator who had made turf to be in bogs whence men might dig it out and -bring it to town and hamlet to make fires in the houses of poor people. - -On Newcomen bridge the very reverend John Conmee S.J. of saint -Francis Xavier's church, upper Gardiner street, stepped on to an outward -bound tram. - -Off an inward bound tram stepped the reverend Nicholas Dudley -C. C. of saint Agatha's church, north William street, on to Newcomen -bridge. - -At Newcomen bridge Father Conmee stepped into an outward bound -tram for he disliked to traverse on foot the dingy way past Mud Island. - -Father Conmee sat in a corner of the tramcar, a blue ticket tucked -with care in the eye of one plump kid glove, while four shillings, a -sixpence and five pennies chuted from his other plump glovepalm into his -purse. Passing the ivy church he reflected that the ticket inspector -usually made his visit when one had carelessly thrown away the ticket. -The solemnity of the occupants of the car seemed to Father Conmee -excessive for a journey so short and cheap. Father Conmee liked cheerful -decorum. - -It was a peaceful day. The gentleman with the glasses opposite Father -Conmee had finished explaining and looked down. His wife, Father -Conmee supposed. A tiny yawn opened the mouth of the wife of the gentleman -with the glasses. She raised her small gloved fist, yawned ever so gently, -tiptapping her small gloved fist on her opening mouth and smiled tinily, -sweetly. - -Father Conmee perceived her perfume in the car. He perceived also -that the awkward man at the other side of her was sitting on the edge of -the seat. - -Father Conmee at the altarrails placed the host with difficulty in the -mouth of the awkward old man who had the shaky head. - -At Annesley bridge the tram halted and, when it was about to go, an -old woman rose suddenly from her place to alight. The conductor pulled -the bellstrap to stay the car for her. She passed out with her basket and -a marketnet: and Father Conmee saw the conductor help her and net and -basket down: and Father Conmee thought that, as she had nearly passed -the end of the penny fare, she was one of those good souls who had always -to be told twice BLESS YOU, MY CHILD, that they have been absolved, PRAY -FOR ME. But they had so many worries in life, so many cares, poor -creatures. - -From the hoardings Mr Eugene Stratton grimaced with thick niggerlips at -Father Conmee. - -Father Conmee thought of the souls of black and brown and yellow -men and of his sermon on saint Peter Claver S.J. and the African mission -and of the propagation of the faith and of the millions of black and brown -and yellow souls that had not received the baptism of water when their last -hour came like a thief in the night. That book by the Belgian jesuit, LE -NOMBRE DES ELUS, seemed to Father Conmee a reasonable plea. Those were -millions of human souls created by God in His Own likeness to whom the -faith had not (D.V.) been brought. But they were God's souls, created by -God. It seemed to Father Conmee a pity that they should all be lost, a -waste, if one might say. - -At the Howth road stop Father Conmee alighted, was saluted by the -conductor and saluted in his turn. - -The Malahide road was quiet. It pleased Father Conmee, road and -name. The joybells were ringing in gay Malahide. Lord Talbot de Malahide, -immediate hereditary lord admiral of Malahide and the seas adjoining. -Then came the call to arms and she was maid, wife and widow in one day. -Those were old worldish days, loyal times in joyous townlands, old times -in the barony. - -Father Conmee, walking, thought of his little book OLD TIMES IN THE -BARONY and of the book that might be written about jesuit houses and of -Mary Rochfort, daughter of lord Molesworth, first countess of Belvedere. - -A listless lady, no more young, walked alone the shore of lough -Ennel, Mary, first countess of Belvedere, listlessly walking in the -evening, not startled when an otter plunged. Who could know the truth? -Not the jealous lord Belvedere and not her confessor if she had not -committed adultery fully, EIACULATIO SEMINIS INTER VAS NATURALE MULIERIS, -with her husband's brother? She would half confess if she had not all -sinned as women did. Only God knew and she and he, her husband's brother. - -Father Conmee thought of that tyrannous incontinence, needed -however for man's race on earth, and of the ways of God which were not -our ways. - -Don John Conmee walked and moved in times of yore. He was -humane and honoured there. He bore in mind secrets confessed and he -smiled at smiling noble faces in a beeswaxed drawingroom, ceiled with full -fruit clusters. And the hands of a bride and of a bridegroom, noble to -noble, were impalmed by Don John Conmee. - -It was a charming day. - -The lychgate of a field showed Father Conmee breadths of cabbages, -curtseying to him with ample underleaves. The sky showed him a flock of -small white clouds going slowly down the wind. MOUTONNER, the French -said. A just and homely word. - -Father Conmee, reading his office, watched a flock of muttoning -clouds over Rathcoffey. His thinsocked ankles were tickled by the stubble -of Clongowes field. He walked there, reading in the evening, and heard the -cries of the boys' lines at their play, young cries in the quiet evening. -He was their rector: his reign was mild. - -Father Conmee drew off his gloves and took his rededged breviary out. -An ivory bookmark told him the page. - -Nones. He should have read that before lunch. But lady Maxwell had come. - -Father Conmee read in secret PATER and AVE and crossed his breast. -DEUS IN ADIUTORIUM. - -He walked calmly and read mutely the nones, walking and reading till -he came to RES in BEATI IMMACULATI: PRINCIPIUM VERBORUM TUORUM VERITAS: -IN ETERNUM OMNIA INDICIA IUSTITIAE TUAE. - -A flushed young man came from a gap of a hedge and after him came -a young woman with wild nodding daisies in her hand. The young man -raised his cap abruptly: the young woman abruptly bent and with slow care -detached from her light skirt a clinging twig. - -Father Conmee blessed both gravely and turned a thin page of his -breviary. SIN: PRINCIPES PERSECUTI SUNT ME GRATIS: ET A VERBIS TUIS -FORMIDAVIT COR MEUM. - - - * * * * * - - -Corny Kelleher closed his long daybook and glanced with his -drooping eye at a pine coffinlid sentried in a corner. He pulled himself -erect, went to it and, spinning it on its axle, viewed its shape and brass -furnishings. Chewing his blade of hay he laid the coffinlid by and came to -the doorway. There he tilted his hatbrim to give shade to his eyes and -leaned against the doorcase, looking idly out. - -Father John Conmee stepped into the Dollymount tram on -Newcomen bridge. - -Corny Kelleher locked his largefooted boots and gazed, his hat -downtilted, chewing his blade of hay. - -Constable 57C, on his beat, stood to pass the time of day. - ---That's a fine day, Mr Kelleher. - ---Ay, Corny Kelleher said. - ---It's very close, the constable said. - -Corny Kelleher sped a silent jet of hayjuice arching from his mouth -while a generous white arm from a window in Eccles street flung forth a -coin. - ---What's the best news? he asked. - ---I seen that particular party last evening, the constable said with bated -breath. - - - * * * * * - - -A onelegged sailor crutched himself round MacConnell's corner, -skirting Rabaiotti's icecream car, and jerked himself up Eccles street. -Towards Larry O'Rourke, in shirtsleeves in his doorway, he growled -unamiably: - ---FOR ENGLAND ... - -He swung himself violently forward past Katey and Boody Dedalus, -halted and growled: - ---HOME AND BEAUTY. - -J. J. O'Molloy's white careworn face was told that Mr Lambert was -in the warehouse with a visitor. - -A stout lady stopped, took a copper coin from her purse and dropped -it into the cap held out to her. The sailor grumbled thanks, glanced -sourly at the unheeding windows, sank his head and swung himself forward -four strides. - -He halted and growled angrily: - ---FOR ENGLAND ... - -Two barefoot urchins, sucking long liquorice laces, halted near him, -gaping at his stump with their yellowslobbered mouths. - -He swung himself forward in vigorous jerks, halted, lifted his head -towards a window and bayed deeply: - ---HOME AND BEAUTY. - -The gay sweet chirping whistling within went on a bar or two, ceased. -The blind of the window was drawn aside. A card UNFURNISHED APARTMENTS -slipped from the sash and fell. A plump bare generous arm shone, was seen, -held forth from a white petticoatbodice and taut shiftstraps. A woman's -hand flung forth a coin over the area railings. It fell on the path. - -One of the urchins ran to it, picked it up and dropped it into the -minstrel's cap, saying: - ---There, sir. - - - * * * * * - - -Katey and Boody Dedalus shoved in the door of the closesteaming -kitchen. - ---Did you put in the books? Boody asked. - -Maggy at the range rammed down a greyish mass beneath bubbling -suds twice with her potstick and wiped her brow. - ---They wouldn't give anything on them, she said. - -Father Conmee walked through Clongowes fields, his thinsocked -ankles tickled by stubble. - ---Where did you try? Boody asked. - ---M'Guinness's. - -Boody stamped her foot and threw her satchel on the table. - ---Bad cess to her big face! she cried. - -Katey went to the range and peered with squinting eyes. - ---What's in the pot? she asked. - ---Shirts, Maggy said. - -Boody cried angrily: - ---Crickey, is there nothing for us to eat? - -Katey, lifting the kettlelid in a pad of her stained skirt, asked: - ---And what's in this? - -A heavy fume gushed in answer. - ---Peasoup, Maggy said. - ---Where did you get it? Katey asked. - ---Sister Mary Patrick, Maggy said. - -The lacquey rang his bell. - ---Barang! - -Boody sat down at the table and said hungrily: - ---Give us it here. - -Maggy poured yellow thick soup from the kettle into a bowl. Katey, -sitting opposite Boody, said quietly, as her fingertip lifted to her mouth -random crumbs: - ---A good job we have that much. Where's Dilly? - ---Gone to meet father, Maggy said. - -Boody, breaking big chunks of bread into the yellow soup, added: - ---Our father who art not in heaven. - -Maggy, pouring yellow soup in Katey's bowl, exclaimed: - ---Boody! For shame! - -A skiff, a crumpled throwaway, Elijah is coming, rode lightly down -the Liffey, under Loopline bridge, shooting the rapids where water chafed -around the bridgepiers, sailing eastward past hulls and anchorchains, -between the Customhouse old dock and George's quay. - - * * * * * - - -The blond girl in Thornton's bedded the wicker basket with rustling -fibre. Blazes Boylan handed her the bottle swathed in pink tissue paper -and a small jar. - ---Put these in first, will you? he said. - ---Yes, sir, the blond girl said. And the fruit on top. - ---That'll do, game ball, Blazes Boylan said. - -She bestowed fat pears neatly, head by tail, and among them ripe -shamefaced peaches. - -Blazes Boylan walked here and there in new tan shoes about the -fruitsmelling shop, lifting fruits, young juicy crinkled and plump red -tomatoes, sniffing smells. - -H. E. L. Y.'S filed before him, tallwhitehatted, past Tangier lane, -plodding towards their goal. - -He turned suddenly from a chip of strawberries, drew a gold watch -from his fob and held it at its chain's length. - ---Can you send them by tram? Now? - -A darkbacked figure under Merchants' arch scanned books on the -hawker's cart. - ---Certainly, sir. Is it in the city? - ---O, yes, Blazes Boylan said. Ten minutes. - -The blond girl handed him a docket and pencil. - ---Will you write the address, sir? - -Blazes Boylan at the counter wrote and pushed the docket to her. - ---Send it at once, will you? he said. It's for an invalid. - ---Yes, sir. I will, sir. - -Blazes Boylan rattled merry money in his trousers' pocket. - ---What's the damage? he asked. - -The blond girl's slim fingers reckoned the fruits. - -Blazes Boylan looked into the cut of her blouse. A young pullet. He -took a red carnation from the tall stemglass. - ---This for me? he asked gallantly. - -The blond girl glanced sideways at him, got up regardless, with his tie -a bit crooked, blushing. - ---Yes, sir, she said. - -Bending archly she reckoned again fat pears and blushing peaches. - -Blazes Boylan looked in her blouse with more favour, the stalk of the -red flower between his smiling teeth. - ---May I say a word to your telephone, missy? he asked roguishly. - - - * * * * * - - ---MA! Almidano Artifoni said. - -He gazed over Stephen's shoulder at Goldsmith's knobby poll. - -Two carfuls of tourists passed slowly, their women sitting fore, -gripping the handrests. Palefaces. Men's arms frankly round their stunted -forms. They looked from Trinity to the blind columned porch of the bank -of Ireland where pigeons roocoocooed. - ---ANCH'IO HO AVUTO DI QUESTE IDEE, Almidano Artifoni said, QUAND' ERO -GIOVINE COME LEI. EPPOI MI SONO CONVINTO CHE IL MONDO E UNA BESTIA. -PECCATO. PERCHE LA SUA VOCE ... SAREBBE UN CESPITE DI RENDITA, VIA. -INVECE, LEI SI SACRIFICA. - ---SACRIFIZIO INCRUENTO, Stephen said smiling, swaying his ashplant in slow -swingswong from its midpoint, lightly. - ---SPERIAMO, the round mustachioed face said pleasantly. MA, DIA RETTA A -ME. CI RIFLETTA. - -By the stern stone hand of Grattan, bidding halt, an Inchicore tram -unloaded straggling Highland soldiers of a band. - ---CI RIFLETTERO, Stephen said, glancing down the solid trouserleg. - ---MA, SUL SERIO, EH? Almidano Artifoni said. - -His heavy hand took Stephen's firmly. Human eyes. They gazed -curiously an instant and turned quickly towards a Dalkey tram. - ---ECCOLO, Almidano Artifoni said in friendly haste. VENGA A TROVARMI E CI -PENSI. ADDIO, CARO. - ---ARRIVEDERLA, MAESTRO, Stephen said, raising his hat when his hand was -freed. E GRAZIE. - ---DI CHE? Almidano Artifoni said. SCUSI, EH? TANTE BELLE COSE! - -Almidano Artifoni, holding up a baton of rolled music as a signal, -trotted on stout trousers after the Dalkey tram. In vain he trotted, -signalling in vain among the rout of barekneed gillies smuggling -implements of music through Trinity gates. - - - * * * * * - - -Miss Dunne hid the Capel street library copy of THE WOMAN IN WHITE -far back in her drawer and rolled a sheet of gaudy notepaper into her -typewriter. - -Too much mystery business in it. Is he in love with that one, Marion? -Change it and get another by Mary Cecil Haye. - -The disk shot down the groove, wobbled a while, ceased and ogled -them: six. - -Miss Dunne clicked on the keyboard: - ---16 June 1904. - -Five tallwhitehatted sandwichmen between Monypeny's corner and -the slab where Wolfe Tone's statue was not, eeled themselves turning -H. E. L. Y.'S and plodded back as they had come. - - -Then she stared at the large poster of Marie Kendall, charming soubrette, -and, listlessly lolling, scribbled on the jotter sixteens and capital -esses. Mustard hair and dauby cheeks. She's not nicelooking, is she? The -way she's holding up her bit of a skirt. Wonder will that fellow be at the -band tonight. If I could get that dressmaker to make a concertina skirt -like Susy Nagle's. They kick out grand. Shannon and all the boatclub -swells never took his eyes off her. Hope to goodness he won't keep me here -till seven. - -The telephone rang rudely by her ear. - ---Hello. Yes, sir. No, sir. Yes, sir. I'll ring them up after five. Only -those two, sir, for Belfast and Liverpool. All right, sir. Then I can go -after six if you're not back. A quarter after. Yes, sir. Twentyseven and -six. I'll tell him. Yes: one, seven, six. - -She scribbled three figures on an envelope. - ---Mr Boylan! Hello! That gentleman from SPORT was in looking for you. -Mr Lenehan, yes. He said he'll be in the Ormond at four. No, sir. Yes, -sir. I'll ring them up after five. - - - * * * * * - - -Two pink faces turned in the flare of the tiny torch. - ---Who's that? Ned Lambert asked. Is that Crotty? - ---Ringabella and Crosshaven, a voice replied groping for foothold. - ---Hello, Jack, is that yourself? Ned Lambert said, raising in salute his -pliant lath among the flickering arches. Come on. Mind your steps there. - -The vesta in the clergyman's uplifted hand consumed itself in a long soft -flame and was let fall. At their feet its red speck died: and mouldy air -closed round them. - ---How interesting! a refined accent said in the gloom. - ---Yes, sir, Ned Lambert said heartily. We are standing in the historic -council chamber of saint Mary's abbey where silken Thomas proclaimed -himself a rebel in 1534. This is the most historic spot in all Dublin. -O'Madden Burke is going to write something about it one of these days. The -old bank of Ireland was over the way till the time of the union and the -original jews' temple was here too before they built their synagogue over -in Adelaide road. You were never here before, Jack, were you? - ---No, Ned. - ---He rode down through Dame walk, the refined accent said, if my -memory serves me. The mansion of the Kildares was in Thomas court. - ---That's right, Ned Lambert said. That's quite right, sir. - ---If you will be so kind then, the clergyman said, the next time to allow -me perhaps ... - ---Certainly, Ned Lambert said. Bring the camera whenever you like. I'll -get those bags cleared away from the windows. You can take it from here or -from here. - -In the still faint light he moved about, tapping with his lath the piled -seedbags and points of vantage on the floor. - -From a long face a beard and gaze hung on a chessboard. - ---I'm deeply obliged, Mr Lambert, the clergyman said. I won't trespass on -your valuable time ... - ---You're welcome, sir, Ned Lambert said. Drop in whenever you like. Next -week, say. Can you see? - ---Yes, yes. Good afternoon, Mr Lambert. Very pleased to have met you. - ---Pleasure is mine, sir, Ned Lambert answered. - -He followed his guest to the outlet and then whirled his lath away -among the pillars. With J. J. O'Molloy he came forth slowly into Mary's -abbey where draymen were loading floats with sacks of carob and palmnut -meal, O'Connor, Wexford. - -He stood to read the card in his hand. - ---The reverend Hugh C. Love, Rathcoffey. Present address: Saint -Michael's, Sallins. Nice young chap he is. He's writing a book about the -Fitzgeralds he told me. He's well up in history, faith. - -The young woman with slow care detached from her light skirt a -clinging twig. - ---I thought you were at a new gunpowder plot, J. J. O'Molloy said. - -Ned Lambert cracked his fingers in the air. - ---God! he cried. I forgot to tell him that one about the earl of Kildare -after he set fire to Cashel cathedral. You know that one? I'M BLOODY SORRY -I DID IT, says he, BUT I DECLARE TO GOD I THOUGHT THE ARCHBISHOP WAS -INSIDE. He mightn't like it, though. What? God, I'll tell him anyhow. -That was the great earl, the Fitzgerald Mor. Hot members they were all of -them, the Geraldines. - -The horses he passed started nervously under their slack harness. He -slapped a piebald haunch quivering near him and cried: - ---Woa, sonny! - -He turned to J. J. O'Molloy and asked: - ---Well, Jack. What is it? What's the trouble? Wait awhile. Hold hard. - -With gaping mouth and head far back he stood still and, after an -instant, sneezed loudly. - ---Chow! he said. Blast you! - ---The dust from those sacks, J. J. O'Molloy said politely. - ---No, Ned Lambert gasped, I caught a ... cold night before ... blast -your soul ... night before last ... and there was a hell of a lot of -draught ... - -He held his handkerchief ready for the coming ... - ---I was ... Glasnevin this morning ... poor little ... what do you call -him ... Chow! ... Mother of Moses! - - - * * * * * - - -Tom Rochford took the top disk from the pile he clasped against his -claret waistcoat. - ---See? he said. Say it's turn six. In here, see. Turn Now On. - -He slid it into the left slot for them. It shot down the groove, wobbled -a while, ceased, ogling them: six. - -Lawyers of the past, haughty, pleading, beheld pass from the -consolidated taxing office to Nisi Prius court Richie Goulding carrying -the costbag of Goulding, Collis and Ward and heard rustling from the -admiralty division of king's bench to the court of appeal an elderly -female with false teeth smiling incredulously and a black silk skirt of -great amplitude. - ---See? he said. See now the last one I put in is over here: Turns Over. -The impact. Leverage, see? - -He showed them the rising column of disks on the right. - ---Smart idea, Nosey Flynn said, snuffling. So a fellow coming in late can -see what turn is on and what turns are over. - ---See? Tom Rochford said. - -He slid in a disk for himself: and watched it shoot, wobble, ogle, stop: -four. Turn Now On. - ---I'll see him now in the Ormond, Lenehan said, and sound him. One good -turn deserves another. - ---Do, Tom Rochford said. Tell him I'm Boylan with impatience. - ---Goodnight, M'Coy said abruptly. When you two begin - -Nosey Flynn stooped towards the lever, snuffling at it. - ---But how does it work here, Tommy? he asked. - ---Tooraloo, Lenehan said. See you later. - -He followed M'Coy out across the tiny square of Crampton court. - ---He's a hero, he said simply. - ---I know, M'Coy said. The drain, you mean. - ---Drain? Lenehan said. It was down a manhole. - -They passed Dan Lowry's musichall where Marie Kendall, charming -soubrette, smiled on them from a poster a dauby smile. - -Going down the path of Sycamore street beside the Empire musichall -Lenehan showed M'Coy how the whole thing was. One of those manholes -like a bloody gaspipe and there was the poor devil stuck down in it, half -choked with sewer gas. Down went Tom Rochford anyhow, booky's vest -and all, with the rope round him. And be damned but he got the rope round -the poor devil and the two were hauled up. - ---The act of a hero, he said. - -At the Dolphin they halted to allow the ambulance car to gallop past -them for Jervis street. - ---This way, he said, walking to the right. I want to pop into Lynam's to -see Sceptre's starting price. What's the time by your gold watch and -chain? - -M'Coy peered into Marcus Tertius Moses' sombre office, then at -O'Neill's clock. - ---After three, he said. Who's riding her? - ---O. Madden, Lenehan said. And a game filly she is. - -While he waited in Temple bar M'Coy dodged a banana peel with -gentle pushes of his toe from the path to the gutter. Fellow might damn -easy get a nasty fall there coming along tight in the dark. - -The gates of the drive opened wide to give egress to the viceregal -cavalcade. - ---Even money, Lenehan said returning. I knocked against Bantam Lyons in -there going to back a bloody horse someone gave him that hasn't an -earthly. Through here. - -They went up the steps and under Merchants' arch. A darkbacked -figure scanned books on the hawker's cart. - ---There he is, Lenehan said. - ---Wonder what he's buying, M'Coy said, glancing behind. - ---LEOPOLDO OR THE BLOOM IS ON THE RYE, Lenehan said. - ---He's dead nuts on sales, M'Coy said. I was with him one day and he -bought a book from an old one in Liffey street for two bob. There were -fine plates in it worth double the money, the stars and the moon and -comets with long tails. Astronomy it was about. - -Lenehan laughed. - ---I'll tell you a damn good one about comets' tails, he said. Come over in -the sun. - -They crossed to the metal bridge and went along Wellington quay by -the riverwall. - -Master Patrick Aloysius Dignam came out of Mangan's, late -Fehrenbach's, carrying a pound and a half of porksteaks. - ---There was a long spread out at Glencree reformatory, Lenehan said -eagerly. The annual dinner, you know. Boiled shirt affair. The lord mayor -was there, Val Dillon it was, and sir Charles Cameron and Dan Dawson -spoke and there was music. Bartell d'Arcy sang and Benjamin Dollard ... - ---I know, M'Coy broke in. My missus sang there once. - ---Did she? Lenehan said. - -A card UNFURNISHED APARTMENTS reappeared on the windowsash of -number 7 Eccles street. - -He checked his tale a moment but broke out in a wheezy laugh. - ---But wait till I tell you, he said. Delahunt of Camden street had the -catering and yours truly was chief bottlewasher. Bloom and the wife were -there. Lashings of stuff we put up: port wine and sherry and curacao to -which we did ample justice. Fast and furious it was. After liquids came -solids. Cold joints galore and mince pies ... - ---I know, M'Coy said. The year the missus was there ... - -Lenehan linked his arm warmly. - ---But wait till I tell you, he said. We had a midnight lunch too after all -the jollification and when we sallied forth it was blue o'clock the -morning after the night before. Coming home it was a gorgeous winter's -night on the Featherbed Mountain. Bloom and Chris Callinan were on one -side of the car and I was with the wife on the other. We started singing -glees and duets: LO, THE EARLY BEAM OF MORNING. She was well primed with a -good load of Delahunt's port under her bellyband. Every jolt the bloody -car gave I had her bumping up against me. Hell's delights! She has a fine -pair, God bless her. Like that. - - -He held his caved hands a cubit from him, frowning: - ---I was tucking the rug under her and settling her boa all the time. Know -what I mean? - -His hands moulded ample curves of air. He shut his eyes tight in -delight, his body shrinking, and blew a sweet chirp from his lips. - ---The lad stood to attention anyhow, he said with a sigh. She's a gamey -mare and no mistake. Bloom was pointing out all the stars and the comets -in the heavens to Chris Callinan and the jarvey: the great bear and -Hercules and the dragon, and the whole jingbang lot. But, by God, I was -lost, so to speak, in the milky way. He knows them all, faith. At last she -spotted a weeny weeshy one miles away. AND WHAT STAR IS THAT, POLDY? says -she. By God, she had Bloom cornered. THAT ONE, IS IT? says Chris Callinan, -SURE THAT'S ONLY WHAT YOU MIGHT CALL A PINPRICK. By God, he wasn't far -wide of the mark. - -Lenehan stopped and leaned on the riverwall, panting with soft -laughter. - ---I'm weak, he gasped. - -M'Coy's white face smiled about it at instants and grew grave. -Lenehan walked on again. He lifted his yachtingcap and scratched his -hindhead rapidly. He glanced sideways in the sunlight at M'Coy. - ---He's a cultured allroundman, Bloom is, he said seriously. He's not one -of your common or garden ... you know ... There's a touch of the artist -about old Bloom. - - - * * * * * - - -Mr Bloom turned over idly pages of THE AWFUL DISCLOSURES OF MARIA -MONK, then of Aristotle's MASTERPIECE. Crooked botched print. Plates: -infants cuddled in a ball in bloodred wombs like livers of slaughtered -cows. Lots of them like that at this moment all over the world. All -butting with their skulls to get out of it. Child born every minute -somewhere. Mrs Purefoy. - -He laid both books aside and glanced at the third: TALES OF THE GHETTO -by Leopold von Sacher Masoch. - ---That I had, he said, pushing it by. - -The shopman let two volumes fall on the counter. - ---Them are two good ones, he said. - -Onions of his breath came across the counter out of his ruined -mouth. He bent to make a bundle of the other books, hugged them against -his unbuttoned waistcoat and bore them off behind the dingy curtain. - -On O'Connell bridge many persons observed the grave deportment -and gay apparel of Mr Denis J Maginni, professor of dancing &c. - -Mr Bloom, alone, looked at the titles. FAIR TYRANTS by James Lovebirch. -Know the kind that is. Had it? Yes. - -He opened it. Thought so. - -A woman's voice behind the dingy curtain. Listen: the man. - -No: she wouldn't like that much. Got her it once. - -He read the other title: SWEETS OF SIN. More in her line. Let us see. - -He read where his finger opened. - ---ALL THE DOLLARBILLS HER HUSBAND GAVE HER WERE SPENT IN THE STORES ON -WONDROUS GOWNS AND COSTLIEST FRILLIES. FOR HIM! FOR RAOUL! - -Yes. This. Here. Try. - ---HER MOUTH GLUED ON HIS IN A LUSCIOUS VOLUPTUOUS KISS WHILE HIS HANDS -FELT FOR THE OPULENT CURVES INSIDE HER DESHABILLE. - -Yes. Take this. The end. - ---YOU ARE LATE, HE SPOKE HOARSELY, EYING HER WITH A SUSPICIOUS GLARE. -THE BEAUTIFUL WOMAN THREW OFF HER SABLETRIMMED WRAP, DISPLAYING HER -QUEENLY SHOULDERS AND HEAVING EMBONPOINT. AN IMPERCEPTIBLE SMILE PLAYED -ROUND HER PERFECT LIPS AS SHE TURNED TO HIM CALMLY. - -Mr Bloom read again: THE BEAUTIFUL WOMAN. - -Warmth showered gently over him, cowing his flesh. Flesh yielded -amply amid rumpled clothes: whites of eyes swooning up. His nostrils -arched themselves for prey. Melting breast ointments (FOR HIM! FOR -RAOUL!). Armpits' oniony sweat. Fishgluey slime (HER HEAVING EMBONPOINT!). -Feel! Press! Crushed! Sulphur dung of lions! - -Young! Young! - -An elderly female, no more young, left the building of the courts of -chancery, king's bench, exchequer and common pleas, having heard in the -lord chancellor's court the case in lunacy of Potterton, in the admiralty -division the summons, exparte motion, of the owners of the Lady Cairns -versus the owners of the barque Mona, in the court of appeal reservation -of judgment in the case of Harvey versus the Ocean Accident and Guarantee -Corporation. - -Phlegmy coughs shook the air of the bookshop, bulging out the dingy -curtains. The shopman's uncombed grey head came out and his unshaven -reddened face, coughing. He raked his throat rudely, puked phlegm on the -floor. He put his boot on what he had spat, wiping his sole along it, and -bent, showing a rawskinned crown, scantily haired. - -Mr Bloom beheld it. - -Mastering his troubled breath, he said: - ---I'll take this one. - -The shopman lifted eyes bleared with old rheum. - ---SWEETS OF SIN, he said, tapping on it. That's a good one. - - - * * * * * - - -The lacquey by the door of Dillon's auctionrooms shook his handbell -twice again and viewed himself in the chalked mirror of the cabinet. - -Dilly Dedalus, loitering by the curbstone, heard the beats of the bell, -the cries of the auctioneer within. Four and nine. Those lovely curtains. -Five shillings. Cosy curtains. Selling new at two guineas. Any advance on -five shillings? Going for five shillings. - -The lacquey lifted his handbell and shook it: - ---Barang! - -Bang of the lastlap bell spurred the halfmile wheelmen to their sprint. -J. A. Jackson, W. E. Wylie, A. Munro and H. T. Gahan, their stretched -necks wagging, negotiated the curve by the College library. - -Mr Dedalus, tugging a long moustache, came round from Williams's -row. He halted near his daughter. - ---It's time for you, she said. - ---Stand up straight for the love of the lord Jesus, Mr Dedalus said. Are -you trying to imitate your uncle John, the cornetplayer, head upon -shoulder? Melancholy God! - -Dilly shrugged her shoulders. Mr Dedalus placed his hands on them -and held them back. - ---Stand up straight, girl, he said. You'll get curvature of the spine. -Do you know what you look like? - -He let his head sink suddenly down and forward, hunching his -shoulders and dropping his underjaw. - ---Give it up, father, Dilly said. All the people are looking at you. - -Mr Dedalus drew himself upright and tugged again at his moustache. - ---Did you get any money? Dilly asked. - ---Where would I get money? Mr Dedalus said. There is no-one in Dublin -would lend me fourpence. - ---You got some, Dilly said, looking in his eyes. - ---How do you know that? Mr Dedalus asked, his tongue in his cheek. - -Mr Kernan, pleased with the order he had booked, walked boldly -along James's street. - ---I know you did, Dilly answered. Were you in the Scotch house now? - ---I was not, then, Mr Dedalus said, smiling. Was it the little nuns -taught you to be so saucy? Here. - -He handed her a shilling. - ---See if you can do anything with that, he said. - ---I suppose you got five, Dilly said. Give me more than that. - ---Wait awhile, Mr Dedalus said threateningly. You're like the rest of -them, are you? An insolent pack of little bitches since your poor mother -died. But wait awhile. You'll all get a short shrift and a long day from -me. Low blackguardism! I'm going to get rid of you. Wouldn't care if I -was stretched out stiff. He's dead. The man upstairs is dead. - -He left her and walked on. Dilly followed quickly and pulled his coat. - ---Well, what is it? he said, stopping. - -The lacquey rang his bell behind their backs. - ---Barang! - ---Curse your bloody blatant soul, Mr Dedalus cried, turning on him. - -The lacquey, aware of comment, shook the lolling clapper of his bell -but feebly: - ---Bang! - -Mr Dedalus stared at him. - ---Watch him, he said. It's instructive. I wonder will he allow us to talk. - ---You got more than that, father, Dilly said. - ---I'm going to show you a little trick, Mr Dedalus said. I'll leave you -all where Jesus left the jews. Look, there's all I have. I got two -shillings from Jack Power and I spent twopence for a shave for the -funeral. - -He drew forth a handful of copper coins, nervously. - ---Can't you look for some money somewhere? Dilly said. - -Mr Dedalus thought and nodded. - ---I will, he said gravely. I looked all along the gutter in O'Connell -street. I'll try this one now. - ---You're very funny, Dilly said, grinning. - ---Here, Mr Dedalus said, handing her two pennies. Get a glass of milk for -yourself and a bun or a something. I'll be home shortly. - -He put the other coins in his pocket and started to walk on. - -The viceregal cavalcade passed, greeted by obsequious policemen, out -of Parkgate. - ---I'm sure you have another shilling, Dilly said. - -The lacquey banged loudly. - -Mr Dedalus amid the din walked off, murmuring to himself with a -pursing mincing mouth gently: - ---The little nuns! Nice little things! O, sure they wouldn't do anything! -O, sure they wouldn't really! Is it little sister Monica! - - - * * * * * - - -From the sundial towards James's gate walked Mr Kernan, pleased with the -order he had booked for Pulbrook Robertson, boldly along James's street, -past Shackleton's offices. Got round him all right. How do you do, Mr -Crimmins? First rate, sir. I was afraid you might be up in your other -establishment in Pimlico. How are things going? Just keeping alive. -Lovely weather we're having. Yes, indeed. Good for the country. Those -farmers are always grumbling. I'll just take a thimbleful of your best -gin, Mr Crimmins. A small gin, sir. Yes, sir. Terrible affair that -General Slocum explosion. Terrible, terrible! A thousand casualties. And -heartrending scenes. Men trampling down women and children. Most brutal -thing. What do they say was the cause? Spontaneous combustion. Most -scandalous revelation. Not a single lifeboat would float and the firehose -all burst. What I can't understand is how the inspectors ever allowed a -boat like that ... Now, you're talking straight, Mr Crimmins. You know -why? Palm oil. Is that a fact? Without a doubt. Well now, look at that. -And America they say is the land of the free. I thought we were bad here. - -I smiled at him. AMERICA, I said quietly, just like that. WHAT IS IT? THE -SWEEPINGS OF EVERY COUNTRY INCLUDING OUR OWN. ISN'T THAT TRUE? That's a -fact. - -Graft, my dear sir. Well, of course, where there's money going there's -always someone to pick it up. - -Saw him looking at my frockcoat. Dress does it. Nothing like a dressy -appearance. Bowls them over. - ---Hello, Simon, Father Cowley said. How are things? - ---Hello, Bob, old man, Mr Dedalus answered, stopping. - -Mr Kernan halted and preened himself before the sloping mirror of Peter -Kennedy, hairdresser. Stylish coat, beyond a doubt. Scott of Dawson -street. Well worth the half sovereign I gave Neary for it. Never built -under three guineas. Fits me down to the ground. Some Kildare street club -toff had it probably. John Mulligan, the manager of the Hibernian bank, -gave me a very sharp eye yesterday on Carlisle bridge as if he remembered -me. - -Aham! Must dress the character for those fellows. Knight of the road. -Gentleman. And now, Mr Crimmins, may we have the honour of your custom -again, sir. The cup that cheers but not inebriates, as the old saying has -it. - -North wall and sir John Rogerson's quay, with hulls and anchorchains, -sailing westward, sailed by a skiff, a crumpled throwaway, rocked on the -ferrywash, Elijah is coming. - -Mr Kernan glanced in farewell at his image. High colour, of course. -Grizzled moustache. Returned Indian officer. Bravely he bore his stumpy -body forward on spatted feet, squaring his shoulders. Is that Ned -Lambert's brother over the way, Sam? What? Yes. He's as like it as damn -it. No. The windscreen of that motorcar in the sun there. Just a flash -like that. Damn like him. - -Aham! Hot spirit of juniper juice warmed his vitals and his breath. Good -drop of gin, that was. His frocktails winked in bright sunshine to his -fat strut. - -Down there Emmet was hanged, drawn and quartered. Greasy black rope. Dogs -licking the blood off the street when the lord lieutenant's wife drove by -in her noddy. - -Bad times those were. Well, well. Over and done with. Great topers too. -Fourbottle men. - -Let me see. Is he buried in saint Michan's? Or no, there was a midnight -burial in Glasnevin. Corpse brought in through a secret door in the wall. -Dignam is there now. Went out in a puff. Well, well. Better turn down -here. Make a detour. - -Mr Kernan turned and walked down the slope of Watling street by the -corner of Guinness's visitors' waitingroom. Outside the Dublin Distillers -Company's stores an outside car without fare or jarvey stood, the reins -knotted to the wheel. Damn dangerous thing. Some Tipperary bosthoon -endangering the lives of the citizens. Runaway horse. - -Denis Breen with his tomes, weary of having waited an hour in John Henry -Menton's office, led his wife over O'Connell bridge, bound for the office -of Messrs Collis and Ward. - -Mr Kernan approached Island street. - -Times of the troubles. Must ask Ned Lambert to lend me those -reminiscences of sir Jonah Barrington. When you look back on it all now -in a kind of retrospective arrangement. Gaming at Daly's. No cardsharping -then. One of those fellows got his hand nailed to the table by a dagger. -Somewhere here lord Edward Fitzgerald escaped from major Sirr. Stables -behind Moira house. - -Damn good gin that was. - -Fine dashing young nobleman. Good stock, of course. That ruffian, that -sham squire, with his violet gloves gave him away. Course they were on -the wrong side. They rose in dark and evil days. Fine poem that is: -Ingram. They were gentlemen. Ben Dollard does sing that ballad -touchingly. Masterly rendition. - - - AT THE SIEGE OF ROSS DID MY FATHER FALL. - - -A cavalcade in easy trot along Pembroke quay passed, outriders leaping, -leaping in their, in their saddles. Frockcoats. Cream sunshades. - -Mr Kernan hurried forward, blowing pursily. - -His Excellency! Too bad! Just missed that by a hair. Damn it! What a -pity! - - - * * * * * - - -Stephen Dedalus watched through the webbed window the lapidary's fingers -prove a timedulled chain. Dust webbed the window and the showtrays. Dust -darkened the toiling fingers with their vulture nails. Dust slept on dull -coils of bronze and silver, lozenges of cinnabar, on rubies, leprous and -winedark stones. - -Born all in the dark wormy earth, cold specks of fire, evil, lights -shining in the darkness. Where fallen archangels flung the stars of their -brows. Muddy swinesnouts, hands, root and root, gripe and wrest them. - -She dances in a foul gloom where gum bums with garlic. A sailorman, -rustbearded, sips from a beaker rum and eyes her. A long and seafed -silent rut. She dances, capers, wagging her sowish haunches and her hips, -on her gross belly flapping a ruby egg. - -Old Russell with a smeared shammy rag burnished again his gem, turned it -and held it at the point of his Moses' beard. Grandfather ape gloating on -a stolen hoard. - -And you who wrest old images from the burial earth? The brainsick words -of sophists: Antisthenes. A lore of drugs. Orient and immortal wheat -standing from everlasting to everlasting. - -Two old women fresh from their whiff of the briny trudged through -Irishtown along London bridge road, one with a sanded tired umbrella, one -with a midwife's bag in which eleven cockles rolled. - -The whirr of flapping leathern bands and hum of dynamos from the -powerhouse urged Stephen to be on. Beingless beings. Stop! Throb always -without you and the throb always within. Your heart you sing of. I -between them. Where? Between two roaring worlds where they swirl, I. -Shatter them, one and both. But stun myself too in the blow. Shatter me -you who can. Bawd and butcher were the words. I say! Not yet awhile. A -look around. - -Yes, quite true. Very large and wonderful and keeps famous time. You say -right, sir. A Monday morning, 'twas so, indeed. - -Stephen went down Bedford row, the handle of the ash clacking against his -shoulderblade. In Clohissey's window a faded 1860 print of Heenan boxing -Sayers held his eye. Staring backers with square hats stood round the -roped prizering. The heavyweights in tight loincloths proposed gently -each to other his bulbous fists. And they are throbbing: heroes' hearts. - -He turned and halted by the slanted bookcart. - ---Twopence each, the huckster said. Four for sixpence. - -Tattered pages. THE IRISH BEEKEEPER. LIFE AND MIRACLES OF THE CURE' OF -ARS. POCKET GUIDE TO KILLARNEY. - -I might find here one of my pawned schoolprizes. STEPHANO DEDALO, ALUMNO -OPTIMO, PALMAM FERENTI. - -Father Conmee, having read his little hours, walked through the hamlet of -Donnycarney, murmuring vespers. - -Binding too good probably. What is this? Eighth and ninth book of Moses. -Secret of all secrets. Seal of King David. Thumbed pages: read and read. -Who has passed here before me? How to soften chapped hands. Recipe for -white wine vinegar. How to win a woman's love. For me this. Say the -following talisman three times with hands folded: - ---SE EL YILO NEBRAKADA FEMININUM! AMOR ME SOLO! SANKTUS! AMEN. - -Who wrote this? Charms and invocations of the most blessed abbot Peter -Salanka to all true believers divulged. As good as any other abbot's -charms, as mumbling Joachim's. Down, baldynoddle, or we'll wool your -wool. - ---What are you doing here, Stephen? - -Dilly's high shoulders and shabby dress. - -Shut the book quick. Don't let see. - ---What are you doing? Stephen said. - -A Stuart face of nonesuch Charles, lank locks falling at its sides. It -glowed as she crouched feeding the fire with broken boots. I told her of -Paris. Late lieabed under a quilt of old overcoats, fingering a pinchbeck -bracelet, Dan Kelly's token. NEBRAKADA FEMININUM. - ---What have you there? Stephen asked. - ---I bought it from the other cart for a penny, Dilly said, laughing -nervously. Is it any good? - -My eyes they say she has. Do others see me so? Quick, far and daring. -Shadow of my mind. - -He took the coverless book from her hand. Chardenal's French primer. - ---What did you buy that for? he asked. To learn French? - -She nodded, reddening and closing tight her lips. - -Show no surprise. Quite natural. - ---Here, Stephen said. It's all right. Mind Maggy doesn't pawn it on you. -I suppose all my books are gone. - ---Some, Dilly said. We had to. - -She is drowning. Agenbite. Save her. Agenbite. All against us. She will -drown me with her, eyes and hair. Lank coils of seaweed hair around me, -my heart, my soul. Salt green death. - -We. - -Agenbite of inwit. Inwit's agenbite. - -Misery! Misery! - - - * * * * * - - ---Hello, Simon, Father Cowley said. How are things? - ---Hello, Bob, old man, Mr Dedalus answered, stopping. - -They clasped hands loudly outside Reddy and Daughter's. Father Cowley -brushed his moustache often downward with a scooping hand. - ---What's the best news? Mr Dedalus said. - ---Why then not much, Father Cowley said. I'm barricaded up, Simon, with -two men prowling around the house trying to effect an entrance. - ---Jolly, Mr Dedalus said. Who is it? - ---O, Father Cowley said. A certain gombeen man of our acquaintance. - ---With a broken back, is it? Mr Dedalus asked. - ---The same, Simon, Father Cowley answered. Reuben of that ilk. I'm just -waiting for Ben Dollard. He's going to say a word to long John to get him -to take those two men off. All I want is a little time. - -He looked with vague hope up and down the quay, a big apple bulging in -his neck. - ---I know, Mr Dedalus said, nodding. Poor old bockedy Ben! He's always -doing a good turn for someone. Hold hard! - -He put on his glasses and gazed towards the metal bridge an instant. - ---There he is, by God, he said, arse and pockets. - -Ben Dollard's loose blue cutaway and square hat above large slops crossed -the quay in full gait from the metal bridge. He came towards them at an -amble, scratching actively behind his coattails. - -As he came near Mr Dedalus greeted: - ---Hold that fellow with the bad trousers. - ---Hold him now, Ben Dollard said. - -Mr Dedalus eyed with cold wandering scorn various points of Ben Dollard's -figure. Then, turning to Father Cowley with a nod, he muttered -sneeringly: - ---That's a pretty garment, isn't it, for a summer's day? - ---Why, God eternally curse your soul, Ben Dollard growled furiously, I -threw out more clothes in my time than you ever saw. - -He stood beside them beaming, on them first and on his roomy clothes from -points of which Mr Dedalus flicked fluff, saying: - ---They were made for a man in his health, Ben, anyhow. - ---Bad luck to the jewman that made them, Ben Dollard said. Thanks be to -God he's not paid yet. - ---And how is that BASSO PROFONDO, Benjamin? Father Cowley asked. - -Cashel Boyle O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell, murmuring, glassyeyed, -strode past the Kildare street club. - -Ben Dollard frowned and, making suddenly a chanter's mouth, gave forth a -deep note. - ---Aw! he said. - ---That's the style, Mr Dedalus said, nodding to its drone. - ---What about that? Ben Dollard said. Not too dusty? What? - -He turned to both. - ---That'll do, Father Cowley said, nodding also. - -The reverend Hugh C. Love walked from the old chapterhouse of saint -Mary's abbey past James and Charles Kennedy's, rectifiers, attended by -Geraldines tall and personable, towards the Tholsel beyond the ford of -hurdles. - -Ben Dollard with a heavy list towards the shopfronts led them forward, -his joyful fingers in the air. - ---Come along with me to the subsheriff's office, he said. I want to show -you the new beauty Rock has for a bailiff. He's a cross between Lobengula -and Lynchehaun. He's well worth seeing, mind you. Come along. I saw John -Henry Menton casually in the Bodega just now and it will cost me a fall -if I don't ... Wait awhile ... We're on the right lay, Bob, believe you -me. - ---For a few days tell him, Father Cowley said anxiously. - -Ben Dollard halted and stared, his loud orifice open, a dangling button -of his coat wagging brightbacked from its thread as he wiped away the -heavy shraums that clogged his eyes to hear aright. - ---What few days? he boomed. Hasn't your landlord distrained for rent? - ---He has, Father Cowley said. - ---Then our friend's writ is not worth the paper it's printed on, Ben -Dollard said. The landlord has the prior claim. I gave him all the -particulars. 29 Windsor avenue. Love is the name? - ---That's right, Father Cowley said. The reverend Mr Love. He's a minister -in the country somewhere. But are you sure of that? - ---You can tell Barabbas from me, Ben Dollard said, that he can put that -writ where Jacko put the nuts. - -He led Father Cowley boldly forward, linked to his bulk. - ---Filberts I believe they were, Mr Dedalus said, as he dropped his -glasses on his coatfront, following them. - - - * * * * * - - ---The youngster will be all right, Martin Cunningham said, as they passed -out of the Castleyard gate. - -The policeman touched his forehead. - ---God bless you, Martin Cunningham said, cheerily. - -He signed to the waiting jarvey who chucked at the reins and set on -towards Lord Edward street. - -Bronze by gold, Miss Kennedy's head by Miss Douce's head, appeared above -the crossblind of the Ormond hotel. - ---Yes, Martin Cunningham said, fingering his beard. I wrote to Father -Conmee and laid the whole case before him. - ---You could try our friend, Mr Power suggested backward. - ---Boyd? Martin Cunningham said shortly. Touch me not. - -John Wyse Nolan, lagging behind, reading the list, came after them -quickly down Cork hill. - -On the steps of the City hall Councillor Nannetti, descending, hailed -Alderman Cowley and Councillor Abraham Lyon ascending. - -The castle car wheeled empty into upper Exchange street. - ---Look here, Martin, John Wyse Nolan said, overtaking them at the MAIL -office. I see Bloom put his name down for five shillings. - ---Quite right, Martin Cunningham said, taking the list. And put down the -five shillings too. - ---Without a second word either, Mr Power said. - ---Strange but true, Martin Cunningham added. - -John Wyse Nolan opened wide eyes. - ---I'll say there is much kindness in the jew, he quoted, elegantly. - -They went down Parliament street. - ---There's Jimmy Henry, Mr Power said, just heading for Kavanagh's. - ---Righto, Martin Cunningham said. Here goes. - -Outside LA MAISON CLAIRE Blazes Boylan waylaid Jack Mooney's brother-in- -law, humpy, tight, making for the liberties. - -John Wyse Nolan fell back with Mr Power, while Martin Cunningham took the -elbow of a dapper little man in a shower of hail suit, who walked -uncertainly, with hasty steps past Micky Anderson's watches. - ---The assistant town clerk's corns are giving him some trouble, John Wyse -Nolan told Mr Power. - -They followed round the corner towards James Kavanagh's winerooms. The -empty castle car fronted them at rest in Essex gate. Martin Cunningham, -speaking always, showed often the list at which Jimmy Henry did not -glance. - ---And long John Fanning is here too, John Wyse Nolan said, as large as -life. - -The tall form of long John Fanning filled the doorway where he stood. - ---Good day, Mr Subsheriff, Martin Cunningham said, as all halted and -greeted. - -Long John Fanning made no way for them. He removed his large Henry Clay -decisively and his large fierce eyes scowled intelligently over all their -faces. - ---Are the conscript fathers pursuing their peaceful deliberations? he -said with rich acrid utterance to the assistant town clerk. - -Hell open to christians they were having, Jimmy Henry said pettishly, -about their damned Irish language. Where was the marshal, he wanted to -know, to keep order in the council chamber. And old Barlow the macebearer -laid up with asthma, no mace on the table, nothing in order, no quorum -even, and Hutchinson, the lord mayor, in Llandudno and little Lorcan -Sherlock doing LOCUM TENENS for him. Damned Irish language, language of -our forefathers. - -Long John Fanning blew a plume of smoke from his lips. - -Martin Cunningham spoke by turns, twirling the peak of his beard, to the -assistant town clerk and the subsheriff, while John Wyse Nolan held his -peace. - ---What Dignam was that? long John Fanning asked. - -Jimmy Henry made a grimace and lifted his left foot. - ---O, my corns! he said plaintively. Come upstairs for goodness' sake till -I sit down somewhere. Uff! Ooo! Mind! - -Testily he made room for himself beside long John Fanning's flank and -passed in and up the stairs. - ---Come on up, Martin Cunningham said to the subsheriff. I don't think you -knew him or perhaps you did, though. - -With John Wyse Nolan Mr Power followed them in. - ---Decent little soul he was, Mr Power said to the stalwart back of long -John Fanning ascending towards long John Fanning in the mirror. - ---Rather lowsized. Dignam of Menton's office that was, Martin Cunningham -said. - - Long John Fanning could not remember him. - - Clatter of horsehoofs sounded from the air. - ---What's that? Martin Cunningham said. - -All turned where they stood. John Wyse Nolan came down again. From the -cool shadow of the doorway he saw the horses pass Parliament street, -harness and glossy pasterns in sunlight shimmering. Gaily they went past -before his cool unfriendly eyes, not quickly. In saddles of the leaders, -leaping leaders, rode outriders. - ---What was it? Martin Cunningham asked, as they went on up the staircase. - ---The lord lieutenantgeneral and general governor of Ireland, John Wyse -Nolan answered from the stairfoot. - - - * * * * * - - -As they trod across the thick carpet Buck Mulligan whispered behind -his Panama to Haines: - ---Parnell's brother. There in the corner. - -They chose a small table near the window, opposite a longfaced man -whose beard and gaze hung intently down on a chessboard. - ---Is that he? Haines asked, twisting round in his seat. - ---Yes, Mulligan said. That's John Howard, his brother, our city marshal. - -John Howard Parnell translated a white bishop quietly and his grey -claw went up again to his forehead whereat it rested. An instant after, -under its screen, his eyes looked quickly, ghostbright, at his foe and -fell once more upon a working corner. - ---I'll take a MELANGE, Haines said to the waitress. - ---Two MELANGES, Buck Mulligan said. And bring us some scones and butter -and some cakes as well. - -When she had gone he said, laughing: - ---We call it D.B.C. because they have damn bad cakes. O, but you missed -Dedalus on HAMLET. - -Haines opened his newbought book. - ---I'm sorry, he said. Shakespeare is the happy huntingground of all minds -that have lost their balance. - -The onelegged sailor growled at the area of 14 Nelson street: - ---ENGLAND EXPECTS ... - -Buck Mulligan's primrose waistcoat shook gaily to his laughter. - ---You should see him, he said, when his body loses its balance. Wandering -Aengus I call him. - ---I am sure he has an IDEE FIXE, Haines said, pinching his chin -thoughtfully with thumb and forefinger. Now I am speculating what it would -be likely to be. Such persons always have. - -Buck Mulligan bent across the table gravely. - ---They drove his wits astray, he said, by visions of hell. He will never -capture the Attic note. The note of Swinburne, of all poets, the white -death and the ruddy birth. That is his tragedy. He can never be a poet. -The joy of creation ... - ---Eternal punishment, Haines said, nodding curtly. I see. I tackled him -this morning on belief. There was something on his mind, I saw. It's -rather interesting because professor Pokorny of Vienna makes an -interesting point out of that. - -Buck Mulligan's watchful eyes saw the waitress come. He helped her -to unload her tray. - ---He can find no trace of hell in ancient Irish myth, Haines said, amid -the cheerful cups. The moral idea seems lacking, the sense of destiny, of -retribution. Rather strange he should have just that fixed idea. Does he -write anything for your movement? - -He sank two lumps of sugar deftly longwise through the whipped -cream. Buck Mulligan slit a steaming scone in two and plastered butter -over its smoking pith. He bit off a soft piece hungrily. - ---Ten years, he said, chewing and laughing. He is going to write something -in ten years. - ---Seems a long way off, Haines said, thoughtfully lifting his spoon. -Still, I shouldn't wonder if he did after all. - -He tasted a spoonful from the creamy cone of his cup. - ---This is real Irish cream I take it, he said with forbearance. -I don't want to be imposed on. - -Elijah, skiff, light crumpled throwaway, sailed eastward by flanks of -ships and trawlers, amid an archipelago of corks, beyond new Wapping -street past Benson's ferry, and by the threemasted schooner ROSEVEAN from -Bridgwater with bricks. - - - * * * * * - - -Almidano Artifoni walked past Holles street, past Sewell's yard. -Behind him Cashel Boyle O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell, with -stickumbrelladustcoat dangling, shunned the lamp before Mr Law Smith's -house and, crossing, walked along Merrion square. Distantly behind him a -blind stripling tapped his way by the wall of College park. - -Cashel Boyle O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell walked as far as -Mr Lewis Werner's cheerful windows, then turned and strode back along -Merrion square, his stickumbrelladustcoat dangling. - -At the corner of Wilde's house he halted, frowned at Elijah's name -announced on the Metropolitan hall, frowned at the distant pleasance of -duke's lawn. His eyeglass flashed frowning in the sun. With ratsteeth -bared he muttered: - ---COACTUS VOLUI. - -He strode on for Clare street, grinding his fierce word. - -As he strode past Mr Bloom's dental windows the sway of his -dustcoat brushed rudely from its angle a slender tapping cane and swept -onwards, having buffeted a thewless body. The blind stripling turned his -sickly face after the striding form. - ---God's curse on you, he said sourly, whoever you are! You're blinder nor -I am, you bitch's bastard! - - - * * * * * - - -Opposite Ruggy O'Donohoe's Master Patrick Aloysius Dignam, -pawing the pound and a half of Mangan's, late Fehrenbach's, porksteaks he -had been sent for, went along warm Wicklow street dawdling. It was too -blooming dull sitting in the parlour with Mrs Stoer and Mrs Quigley and -Mrs MacDowell and the blind down and they all at their sniffles and -sipping sups of the superior tawny sherry uncle Barney brought from -Tunney's. And they eating crumbs of the cottage fruitcake, jawing the -whole blooming time and sighing. - -After Wicklow lane the window of Madame Doyle, courtdress -milliner, stopped him. He stood looking in at the two puckers stripped to -their pelts and putting up their props. From the sidemirrors two mourning -Masters Dignam gaped silently. Myler Keogh, Dublin's pet lamb, will meet -sergeantmajor Bennett, the Portobello bruiser, for a purse of fifty -sovereigns. Gob, that'd be a good pucking match to see. Myler Keogh, -that's the chap sparring out to him with the green sash. Two bar entrance, -soldiers half price. I could easy do a bunk on ma. Master Dignam on his -left turned as he turned. That's me in mourning. When is it? May the -twentysecond. Sure, the blooming thing is all over. He turned to the right -and on his right Master Dignam turned, his cap awry, his collar sticking -up. Buttoning it down, his chin lifted, he saw the image of Marie Kendall, -charming soubrette, beside the two puckers. One of them mots that do be in -the packets of fags Stoer smokes that his old fellow welted hell out of -him for one time he found out. - -Master Dignam got his collar down and dawdled on. The best pucker -going for strength was Fitzsimons. One puck in the wind from that fellow -would knock you into the middle of next week, man. But the best pucker -for science was Jem Corbet before Fitzsimons knocked the stuffings out of -him, dodging and all. - -In Grafton street Master Dignam saw a red flower in a toff's mouth -and a swell pair of kicks on him and he listening to what the drunk was -telling him and grinning all the time. - -No Sandymount tram. - -Master Dignam walked along Nassau street, shifted the porksteaks to -his other hand. His collar sprang up again and he tugged it down. The -blooming stud was too small for the buttonhole of the shirt, blooming end -to it. He met schoolboys with satchels. I'm not going tomorrow either, -stay away till Monday. He met other schoolboys. Do they notice I'm in -mourning? Uncle Barney said he'd get it into the paper tonight. Then -they'll all see it in the paper and read my name printed and pa's name. - -His face got all grey instead of being red like it was and there was a -fly walking over it up to his eye. The scrunch that was when they were -screwing the screws into the coffin: and the bumps when they were bringing -it downstairs. - -Pa was inside it and ma crying in the parlour and uncle Barney telling -the men how to get it round the bend. A big coffin it was, and high and -heavylooking. How was that? The last night pa was boosed he was standing -on the landing there bawling out for his boots to go out to Tunney's for -to boose more and he looked butty and short in his shirt. Never see him -again. Death, that is. Pa is dead. My father is dead. He told me to be a -good son to ma. I couldn't hear the other things he said but I saw his -tongue and his teeth trying to say it better. Poor pa. That was Mr Dignam, -my father. I hope he's in purgatory now because he went to confession to -Father Conroy on Saturday night. - - - * * * * * - - -William Humble, earl of Dudley, and lady Dudley, accompanied by -lieutenantcolonel Heseltine, drove out after luncheon from the viceregal -lodge. In the following carriage were the honourable Mrs Paget, Miss de -Courcy and the honourable Gerald Ward A.D.C. in attendance. - -The cavalcade passed out by the lower gate of Phoenix park saluted -by obsequious policemen and proceeded past Kingsbridge along the -northern quays. The viceroy was most cordially greeted on his way through -the metropolis. At Bloody bridge Mr Thomas Kernan beyond the river -greeted him vainly from afar Between Queen's and Whitworth bridges lord -Dudley's viceregal carriages passed and were unsaluted by Mr Dudley -White, B. L., M. A., who stood on Arran quay outside Mrs M. E. White's, -the pawnbroker's, at the corner of Arran street west stroking his nose -with his forefinger, undecided whether he should arrive at Phibsborough -more quickly by a triple change of tram or by hailing a car or on foot -through Smithfield, Constitution hill and Broadstone terminus. In the -porch of Four Courts Richie Goulding with the costbag of Goulding, -Collis and Ward saw him with surprise. Past Richmond bridge at the -doorstep of the office of Reuben J Dodd, solicitor, agent for the -Patriotic Insurance Company, an elderly female about to enter changed -her plan and retracing her steps by King's windows smiled credulously -on the representative of His Majesty. From its sluice in Wood quay -wall under Tom Devan's office Poddle river hung out in fealty a tongue -of liquid sewage. Above the crossblind of the Ormond hotel, gold by -bronze, Miss Kennedy's head by Miss Douce's head watched and admired. -On Ormond quay Mr Simon Dedalus, steering his way from the greenhouse -for the subsheriff's office, stood still in midstreet and brought his -hat low. His Excellency graciously returned Mr Dedalus' greeting. From -Cahill's corner the reverend Hugh C. Love, M.A., made obeisance -unperceived, mindful of lords deputies whose hands benignant -had held of yore rich advowsons. On Grattan bridge Lenehan and M'Coy, -taking leave of each other, watched the carriages go by. Passing by Roger -Greene's office and Dollard's big red printinghouse Gerty MacDowell, -carrying the Catesby's cork lino letters for her father who was laid up, -knew by the style it was the lord and lady lieutenant but she couldn't see -what Her Excellency had on because the tram and Spring's big yellow -furniture van had to stop in front of her on account of its being the lord -lieutenant. Beyond Lundy Foot's from the shaded door of Kavanagh's -winerooms John Wyse Nolan smiled with unseen coldness towards the lord -lieutenantgeneral and general governor of Ireland. The Right Honourable -William Humble, earl of Dudley, G. C. V. O., passed Micky Anderson's -all times ticking watches and Henry and James's wax smartsuited -freshcheeked models, the gentleman Henry, DERNIER CRI James. Over against -Dame gate Tom Rochford and Nosey Flynn watched the approach of the -cavalcade. Tom Rochford, seeing the eyes of lady Dudley fixed on him, -took his thumbs quickly out of the pockets of his claret waistcoat and -doffed his cap to her. A charming SOUBRETTE, great Marie Kendall, with -dauby cheeks and lifted skirt smiled daubily from her poster upon William -Humble, earl of Dudley, and upon lieutenantcolonel H. G. Heseltine, and -also upon the honourable Gerald Ward A. D. C. From the window of the -D. B. C. Buck Mulligan gaily, and Haines gravely, gazed down on the -viceregal equipage over the shoulders of eager guests, whose mass of forms -darkened the chessboard whereon John Howard Parnell looked intently. In -Fownes's street Dilly Dedalus, straining her sight upward from -Chardenal's first French primer, saw sunshades spanned and wheelspokes -spinning in the glare. John Henry Menton, filling the doorway of -Commercial Buildings, stared from winebig oyster eyes, holding a fat gold -hunter watch not looked at in his fat left hand not feeling it. Where the -foreleg of King Billy's horse pawed the air Mrs Breen plucked her -hastening husband back from under the hoofs of the outriders. She shouted -in his ear the tidings. Understanding, he shifted his tomes to his left -breast and saluted the second carriage. The honourable Gerald Ward A.D.C., -agreeably surprised, made haste to reply. At Ponsonby's corner a jaded -white flagon H. halted and four tallhatted white flagons halted behind -him, E.L.Y'S, while outriders pranced past and carriages. Opposite -Pigott's music warerooms Mr Denis J Maginni, professor of dancing &c, -gaily apparelled, gravely walked, outpassed by a viceroy and unobserved. -By the provost's wall came jauntily Blazes Boylan, stepping in tan shoes -and socks with skyblue clocks to the refrain of MY GIRL'S A YORKSHIRE -GIRL. - -Blazes Boylan presented to the leaders' skyblue frontlets and high -action a skyblue tie, a widebrimmed straw hat at a rakish angle and a suit -of indigo serge. His hands in his jacket pockets forgot to salute but he -offered to the three ladies the bold admiration of his eyes and the red -flower between his lips. As they drove along Nassau street His Excellency -drew the attention of his bowing consort to the programme of music which -was being discoursed in College park. Unseen brazen highland laddies -blared and drumthumped after the CORTEGE: - - - BUT THOUGH SHE'S A FACTORY LASS - AND WEARS NO FANCY CLOTHES. - BARAABUM. - YET I'VE A SORT OF A - YORKSHIRE RELISH FOR - MY LITTLE YORKSHIRE ROSE. - BARAABUM. - - -Thither of the wall the quartermile flat handicappers, M. C. Green, H. -Shrift, T. M. Patey, C. Scaife, J. B. Jeffs, G. N. Morphy, F. Stevenson, -C. Adderly and W. C. Huggard, started in pursuit. Striding past Finn's -hotel Cashel Boyle O'Connor Fitzmaurice Tisdall Farrell stared through a -fierce eyeglass across the carriages at the head of Mr M. E. Solomons in -the window of the Austro-Hungarian viceconsulate. Deep in Leinster street -by Trinity's postern a loyal king's man, Hornblower, touched his tallyho -cap. As the glossy horses pranced by Merrion square Master Patrick -Aloysius Dignam, waiting, saw salutes being given to the gent with the -topper and raised also his new black cap with fingers greased by -porksteak paper. His collar too sprang up. The viceroy, on his way to -inaugurate the Mirus bazaar in aid of funds for Mercer's hospital, -drove with his following towards Lower Mount street. He passed a blind -stripling opposite Broadbent's. In Lower Mount street a pedestrian in a -brown macintosh, eating dry bread, passed swiftly and unscathed across the -viceroy's path. At the Royal Canal bridge, from his hoarding, Mr Eugene -Stratton, his blub lips agrin, bade all comers welcome to Pembroke -township. At Haddington road corner two sanded women halted themselves, -an umbrella and a bag in which eleven cockles rolled to view with wonder -the lord mayor and lady mayoress without his golden chain. On -Northumberland and Lansdowne roads His Excellency acknowledged punctually -salutes from rare male walkers, the salute of two small schoolboys at the -garden gate of the house said to have been admired by the late queen when -visiting the Irish capital with her husband, the prince consort, in 1849 -and the salute of Almidano Artifoni's sturdy trousers swallowed by a -closing door. - - - * * * * * * * - - -Bronze by gold heard the hoofirons, steelyringing Imperthnthn thnthnthn. - -Chips, picking chips off rocky thumbnail, chips. - -Horrid! And gold flushed more. - -A husky fifenote blew. - -Blew. Blue bloom is on the. - -Goldpinnacled hair. - -A jumping rose on satiny breast of satin, rose of Castile. - -Trilling, trilling: Idolores. - -Peep! Who's in the ... peepofgold? - -Tink cried to bronze in pity. - -And a call, pure, long and throbbing. Longindying call. - -Decoy. Soft word. But look: the bright stars fade. Notes chirruping -answer. - -O rose! Castile. The morn is breaking. - -Jingle jingle jaunted jingling. - -Coin rang. Clock clacked. - -Avowal. SONNEZ. I could. Rebound of garter. Not leave thee. Smack. LA -CLOCHE! Thigh smack. Avowal. Warm. Sweetheart, goodbye! - -Jingle. Bloo. - -Boomed crashing chords. When love absorbs. War! War! The tympanum. - -A sail! A veil awave upon the waves. - -Lost. Throstle fluted. All is lost now. - -Horn. Hawhorn. - -When first he saw. Alas! - -Full tup. Full throb. - -Warbling. Ah, lure! Alluring. - -Martha! Come! - -Clapclap. Clipclap. Clappyclap. - -Goodgod henev erheard inall. - -Deaf bald Pat brought pad knife took up. - -A moonlit nightcall: far, far. - -I feel so sad. P. S. So lonely blooming. - -Listen! - -The spiked and winding cold seahorn. Have you the? Each, and for other, -plash and silent roar. - -Pearls: when she. Liszt's rhapsodies. Hissss. - -You don't? - -Did not: no, no: believe: Lidlyd. With a cock with a carra. - -Black. Deepsounding. Do, Ben, do. - -Wait while you wait. Hee hee. Wait while you hee. - -But wait! - -Low in dark middle earth. Embedded ore. - -Naminedamine. Preacher is he: - -All gone. All fallen. - -Tiny, her tremulous fernfoils of maidenhair. - -Amen! He gnashed in fury. - -Fro. To, fro. A baton cool protruding. - -Bronzelydia by Minagold. - -By bronze, by gold, in oceangreen of shadow. Bloom. Old Bloom. - -One rapped, one tapped, with a carra, with a cock. - -Pray for him! Pray, good people! - -His gouty fingers nakkering. - -Big Benaben. Big Benben. - -Last rose Castile of summer left bloom I feel so sad alone. - -Pwee! Little wind piped wee. - -True men. Lid Ker Cow De and Doll. Ay, ay. Like you men. Will lift your -tschink with tschunk. - -Fff! Oo! - -Where bronze from anear? Where gold from afar? Where hoofs? - -Rrrpr. Kraa. Kraandl. - -Then not till then. My eppripfftaph. Be pfrwritt. - -Done. - -Begin! - -Bronze by gold, miss Douce's head by miss Kennedy's head, over the -crossblind of the Ormond bar heard the viceregal hoofs go by, ringing -steel. - ---Is that her? asked miss Kennedy. - -Miss Douce said yes, sitting with his ex, pearl grey and EAU DE NIL. - ---Exquisite contrast, miss Kennedy said. - - -When all agog miss Douce said eagerly: - ---Look at the fellow in the tall silk. - ---Who? Where? gold asked more eagerly. - ---In the second carriage, miss Douce's wet lips said, laughing in the sun. - -He's looking. Mind till I see. - -She darted, bronze, to the backmost corner, flattening her face -against the pane in a halo of hurried breath. - -Her wet lips tittered: - ---He's killed looking back. - -She laughed: - ---O wept! Aren't men frightful idiots? - -With sadness. - -Miss Kennedy sauntered sadly from bright light, twining a loose hair -behind an ear. Sauntering sadly, gold no more, she twisted twined a hair. - -Sadly she twined in sauntering gold hair behind a curving ear. - ---It's them has the fine times, sadly then she said. - -A man. - -Bloowho went by by Moulang's pipes bearing in his breast the sweets -of sin, by Wine's antiques, in memory bearing sweet sinful words, by -Carroll's dusky battered plate, for Raoul. - -The boots to them, them in the bar, them barmaids came. For them -unheeding him he banged on the counter his tray of chattering china. And - ---There's your teas, he said. - -Miss Kennedy with manners transposed the teatray down to an -upturned lithia crate, safe from eyes, low. - ---What is it? loud boots unmannerly asked. - ---Find out, miss Douce retorted, leaving her spyingpoint. - ---Your BEAU, is it? - -A haughty bronze replied: - ---I'll complain to Mrs de Massey on you if I hear any more of your -impertinent insolence. - ---Imperthnthn thnthnthn, bootssnout sniffed rudely, as he retreated as she -threatened as he had come. - -Bloom. - -On her flower frowning miss Douce said: - ---Most aggravating that young brat is. If he doesn't conduct himself I'll -wring his ear for him a yard long. - -Ladylike in exquisite contrast. - ---Take no notice, miss Kennedy rejoined. - -She poured in a teacup tea, then back in the teapot tea. They cowered -under their reef of counter, waiting on footstools, crates upturned, -waiting for their teas to draw. They pawed their blouses, both of black -satin, two and nine a yard, waiting for their teas to draw, and two and -seven. - -Yes, bronze from anear, by gold from afar, heard steel from anear, -hoofs ring from afar, and heard steelhoofs ringhoof ringsteel. - ---Am I awfully sunburnt? - -Miss bronze unbloused her neck. - ---No, said miss Kennedy. It gets brown after. Did you try the borax with -the cherry laurel water? - -Miss Douce halfstood to see her skin askance in the barmirror -gildedlettered where hock and claret glasses shimmered and in their midst -a shell. - ---And leave it to my hands, she said. - ---Try it with the glycerine, miss Kennedy advised. - -Bidding her neck and hands adieu miss Douce - ---Those things only bring out a rash, replied, reseated. I asked that old -fogey in Boyd's for something for my skin. - -Miss Kennedy, pouring now a fulldrawn tea, grimaced and prayed: - ---O, don't remind me of him for mercy' sake! - ---But wait till I tell you, miss Douce entreated. - -Sweet tea miss Kennedy having poured with milk plugged both two -ears with little fingers. - ---No, don't, she cried. - ---I won't listen, she cried. - -But Bloom? - -Miss Douce grunted in snuffy fogey's tone: - ---For your what? says he. - -Miss Kennedy unplugged her ears to hear, to speak: but said, but -prayed again: - ---Don't let me think of him or I'll expire. The hideous old wretch! That -night in the Antient Concert Rooms. - -She sipped distastefully her brew, hot tea, a sip, sipped, sweet tea. - ---Here he was, miss Douce said, cocking her bronze head three quarters, -ruffling her nosewings. Hufa! Hufa! - -Shrill shriek of laughter sprang from miss Kennedy's throat. Miss -Douce huffed and snorted down her nostrils that quivered imperthnthn like -a snout in quest. - ---O! shrieking, miss Kennedy cried. Will you ever forget his goggle eye? - -Miss Douce chimed in in deep bronze laughter, shouting: - ---And your other eye! - -Bloowhose dark eye read Aaron Figatner's name. Why do I always -think Figather? Gathering figs, I think. And Prosper Lore's huguenot name. -By Bassi's blessed virgins Bloom's dark eyes went by. Bluerobed, white -under, come to me. God they believe she is: or goddess. Those today. I -could not see. That fellow spoke. A student. After with Dedalus' son. He -might be Mulligan. All comely virgins. That brings those rakes of fellows -in: her white. - -By went his eyes. The sweets of sin. Sweet are the sweets. - -Of sin. - -In a giggling peal young goldbronze voices blended, Douce with -Kennedy your other eye. They threw young heads back, bronze gigglegold, -to let freefly their laughter, screaming, your other, signals to each -other, high piercing notes. - -Ah, panting, sighing, sighing, ah, fordone, their mirth died down. - -Miss Kennedy lipped her cup again, raised, drank a sip and -gigglegiggled. Miss Douce, bending over the teatray, ruffled again her -nose and rolled droll fattened eyes. Again Kennygiggles, stooping, her -fair pinnacles of hair, stooping, her tortoise napecomb showed, spluttered -out of her mouth her tea, choking in tea and laughter, coughing with -choking, crying: - ---O greasy eyes! Imagine being married to a man like that! she cried. With -his bit of beard! - -Douce gave full vent to a splendid yell, a full yell of full woman, -delight, joy, indignation. - ---Married to the greasy nose! she yelled. - -Shrill, with deep laughter, after, gold after bronze, they urged each -each to peal after peal, ringing in changes, bronzegold, goldbronze, -shrilldeep, to laughter after laughter. And then laughed more. Greasy I -knows. Exhausted, breathless, their shaken heads they laid, braided and -pinnacled by glossycombed, against the counterledge. All flushed (O!), -panting, sweating (O!), all breathless. - -Married to Bloom, to greaseabloom. - ---O saints above! miss Douce said, sighed above her jumping rose. I wished - -I hadn't laughed so much. I feel all wet. - ---O, miss Douce! miss Kennedy protested. You horrid thing! - -And flushed yet more (you horrid!), more goldenly. - -By Cantwell's offices roved Greaseabloom, by Ceppi's virgins, bright -of their oils. Nannetti's father hawked those things about, wheedling at -doors as I. Religion pays. Must see him for that par. Eat first. I want. -Not yet. At four, she said. Time ever passing. Clockhands turning. On. -Where eat? The Clarence, Dolphin. On. For Raoul. Eat. If I net five -guineas with those ads. The violet silk petticoats. Not yet. The sweets -of sin. - -Flushed less, still less, goldenly paled. - -Into their bar strolled Mr Dedalus. Chips, picking chips off one of his -rocky thumbnails. Chips. He strolled. - ---O, welcome back, miss Douce. - -He held her hand. Enjoyed her holidays? - ---Tiptop. - -He hoped she had nice weather in Rostrevor. - ---Gorgeous, she said. Look at the holy show I am. Lying out on the strand -all day. - -Bronze whiteness. - ---That was exceedingly naughty of you, Mr Dedalus told her and pressed -her hand indulgently. Tempting poor simple males. - -Miss Douce of satin douced her arm away. - ---O go away! she said. You're very simple, I don't think. - -He was. - ---Well now I am, he mused. I looked so simple in the cradle they christened -me simple Simon. - ---You must have been a doaty, miss Douce made answer. And what did the -doctor order today? - ---Well now, he mused, whatever you say yourself. I think I'll trouble you -for some fresh water and a half glass of whisky. - -Jingle. - ---With the greatest alacrity, miss Douce agreed. - -With grace of alacrity towards the mirror gilt Cantrell and -Cochrane's she turned herself. With grace she tapped a measure of gold -whisky from her crystal keg. Forth from the skirt of his coat Mr Dedalus -brought pouch and pipe. Alacrity she served. He blew through the flue two -husky fifenotes. - ---By Jove, he mused, I often wanted to see the Mourne mountains. Must be -a great tonic in the air down there. But a long threatening comes at last, -they say. Yes. Yes. - -Yes. He fingered shreds of hair, her maidenhair, her mermaid's, into -the bowl. Chips. Shreds. Musing. Mute. - -None nought said nothing. Yes. - -Gaily miss Douce polished a tumbler, trilling: - ---O, IDOLORES, QUEEN OF THE EASTERN SEAS! - ---Was Mr Lidwell in today? - -In came Lenehan. Round him peered Lenehan. Mr Bloom reached Essex bridge. -Yes, Mr Bloom crossed bridge of Yessex. To Martha I must write. Buy paper. -Daly's. Girl there civil. Bloom. Old Bloom. Blue bloom is on the rye. - ---He was in at lunchtime, miss Douce said. - -Lenehan came forward. - ---Was Mr Boylan looking for me? - -He asked. She answered: - ---Miss Kennedy, was Mr Boylan in while I was upstairs? - -She asked. Miss voice of Kennedy answered, a second teacup poised, -her gaze upon a page: - ---No. He was not. - -Miss gaze of Kennedy, heard, not seen, read on. Lenehan round the -sandwichbell wound his round body round. - ---Peep! Who's in the corner? - -No glance of Kennedy rewarding him he yet made overtures. To mind -her stops. To read only the black ones: round o and crooked ess. - -Jingle jaunty jingle. - -Girlgold she read and did not glance. Take no notice. She took no -notice while he read by rote a solfa fable for her, plappering flatly: - ---Ah fox met ah stork. Said thee fox too thee stork: Will you put your -bill down inn my troath and pull upp ah bone? - -He droned in vain. Miss Douce turned to her tea aside. - -He sighed aside: - ---Ah me! O my! - -He greeted Mr Dedalus and got a nod. - ---Greetings from the famous son of a famous father. - ---Who may he be? Mr Dedalus asked. - -Lenehan opened most genial arms. Who? - ---Who may he be? he asked. Can you ask? Stephen, the youthful bard. - -Dry. - -Mr Dedalus, famous father, laid by his dry filled pipe. - ---I see, he said. I didn't recognise him for the moment. I hear he is -keeping very select company. Have you seen him lately? - -He had. - ---I quaffed the nectarbowl with him this very day, said Lenehan. In -Mooney's EN VILLE and in Mooney's SUR MER. He had received the rhino for -the labour of his muse. - -He smiled at bronze's teabathed lips, at listening lips and eyes: - ---The ELITE of Erin hung upon his lips. The ponderous pundit, Hugh - -MacHugh, Dublin's most brilliant scribe and editor and that minstrel boy -of the wild wet west who is known by the euphonious appellation of the -O'Madden Burke. - -After an interval Mr Dedalus raised his grog and - ---That must have been highly diverting, said he. I see. - -He see. He drank. With faraway mourning mountain eye. Set down -his glass. - -He looked towards the saloon door. - ---I see you have moved the piano. - ---The tuner was in today, miss Douce replied, tuning it for the smoking -concert and I never heard such an exquisite player. - ---Is that a fact? - ---Didn't he, miss Kennedy? The real classical, you know. And blind too, -poor fellow. Not twenty I'm sure he was. - ---Is that a fact? Mr Dedalus said. - -He drank and strayed away. - ---So sad to look at his face, miss Douce condoled. - -God's curse on bitch's bastard. - -Tink to her pity cried a diner's bell. To the door of the bar and -diningroom came bald Pat, came bothered Pat, came Pat, waiter of -Ormond. Lager for diner. Lager without alacrity she served. - -With patience Lenehan waited for Boylan with impatience, for -jinglejaunty blazes boy. - -Upholding the lid he (who?) gazed in the coffin (coffin?) at the -oblique triple (piano!) wires. He pressed (the same who pressed -indulgently her hand), soft pedalling, a triple of keys to see the -thicknesses of felt advancing, to hear the muffled hammerfall in action. - -Two sheets cream vellum paper one reserve two envelopes when I was -in Wisdom Hely's wise Bloom in Daly's Henry Flower bought. Are you not -happy in your home? Flower to console me and a pin cuts lo. Means -something, language of flow. Was it a daisy? Innocence that is. -Respectable girl meet after mass. Thanks awfully muchly. Wise Bloom eyed -on the door a poster, a swaying mermaid smoking mid nice waves. Smoke -mermaids, coolest whiff of all. Hair streaming: lovelorn. For some man. -For Raoul. He eyed and saw afar on Essex bridge a gay hat riding on a -jaunting car. It is. Again. Third time. Coincidence. - -Jingling on supple rubbers it jaunted from the bridge to Ormond -quay. Follow. Risk it. Go quick. At four. Near now. Out. - ---Twopence, sir, the shopgirl dared to say. - ---Aha ... I was forgetting ... Excuse ... - ---And four. - -At four she. Winsomely she on Bloohimwhom smiled. Bloo smi qui -go. Ternoon. Think you're the only pebble on the beach? Does that to all. - -For men. - -In drowsy silence gold bent on her page. - -From the saloon a call came, long in dying. That was a tuningfork the -tuner had that he forgot that he now struck. A call again. That he now -poised that it now throbbed. You hear? It throbbed, pure, purer, softly -and softlier, its buzzing prongs. Longer in dying call. - -Pat paid for diner's popcorked bottle: and over tumbler, tray and -popcorked bottle ere he went he whispered, bald and bothered, with Miss - -Douce. - ---THE BRIGHT STARS FADE ... - -A voiceless song sang from within, singing: - --- ... THE MORN IS BREAKING. - -A duodene of birdnotes chirruped bright treble answer under sensitive -hands. Brightly the keys, all twinkling, linked, all harpsichording, -called to a voice to sing the strain of dewy morn, of youth, of love's -leavetaking, life's, love's morn. - ---THE DEWDROPS PEARL ... - -Lenehan's lips over the counter lisped a low whistle of decoy. - ---But look this way, he said, rose of Castile. - -Jingle jaunted by the curb and stopped. - -She rose and closed her reading, rose of Castile: fretted, forlorn, -dreamily rose. - ---Did she fall or was she pushed? he asked her. - -She answered, slighting: - ---Ask no questions and you'll hear no lies. - -Like lady, ladylike. - -Blazes Boylan's smart tan shoes creaked on the barfloor where he -strode. Yes, gold from anear by bronze from afar. Lenehan heard and knew -and hailed him: - ---See the conquering hero comes. - -Between the car and window, warily walking, went Bloom, -unconquered hero. See me he might. The seat he sat on: warm. Black wary -hecat walked towards Richie Goulding's legal bag, lifted aloft, saluting. - ---AND I FROM THEE ... - ---I heard you were round, said Blazes Boylan. - -He touched to fair miss Kennedy a rim of his slanted straw. She -smiled on him. But sister bronze outsmiled her, preening for him her -richer hair, a bosom and a rose. - -Smart Boylan bespoke potions. - ---What's your cry? Glass of bitter? Glass of bitter, please, and a sloegin -for me. Wire in yet? - -Not yet. At four she. Who said four? - -Cowley's red lugs and bulging apple in the door of the sheriff's office. - -Avoid. Goulding a chance. What is he doing in the Ormond? Car waiting. - -Wait. - -Hello. Where off to? Something to eat? I too was just. In here. What, -Ormond? Best value in Dublin. Is that so? Diningroom. Sit tight there. -See, not be seen. I think I'll join you. Come on. Richie led on. Bloom -followed bag. Dinner fit for a prince. - -Miss Douce reached high to take a flagon, stretching her satin arm, -her bust, that all but burst, so high. - ---O! O! jerked Lenehan, gasping at each stretch. O! - -But easily she seized her prey and led it low in triumph. - ---Why don't you grow? asked Blazes Boylan. - -Shebronze, dealing from her oblique jar thick syrupy liquor for his -lips, looked as it flowed (flower in his coat: who gave him?), and -syrupped with her voice: - ---Fine goods in small parcels. - -That is to say she. Neatly she poured slowsyrupy sloe. - ---Here's fortune, Blazes said. - -He pitched a broad coin down. Coin rang. - ---Hold on, said Lenehan, till I ... - ---Fortune, he wished, lifting his bubbled ale. - ---Sceptre will win in a canter, he said. - ---I plunged a bit, said Boylan winking and drinking. Not on my own, you -know. Fancy of a friend of mine. - -Lenehan still drank and grinned at his tilted ale and at miss Douce's -lips that all but hummed, not shut, the oceansong her lips had trilled. - -Idolores. The eastern seas. - -Clock whirred. Miss Kennedy passed their way (flower, wonder who -gave), bearing away teatray. Clock clacked. - -Miss Douce took Boylan's coin, struck boldly the cashregister. It -clanged. Clock clacked. Fair one of Egypt teased and sorted in the till -and hummed and handed coins in change. Look to the west. A clack. For me. - ---What time is that? asked Blazes Boylan. Four? - -O'clock. - -Lenehan, small eyes ahunger on her humming, bust ahumming, -tugged Blazes Boylan's elbowsleeve. - ---Let's hear the time, he said. - - -The bag of Goulding, Collis, Ward led Bloom by ryebloom flowered -tables. Aimless he chose with agitated aim, bald Pat attending, a table -near the door. Be near. At four. Has he forgotten? Perhaps a trick. Not -come: whet appetite. I couldn't do. Wait, wait. Pat, waiter, waited. - -Sparkling bronze azure eyed Blazure's skyblue bow and eyes. - ---Go on, pressed Lenehan. There's no-one. He never heard. - --- ... TO FLORA'S LIPS DID HIE. - -High, a high note pealed in the treble clear. - -Bronzedouce communing with her rose that sank and rose sought - -Blazes Boylan's flower and eyes. - ---Please, please. - -He pleaded over returning phrases of avowal. - ---I COULD NOT LEAVE THEE ... - ---Afterwits, miss Douce promised coyly. - ---No, now, urged Lenehan. SONNEZLACLOCHE! O do! There's no-one. - -She looked. Quick. Miss Kenn out of earshot. Sudden bent. Two -kindling faces watched her bend. - -Quavering the chords strayed from the air, found it again, lost chord, -and lost and found it, faltering. - ---Go on! Do! SONNEZ! - -Bending, she nipped a peak of skirt above her knee. Delayed. Taunted -them still, bending, suspending, with wilful eyes. - ---SONNEZ! - -Smack. She set free sudden in rebound her nipped elastic garter -smackwarm against her smackable a woman's warmhosed thigh. - ---LA CLOCHE! cried gleeful Lenehan. Trained by owner. No sawdust there. - -She smilesmirked supercilious (wept! aren't men?), but, lightward -gliding, mild she smiled on Boylan. - ---You're the essence of vulgarity, she in gliding said. - -Boylan, eyed, eyed. Tossed to fat lips his chalice, drank off his chalice -tiny, sucking the last fat violet syrupy drops. His spellbound eyes went -after, after her gliding head as it went down the bar by mirrors, gilded -arch for ginger ale, hock and claret glasses shimmering, a spiky shell, -where it concerted, mirrored, bronze with sunnier bronze. - -Yes, bronze from anearby. - --- ... SWEETHEART, GOODBYE! - ---I'm off, said Boylan with impatience. - -He slid his chalice brisk away, grasped his change. - ---Wait a shake, begged Lenehan, drinking quickly. I wanted to tell you. - -Tom Rochford ... - ---Come on to blazes, said Blazes Boylan, going. - -Lenehan gulped to go. - ---Got the horn or what? he said. Wait. I'm coming. - -He followed the hasty creaking shoes but stood by nimbly by the -threshold, saluting forms, a bulky with a slender. - ---How do you do, Mr Dollard? - ---Eh? How do? How do? Ben Dollard's vague bass answered, turning an -instant from Father Cowley's woe. He won't give you any trouble, Bob. Alf -Bergan will speak to the long fellow. We'll put a barleystraw in that -Judas Iscariot's ear this time. - -Sighing Mr Dedalus came through the saloon, a finger soothing an -eyelid. - ---Hoho, we will, Ben Dollard yodled jollily. Come on, Simon. Give us a -ditty. We heard the piano. - -Bald Pat, bothered waiter, waited for drink orders. Power for Richie. -And Bloom? Let me see. Not make him walk twice. His corns. Four now. -How warm this black is. Course nerves a bit. Refracts (is it?) heat. Let -me see. Cider. Yes, bottle of cider. - ---What's that? Mr Dedalus said. I was only vamping, man. - ---Come on, come on, Ben Dollard called. Begone dull care. Come, Bob. - -He ambled Dollard, bulky slops, before them (hold that fellow with -the: hold him now) into the saloon. He plumped him Dollard on the stool. -His gouty paws plumped chords. Plumped, stopped abrupt. - -Bald Pat in the doorway met tealess gold returning. Bothered, he -wanted Power and cider. Bronze by the window, watched, bronze from -afar. - -Jingle a tinkle jaunted. - -Bloom heard a jing, a little sound. He's off. Light sob of breath Bloom -sighed on the silent bluehued flowers. Jingling. He's gone. Jingle. Hear. - ---Love and War, Ben, Mr Dedalus said. God be with old times. - -Miss Douce's brave eyes, unregarded, turned from the crossblind, -smitten by sunlight. Gone. Pensive (who knows?), smitten (the smiting -light), she lowered the dropblind with a sliding cord. She drew down -pensive (why did he go so quick when I?) about her bronze, over the bar -where bald stood by sister gold, inexquisite contrast, contrast -inexquisite nonexquisite, slow cool dim seagreen sliding depth of shadow, -EAU DE NIL. - ---Poor old Goodwin was the pianist that night, Father Cowley reminded -them. There was a slight difference of opinion between himself and the -Collard grand. - -There was. - ---A symposium all his own, Mr Dedalus said. The devil wouldn't stop him. -He was a crotchety old fellow in the primary stage of drink. - ---God, do you remember? Ben bulky Dollard said, turning from the -punished keyboard. And by Japers I had no wedding garment. - -They laughed all three. He had no wed. All trio laughed. No wedding -garment. - ---Our friend Bloom turned in handy that night, Mr Dedalus said. Where's -my pipe, by the way? - -He wandered back to the bar to the lost chord pipe. Bald Pat carried -two diners' drinks, Richie and Poldy. And Father Cowley laughed again. - ---I saved the situation, Ben, I think. - ---You did, averred Ben Dollard. I remember those tight trousers too. That -was a brilliant idea, Bob. - -Father Cowley blushed to his brilliant purply lobes. He saved the -situa. Tight trou. Brilliant ide. - ---I knew he was on the rocks, he said. The wife was playing the piano in -the coffee palace on Saturdays for a very trifling consideration and who -was it gave me the wheeze she was doing the other business? Do you -remember? We had to search all Holles street to find them till the chap in -Keogh's gave us the number. Remember? Ben remembered, his broad visage -wondering. - ---By God, she had some luxurious operacloaks and things there. - -Mr Dedalus wandered back, pipe in hand. - ---Merrion square style. Balldresses, by God, and court dresses. He -wouldn't take any money either. What? Any God's quantity of cocked hats -and boleros and trunkhose. What? - ---Ay, ay, Mr Dedalus nodded. Mrs Marion Bloom has left off clothes of all -descriptions. - -Jingle jaunted down the quays. Blazes sprawled on bounding tyres. - -Liver and bacon. Steak and kidney pie. Right, sir. Right, Pat. - -Mrs Marion. Met him pike hoses. Smell of burn. Of Paul de Kock. Nice -name he. - ---What's this her name was? A buxom lassy. Marion ... - ---Tweedy. - ---Yes. Is she alive? - ---And kicking. - ---She was a daughter of ... - ---Daughter of the regiment. - ---Yes, begad. I remember the old drummajor. - -Mr Dedalus struck, whizzed, lit, puffed savoury puff after - ---Irish? I don't know, faith. Is she, Simon? - -Puff after stiff, a puff, strong, savoury, crackling. - ---Buccinator muscle is ... What? ... Bit rusty ... O, she is ... My -Irish Molly, O. - -He puffed a pungent plumy blast. - ---From the rock of Gibraltar... all the way. - -They pined in depth of ocean shadow, gold by the beerpull, bronze by -maraschino, thoughtful all two. Mina Kennedy, 4 Lismore terrace, -Drumcondra with Idolores, a queen, Dolores, silent. - -Pat served, uncovered dishes. Leopold cut liverslices. As said before he -ate with relish the inner organs, nutty gizzards, fried cods' roes while -Richie Goulding, Collis, Ward ate steak and kidney, steak then kidney, -bite by bite of pie he ate Bloom ate they ate. - -Bloom with Goulding, married in silence, ate. Dinners fit for princes. - -By Bachelor's walk jogjaunty jingled Blazes Boylan, bachelor, in sun -in heat, mare's glossy rump atrot, with flick of whip, on bounding tyres: -sprawled, warmseated, Boylan impatience, ardentbold. Horn. Have you -the? Horn. Have you the? Haw haw horn. - -Over their voices Dollard bassooned attack, booming over bombarding -chords: - ---WHEN LOVE ABSORBS MY ARDENT SOUL ... - -Roll of Bensoulbenjamin rolled to the quivery loveshivery roofpanes. - ---War! War! cried Father Cowley. You're the warrior. - ---So I am, Ben Warrior laughed. I was thinking of your landlord. Love or -money. - -He stopped. He wagged huge beard, huge face over his blunder huge. - ---Sure, you'd burst the tympanum of her ear, man, Mr Dedalus said -through smoke aroma, with an organ like yours. - -In bearded abundant laughter Dollard shook upon the keyboard. He -would. - ---Not to mention another membrane, Father Cowley added. Half time, -Ben. AMOROSO MA NON TROPPO. Let me there. - -Miss Kennedy served two gentlemen with tankards of cool stout. She -passed a remark. It was indeed, first gentleman said, beautiful weather. -They drank cool stout. Did she know where the lord lieutenant was going? -And heard steelhoofs ringhoof ring. No, she couldn't say. But it would be -in the paper. O, she need not trouble. No trouble. She waved about her -outspread INDEPENDENT, searching, the lord lieutenant, her pinnacles of -hair slowmoving, lord lieuten. Too much trouble, first gentleman said. O, -not in the least. Way he looked that. Lord lieutenant. Gold by bronze -heard iron steel. - --- ............ MY ARDENT SOUL - I CARE NOT FOROR THE MORROW. - -In liver gravy Bloom mashed mashed potatoes. Love and War -someone is. Ben Dollard's famous. Night he ran round to us to borrow a -dress suit for that concert. Trousers tight as a drum on him. Musical -porkers. Molly did laugh when he went out. Threw herself back across the -bed, screaming, kicking. With all his belongings on show. O saints above, -I'm drenched! O, the women in the front row! O, I never laughed so many! -Well, of course that's what gives him the base barreltone. For instance -eunuchs. Wonder who's playing. Nice touch. Must be Cowley. Musical. -Knows whatever note you play. Bad breath he has, poor chap. Stopped. - -Miss Douce, engaging, Lydia Douce, bowed to suave solicitor, George -Lidwell, gentleman, entering. Good afternoon. She gave her moist -(a lady's) hand to his firm clasp. Afternoon. Yes, she was back. To the -old dingdong again. - ---Your friends are inside, Mr Lidwell. - -George Lidwell, suave, solicited, held a lydiahand. - -Bloom ate liv as said before. Clean here at least. That chap in the -Burton, gummy with gristle. No-one here: Goulding and I. Clean tables, -flowers, mitres of napkins. Pat to and fro. Bald Pat. Nothing to do. Best -value in Dub. - -Piano again. Cowley it is. Way he sits in to it, like one together, -mutual understanding. Tiresome shapers scraping fiddles, eye on the -bowend, sawing the cello, remind you of toothache. Her high long snore. -Night we were in the box. Trombone under blowing like a grampus, -between the acts, other brass chap unscrewing, emptying spittle. -Conductor's legs too, bagstrousers, jiggedy jiggedy. Do right to hide -them. - -Jiggedy jingle jaunty jaunty. - -Only the harp. Lovely. Gold glowering light. Girl touched it. Poop of -a lovely. Gravy's rather good fit for a. Golden ship. Erin. The harp that -once or twice. Cool hands. Ben Howth, the rhododendrons. We are their -harps. I. He. Old. Young. - ---Ah, I couldn't, man, Mr Dedalus said, shy, listless. - -Strongly. - ---Go on, blast you! Ben Dollard growled. Get it out in bits. - ---M'APPARI, Simon, Father Cowley said. - -Down stage he strode some paces, grave, tall in affliction, his long -arms outheld. Hoarsely the apple of his throat hoarsed softly. Softly he -sang to a dusty seascape there: A LAST FAREWELL. A headland, a ship, a -sail upon the billows. Farewell. A lovely girl, her veil awave upon the -wind upon the headland, wind around her. - -Cowley sang: - - ---M'APPARI TUTT'AMOR: -IL MIO SGUARDO L'INCONTR ... - - -She waved, unhearing Cowley, her veil, to one departing, dear one, to -wind, love, speeding sail, return. - ---Go on, Simon. - ---Ah, sure, my dancing days are done, Ben ... Well ... - -Mr Dedalus laid his pipe to rest beside the tuningfork and, sitting, -touched the obedient keys. - ---No, Simon, Father Cowley turned. Play it in the original. One flat. - -The keys, obedient, rose higher, told, faltered, confessed, confused. - -Up stage strode Father Cowley. - ---Here, Simon, I'll accompany you, he said. Get up. - -By Graham Lemon's pineapple rock, by Elvery's elephant jingly -jogged. Steak, kidney, liver, mashed, at meat fit for princes sat princes -Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank, Power and -cider. - -Most beautiful tenor air ever written, Richie said: SONNAMBULA. He -heard Joe Maas sing that one night. Ah, what M'Guckin! Yes. In his way. -Choirboy style. Maas was the boy. Massboy. A lyrical tenor if you like. -Never forget it. Never. - -Tenderly Bloom over liverless bacon saw the tightened features strain. -Backache he. Bright's bright eye. Next item on the programme. Paying the -piper. Pills, pounded bread, worth a guinea a box. Stave it off awhile. -Sings too: DOWN AMONG THE DEAD MEN. Appropriate. Kidney pie. Sweets to -the. Not making much hand of it. Best value in. Characteristic of him. -Power. Particular about his drink. Flaw in the glass, fresh Vartry water. -Fecking matches from counters to save. Then squander a sovereign in dribs -and drabs. And when he's wanted not a farthing. Screwed refusing to pay -his fare. Curious types. - -Never would Richie forget that night. As long as he lived: never. In -the gods of the old Royal with little Peake. And when the first note. - -Speech paused on Richie's lips. - -Coming out with a whopper now. Rhapsodies about damn all. - -Believes his own lies. Does really. Wonderful liar. But want a good -memory. - ---Which air is that? asked Leopold Bloom. - ---ALL IS LOST NOW. - -Richie cocked his lips apout. A low incipient note sweet banshee murmured: -all. A thrush. A throstle. His breath, birdsweet, good teeth he's -proud of, fluted with plaintive woe. Is lost. Rich sound. Two notes in one -there. Blackbird I heard in the hawthorn valley. Taking my motives he -twined and turned them. All most too new call is lost in all. Echo. How -sweet the answer. How is that done? All lost now. Mournful he whistled. -Fall, surrender, lost. - -Bloom bent leopold ear, turning a fringe of doyley down under the -vase. Order. Yes, I remember. Lovely air. In sleep she went to him. -Innocence in the moon. Brave. Don't know their danger. Still hold her -back. Call name. Touch water. Jingle jaunty. Too late. She longed to go. -That's why. Woman. As easy stop the sea. Yes: all is lost. - ---A beautiful air, said Bloom lost Leopold. I know it well. - -Never in all his life had Richie Goulding. - -He knows it well too. Or he feels. Still harping on his daughter. Wise -child that knows her father, Dedalus said. Me? - -Bloom askance over liverless saw. Face of the all is lost. Rollicking -Richie once. Jokes old stale now. Wagging his ear. Napkinring in his eye. -Now begging letters he sends his son with. Crosseyed Walter sir I did sir. -Wouldn't trouble only I was expecting some money. Apologise. - -Piano again. Sounds better than last time I heard. Tuned probably. -Stopped again. - -Dollard and Cowley still urged the lingering singer out with it. - ---With it, Simon. - ---It, Simon. - ---Ladies and gentlemen, I am most deeply obliged by your kind -solicitations. - ---It, Simon. - ---I have no money but if you will lend me your attention I shall endeavour -to sing to you of a heart bowed down. - -By the sandwichbell in screening shadow Lydia, her bronze and rose, -a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous EAU DE NIL Mina -to tankards two her pinnacles of gold. - -The harping chords of prelude closed. A chord, longdrawn, expectant, -drew a voice away. - ---WHEN FIRST I SAW THAT FORM ENDEARING ... - -Richie turned. - ---Si Dedalus' voice, he said. - -Braintipped, cheek touched with flame, they listened feeling that flow -endearing flow over skin limbs human heart soul spine. Bloom signed to -Pat, bald Pat is a waiter hard of hearing, to set ajar the door of the -bar. The door of the bar. So. That will do. Pat, waiter, waited, waiting -to hear, for he was hard of hear by the door. - ---SORROW FROM ME SEEMED TO DEPART. - -Through the hush of air a voice sang to them, low, not rain, not leaves -in murmur, like no voice of strings or reeds or whatdoyoucallthem -dulcimers touching their still ears with words, still hearts of their each -his remembered lives. Good, good to hear: sorrow from them each seemed to -from both depart when first they heard. When first they saw, lost Richie -Poldy, mercy of beauty, heard from a person wouldn't expect it in the -least, her first merciful lovesoft oftloved word. - -Love that is singing: love's old sweet song. Bloom unwound slowly -the elastic band of his packet. Love's old sweet SONNEZ LA gold. Bloom -wound a skein round four forkfingers, stretched it, relaxed, and wound it -round his troubled double, fourfold, in octave, gyved them fast. - ---FULL OF HOPE AND ALL DELIGHTED ... - -Tenors get women by the score. Increase their flow. Throw flower at -his feet. When will we meet? My head it simply. Jingle all delighted. He -can't sing for tall hats. Your head it simply swurls. Perfumed for him. -What perfume does your wife? I want to know. Jing. Stop. Knock. Last look -at mirror always before she answers the door. The hall. There? How do you? -I do well. There? What? Or? Phial of cachous, kissing comfits, in her -satchel. Yes? Hands felt for the opulent. - -Alas the voice rose, sighing, changed: loud, full, shining, proud. - ---BUT ALAS, 'TWAS IDLE DREAMING ... - -Glorious tone he has still. Cork air softer also their brogue. Silly man! -Could have made oceans of money. Singing wrong words. Wore out his -wife: now sings. But hard to tell. Only the two themselves. If he doesn't -break down. Keep a trot for the avenue. His hands and feet sing too. -Drink. Nerves overstrung. Must be abstemious to sing. Jenny Lind soup: -stock, sage, raw eggs, half pint of cream. For creamy dreamy. - -Tenderness it welled: slow, swelling, full it throbbed. That's the chat. -Ha, give! Take! Throb, a throb, a pulsing proud erect. - -Words? Music? No: it's what's behind. - -Bloom looped, unlooped, noded, disnoded. - -Bloom. Flood of warm jamjam lickitup secretness flowed to flow in -music out, in desire, dark to lick flow invading. Tipping her tepping her -tapping her topping her. Tup. Pores to dilate dilating. Tup. The joy the -feel the warm the. Tup. To pour o'er sluices pouring gushes. Flood, gush, -flow, joygush, tupthrob. Now! Language of love. - --- ... RAY OF HOPE IS ... - -Beaming. Lydia for Lidwell squeak scarcely hear so ladylike the muse -unsqueaked a ray of hopk. - -MARTHA it is. Coincidence. Just going to write. Lionel's song. Lovely -name you have. Can't write. Accept my little pres. Play on her -heartstrings pursestrings too. She's a. I called you naughty boy. Still -the name: Martha. How strange! Today. - -The voice of Lionel returned, weaker but unwearied. It sang again to -Richie Poldy Lydia Lidwell also sang to Pat open mouth ear waiting to -wait. How first he saw that form endearing, how sorrow seemed to part, -how look, form, word charmed him Gould Lidwell, won Pat Bloom's heart. - -Wish I could see his face, though. Explain better. Why the barber in -Drago's always looked my face when I spoke his face in the glass. Still -hear it better here than in the bar though farther. - ---EACH GRACEFUL LOOK ... - -First night when first I saw her at Mat Dillon's in Terenure. Yellow, -black lace she wore. Musical chairs. We two the last. Fate. After her. -Fate. - -Round and round slow. Quick round. We two. All looked. Halt. Down she -sat. All ousted looked. Lips laughing. Yellow knees. - ---CHARMED MY EYE ... - -Singing. WAITING she sang. I turned her music. Full voice of perfume -of what perfume does your lilactrees. Bosom I saw, both full, throat -warbling. First I saw. She thanked me. Why did she me? Fate. Spanishy -eyes. Under a peartree alone patio this hour in old Madrid one side in -shadow Dolores shedolores. At me. Luring. Ah, alluring. - ---MARTHA! AH, MARTHA! - -Quitting all languor Lionel cried in grief, in cry of passion dominant -to love to return with deepening yet with rising chords of harmony. In cry -of lionel loneliness that she should know, must martha feel. For only her -he waited. Where? Here there try there here all try where. Somewhere. - ---CO-OME, THOU LOST ONE! - CO-OME, THOU DEAR ONE! - -Alone. One love. One hope. One comfort me. Martha, chestnote, return! - ---COME! - -It soared, a bird, it held its flight, a swift pure cry, soar silver orb -it leaped serene, speeding, sustained, to come, don't spin it out too long -long breath he breath long life, soaring high, high resplendent, aflame, -crowned, high in the effulgence symbolistic, high, of the etherial bosom, -high, of the high vast irradiation everywhere all soaring all around about -the all, the endlessnessnessness ... - ---TO ME! - -Siopold! - -Consumed. - -Come. Well sung. All clapped. She ought to. Come. To me, to him, to -her, you too, me, us. - ---Bravo! Clapclap. Good man, Simon. Clappyclapclap. Encore! -Clapclipclap clap. Sound as a bell. Bravo, Simon! Clapclopclap. Encore, -enclap, said, cried, clapped all, Ben Dollard, Lydia Douce, George -Lidwell, Pat, Mina Kennedy, two gentlemen with two tankards, Cowley, -first gent with tank and bronze miss Douce and gold MJiss Mina. - -Blazes Boylan's smart tan shoes creaked on the barfloor, said before. -Jingle by monuments of sir John Gray, Horatio onehandled Nelson, -reverend father Theobald Mathew, jaunted, as said before just now. Atrot, -in heat, heatseated. CLOCHE. SONNEZ LA. CLOCHE. SONNEZ LA. Slower the mare -went up the hill by the Rotunda, Rutland square. Too slow for Boylan, -blazes Boylan, impatience Boylan, joggled the mare. - -An afterclang of Cowley's chords closed, died on the air made richer. - -And Richie Goulding drank his Power and Leopold Bloom his cider -drank, Lidwell his Guinness, second gentleman said they would partake of -two more tankards if she did not mind. Miss Kennedy smirked, disserving, -coral lips, at first, at second. She did not mind. - ---Seven days in jail, Ben Dollard said, on bread and water. Then you'd -sing, Simon, like a garden thrush. - -Lionel Simon, singer, laughed. Father Bob Cowley played. Mina -Kennedy served. Second gentleman paid. Tom Kernan strutted in. Lydia, -admired, admired. But Bloom sang dumb. - -Admiring. - -Richie, admiring, descanted on that man's glorious voice. He -remembered one night long ago. Never forget that night. Si sang 'TWAS -RANK AND FAME: in Ned Lambert's 'twas. Good God he never heard in all his -life a note like that he never did THEN FALSE ONE WE HAD BETTER PART so -clear so God he never heard SINCE LOVE LIVES NOT a clinking voice lives -not ask Lambert he can tell you too. - -Goulding, a flush struggling in his pale, told Mr Bloom, face of the -night, Si in Ned Lambert's, Dedalus house, sang 'TWAS RANK AND FAME. - -He, Mr Bloom, listened while he, Richie Goulding, told him, Mr -Bloom, of the night he, Richie, heard him, Si Dedalus, sing 'TWAS RANK AND -FAME in his, Ned Lambert's, house. - -Brothers-in-law: relations. We never speak as we pass by. Rift in the -lute I think. Treats him with scorn. See. He admires him all the more. The -night Si sang. The human voice, two tiny silky chords, wonderful, more -than all others. - -That voice was a lamentation. Calmer now. It's in the silence after -you feel you hear. Vibrations. Now silent air. - -Bloom ungyved his crisscrossed hands and with slack fingers plucked -the slender catgut thong. He drew and plucked. It buzz, it twanged. While -Goulding talked of Barraclough's voice production, while Tom Kernan, -harking back in a retrospective sort of arrangement talked to listening -Father Cowley, who played a voluntary, who nodded as he played. While -big Ben Dollard talked with Simon Dedalus, lighting, who nodded as he -smoked, who smoked. - -Thou lost one. All songs on that theme. Yet more Bloom stretched his -string. Cruel it seems. Let people get fond of each other: lure them on. -Then tear asunder. Death. Explos. Knock on the head. Outtohelloutofthat. -Human life. Dignam. Ugh, that rat's tail wriggling! Five bob I gave. -CORPUS PARADISUM. Corncrake croaker: belly like a poisoned pup. Gone. -They sing. Forgotten. I too; And one day she with. Leave her: get tired. -Suffer then. Snivel. Big spanishy eyes goggling at nothing. Her -wavyavyeavyheavyeavyevyevyhair un comb:'d. - -Yet too much happy bores. He stretched more, more. Are you not -happy in your? Twang. It snapped. - -Jingle into Dorset street. - -Miss Douce withdrew her satiny arm, reproachful, pleased. - ---Don't make half so free, said she, till we are better acquainted. - -George Lidwell told her really and truly: but she did not believe. - -First gentleman told Mina that was so. She asked him was that so. -And second tankard told her so. That that was so. - -Miss Douce, miss Lydia, did not believe: miss Kennedy, Mina, did not -believe: George Lidwell, no: miss Dou did not: the first, the first: gent -with the tank: believe, no, no: did not, miss Kenn: Lidlydiawell: the -tank. - -Better write it here. Quills in the postoffice chewed and twisted. - -Bald Pat at a sign drew nigh. A pen and ink. He went. A pad. He -went. A pad to blot. He heard, deaf Pat. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said, teasing the curling catgut line. It certainly is. -Few lines will do. My present. All that Italian florid music is. Who is -this wrote? Know the name you know better. Take out sheet notepaper, -envelope: unconcerned. It's so characteristic. - ---Grandest number in the whole opera, Goulding said. - ---It is, Bloom said. - -Numbers it is. All music when you come to think. Two multiplied by two -divided by half is twice one. Vibrations: chords those are. One plus two -plus six is seven. Do anything you like with figures juggling. Always find -out this equal to that. Symmetry under a cemetery wall. He doesn't see my -mourning. Callous: all for his own gut. Musemathematics. And you think -you're listening to the etherial. But suppose you said it like: Martha, -seven times nine minus x is thirtyfive thousand. Fall quite flat. It's on -account of the sounds it is. - -Instance he's playing now. Improvising. Might be what you like, till -you hear the words. Want to listen sharp. Hard. Begin all right: then hear -chords a bit off: feel lost a bit. In and out of sacks, over barrels, -through wirefences, obstacle race. Time makes the tune. Question of mood -you're in. Still always nice to hear. Except scales up and down, girls -learning. Two together nextdoor neighbours. Ought to invent dummy pianos -for that. BLUMENLIED I bought for her. The name. Playing it slow, a girl, -night I came home, the girl. Door of the stables near Cecilia street. -Milly no taste. Queer because we both, I mean. - -Bald deaf Pat brought quite flat pad ink. Pat set with ink pen quite -flat pad. Pat took plate dish knife fork. Pat went. - -It was the only language Mr Dedalus said to Ben. He heard them as a -boy in Ringabella, Crosshaven, Ringabella, singing their barcaroles. -Queenstown harbour full of Italian ships. Walking, you know, Ben, in the -moonlight with those earthquake hats. Blending their voices. God, such -music, Ben. Heard as a boy. Cross Ringabella haven mooncarole. - -Sour pipe removed he held a shield of hand beside his lips that cooed -a moonlight nightcall, clear from anear, a call from afar, replying. - -Down the edge of his FREEMAN baton ranged Bloom's, your other eye, -scanning for where did I see that. Callan, Coleman, Dignam Patrick. -Heigho! Heigho! Fawcett. Aha! Just I was looking ... - -Hope he's not looking, cute as a rat. He held unfurled his FREEMAN. -Can't see now. Remember write Greek ees. Bloom dipped, Bloo mur: dear -sir. Dear Henry wrote: dear Mady. Got your lett and flow. Hell did I put? -Some pock or oth. It is utterl imposs. Underline IMPOSS. To write today. - -Bore this. Bored Bloom tambourined gently with I am just reflecting -fingers on flat pad Pat brought. - -On. Know what I mean. No, change that ee. Accep my poor litt pres -enclos. Ask her no answ. Hold on. Five Dig. Two about here. Penny the -gulls. Elijah is com. Seven Davy Byrne's. Is eight about. Say half a -crown. My poor little pres: p. o. two and six. Write me a long. Do you -despise? Jingle, have you the? So excited. Why do you call me naught? -You naughty too? O, Mairy lost the string of her. Bye for today. Yes, yes, -will tell you. Want to. To keep it up. Call me that other. Other world she -wrote. My patience are exhaust. To keep it up. You must believe. Believe. -The tank. It. Is. True. - -Folly am I writing? Husbands don't. That's marriage does, their -wives. Because I'm away from. Suppose. But how? She must. Keep young. -If she found out. Card in my high grade ha. No, not tell all. Useless -pain. If they don't see. Woman. Sauce for the gander. - -A hackney car, number three hundred and twentyfour, driver Barton James of -number one Harmony avenue, Donnybrook, on which sat a fare, a young -gentleman, stylishly dressed in an indigoblue serge suit made by -George Robert Mesias, tailor and cutter, of number five Eden quay, and -wearing a straw hat very dressy, bought of John Plasto of number one -Great Brunswick street, hatter. Eh? This is the jingle that joggled and -jingled. By Dlugacz' porkshop bright tubes of Agendath trotted a -gallantbuttocked mare. - ---Answering an ad? keen Richie's eyes asked Bloom. - ---Yes, Mr Bloom said. Town traveller. Nothing doing, I expect. - -Bloom mur: best references. But Henry wrote: it will excite me. You -know how. In haste. Henry. Greek ee. Better add postscript. What is he -playing now? Improvising. Intermezzo. P. S. The rum tum tum. How will -you pun? You punish me? Crooked skirt swinging, whack by. Tell me I want -to. Know. O. Course if I didn't I wouldn't ask. La la la ree. Trails off -there sad in minor. Why minor sad? Sign H. They like sad tail at end. -P. P. S. La la la ree. I feel so sad today. La ree. So lonely. Dee. - -He blotted quick on pad of Pat. Envel. Address. Just copy out of -paper. Murmured: Messrs Callan, Coleman and Co, limited. Henry wrote: - - - Miss Martha Clifford - c/o P. O. - Dolphin's Barn Lane - Dublin - - -Blot over the other so he can't read. There. Right. Idea prize titbit. -Something detective read off blottingpad. Payment at the rate of guinea -per col. Matcham often thinks the laughing witch. Poor Mrs Purefoy. U. P: -up. - -Too poetical that about the sad. Music did that. Music hath charms. -Shakespeare said. Quotations every day in the year. To be or not to be. -Wisdom while you wait. - -In Gerard's rosery of Fetter lane he walks, greyedauburn. One life is -all. One body. Do. But do. - -Done anyhow. Postal order, stamp. Postoffice lower down. Walk -now. Enough. Barney Kiernan's I promised to meet them. Dislike that job. - -House of mourning. Walk. Pat! Doesn't hear. Deaf beetle he is. - -Car near there now. Talk. Talk. Pat! Doesn't. Settling those napkins. -Lot of ground he must cover in the day. Paint face behind on him then he'd -be two. Wish they'd sing more. Keep my mind off. - -Bald Pat who is bothered mitred the napkins. Pat is a waiter hard of -his hearing. Pat is a waiter who waits while you wait. Hee hee hee hee. He -waits while you wait. Hee hee. A waiter is he. Hee hee hee hee. He waits -while you wait. While you wait if you wait he will wait while you wait. -Hee hee hee hee. Hoh. Wait while you wait. - -Douce now. Douce Lydia. Bronze and rose. - -She had a gorgeous, simply gorgeous, time. And look at the lovely -shell she brought. - -To the end of the bar to him she bore lightly the spiked and winding -seahorn that he, George Lidwell, solicitor, might hear. - ---Listen! she bade him. - -Under Tom Kernan's ginhot words the accompanist wove music slow. -Authentic fact. How Walter Bapty lost his voice. Well, sir, the husband -took him by the throat. SCOUNDREL, said he, YOU'LL SING NO MORE LOVESONGS. -He did, faith, sir Tom. Bob Cowley wove. Tenors get wom. Cowley lay back. - -Ah, now he heard, she holding it to his ear. Hear! He heard. - -Wonderful. She held it to her own. And through the sifted light pale gold -in contrast glided. To hear. - -Tap. - -Bloom through the bardoor saw a shell held at their ears. He heard -more faintly that that they heard, each for herself alone, then each for -other, hearing the plash of waves, loudly, a silent roar. - -Bronze by a weary gold, anear, afar, they listened. - -Her ear too is a shell, the peeping lobe there. Been to the seaside. -Lovely seaside girls. Skin tanned raw. Should have put on coldcream first -make it brown. Buttered toast. O and that lotion mustn't forget. Fever -near her mouth. Your head it simply. Hair braided over: shell with -seaweed. Why do they hide their ears with seaweed hair? And Turks the -mouth, why? Her eyes over the sheet. Yashmak. Find the way in. A cave. No -admittance except on business. - -The sea they think they hear. Singing. A roar. The blood it is. Souse -in the ear sometimes. Well, it's a sea. Corpuscle islands. - -Wonderful really. So distinct. Again. George Lidwell held its murmur, -hearing: then laid it by, gently. - ---What are the wild waves saying? he asked her, smiled. - -Charming, seasmiling and unanswering Lydia on Lidwell smiled. - -Tap. - -By Larry O'Rourke's, by Larry, bold Larry O', Boylan swayed and -Boylan turned. - -From the forsaken shell miss Mina glided to her tankards waiting. -No, she was not so lonely archly miss Douce's head let Mr Lidwell know. -Walks in the moonlight by the sea. No, not alone. With whom? She nobly -answered: with a gentleman friend. - -Bob Cowley's twinkling fingers in the treble played again. The -landlord has the prior. A little time. Long John. Big Ben. Lightly he -played a light bright tinkling measure for tripping ladies, arch and -smiling, and for their gallants, gentlemen friends. One: one, one, one, -one, one: two, one, three, four. - -Sea, wind, leaves, thunder, waters, cows lowing, the cattlemarket, -cocks, hens don't crow, snakes hissss. There's music everywhere. -Ruttledge's door: ee creaking. No, that's noise. Minuet of DON GIOVANNI -he's playing now. Court dresses of all descriptions in castle chambers -dancing. Misery. Peasants outside. Green starving faces eating -dockleaves. Nice that is. Look: look, look, look, look, look: you -look at us. - -That's joyful I can feel. Never have written it. Why? My joy is other -joy. But both are joys. Yes, joy it must be. Mere fact of music shows you -are. Often thought she was in the dumps till she began to lilt. Then -know. - -M'Coy valise. My wife and your wife. Squealing cat. Like tearing silk. -Tongue when she talks like the clapper of a bellows. They can't manage -men's intervals. Gap in their voices too. Fill me. I'm warm, dark, open. -Molly in QUIS EST HOMO: Mercadante. My ear against the wall to hear. Want -a woman who can deliver the goods. - -Jog jig jogged stopped. Dandy tan shoe of dandy Boylan socks -skyblue clocks came light to earth. - -O, look we are so! Chamber music. Could make a kind of pun on -that. It is a kind of music I often thought when she. Acoustics that is. -Tinkling. Empty vessels make most noise. Because the acoustics, the -resonance changes according as the weight of the water is equal to the law -of falling water. Like those rhapsodies of Liszt's, Hungarian, gipsyeyed. -Pearls. Drops. Rain. Diddleiddle addleaddle ooddleooddle. Hissss. Now. -Maybe now. Before. - -One rapped on a door, one tapped with a knock, did he knock Paul -de Kock with a loud proud knocker with a cock carracarracarra cock. -Cockcock. - -Tap. - ---QUI SDEGNO, Ben, said Father Cowley. - ---No, Ben, Tom Kernan interfered. THE CROPPY BOY. Our native Doric. - ---Ay do, Ben, Mr Dedalus said. Good men and true. - ---Do, do, they begged in one. - -I'll go. Here, Pat, return. Come. He came, he came, he did not stay. -To me. How much? - ---What key? Six sharps? - ---F sharp major, Ben Dollard said. - -Bob Cowley's outstretched talons griped the black deepsounding chords. - -Must go prince Bloom told Richie prince. No, Richie said. Yes, must. -Got money somewhere. He's on for a razzle backache spree. Much? He -seehears lipspeech. One and nine. Penny for yourself. Here. Give him -twopence tip. Deaf, bothered. But perhaps he has wife and family waiting, -waiting Patty come home. Hee hee hee hee. Deaf wait while they wait. - -But wait. But hear. Chords dark. Lugugugubrious. Low. In a cave of -the dark middle earth. Embedded ore. Lumpmusic. - -The voice of dark age, of unlove, earth's fatigue made grave approach -and painful, come from afar, from hoary mountains, called on good men -and true. The priest he sought. With him would he speak a word. - -Tap. - -Ben Dollard's voice. Base barreltone. Doing his level best to say it. -Croak of vast manless moonless womoonless marsh. Other comedown. Big -ships' chandler's business he did once. Remember: rosiny ropes, ships' -lanterns. Failed to the tune of ten thousand pounds. Now in the Iveagh -home. Cubicle number so and so. Number one Bass did that for him. - -The priest's at home. A false priest's servant bade him welcome. Step -in. The holy father. With bows a traitor servant. Curlycues of chords. - -Ruin them. Wreck their lives. Then build them cubicles to end their -days in. Hushaby. Lullaby. Die, dog. Little dog, die. - -The voice of warning, solemn warning, told them the youth had -entered a lonely hall, told them how solemn fell his footsteps there, told -them the gloomy chamber, the vested priest sitting to shrive. - -Decent soul. Bit addled now. Thinks he'll win in ANSWERS, poets' -picture puzzle. We hand you crisp five pound note. Bird sitting hatching -in a nest. Lay of the last minstrel he thought it was. See blank tee what -domestic animal? Tee dash ar most courageous mariner. Good voice he has -still. No eunuch yet with all his belongings. - -Listen. Bloom listened. Richie Goulding listened. And by the door -deaf Pat, bald Pat, tipped Pat, listened. The chords harped slower. - -The voice of penance and of grief came slow, embellished, tremulous. -Ben's contrite beard confessed. IN NOMINE DOMINI, in God's name he knelt. -He beat his hand upon his breast, confessing: MEA CULPA. - -Latin again. That holds them like birdlime. Priest with the -communion corpus for those women. Chap in the mortuary, coffin or -coffey, CORPUSNOMINE. Wonder where that rat is by now. Scrape. - -Tap. - -They listened. Tankards and miss Kennedy. George Lidwell, eyelid -well expressive, fullbusted satin. Kernan. Si. - -The sighing voice of sorrow sang. His sins. Since Easter he had -cursed three times. You bitch's bast. And once at masstime he had gone to -play. Once by the churchyard he had passed and for his mother's rest he -had not prayed. A boy. A croppy boy. - -Bronze, listening, by the beerpull gazed far away. Soulfully. Doesn't -half know I'm. Molly great dab at seeing anyone looking. - -Bronze gazed far sideways. Mirror there. Is that best side of her face? -They always know. Knock at the door. Last tip to titivate. - -Cockcarracarra. - -What do they think when they hear music? Way to catch rattlesnakes. -Night Michael Gunn gave us the box. Tuning up. Shah of Persia liked that -best. Remind him of home sweet home. Wiped his nose in curtain too. -Custom his country perhaps. That's music too. Not as bad as it sounds. -Tootling. Brasses braying asses through uptrunks. Doublebasses helpless, -gashes in their sides. Woodwinds mooing cows. Semigrand open crocodile -music hath jaws. Woodwind like Goodwin's name. - -She looked fine. Her crocus dress she wore lowcut, belongings on -show. Clove her breath was always in theatre when she bent to ask a -question. Told her what Spinoza says in that book of poor papa's. -Hypnotised, listening. Eyes like that. She bent. Chap in dresscircle -staring down into her with his operaglass for all he was worth. Beauty -of music you must hear twice. Nature woman half a look. God made the -country man the tune. Met him pike hoses. Philosophy. O rocks! - -All gone. All fallen. At the siege of Ross his father, at Gorey all his -brothers fell. To Wexford, we are the boys of Wexford, he would. Last of -his name and race. - -I too. Last of my race. Milly young student. Well, my fault perhaps. -No son. Rudy. Too late now. Or if not? If not? If still? - -He bore no hate. - -Hate. Love. Those are names. Rudy. Soon I am old. Big Ben his voice -unfolded. Great voice Richie Goulding said, a flush struggling in his -pale, to Bloom soon old. But when was young? - -Ireland comes now. My country above the king. She listens. Who -fears to speak of nineteen four? Time to be shoving. Looked enough. - ---BLESS ME, FATHER, Dollard the croppy cried. BLESS ME AND LET ME GO. - -Tap. - -Bloom looked, unblessed to go. Got up to kill: on eighteen bob a -week. Fellows shell out the dibs. Want to keep your weathereye open. Those -girls, those lovely. By the sad sea waves. Chorusgirl's romance. Letters -read out for breach of promise. From Chickabiddy's owny Mumpsypum. -Laughter in court. Henry. I never signed it. The lovely name you. - -Low sank the music, air and words. Then hastened. The false priest -rustling soldier from his cassock. A yeoman captain. They know it all by -heart. The thrill they itch for. Yeoman cap. - -Tap. Tap. - -Thrilled she listened, bending in sympathy to hear. - -Blank face. Virgin should say: or fingered only. Write something on -it: page. If not what becomes of them? Decline, despair. Keeps them young. -Even admire themselves. See. Play on her. Lip blow. Body of white woman, -a flute alive. Blow gentle. Loud. Three holes, all women. Goddess I didn't -see. They want it. Not too much polite. That's why he gets them. Gold in -your pocket, brass in your face. Say something. Make her hear. With look -to look. Songs without words. Molly, that hurdygurdy boy. She knew he -meant the monkey was sick. Or because so like the Spanish. Understand -animals too that way. Solomon did. Gift of nature. - -Ventriloquise. My lips closed. Think in my stom. What? - -Will? You? I. Want. You. To. - -With hoarse rude fury the yeoman cursed, swelling in apoplectic -bitch's bastard. A good thought, boy, to come. One hour's your time to -live, your last. - -Tap. Tap. - -Thrill now. Pity they feel. To wipe away a tear for martyrs that want -to, dying to, die. For all things dying, for all things born. Poor Mrs -Purefoy. Hope she's over. Because their wombs. - -A liquid of womb of woman eyeball gazed under a fence of lashes, -calmly, hearing. See real beauty of the eye when she not speaks. On yonder -river. At each slow satiny heaving bosom's wave (her heaving embon) red -rose rose slowly sank red rose. Heartbeats: her breath: breath that is -life. And all the tiny tiny fernfoils trembled of maidenhair. - -But look. The bright stars fade. O rose! Castile. The morn. Ha. -Lidwell. For him then not for. Infatuated. I like that? See her -from here though. Popped corks, splashes of beerfroth, stacks of empties. - -On the smooth jutting beerpull laid Lydia hand, lightly, plumply, leave -it to my hands. All lost in pity for croppy. Fro, to: to, fro: over the -polished knob (she knows his eyes, my eyes, her eyes) her thumb and finger -passed in pity: passed, reposed and, gently touching, then slid so -smoothly, slowly down, a cool firm white enamel baton protruding through -their sliding ring. - -With a cock with a carra. - -Tap. Tap. Tap. - -I hold this house. Amen. He gnashed in fury. Traitors swing. - -The chords consented. Very sad thing. But had to be. Get out before -the end. Thanks, that was heavenly. Where's my hat. Pass by her. Can -leave that Freeman. Letter I have. Suppose she were the? No. Walk, -walk, walk. Like Cashel Boylo Connoro Coylo Tisdall Maurice Tisntdall -Farrell. Waaaaaaalk. - -Well, I must be. Are you off? Yrfmstbyes. Blmstup. O'er ryehigh blue. -Ow. Bloom stood up. Soap feeling rather sticky behind. Must have -sweated: music. That lotion, remember. Well, so long. High grade. Card -inside. Yes. - -By deaf Pat in the doorway straining ear Bloom passed. - -At Geneva barrack that young man died. At Passage was his body -laid. Dolor! O, he dolores! The voice of the mournful chanter called to -dolorous prayer. - -By rose, by satiny bosom, by the fondling hand, by slops, by empties, -by popped corks, greeting in going, past eyes and maidenhair, bronze and -faint gold in deepseashadow, went Bloom, soft Bloom, I feel so lonely -Bloom. - -Tap. Tap. Tap. - -Pray for him, prayed the bass of Dollard. You who hear in peace. Breathe -a prayer, drop a tear, good men, good people. He was the croppy boy. - -Scaring eavesdropping boots croppy bootsboy Bloom in the Ormond -hallway heard the growls and roars of bravo, fat backslapping, their boots -all treading, boots not the boots the boy. General chorus off for a swill -to wash it down. Glad I avoided. - ---Come on, Ben, Simon Dedalus cried. By God, you're as good as ever you -were. - ---Better, said Tomgin Kernan. Most trenchant rendition of that ballad, -upon my soul and honour It is. - ---Lablache, said Father Cowley. - -Ben Dollard bulkily cachuchad towards the bar, mightily praisefed and all -big roseate, on heavyfooted feet, his gouty fingers nakkering castagnettes -in the air. - -Big Benaben Dollard. Big Benben. Big Benben. - -Rrr. - -And deepmoved all, Simon trumping compassion from foghorn nose, -all laughing they brought him forth, Ben Dollard, in right good cheer. - ---You're looking rubicund, George Lidwell said. - -Miss Douce composed her rose to wait. - ---Ben machree, said Mr Dedalus, clapping Ben's fat back shoulderblade. -Fit as a fiddle only he has a lot of adipose tissue concealed about his -person. - -Rrrrrrrsss. - ---Fat of death, Simon, Ben Dollard growled. - -Richie rift in the lute alone sat: Goulding, Collis, Ward. Uncertainly -he waited. Unpaid Pat too. - -Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. - -Miss Mina Kennedy brought near her lips to ear of tankard one. - ---Mr Dollard, they murmured low. - ---Dollard, murmured tankard. - -Tank one believed: miss Kenn when she: that doll he was: she doll: -the tank. - -He murmured that he knew the name. The name was familiar to him, -that is to say. That was to say he had heard the name of. Dollard, was it? -Dollard, yes. - -Yes, her lips said more loudly, Mr Dollard. He sang that song lovely, -murmured Mina. Mr Dollard. And THE LAST ROSE OF SUMMER was a lovely -song. Mina loved that song. Tankard loved the song that Mina. - -'Tis the last rose of summer dollard left bloom felt wind wound round -inside. - -Gassy thing that cider: binding too. Wait. Postoffice near Reuben J's -one and eightpence too. Get shut of it. Dodge round by Greek street. Wish -I hadn't promised to meet. Freer in air. Music. Gets on your nerves. -Beerpull. Her hand that rocks the cradle rules the. Ben Howth. That rules -the world. - -Far. Far. Far. Far. - -Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. - -Up the quay went Lionelleopold, naughty Henry with letter for -Mady, with sweets of sin with frillies for Raoul with met him pike hoses -went Poldy on. - -Tap blind walked tapping by the tap the curbstone tapping, tap by tap. - -Cowley, he stuns himself with it: kind of drunkenness. Better give -way only half way the way of a man with a maid. Instance enthusiasts. All -ears. Not lose a demisemiquaver. Eyes shut. Head nodding in time. Dotty. -You daren't budge. Thinking strictly prohibited. Always talking shop. -Fiddlefaddle about notes. - -All a kind of attempt to talk. Unpleasant when it stops because you -never know exac. Organ in Gardiner street. Old Glynn fifty quid a year. -Queer up there in the cockloft, alone, with stops and locks and keys. -Seated all day at the organ. Maunder on for hours, talking to himself or -the other fellow blowing the bellows. Growl angry, then shriek cursing -(want to have wadding or something in his no don't she cried), then all of -a soft sudden wee little wee little pipy wind. - -Pwee! A wee little wind piped eeee. In Bloom's little wee. - ---Was he? Mr Dedalus said, returning with fetched pipe. I was with him -this morning at poor little Paddy Dignam's ... - ---Ay, the Lord have mercy on him. - ---By the bye there's a tuningfork in there on the ... - -Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. - ---The wife has a fine voice. Or had. What? Lidwell asked. - ---O, that must be the tuner, Lydia said to Simonlionel first I saw, forgot -it when he was here. - -Blind he was she told George Lidwell second I saw. And played so -exquisitely, treat to hear. Exquisite contrast: bronzelid, minagold. - ---Shout! Ben Dollard shouted, pouring. Sing out! - ---'lldo! cried Father Cowley. - -Rrrrrr. - -I feel I want ... - -Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap - ---Very, Mr Dedalus said, staring hard at a headless sardine. - -Under the sandwichbell lay on a bier of bread one last, one lonely, last -sardine of summer. Bloom alone. - ---Very, he stared. The lower register, for choice. - -Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. Tap. - -Bloom went by Barry's. Wish I could. Wait. That wonderworker if I -had. Twentyfour solicitors in that one house. Counted them. Litigation. -Love one another. Piles of parchment. Messrs Pick and Pocket have power -of attorney. Goulding, Collis, Ward. - -But for example the chap that wallops the big drum. His vocation: -Mickey Rooney's band. Wonder how it first struck him. Sitting at home -after pig's cheek and cabbage nursing it in the armchair. Rehearsing his -band part. Pom. Pompedy. Jolly for the wife. Asses' skins. Welt them -through life, then wallop after death. Pom. Wallop. Seems to be what you -call yashmak or I mean kismet. Fate. - -Tap. Tap. A stripling, blind, with a tapping cane came taptaptapping -by Daly's window where a mermaid hair all streaming (but he couldn't see) -blew whiffs of a mermaid (blind couldn't), mermaid, coolest whiff of all. - -Instruments. A blade of grass, shell of her hands, then blow. Even -comb and tissuepaper you can knock a tune out of. Molly in her shift in -Lombard street west, hair down. I suppose each kind of trade made its own, -don't you see? Hunter with a horn. Haw. Have you the? CLOCHE. SONNEZ LA. -Shepherd his pipe. Pwee little wee. Policeman a whistle. Locks and keys! -Sweep! Four o'clock's all's well! Sleep! All is lost now. Drum? Pompedy. -Wait. I know. Towncrier, bumbailiff. Long John. Waken the dead. Pom. -Dignam. Poor little NOMINEDOMINE. Pom. It is music. I mean of course it's -all pom pom pom very much what they call DA CAPO. Still you can hear. As -we march, we march along, march along. Pom. - -I must really. Fff. Now if I did that at a banquet. Just a question of -custom shah of Persia. Breathe a prayer, drop a tear. All the same he must -have been a bit of a natural not to see it was a yeoman cap. Muffled up. -Wonder who was that chap at the grave in the brown macin. O, the whore -of the lane! - -A frowsy whore with black straw sailor hat askew came glazily in the -day along the quay towards Mr Bloom. When first he saw that form -endearing? Yes, it is. I feel so lonely. Wet night in the lane. Horn. Who -had the? Heehaw shesaw. Off her beat here. What is she? Hope she. Psst! -Any chance of your wash. Knew Molly. Had me decked. Stout lady does be -with you in the brown costume. Put you off your stroke, that. Appointment -we made knowing we'd never, well hardly ever. Too dear too near to home -sweet home. Sees me, does she? Looks a fright in the day. Face like dip. -Damn her. O, well, she has to live like the rest. Look in here. - -In Lionel Marks's antique saleshop window haughty Henry Lionel -Leopold dear Henry Flower earnestly Mr Leopold Bloom envisaged -battered candlesticks melodeon oozing maggoty blowbags. Bargain: six bob. -Might learn to play. Cheap. Let her pass. Course everything is dear if -you don't want it. That's what good salesman is. Make you buy what he -wants to sell. Chap sold me the Swedish razor he shaved me with. Wanted -to charge me for the edge he gave it. She's passing now. Six bob. - -Must be the cider or perhaps the burgund. - -Near bronze from anear near gold from afar they chinked their clinking -glasses all, brighteyed and gallant, before bronze Lydia's tempting -last rose of summer, rose of Castile. First Lid, De, Cow, Ker, Doll, a -fifth: Lidwell, Si Dedalus, Bob Cowley, Kernan and big Ben Dollard. - -Tap. A youth entered a lonely Ormond hall. - -Bloom viewed a gallant pictured hero in Lionel Marks's window. Robert -Emmet's last words. Seven last words. Of Meyerbeer that is. - ---True men like you men. - ---Ay, ay, Ben. - ---Will lift your glass with us. - -They lifted. - -Tschink. Tschunk. - -Tip. An unseeing stripling stood in the door. He saw not bronze. He -saw not gold. Nor Ben nor Bob nor Tom nor Si nor George nor tanks nor -Richie nor Pat. Hee hee hee hee. He did not see. - -Seabloom, greaseabloom viewed last words. Softly. WHEN MY COUNTRY -TAKES HER PLACE AMONG. - -Prrprr. - -Must be the bur. - -Fff! Oo. Rrpr. - -NATIONS OF THE EARTH. No-one behind. She's passed. THEN AND NOT TILL -THEN. Tram kran kran kran. Good oppor. Coming. Krandlkrankran. I'm -sure it's the burgund. Yes. One, two. LET MY EPITAPH BE. Kraaaaaa. -WRITTEN. I HAVE. - -Pprrpffrrppffff. - -DONE. - - - * * * * * * * - - -I was just passing the time of day with old Troy of the D. M. P. at the -corner of Arbour hill there and be damned but a bloody sweep came along -and he near drove his gear into my eye. I turned around to let him have -the weight of my tongue when who should I see dodging along Stony Batter -only Joe Hynes. - ---Lo, Joe, says I. How are you blowing? Did you see that bloody -chimneysweep near shove my eye out with his brush? - ---Soot's luck, says Joe. Who's the old ballocks you were talking to? - ---Old Troy, says I, was in the force. I'm on two minds not to give that -fellow in charge for obstructing the thoroughfare with his brooms and -ladders. - ---What are you doing round those parts? says Joe. - ---Devil a much, says I. There's a bloody big foxy thief beyond by the -garrison church at the corner of Chicken lane--old Troy was just giving -me a wrinkle about him--lifted any God's quantity of tea and sugar to pay -three bob a week said he had a farm in the county Down off a -hop-of-my-thumb by the name of Moses Herzog over there near Heytesbury -street. - ---Circumcised? says Joe. - ---Ay, says I. A bit off the top. An old plumber named Geraghty. I'm -hanging on to his taw now for the past fortnight and I can't get a penny -out of him. - ---That the lay you're on now? says Joe. - ---Ay, says I. How are the mighty fallen! Collector of bad and doubtful -debts. But that's the most notorious bloody robber you'd meet in a day's -walk and the face on him all pockmarks would hold a shower of rain. TELL -HIM, says he, I DARE HIM, says he, AND I DOUBLEDARE HIM TO SEND YOU ROUND -HERE AGAIN OR IF HE DOES, says he, I'LL HAVE HIM SUMMONSED UP BEFORE THE -COURT, SO I WILL, FOR TRADING WITHOUT A LICENCE. And he after stuffing -himself till he's fit to burst. Jesus, I had to laugh at the little jewy -getting his shirt out. HE DRINK ME MY TEAS. HE EAT ME MY SUGARS. BECAUSE -HE NO PAY ME MY MONEYS? - -For nonperishable goods bought of Moses Herzog, of 13 Saint -Kevin's parade in the city of Dublin, Wood quay ward, merchant, -hereinafter called the vendor, and sold and delivered to Michael E. -Geraghty, esquire, of 29 Arbour hill in the city of Dublin, Arran quay -ward, gentleman, hereinafter called the purchaser, videlicet, five pounds -avoirdupois of first choice tea at three shillings and no pence per pound -avoirdupois and three stone avoirdupois of sugar, crushed crystal, at -threepence per pound avoirdupois, the said purchaser debtor to the said -vendor of one pound five shillings and sixpence sterling for value -received which amount shall be paid by said purchaser to said vendor in -weekly instalments every seven calendar days of three shillings and no -pence sterling: and the said nonperishable goods shall not be pawned or -pledged or sold or otherwise alienated by the said purchaser but shall be -and remain and be held to be the sole and exclusive property of the said -vendor to be disposed of at his good will and pleasure until the said -amount shall have been duly paid by the said purchaser to the said vendor -in the manner herein set forth as this day hereby agreed between the said -vendor, his heirs, successors, trustees and assigns of the one part and -the said purchaser, his heirs, successors, trustees and assigns of the -other part. - ---Are you a strict t.t.? says Joe. - ---Not taking anything between drinks, says I. - ---What about paying our respects to our friend? says Joe. - ---Who? says I. Sure, he's out in John of God's off his head, poor man. - ---Drinking his own stuff? says Joe. - ---Ay, says I. Whisky and water on the brain. - ---Come around to Barney Kiernan's, says Joe. I want to see the citizen. - ---Barney mavourneen's be it, says I. Anything strange or wonderful, Joe? - ---Not a word, says Joe. I was up at that meeting in the City Arms. - ----What was that, Joe? says I. - ---Cattle traders, says Joe, about the foot and mouth disease. I want to -give the citizen the hard word about it. - -So we went around by the Linenhall barracks and the back of the -courthouse talking of one thing or another. Decent fellow Joe when he has -it but sure like that he never has it. Jesus, I couldn't get over that -bloody foxy Geraghty, the daylight robber. For trading without a licence, -says he. - -In Inisfail the fair there lies a land, the land of holy Michan. There -rises a watchtower beheld of men afar. There sleep the mighty dead as in -life they slept, warriors and princes of high renown. A pleasant land it -is in sooth of murmuring waters, fishful streams where sport the gurnard, -the plaice, the roach, the halibut, the gibbed haddock, the grilse, -the dab, the brill, the flounder, the pollock, the mixed coarse fish -generally and other denizens of the aqueous kingdom too numerous to be -enumerated. In the mild breezes of the west and of the east the lofty -trees wave in different directions their firstclass foliage, the wafty -sycamore, the Lebanonian cedar, the exalted planetree, the eugenic -eucalyptus and other ornaments of the arboreal world with which that -region is thoroughly well supplied. Lovely maidens sit in close proximity -to the roots of the lovely trees singing the most lovely songs while they -play with all kinds of lovely objects as for example golden ingots, -silvery fishes, crans of herrings, drafts of eels, codlings, creels of -fingerlings, purple seagems and playful insects. And heroes voyage from -afar to woo them, from Eblana to Slievemargy, the peerless princes of -unfettered Munster and of Connacht the just and of smooth sleek Leinster -and of Cruahan's land and of Armagh the splendid and of the noble district -of Boyle, princes, the sons of kings. - -And there rises a shining palace whose crystal glittering roof is seen by -mariners who traverse the extensive sea in barks built expressly for that -purpose, and thither come all herds and fatlings and firstfruits of that -land for O'Connell Fitzsimon takes toll of them, a chieftain descended -from chieftains. Thither the extremely large wains bring foison of the -fields, flaskets of cauliflowers, floats of spinach, pineapple chunks, -Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs, drills of Swedes, -spherical potatoes and tallies of iridescent kale, York and Savoy, and -trays of onions, pearls of the earth, and punnets of mushrooms and -custard marrows and fat vetches and bere and rape and red green yellow -brown russet sweet big bitter ripe pomellated apples and chips of -strawberries and sieves of gooseberries, pulpy and pelurious, and -strawberries fit for princes and raspberries from their canes. - -I dare him, says he, and I doubledare him. Come out here, Geraghty, -you notorious bloody hill and dale robber! - -And by that way wend the herds innumerable of bellwethers and -flushed ewes and shearling rams and lambs and stubble geese and medium -steers and roaring mares and polled calves and longwoods and storesheep -and Cuffe's prime springers and culls and sowpigs and baconhogs and the -various different varieties of highly distinguished swine and Angus -heifers and polly bulllocks of immaculate pedigree together with prime -premiated milchcows and beeves: and there is ever heard a trampling, -cackling, roaring, lowing, bleating, bellowing, rumbling, grunting, -champing, chewing, of sheep and pigs and heavyhooved kine from -pasturelands of Lusk and Rush and Carrickmines and from the streamy vales -of Thomond, from the M'Gillicuddy's reeks the inaccessible and lordly -Shannon the unfathomable, and from the gentle declivities of the place of -the race of Kiar, their udders distended with superabundance of milk and -butts of butter and rennets of cheese and farmer's firkins and targets of -lamb and crannocks of corn and oblong eggs in great hundreds, various in -size, the agate with this dun. - -So we turned into Barney Kiernan's and there, sure enough, was the citizen -up in the corner having a great confab with himself and that bloody -mangy mongrel, Garryowen, and he waiting for what the sky would drop -in the way of drink. - ---There he is, says I, in his gloryhole, with his cruiskeen lawn and his -load of papers, working for the cause. - -The bloody mongrel let a grouse out of him would give you the creeps. Be -a corporal work of mercy if someone would take the life of that -bloody dog. I'm told for a fact he ate a good part of the breeches off a -constabulary man in Santry that came round one time with a blue paper -about a licence. - ---Stand and deliver, says he. - ---That's all right, citizen, says Joe. Friends here. - ---Pass, friends, says he. - -Then he rubs his hand in his eye and says he: - ---What's your opinion of the times? - -Doing the rapparee and Rory of the hill. But, begob, Joe was equal to -the occasion. - ---I think the markets are on a rise, says he, sliding his hand down his -fork. - -So begob the citizen claps his paw on his knee and he says: - ---Foreign wars is the cause of it. - -And says Joe, sticking his thumb in his pocket: - ---It's the Russians wish to tyrannise. - ---Arrah, give over your bloody codding, Joe, says I. I've a thirst on me I -wouldn't sell for half a crown. - ---Give it a name, citizen, says Joe. - ---Wine of the country, says he. - ---What's yours? says Joe. - ---Ditto MacAnaspey, says I. - ---Three pints, Terry, says Joe. And how's the old heart, citizen? says he. - ---Never better, A CHARA, says he. What Garry? Are we going to win? Eh? - -And with that he took the bloody old towser by the scruff of the neck -and, by Jesus, he near throttled him. - -The figure seated on a large boulder at the foot of a round tower -was that of a broadshouldered deepchested stronglimbed frankeyed -redhaired freelyfreckled shaggybearded widemouthed largenosed -longheaded deepvoiced barekneed brawnyhanded hairylegged ruddyfaced -sinewyarmed hero. From shoulder to shoulder he measured several ells and -his rocklike mountainous knees were covered, as was likewise the rest of -his body wherever visible, with a strong growth of tawny prickly hair in -hue and toughness similar to the mountain gorse (ULEX EUROPEUS). The -widewinged nostrils, from which bristles of the same tawny hue projected, -were of such capaciousness that within their cavernous obscurity the -fieldlark might easily have lodged her nest. The eyes in which a tear and -a smile strove ever for the mastery were of the dimensions of a goodsized -cauliflower. A powerful current of warm breath issued at regular intervals -from the profound cavity of his mouth while in rhythmic resonance the -loud strong hale reverberations of his formidable heart thundered -rumblingly causing the ground, the summit of the lofty tower and the still -loftier walls of the cave to vibrate and tremble. - -He wore a long unsleeved garment of recently flayed oxhide reaching to the -knees in a loose kilt and this was bound about his middle by a girdle of -plaited straw and rushes. Beneath this he wore trews of deerskin, roughly -stitched with gut. His nether extremities were encased in high Balbriggan -buskins dyed in lichen purple, the feet being shod with brogues of salted -cowhide laced with the windpipe of the same beast. From his girdle hung a -row of seastones which jangled at every movement of his portentous frame -and on these were graven with rude yet striking art the tribal images of -many Irish heroes and heroines of antiquity, Cuchulin, Conn of hundred -battles, Niall of nine hostages, Brian of Kincora, the ardri Malachi, Art -MacMurragh, Shane O'Neill, Father John Murphy, Owen Roe, Patrick -Sarsfield, Red Hugh O'Donnell, Red Jim MacDermott, Soggarth Eoghan -O'Growney, Michael Dwyer, Francy Higgins, Henry Joy M'Cracken, -Goliath, Horace Wheatley, Thomas Conneff, Peg Woffington, the Village -Blacksmith, Captain Moonlight, Captain Boycott, Dante Alighieri, -Christopher Columbus, S. Fursa, S. Brendan, Marshal MacMahon, -Charlemagne, Theobald Wolfe Tone, the Mother of the Maccabees, the Last -of the Mohicans, the Rose of Castile, the Man for Galway, The Man that -Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo, The Man in the Gap, The Woman Who -Didn't, Benjamin Franklin, Napoleon Bonaparte, John L. Sullivan, -Cleopatra, Savourneen Deelish, Julius Caesar, Paracelsus, sir Thomas -Lipton, William Tell, Michelangelo Hayes, Muhammad, the Bride of -Lammermoor, Peter the Hermit, Peter the Packer, Dark Rosaleen, Patrick -W. Shakespeare, Brian Confucius, Murtagh Gutenberg, Patricio -Velasquez, Captain Nemo, Tristan and Isolde, the first Prince of Wales, -Thomas Cook and Son, the Bold Soldier Boy, Arrah na Pogue, Dick -Turpin, Ludwig Beethoven, the Colleen Bawn, Waddler Healy, Angus the -Culdee, Dolly Mount, Sidney Parade, Ben Howth, Valentine Greatrakes, -Adam and Eve, Arthur Wellesley, Boss Croker, Herodotus, Jack the -Giantkiller, Gautama Buddha, Lady Godiva, The Lily of Killarney, Balor -of the Evil Eye, the Queen of Sheba, Acky Nagle, Joe Nagle, Alessandro -Volta, Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, Don Philip O'Sullivan Beare. A -couched spear of acuminated granite rested by him while at his feet -reposed a savage animal of the canine tribe whose stertorous gasps -announced that he was sunk in uneasy slumber, a supposition confirmed by -hoarse growls and spasmodic movements which his master repressed from time -to time by tranquilising blows of a mighty cudgel rudely fashioned out of -paleolithic stone. - -So anyhow Terry brought the three pints Joe was standing and begob -the sight nearly left my eyes when I saw him land out a quid O, as true as -I'm telling you. A goodlooking sovereign. - ---And there's more where that came from, says he. - ---Were you robbing the poorbox, Joe? says I. - ---Sweat of my brow, says Joe. 'Twas the prudent member gave me the wheeze. - ---I saw him before I met you, says I, sloping around by Pill lane and -Greek street with his cod's eye counting up all the guts of the fish. - -Who comes through Michan's land, bedight in sable armour? O'Bloom, -the son of Rory: it is he. Impervious to fear is Rory's son: he -of the prudent soul. - ---For the old woman of Prince's street, says the citizen, the subsidised -organ. The pledgebound party on the floor of the house. And look at this -blasted rag, says he. Look at this, says he. THE IRISH INDEPENDENT, if you -please, founded by Parnell to be the workingman's friend. Listen to the -births and deaths in the IRISH ALL FOR IRELAND INDEPENDENT, and I'll thank -you and the marriages. - -And he starts reading them out: - ---Gordon, Barnfield crescent, Exeter; Redmayne of Iffley, Saint Anne's on -Sea: the wife of William T Redmayne of a son. How's that, eh? Wright and -Flint, Vincent and Gillett to Rotha Marion daughter of Rosa and the late -George Alfred Gillett, 179 Clapham road, Stockwell, Playwood and -Ridsdale at Saint Jude's, Kensington by the very reverend Dr Forrest, dean -of Worcester. Eh? Deaths. Bristow, at Whitehall lane, London: Carr, Stoke -Newington, of gastritis and heart disease: Cockburn, at the Moat house, -Chepstow ... - ---I know that fellow, says Joe, from bitter experience. - ---Cockburn. Dimsey, wife of David Dimsey, late of the admiralty: Miller, -Tottenham, aged eightyfive: Welsh, June 12, at 35 Canning street, -Liverpool, Isabella Helen. How's that for a national press, eh, my brown -son! How's that for Martin Murphy, the Bantry jobber? - ---Ah, well, says Joe, handing round the boose. Thanks be to God they had -the start of us. Drink that, citizen. - ---I will, says he, honourable person. - ---Health, Joe, says I. And all down the form. - -Ah! Ow! Don't be talking! I was blue mouldy for the want of that -pint. Declare to God I could hear it hit the pit of my stomach with a -click. - -And lo, as they quaffed their cup of joy, a godlike messenger came -swiftly in, radiant as the eye of heaven, a comely youth and behind him -there passed an elder of noble gait and countenance, bearing the sacred -scrolls of law and with him his lady wife a dame of peerless lineage, -fairest of her race. - -Little Alf Bergan popped in round the door and hid behind Barney's -snug, squeezed up with the laughing. And who was sitting up there in the -corner that I hadn't seen snoring drunk blind to the world only Bob Doran. -I didn't know what was up and Alf kept making signs out of the door. And -begob what was it only that bloody old pantaloon Denis Breen in his -bathslippers with two bloody big books tucked under his oxter and the wife -hotfoot after him, unfortunate wretched woman, trotting like a poodle. I -thought Alf would split. - ---Look at him, says he. Breen. He's traipsing all round Dublin with a -postcard someone sent him with U. p: up on it to take a li ... - -And he doubled up. - ---Take a what? says I. - ---Libel action, says he, for ten thousand pounds. - ---O hell! says I. - -The bloody mongrel began to growl that'd put the fear of God in you -seeing something was up but the citizen gave him a kick in the ribs. - ---BI I DHO HUSHT, says he. - ---Who? says Joe. - ---Breen, says Alf. He was in John Henry Menton's and then he went round -to Collis and Ward's and then Tom Rochford met him and sent him round -to the subsheriff's for a lark. O God, I've a pain laughing. U. p: up. The -long fellow gave him an eye as good as a process and now the bloody old -lunatic is gone round to Green street to look for a G man. - ---When is long John going to hang that fellow in Mountjoy? says Joe. - ---Bergan, says Bob Doran, waking up. Is that Alf Bergan? - ---Yes, says Alf. Hanging? Wait till I show you. Here, Terry, give us a -pony. That bloody old fool! Ten thousand pounds. You should have seen long -John's eye. U. p ... - -And he started laughing. - ---Who are you laughing at? says Bob Doran. Is that Bergan? - ---Hurry up, Terry boy, says Alf. - -Terence O'Ryan heard him and straightway brought him a crystal -cup full of the foamy ebon ale which the noble twin brothers Bungiveagh -and Bungardilaun brew ever in their divine alevats, cunning as the sons of -deathless Leda. For they garner the succulent berries of the hop and mass -and sift and bruise and brew them and they mix therewith sour juices and -bring the must to the sacred fire and cease not night or day from their -toil, those cunning brothers, lords of the vat. - - -Then did you, chivalrous Terence, hand forth, as to the manner born, -that nectarous beverage and you offered the crystal cup to him that -thirsted, the soul of chivalry, in beauty akin to the immortals. - -But he, the young chief of the O'Bergan's, could ill brook to be outdone -in generous deeds but gave therefor with gracious gesture a testoon -of costliest bronze. Thereon embossed in excellent smithwork was seen the -image of a queen of regal port, scion of the house of Brunswick, Victoria -her name, Her Most Excellent Majesty, by grace of God of the United -Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British dominions beyond -the sea, queen, defender of the faith, Empress of India, even she, who -bore rule, a victress over many peoples, the wellbeloved, for they knew -and loved her from the rising of the sun to the going down thereof, the -pale, the dark, the ruddy and the ethiop. - ---What's that bloody freemason doing, says the citizen, prowling up and -down outside? - ---What's that? says Joe. - ---Here you are, says Alf, chucking out the rhino. Talking about hanging, -I'll show you something you never saw. Hangmen's letters. Look at here. - -So he took a bundle of wisps of letters and envelopes out of his pocket. - ---Are you codding? says I. - ---Honest injun, says Alf. Read them. - -So Joe took up the letters. - ---Who are you laughing at? says Bob Doran. - -So I saw there was going to be a bit of a dust Bob's a queer chap -when the porter's up in him so says I just to make talk: - ---How's Willy Murray those times, Alf? - ---I don't know, says Alf I saw him just now in Capel street with Paddy -Dignam. Only I was running after that ... - ---You what? says Joe, throwing down the letters. With who? - ---With Dignam, says Alf. - ---Is it Paddy? says Joe. - ---Yes, says Alf. Why? - ---Don't you know he's dead? says Joe. - ---Paddy Dignam dead! says Alf. - ---Ay, says Joe. - ---Sure I'm after seeing him not five minutes ago, says Alf, as plain as a -pikestaff. - ---Who's dead? says Bob Doran. - ---You saw his ghost then, says Joe, God between us and harm. - ---What? says Alf. Good Christ, only five ... What? ... And Willy Murray -with him, the two of them there near whatdoyoucallhim's ... What? -Dignam dead? - ---What about Dignam? says Bob Doran. Who's talking about... ? - ---Dead! says Alf. He's no more dead than you are. - ---Maybe so, says Joe. They took the liberty of burying him this morning -anyhow. - ---Paddy? says Alf. - ---Ay, says Joe. He paid the debt of nature, God be merciful to him. - ---Good Christ! says Alf. - -Begob he was what you might call flabbergasted. - -In the darkness spirit hands were felt to flutter and when prayer by -tantras had been directed to the proper quarter a faint but increasing -luminosity of ruby light became gradually visible, the apparition of the -etheric double being particularly lifelike owing to the discharge of jivic -rays from the crown of the head and face. Communication was effected -through the pituitary body and also by means of the orangefiery and -scarlet rays emanating from the sacral region and solar plexus. Questioned -by his earthname as to his whereabouts in the heavenworld he stated that -he was now on the path of pr l ya or return but was still submitted to -trial at the hands of certain bloodthirsty entities on the lower astral -levels. In reply to a question as to his first sensations in the great -divide beyond he stated that previously he had seen as in a glass darkly -but that those who had passed over had summit possibilities of atmic -development opened up to them. Interrogated as to whether life there -resembled our experience in the flesh he stated that he had heard from -more favoured beings now in the spirit that their abodes were equipped -with every modern home comfort such as talafana, alavatar, hatakalda, -wataklasat and that the highest adepts were steeped in waves of volupcy -of the very purest nature. Having requested a quart of buttermilk this was -brought and evidently afforded relief. Asked if he had any message -for the living he exhorted all who were still at the wrong side of Maya -to acknowledge the true path for it was reported in devanic circles that -Mars and Jupiter were out for mischief on the eastern angle where the -ram has power. It was then queried whether there were any special -desires on the part of the defunct and the reply was: WE GREET YOU, -FRIENDS OF EARTH, WHO ARE STILL IN THE BODY. MIND C. K. DOESN'T PILE IT -ON. It was ascertained that the reference was to Mr Cornelius Kelleher, -manager of Messrs H. J. O'Neill's popular funeral establishment, a -personal friend of the defunct, who had been responsible for the carrying -out of the interment arrangements. Before departing he requested that it -should be told to his dear son Patsy that the other boot which he had been -looking for was at present under the commode in the return room and that -the pair should be sent to Cullen's to be soled only as the heels were -still good. He stated that this had greatly perturbed his peace of mind in -the other region and earnestly requested that his desire should be made -known. - -Assurances were given that the matter would be attended to and it was -intimated that this had given satisfaction. - -He is gone from mortal haunts: O'Dignam, sun of our morning. Fleet -was his foot on the bracken: Patrick of the beamy brow. Wail, Banba, with -your wind: and wail, O ocean, with your whirlwind. - ---There he is again, says the citizen, staring out. - ---Who? says I. - ---Bloom, says he. He's on point duty up and down there for the last ten -minutes. - -And, begob, I saw his physog do a peep in and then slidder off again. - -Little Alf was knocked bawways. Faith, he was. - ---Good Christ! says he. I could have sworn it was him. - -And says Bob Doran, with the hat on the back of his poll, lowest -blackguard in Dublin when he's under the influence: - ---Who said Christ is good? - ---I beg your parsnips, says Alf. - ---Is that a good Christ, says Bob Doran, to take away poor little Willy -Dignam? - ---Ah, well, says Alf, trying to pass it off. He's over all his troubles. - -But Bob Doran shouts out of him. - ---He's a bloody ruffian, I say, to take away poor little Willy Dignam. - -Terry came down and tipped him the wink to keep quiet, that they -didn't want that kind of talk in a respectable licensed premises. And Bob -Doran starts doing the weeps about Paddy Dignam, true as you're there. - ---The finest man, says he, snivelling, the finest purest character. - -The tear is bloody near your eye. Talking through his bloody hat. -Fitter for him go home to the little sleepwalking bitch he married, -Mooney, the bumbailiff's daughter, mother kept a kip in Hardwicke street, -that used to be stravaging about the landings Bantam Lyons told me that -was stopping there at two in the morning without a stitch on her, exposing -her person, open to all comers, fair field and no favour. - ---The noblest, the truest, says he. And he's gone, poor little Willy, poor -little Paddy Dignam. - -And mournful and with a heavy heart he bewept the extinction of that -beam of heaven. - -Old Garryowen started growling again at Bloom that was skeezing -round the door. - ---Come in, come on, he won't eat you, says the citizen. - -So Bloom slopes in with his cod's eye on the dog and he asks Terry -was Martin Cunningham there. - ---O, Christ M'Keown, says Joe, reading one of the letters. Listen to this, -will you? - -And he starts reading out one. - - - 7 HUNTER STREET, LIVERPOOL. - TO THE HIGH SHERIFF OF DUBLIN, DUBLIN. - - HONOURED SIR I BEG TO OFFER MY SERVICES IN THE ABOVEMENTIONED PAINFUL -CASE I HANGED JOE GANN IN BOOTLE JAIL ON THE 12 OF FEBUARY 1900 AND I -HANGED ... - ---Show us, Joe, says I. - --- ... PRIVATE ARTHUR CHACE FOR FOWL MURDER OF JESSIE TILSIT IN -PENTONVILLE PRISON AND I WAS ASSISTANT WHEN ... - ---Jesus, says I. - --- ... BILLINGTON EXECUTED THE AWFUL MURDERER TOAD SMITH ... - -The citizen made a grab at the letter. - ---Hold hard, says Joe, I HAVE A SPECIAL NACK OF PUTTING THE NOOSE ONCE IN -HE CAN'T GET OUT HOPING TO BE FAVOURED I REMAIN, HONOURED SIR, MY TERMS IS -FIVE GINNEES. - - H. RUMBOLD, - MASTER BARBER. - - ---And a barbarous bloody barbarian he is too, says the citizen. - ---And the dirty scrawl of the wretch, says Joe. Here, says he, take them -to hell out of my sight, Alf. Hello, Bloom, says he, what will you have? - -So they started arguing about the point, Bloom saying he wouldn't -and he couldn't and excuse him no offence and all to that and then he said -well he'd just take a cigar. Gob, he's a prudent member and no mistake. - ---Give us one of your prime stinkers, Terry, says Joe. - -And Alf was telling us there was one chap sent in a mourning card -with a black border round it. - ---They're all barbers, says he, from the black country that would hang -their own fathers for five quid down and travelling expenses. - -And he was telling us there's two fellows waiting below to pull his -heels down when he gets the drop and choke him properly and then they -chop up the rope after and sell the bits for a few bob a skull. - -In the dark land they bide, the vengeful knights of the razor. Their -deadly coil they grasp: yea, and therein they lead to Erebus whatsoever -wight hath done a deed of blood for I will on nowise suffer it even so -saith the Lord. - -So they started talking about capital punishment and of course Bloom -comes out with the why and the wherefore and all the codology of the -business and the old dog smelling him all the time I'm told those jewies -does have a sort of a queer odour coming off them for dogs about I don't -know what all deterrent effect and so forth and so on. - ---There's one thing it hasn't a deterrent effect on, says Alf. - ---What's that? says Joe. - ---The poor bugger's tool that's being hanged, says Alf. - ---That so? says Joe. - ---God's truth, says Alf. I heard that from the head warder that was in - -Kilmainham when they hanged Joe Brady, the invincible. He told me when -they cut him down after the drop it was standing up in their faces like a -poker. - ---Ruling passion strong in death, says Joe, as someone said. - ---That can be explained by science, says Bloom. It's only a natural -phenomenon, don't you see, because on account of the ... - -And then he starts with his jawbreakers about phenomenon and -science and this phenomenon and the other phenomenon. - -The distinguished scientist Herr Professor Luitpold Blumenduft -tendered medical evidence to the effect that the instantaneous fracture of -the cervical vertebrae and consequent scission of the spinal cord would, -according to the best approved tradition of medical science, be calculated -to inevitably produce in the human subject a violent ganglionic stimulus -of the nerve centres of the genital apparatus, thereby causing the elastic -pores of the CORPORA CAVERNOSA to rapidly dilate in such a way as to -instantaneously facilitate the flow of blood to that part of the human -anatomy known as the penis or male organ resulting in the phenomenon which -has been denominated by the faculty a morbid upwards and outwards -philoprogenitive erection IN ARTICULO MORTIS PER DIMINUTIONEM CAPITIS. - -So of course the citizen was only waiting for the wink of the word and -he starts gassing out of him about the invincibles and the old guard and -the men of sixtyseven and who fears to speak of ninetyeight and Joe with -him about all the fellows that were hanged, drawn and transported for the -cause by drumhead courtmartial and a new Ireland and new this, that and -the other. Talking about new Ireland he ought to go and get a new dog so -he ought. Mangy ravenous brute sniffing and sneezing all round the place -and scratching his scabs. And round he goes to Bob Doran that was -standing Alf a half one sucking up for what he could get. So of course Bob -Doran starts doing the bloody fool with him: - ---Give us the paw! Give the paw, doggy! Good old doggy! Give the paw -here! Give us the paw! - -Arrah, bloody end to the paw he'd paw and Alf trying to keep him -from tumbling off the bloody stool atop of the bloody old dog and he -talking all kinds of drivel about training by kindness and thoroughbred -dog and intelligent dog: give you the bloody pip. Then he starts scraping -a few bits of old biscuit out of the bottom of a Jacobs' tin he told Terry -to bring. Gob, he golloped it down like old boots and his tongue hanging -out of him a yard long for more. Near ate the tin and all, hungry bloody -mongrel. - -And the citizen and Bloom having an argument about the point, the -brothers Sheares and Wolfe Tone beyond on Arbour Hill and Robert -Emmet and die for your country, the Tommy Moore touch about Sara -Curran and she's far from the land. And Bloom, of course, with his -knockmedown cigar putting on swank with his lardy face. Phenomenon! -The fat heap he married is a nice old phenomenon with a back on her like a -ballalley. Time they were stopping up in the CITY ARMS pisser Burke told -me there was an old one there with a cracked loodheramaun of a nephew and -Bloom trying to get the soft side of her doing the mollycoddle playing -bezique to come in for a bit of the wampum in her will and not eating meat -of a Friday because the old one was always thumping her craw and taking -the lout out for a walk. And one time he led him the rounds of Dublin and, -by the holy farmer, he never cried crack till he brought him home as drunk -as a boiled owl and he said he did it to teach him the evils of alcohol -and by herrings, if the three women didn't near roast him, it's a queer -story, the old one, Bloom's wife and Mrs O'Dowd that kept the hotel. -Jesus, I had to laugh at pisser Burke taking them off chewing the fat. -And Bloom with his BUT DON'T YOU SEE? and BUT ON THE OTHER HAND. And sure, -more be token, the lout I'm told was in Power's after, the blender's, -round in Cope street going home footless in a cab five times in the week -after drinking his way through all the samples in the bloody -establishment. Phenomenon! - ---The memory of the dead, says the citizen taking up his pintglass and -glaring at Bloom. - ---Ay, ay, says Joe. - ---You don't grasp my point, says Bloom. What I mean is ... - ---SINN FEIN! says the citizen. SINN FEIN AMHAIN! The friends we love are -by our side and the foes we hate before us. - -The last farewell was affecting in the extreme. From the belfries far -and near the funereal deathbell tolled unceasingly while all around the -gloomy precincts rolled the ominous warning of a hundred muffled drums -punctuated by the hollow booming of pieces of ordnance. The deafening -claps of thunder and the dazzling flashes of lightning which lit up the -ghastly scene testified that the artillery of heaven had lent its -supernatural pomp to the already gruesome spectacle. A torrential rain -poured down from the floodgates of the angry heavens upon the bared heads -of the assembled multitude which numbered at the lowest computation five -hundred thousand persons. A posse of Dublin Metropolitan police -superintended by the Chief Commissioner in person maintained order in -the vast throng for whom the York street brass and reed band whiled away -the intervening time by admirably rendering on their blackdraped -instruments the matchless melody endeared to us from the cradle by -Speranza's plaintive muse. Special quick excursion trains and upholstered -charabancs had been provided for the comfort of our country cousins of -whom there were large contingents. Considerable amusement was caused -by the favourite Dublin streetsingers L-n-h-n and M-ll-g-n who sang THE -NIGHT BEFORE LARRY WAS STRETCHED in their usual mirth-provoking fashion. -Our two inimitable drolls did a roaring trade with their broadsheets among -lovers of the comedy element and nobody who has a corner in his heart for -real Irish fun without vulgarity will grudge them their hardearned -pennies. The children of the Male and Female Foundling Hospital who -thronged the windows overlooking the scene were delighted with this -unexpected addition to the day's entertainment and a word of praise is due -to the Little Sisters of the Poor for their excellent idea of affording -the poor fatherless and motherless children a genuinely instructive treat. -The viceregal houseparty which included many wellknown ladies was -chaperoned by Their Excellencies to the most favourable positions on the -grandstand while the picturesque foreign delegation known as the Friends -of the Emerald Isle was accommodated on a tribune directly opposite. -The delegation, present in full force, consisted of Commendatore -Bacibaci Beninobenone (the semiparalysed DOYEN of the party who had -to be assisted to his seat by the aid of a powerful steam crane), -Monsieur Pierrepaul Petitepatant, the Grandjoker Vladinmire -Pokethankertscheff, the Archjoker Leopold Rudolph von -Schwanzenbad-Hodenthaler, Countess Marha Viraga Kisaszony Putrapesthi, -Hiram Y. Bomboost, Count Athanatos Karamelopulos, Ali Baba Backsheesh -Rahat Lokum Effendi, Senor Hidalgo Caballero Don Pecadillo y -Palabras y Paternoster de la Malora de la Malaria, Hokopoko Harakiri, -Hi Hung Chang, Olaf Kobberkeddelsen, Mynheer Trik van Trumps, -Pan Poleaxe Paddyrisky, Goosepond Prhklstr Kratchinabritchisitch, -Borus Hupinkoff, Herr Hurhausdirektorpresident Hans Chuechli-Steuerli, -Nationalgymnasiummuseumsanatoriumandsuspensoriumsordinaryprivatdocent- -generalhistoryspecialprofessordoctor Kriegfried Ueberallgemein. -All the delegates without exception expressed themselves in the -strongest possible heterogeneous terms concerning the nameless -barbarity which they had been called upon to witness. An animated -altercation (in which all took part) ensued among the F. O. T. E. I. -as to whether the eighth or the ninth of March was the correct -date of the birth of Ireland's patron saint. In the course of the -argument cannonballs, scimitars, boomerangs, blunderbusses, stinkpots, -meatchoppers, umbrellas, catapults, knuckledusters, sandbags, lumps of pig -iron were resorted to and blows were freely exchanged. The baby -policeman, Constable MacFadden, summoned by special courier from -Booterstown, quickly restored order and with lightning promptitude -proposed the seventeenth of the month as a solution equally honourable for -both contending parties. The readywitted ninefooter's suggestion at once -appealed to all and was unanimously accepted. Constable MacFadden was -heartily congratulated by all the F.O.T.E.I., several of whom were -bleeding profusely. Commendatore Beninobenone having been extricated -from underneath the presidential armchair, it was explained by his legal -adviser Avvocato Pagamimi that the various articles secreted in his -thirtytwo pockets had been abstracted by him during the affray from the -pockets of his junior colleagues in the hope of bringing them to their -senses. The objects (which included several hundred ladies' and -gentlemen's gold and silver watches) were promptly restored to their -rightful owners and general harmony reigned supreme. - -Quietly, unassumingly Rumbold stepped on to the scaffold in faultless -morning dress and wearing his favourite flower, the GLADIOLUS CRUENTUS. -He announced his presence by that gentle Rumboldian cough which so -many have tried (unsuccessfully) to imitate--short, painstaking yet withal -so characteristic of the man. The arrival of the worldrenowned headsman -was greeted by a roar of acclamation from the huge concourse, the -viceregal ladies waving their handkerchiefs in their excitement while the -even more excitable foreign delegates cheered vociferously in a medley of -cries, HOCH, BANZAI, ELJEN, ZIVIO, CHINCHIN, POLLA KRONIA, HIPHIP, VIVE, -ALLAH, amid which the ringing EVVIVA of the delegate of the land of song -(a high double F recalling those piercingly lovely notes with which the -eunuch Catalani beglamoured our greatgreatgrandmothers) was easily -distinguishable. It was exactly seventeen o'clock. The signal for prayer -was then promptly given by megaphone and in an instant all heads were -bared, the commendatore's patriarchal sombrero, which has been in the -possession of his family since the revolution of Rienzi, being removed by -his medical adviser in attendance, Dr Pippi. The learned prelate who -administered the last comforts of holy religion to the hero martyr when -about to pay the death penalty knelt in a most christian spirit in a pool -of rainwater, his cassock above his hoary head, and offered up to the -throne of grace fervent prayers of supplication. Hand by the block stood -the grim figure of the executioner, his visage being concealed in a -tengallon pot with two circular perforated apertures through which -his eyes glowered furiously. As he awaited the fatal signal he -tested the edge of his horrible weapon by honing it upon his -brawny forearm or decapitated in rapid succession a flock of -sheep which had been provided by the admirers of his fell but necessary -office. On a handsome mahogany table near him were neatly arranged the -quartering knife, the various finely tempered disembowelling appliances -(specially supplied by the worldfamous firm of cutlers, Messrs John Round -and Sons, Sheffield), a terra cotta saucepan for the reception of the -duodenum, colon, blind intestine and appendix etc when successfully -extracted and two commodious milkjugs destined to receive the most -precious blood of the most precious victim. The housesteward of the -amalgamated cats' and dogs' home was in attendance to convey these -vessels when replenished to that beneficent institution. Quite an -excellent repast consisting of rashers and eggs, fried steak and onions, -done to a nicety, delicious hot breakfast rolls and invigorating tea had -been considerately provided by the authorities for the consumption -of the central figure of the tragedy who was in capital spirits -when prepared for death and evinced the keenest interest in the -proceedings from beginning to end but he, with an abnegation rare -in these our times, rose nobly to the occasion and expressed the -dying wish (immediately acceded to) that the meal should be -divided in aliquot parts among the members of the sick and indigent -roomkeepers' association as a token of his regard and esteem. The NEC and -NON PLUS ULTRA of emotion were reached when the blushing bride elect burst -her way through the serried ranks of the bystanders and flung herself upon -the muscular bosom of him who was about to be launched into eternity for -her sake. The hero folded her willowy form in a loving embrace murmuring -fondly SHEILA, MY OWN. Encouraged by this use of her christian name she -kissed passionately all the various suitable areas of his person which the -decencies of prison garb permitted her ardour to reach. She swore to him -as they mingled the salt streams of their tears that she would ever -cherish his memory, that she would never forget her hero boy who went to -his death with a song on his lips as if he were but going to a hurling -match in Clonturk park. She brought back to his recollection the happy -days of blissful childhood together on the banks of Anna Liffey when they -had indulged in the innocent pastimes of the young and, oblivious of the -dreadful present, they both laughed heartily, all the spectators, -including the venerable pastor, joining in the general merriment. That -monster audience simply rocked with delight. But anon they were overcome -with grief and clasped their hands for the last time. A fresh torrent of -tears burst from their lachrymal ducts and the vast concourse of people, -touched to the inmost core, broke into heartrending sobs, not the least -affected being the aged prebendary himself. Big strong men, officers of -the peace and genial giants of the royal Irish constabulary, -were making frank use of their handkerchiefs and it is safe to say -that there was not a dry eye in that record assemblage. A most -romantic incident occurred when a handsome young Oxford graduate, -noted for his chivalry towards the fair sex, stepped forward and, -presenting his visiting card, bankbook and genealogical tree, -solicited the hand of the hapless young lady, requesting her to -name the day, and was accepted on the spot. Every lady in the -audience was presented with a tasteful souvenir of the occasion -in the shape of a skull and crossbones brooch, a timely and generous -act which evoked a fresh outburst of emotion: and when the gallant -young Oxonian (the bearer, by the way, of one of the most timehonoured -names in Albion's history) placed on the finger of his blushing FIANCEE -an expensive engagement ring with emeralds set in the form of a -fourleaved shamrock the excitement knew no bounds. Nay, even the stern -provostmarshal, lieutenantcolonel Tomkin-Maxwell ffrenchmullan Tomlinson, -who presided on the sad occasion, he who had blown a considerable number -of sepoys from the cannonmouth without flinching, could not now restrain -his natural emotion. With his mailed gauntlet he brushed away a furtive -tear and was overheard, by those privileged burghers who happened to be -in his immediate ENTOURAGE, to murmur to himself in a faltering undertone: - ---God blimey if she aint a clinker, that there bleeding tart. Blimey it -makes me kind of bleeding cry, straight, it does, when I sees her cause I -thinks of my old mashtub what's waiting for me down Limehouse way. - -So then the citizen begins talking about the Irish language and the -corporation meeting and all to that and the shoneens that can't speak -their own language and Joe chipping in because he stuck someone for -a quid and Bloom putting in his old goo with his twopenny stump that -he cadged off of Joe and talking about the Gaelic league and the -antitreating league and drink, the curse of Ireland. Antitreating -is about the size of it. Gob, he'd let you pour all manner of drink -down his throat till the Lord would call him before you'd ever -see the froth of his pint. And one night I went in with a fellow -into one of their musical evenings, song and dance about she could -get up on a truss of hay she could my Maureen Lay and there was a fellow -with a Ballyhooly blue ribbon badge spiffing out of him in Irish and a lot -of colleen bawns going about with temperance beverages and selling medals -and oranges and lemonade and a few old dry buns, gob, flahoolagh -entertainment, don't be talking. Ireland sober is Ireland free. And then -an old fellow starts blowing into his bagpipes and all the gougers -shuffling their feet to the tune the old cow died of. And one or two sky -pilots having an eye around that there was no goings on with the females, -hitting below the belt. - -So howandever, as I was saying, the old dog seeing the tin was empty -starts mousing around by Joe and me. I'd train him by kindness, so I -would, if he was my dog. Give him a rousing fine kick now and again where -it wouldn't blind him. - ---Afraid he'll bite you? says the citizen, jeering. - ---No, says I. But he might take my leg for a lamppost. - -So he calls the old dog over. - ---What's on you, Garry? says he. - -Then he starts hauling and mauling and talking to him in Irish and -the old towser growling, letting on to answer, like a duet in the opera. -Such growling you never heard as they let off between them. Someone that -has nothing better to do ought to write a letter PRO BONO PUBLICO to the -papers about the muzzling order for a dog the like of that. Growling and -grousing and his eye all bloodshot from the drouth is in it and the -hydrophobia dropping out of his jaws. - -All those who are interested in the spread of human culture among -the lower animals (and their name is legion) should make a point of not -missing the really marvellous exhibition of cynanthropy given by the -famous old Irish red setter wolfdog formerly known by the SOBRIQUET of -Garryowen and recently rechristened by his large circle of friends and -acquaintances Owen Garry. The exhibition, which is the result of years of -training by kindness and a carefully thoughtout dietary system, comprises, -among other achievements, the recitation of verse. Our greatest living -phonetic expert (wild horses shall not drag it from us!) has left no stone -unturned in his efforts to delucidate and compare the verse recited and has -found it bears a STRIKING resemblance (the italics are ours) to the ranns -of ancient Celtic bards. We are not speaking so much of those delightful -lovesongs with which the writer who conceals his identity under the -graceful pseudonym of the Little Sweet Branch has familiarised the -bookloving world but rather (as a contributor D. O. C. points out in an -interesting communication published by an evening contemporary) of the -harsher and more personal note which is found in the satirical effusions -of the famous Raftery and of Donal MacConsidine to say nothing of a more -modern lyrist at present very much in the public eye. We subjoin a -specimen which has been rendered into English by an eminent scholar -whose name for the moment we are not at liberty to disclose though -we believe that our readers will find the topical allusion rather -more than an indication. The metrical system of the canine original, -which recalls the intricate alliterative and isosyllabic rules of -the Welsh englyn, is infinitely more complicated but we believe our -readers will agree that the spirit has been well caught. Perhaps -it should be added that the effect is greatly increased if Owen's -verse be spoken somewhat slowly and indistinctly in a tone suggestive -of suppressed rancour. - - - THE CURSE OF MY CURSES - SEVEN DAYS EVERY DAY - AND SEVEN DRY THURSDAYS - ON YOU, BARNEY KIERNAN, - HAS NO SUP OF WATER - TO COOL MY COURAGE, - AND MY GUTS RED ROARING - AFTER LOWRY'S LIGHTS. - - -So he told Terry to bring some water for the dog and, gob, you could -hear him lapping it up a mile off. And Joe asked him would he have -another. - ---I will, says he, A CHARA, to show there's no ill feeling. - -Gob, he's not as green as he's cabbagelooking. Arsing around from -one pub to another, leaving it to your own honour, with old Giltrap's dog -and getting fed up by the ratepayers and corporators. Entertainment for -man and beast. And says Joe: - ---Could you make a hole in another pint? - ---Could a swim duck? says I. - ---Same again, Terry, says Joe. Are you sure you won't have anything in the -way of liquid refreshment? says he. - ---Thank you, no, says Bloom. As a matter of fact I just wanted to meet -Martin Cunningham, don't you see, about this insurance of poor Dignam's. -Martin asked me to go to the house. You see, he, Dignam, I mean, didn't -serve any notice of the assignment on the company at the time and -nominally under the act the mortgagee can't recover on the policy. - ---Holy Wars, says Joe, laughing, that's a good one if old Shylock is -landed. So the wife comes out top dog, what? - ---Well, that's a point, says Bloom, for the wife's admirers. - ---Whose admirers? says Joe. - ---The wife's advisers, I mean, says Bloom. - -Then he starts all confused mucking it up about mortgagor under the act -like the lord chancellor giving it out on the bench and for the benefit of -the wife and that a trust is created but on the other hand that Dignam -owed Bridgeman the money and if now the wife or the widow contested the -mortgagee's right till he near had the head of me addled with his -mortgagor under the act. He was bloody safe he wasn't run in himself under -the act that time as a rogue and vagabond only he had a friend in court. -Selling bazaar tickets or what do you call it royal Hungarian privileged -lottery. True as you're there. O, commend me to an israelite! Royal and -privileged Hungarian robbery. - -So Bob Doran comes lurching around asking Bloom to tell Mrs -Dignam he was sorry for her trouble and he was very sorry about the -funeral and to tell her that he said and everyone who knew him said that -there was never a truer, a finer than poor little Willy that's dead to tell -her. Choking with bloody foolery. And shaking Bloom's hand doing the -tragic to tell her that. Shake hands, brother. You're a rogue and I'm -another. - ---Let me, said he, so far presume upon our acquaintance which, however -slight it may appear if judged by the standard of mere time, is founded, -as I hope and believe, on a sentiment of mutual esteem as to request of -you this favour. But, should I have overstepped the limits of reserve -let the sincerity of my feelings be the excuse for my boldness. - ---No, rejoined the other, I appreciate to the full the motives which -actuate your conduct and I shall discharge the office you entrust -to me consoled by the reflection that, though the errand be one of -sorrow, this proof of your confidence sweetens in some measure the -bitterness of the cup. - ---Then suffer me to take your hand, said he. The goodness of your heart, I -feel sure, will dictate to you better than my inadequate words the -expressions which are most suitable to convey an emotion whose -poignancy, were I to give vent to my feelings, would deprive me even of -speech. - -And off with him and out trying to walk straight. Boosed at five -o'clock. Night he was near being lagged only Paddy Leonard knew the bobby, -14A. Blind to the world up in a shebeen in Bride street after closing -time, fornicating with two shawls and a bully on guard, drinking porter -out of teacups. And calling himself a Frenchy for the shawls, Joseph -Manuo, and talking against the Catholic religion, and he serving mass in -Adam and Eve's when he was young with his eyes shut, who wrote the new -testament, and the old testament, and hugging and smugging. And the two -shawls killed with the laughing, picking his pockets, the bloody -fool and he spilling the porter all over the bed and the two shawls -screeching laughing at one another. HOW IS YOUR TESTAMENT? HAVE YOU -GOT AN OLD TESTAMENT? Only Paddy was passing there, I tell you what. -Then see him of a Sunday with his little concubine of a wife, and -she wagging her tail up the aisle of the chapel with her patent boots -on her, no less, and her violets, nice as pie, doing the little lady. -Jack Mooney's sister. And the old prostitute of a mother -procuring rooms to street couples. Gob, Jack made him toe the line. Told -him if he didn't patch up the pot, Jesus, he'd kick the shite out of him. - -So Terry brought the three pints. - ---Here, says Joe, doing the honours. Here, citizen. - ---SLAN LEAT, says he. - ---Fortune, Joe, says I. Good health, citizen. - -Gob, he had his mouth half way down the tumbler already. Want a -small fortune to keep him in drinks. - ---Who is the long fellow running for the mayoralty, Alf? says Joe. - ---Friend of yours, says Alf. - ---Nannan? says Joe. The mimber? - ---I won't mention any names, says Alf. - ---I thought so, says Joe. I saw him up at that meeting now with William -Field, M. P., the cattle traders. - ---Hairy Iopas, says the citizen, that exploded volcano, the darling of all -countries and the idol of his own. - -So Joe starts telling the citizen about the foot and mouth disease and -the cattle traders and taking action in the matter and the citizen sending -them all to the rightabout and Bloom coming out with his sheepdip for the -scab and a hoose drench for coughing calves and the guaranteed remedy -for timber tongue. Because he was up one time in a knacker's yard. -Walking about with his book and pencil here's my head and my heels are -coming till Joe Cuffe gave him the order of the boot for giving lip to a -grazier. Mister Knowall. Teach your grandmother how to milk ducks. -Pisser Burke was telling me in the hotel the wife used to be in rivers of -tears some times with Mrs O'Dowd crying her eyes out with her eight inches -of fat all over her. Couldn't loosen her farting strings but old cod's eye -was waltzing around her showing her how to do it. What's your programme -today? Ay. Humane methods. Because the poor animals suffer and experts -say and the best known remedy that doesn't cause pain to the animal and -on the sore spot administer gently. Gob, he'd have a soft hand under a -hen. - -Ga Ga Gara. Klook Klook Klook. Black Liz is our hen. She lays eggs -for us. When she lays her egg she is so glad. Gara. Klook Klook Klook. -Then comes good uncle Leo. He puts his hand under black Liz and takes -her fresh egg. Ga ga ga ga Gara. Klook Klook Klook. - ---Anyhow, says Joe, Field and Nannetti are going over tonight to London -to ask about it on the floor of the house of commons. - ---Are you sure, says Bloom, the councillor is going? I wanted to see him, -as it happens. - ---Well, he's going off by the mailboat, says Joe, tonight. - ---That's too bad, says Bloom. I wanted particularly. Perhaps only Mr Field -is going. I couldn't phone. No. You're sure? - ---Nannan's going too, says Joe. The league told him to ask a question -tomorrow about the commissioner of police forbidding Irish games in the -park. What do you think of that, citizen? THE SLUAGH NA H-EIREANN. - -Mr Cowe Conacre (Multifarnham. Nat.): Arising out of the question of my -honourable friend, the member for Shillelagh, may I ask the right -honourable gentleman whether the government has issued orders that these -animals shall be slaughtered though no medical evidence is forthcoming as -to their pathological condition? - -Mr Allfours (Tamoshant. Con.): Honourable members are already in -possession of the evidence produced before a committee of the whole house. -I feel I cannot usefully add anything to that. The answer to the -honourable member's question is in the affirmative. - -Mr Orelli O'Reilly (Montenotte. Nat.): Have similar orders been issued for -the slaughter of human animals who dare to play Irish games in the -Phoenix park? - -Mr Allfours: The answer is in the negative. - -Mr Cowe Conacre: Has the right honourable gentleman's famous -Mitchelstown telegram inspired the policy of gentlemen on the Treasury -bench? (O! O!) - -Mr Allfours: I must have notice of that question. - -Mr Staylewit (Buncombe. Ind.): Don't hesitate to shoot. - -(Ironical opposition cheers.) - -The speaker: Order! Order! - -(The house rises. Cheers.) - ---There's the man, says Joe, that made the Gaelic sports revival. There he -is sitting there. The man that got away James Stephens. The champion of -all Ireland at putting the sixteen pound shot. What was your best throw, -citizen? - ---NA BACLEIS, says the citizen, letting on to be modest. There was a time -I was as good as the next fellow anyhow. - ---Put it there, citizen, says Joe. You were and a bloody sight better. - ---Is that really a fact? says Alf. - ---Yes, says Bloom. That's well known. Did you not know that? - -So off they started about Irish sports and shoneen games the like of lawn -tennis and about hurley and putting the stone and racy of the soil and -building up a nation once again and all to that. And of course Bloom had -to have his say too about if a fellow had a rower's heart violent -exercise was bad. I declare to my antimacassar if you took up a -straw from the bloody floor and if you said to Bloom: LOOK AT, BLOOM. -DO YOU SEE THAT STRAW? THAT'S A STRAW. Declare to my aunt he'd talk -about it for an hour so he would and talk steady. - -A most interesting discussion took place in the ancient hall of BRIAN -O'CIARNAIN'S in SRAID NA BRETAINE BHEAG, under the auspices of SLUAGH NA -H-EIREANN, on the revival of ancient Gaelic sports and the importance of -physical culture, as understood in ancient Greece and ancient Rome and -ancient Ireland, for the development of the race. The venerable president -of the noble order was in the chair and the attendance was of large -dimensions. After an instructive discourse by the chairman, a magnificent -oration eloquently and forcibly expressed, a most interesting and -instructive discussion of the usual high standard of excellence -ensued as to the desirability of the revivability of the ancient -games and sports of our ancient Panceltic forefathers. The -wellknown and highly respected worker in the cause of our old -tongue, Mr Joseph M'Carthy Hynes, made an eloquent appeal for -the resuscitation of the ancient Gaelic sports and pastimes, -practised morning and evening by Finn MacCool, as calculated to revive the -best traditions of manly strength and prowess handed down to us from -ancient ages. L. Bloom, who met with a mixed reception of applause and -hisses, having espoused the negative the vocalist chairman brought the -discussion to a close, in response to repeated requests and hearty -plaudits from all parts of a bumper house, by a remarkably noteworthy -rendering of the immortal Thomas Osborne Davis' evergreen verses (happily -too familiar to need recalling here) A NATION ONCE AGAIN in the execution -of which the veteran patriot champion may be said without fear of -contradiction to have fairly excelled himself. The Irish Caruso-Garibaldi -was in superlative form and his stentorian notes were heard to the -greatest advantage in the timehonoured anthem sung as only our citizen -can sing it. His superb highclass vocalism, which by its superquality -greatly enhanced his already international reputation, was vociferously -applauded by the large audience among which were to be noticed many -prominent members of the clergy as well as representatives of the press -and the bar and the other learned professions. The proceedings then -terminated. - -Amongst the clergy present were the very rev. William Delany, S. J., -L. L. D.; the rt rev. Gerald Molloy, D. D.; the rev. P. J. Kavanagh, -C. S. Sp.; the rev. T. Waters, C. C.; the rev. John M. Ivers, P. P.; the -rev. P. J. Cleary, O. S. F.; the rev. L. J. Hickey, O. P.; the very rev. -Fr. Nicholas, O. S. F. C.; the very rev. B. Gorman, O. D. C.; the rev. T. -Maher, S. J.; the very rev. James Murphy, S. J.; the rev. John Lavery, -V. F.; the very rev. William Doherty, D. D.; the rev. Peter Fagan, O. M.; -the rev. T. Brangan, O. S. A.; the rev. J. Flavin, C. C.; the rev. M. A. -Hackett, C. C.; the rev. W. Hurley, C. C.; the rt rev. Mgr M'Manus, -V. G.; the rev. B. R. Slattery, O. M. I.; the very rev. M. D. Scally, P. -P.; the rev. F. T. Purcell, O. P.; the very rev. Timothy canon Gorman, -P. P.; the rev. J. Flanagan, C. C. The laity included P. Fay, T. Quirke, -etc., etc. - ---Talking about violent exercise, says Alf, were you at that Keogh-Bennett -match? - ---No, says Joe. - ---I heard So and So made a cool hundred quid over it, says Alf. - ---Who? Blazes? says Joe. - -And says Bloom: - ---What I meant about tennis, for example, is the agility and training the -eye. - ---Ay, Blazes, says Alf. He let out that Myler was on the beer to run up -the odds and he swatting all the time. - ---We know him, says the citizen. The traitor's son. We know what put -English gold in his pocket. - ----True for you, says Joe. - -And Bloom cuts in again about lawn tennis and the circulation of the -blood, asking Alf: - ---Now, don't you think, Bergan? - ---Myler dusted the floor with him, says Alf. Heenan and Sayers was only a -bloody fool to it. Handed him the father and mother of a beating. See the -little kipper not up to his navel and the big fellow swiping. God, he gave -him one last puck in the wind, Queensberry rules and all, made him puke -what he never ate. - -It was a historic and a hefty battle when Myler and Percy were -scheduled to don the gloves for the purse of fifty sovereigns. Handicapped -as he was by lack of poundage, Dublin's pet lamb made up for it by -superlative skill in ringcraft. The final bout of fireworks was a -gruelling for both champions. The welterweight sergeantmajor had -tapped some lively claret in the previous mixup during which Keogh -had been receivergeneral of rights and lefts, the artilleryman -putting in some neat work on the pet's nose, and Myler came on -looking groggy. The soldier got to business, leading off with a -powerful left jab to which the Irish gladiator retaliated by shooting -out a stiff one flush to the point of Bennett's jaw. The redcoat -ducked but the Dubliner lifted him with a left hook, the body punch being -a fine one. The men came to handigrips. Myler quickly became busy and got -his man under, the bout ending with the bulkier man on the ropes, Myler -punishing him. The Englishman, whose right eye was nearly closed, took -his corner where he was liberally drenched with water and when the bell -went came on gamey and brimful of pluck, confident of knocking out the -fistic Eblanite in jigtime. It was a fight to a finish and the best man -for it. The two fought like tigers and excitement ran fever high. The -referee twice cautioned Pucking Percy for holding but the pet was tricky -and his footwork a treat to watch. After a brisk exchange of courtesies -during which a smart upper cut of the military man brought blood freely -from his opponent's mouth the lamb suddenly waded in all over his man and -landed a terrific left to Battling Bennett's stomach, flooring him flat. -It was a knockout clean and clever. Amid tense expectation the Portobello -bruiser was being counted out when Bennett's second Ole Pfotts Wettstein -threw in the towel and the Santry boy was declared victor to the frenzied -cheers of the public who broke through the ringropes and fairly mobbed him -with delight. - ---He knows which side his bread is buttered, says Alf. I hear he's running -a concert tour now up in the north. - ---He is, says Joe. Isn't he? - ---Who? says Bloom. Ah, yes. That's quite true. Yes, a kind of summer tour, -you see. Just a holiday. - ---Mrs B. is the bright particular star, isn't she? says Joe. - ---My wife? says Bloom. She's singing, yes. I think it will be a success -too. - -He's an excellent man to organise. Excellent. - -Hoho begob says I to myself says I. That explains the milk in the cocoanut -and absence of hair on the animal's chest. Blazes doing the tootle on the -flute. Concert tour. Dirty Dan the dodger's son off Island bridge that -sold the same horses twice over to the government to fight the Boers. Old -Whatwhat. I called about the poor and water rate, Mr Boylan. You what? -The water rate, Mr Boylan. You whatwhat? That's the bucko that'll -organise her, take my tip. 'Twixt me and you Caddareesh. - -Pride of Calpe's rocky mount, the ravenhaired daughter of Tweedy. -There grew she to peerless beauty where loquat and almond scent the air. -The gardens of Alameda knew her step: the garths of olives knew and -bowed. The chaste spouse of Leopold is she: Marion of the bountiful -bosoms. - -And lo, there entered one of the clan of the O'Molloy's, a comely hero -of white face yet withal somewhat ruddy, his majesty's counsel learned in -the law, and with him the prince and heir of the noble line of Lambert. - ---Hello, Ned. - ---Hello, Alf. - ---Hello, Jack. - ---Hello, Joe. - ---God save you, says the citizen. - ---Save you kindly, says J. J. What'll it be, Ned? - ---Half one, says Ned. - -So J. J. ordered the drinks. - ---Were you round at the court? says Joe. - ---Yes, says J. J. He'll square that, Ned, says he. - ---Hope so, says Ned. - -Now what were those two at? J. J. getting him off the grand jury list -and the other give him a leg over the stile. With his name in Stubbs's. -Playing cards, hobnobbing with flash toffs with a swank glass in their -eye, adrinking fizz and he half smothered in writs and garnishee orders. -Pawning his gold watch in Cummins of Francis street where no-one would -know him in the private office when I was there with Pisser releasing his -boots out of the pop. What's your name, sir? Dunne, says he. Ay, and done -says I. Gob, he'll come home by weeping cross one of those days, I'm -thinking. - ---Did you see that bloody lunatic Breen round there? says Alf. U. p: up. - ---Yes, says J. J. Looking for a private detective. - ---Ay, says Ned. And he wanted right go wrong to address the court only -Corny Kelleher got round him telling him to get the handwriting examined -first. - ---Ten thousand pounds, says Alf, laughing. God, I'd give anything to hear -him before a judge and jury. - ---Was it you did it, Alf? says Joe. The truth, the whole truth and nothing -but the truth, so help you Jimmy Johnson. - ---Me? says Alf. Don't cast your nasturtiums on my character. - ---Whatever statement you make, says Joe, will be taken down in evidence -against you. - ---Of course an action would lie, says J. J. It implies that he is not -COMPOS MENTIS. U. p: up. - ---COMPOS your eye! says Alf, laughing. Do you know that he's balmy? -Look at his head. Do you know that some mornings he has to get his hat on -with a shoehorn. - ---Yes, says J. J., but the truth of a libel is no defence to an indictment -for publishing it in the eyes of the law. - ---Ha ha, Alf, says Joe. - ---Still, says Bloom, on account of the poor woman, I mean his wife. - ---Pity about her, says the citizen. Or any other woman marries a half and -half. - ---How half and half? says Bloom. Do you mean he ... - ---Half and half I mean, says the citizen. A fellow that's neither fish nor -flesh. - ---Nor good red herring, says Joe. - ---That what's I mean, says the citizen. A pishogue, if you know what that -is. - -Begob I saw there was trouble coming. And Bloom explaining he meant on -account of it being cruel for the wife having to go round after the -old stuttering fool. Cruelty to animals so it is to let that bloody -povertystricken Breen out on grass with his beard out tripping him, -bringing down the rain. And she with her nose cockahoop after she married -him because a cousin of his old fellow's was pewopener to the pope. -Picture of him on the wall with his Smashall Sweeney's moustaches, the -signior Brini from Summerhill, the eyetallyano, papal Zouave to the Holy -Father, has left the quay and gone to Moss street. And who was he, tell -us? A nobody, two pair back and passages, at seven shillings a week, and -he covered with all kinds of breastplates bidding defiance to the world. - ---And moreover, says J. J., a postcard is publication. It was held to be -sufficient evidence of malice in the testcase Sadgrove v. Hole. In my -opinion an action might lie. - -Six and eightpence, please. Who wants your opinion? Let us drink -our pints in peace. Gob, we won't be let even do that much itself. - ---Well, good health, Jack, says Ned. - ---Good health, Ned, says J. J. - ----There he is again, says Joe. - ---Where? says Alf. - -And begob there he was passing the door with his books under his -oxter and the wife beside him and Corny Kelleher with his wall eye looking -in as they went past, talking to him like a father, trying to sell him a -secondhand coffin. - ---How did that Canada swindle case go off? says Joe. - ---Remanded, says J. J. - -One of the bottlenosed fraternity it was went by the name of James -Wought alias Saphiro alias Spark and Spiro, put an ad in the papers saying -he'd give a passage to Canada for twenty bob. What? Do you see any green -in the white of my eye? Course it was a bloody barney. What? Swindled -them all, skivvies and badhachs from the county Meath, ay, and his own -kidney too. J. J. was telling us there was an ancient Hebrew Zaretsky or -something weeping in the witnessbox with his hat on him, swearing by the -holy Moses he was stuck for two quid. - ---Who tried the case? says Joe. - ---Recorder, says Ned. - ---Poor old sir Frederick, says Alf, you can cod him up to the two eyes. - ---Heart as big as a lion, says Ned. Tell him a tale of woe about arrears -of rent and a sick wife and a squad of kids and, faith, he'll dissolve in -tears on the bench. - ---Ay, says Alf. Reuben J was bloody lucky he didn't clap him in the dock -the other day for suing poor little Gumley that's minding stones, for the -corporation there near Butt bridge. - -And he starts taking off the old recorder letting on to cry: - ---A most scandalous thing! This poor hardworking man! How many -children? Ten, did you say? - ---Yes, your worship. And my wife has the typhoid. - ---And the wife with typhoid fever! Scandalous! Leave the court -immediately, sir. No, sir, I'll make no order for payment. How dare you, -sir, come up before me and ask me to make an order! A poor hardworking -industrious man! I dismiss the case. - -And whereas on the sixteenth day of the month of the oxeyed goddess and in -the third week after the feastday of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, -the daughter of the skies, the virgin moon being then in her first -quarter, it came to pass that those learned judges repaired them to the -halls of law. There master Courtenay, sitting in his own chamber, -gave his rede and master Justice Andrews, sitting without a jury -in the probate court, weighed well and pondered the claim of the -first chargeant upon the property in the matter of the will -propounded and final testamentary disposition IN RE the real and -personal estate of the late lamented Jacob Halliday, vintner, deceased, -versus Livingstone, an infant, of unsound mind, and another. And to the -solemn court of Green street there came sir Frederick the Falconer. And he -sat him there about the hour of five o'clock to administer the law of the -brehons at the commission for all that and those parts to be holden in -and for the county of the city of Dublin. And there sat with him the high -sinhedrim of the twelve tribes of Iar, for every tribe one man, of the -tribe of Patrick and of the tribe of Hugh and of the tribe of Owen and of -the tribe of Conn and of the tribe of Oscar and of the tribe of -Fergus and of the tribe of Finn and of the tribe of Dermot and of -the tribe of Cormac and of the tribe of Kevin and of the tribe of -Caolte and of the tribe of Ossian, there being in all twelve good -men and true. And he conjured them by Him who died on rood that -they should well and truly try and true deliverance make in the -issue joined between their sovereign lord the king and the prisoner at -the bar and true verdict give according to the evidence so help them God -and kiss the book. And they rose in their seats, those twelve of Iar, and -they swore by the name of Him Who is from everlasting that they would do -His rightwiseness. And straightway the minions of the law led forth from -their donjon keep one whom the sleuthhounds of justice had apprehended in -consequence of information received. And they shackled him hand and foot -and would take of him ne bail ne mainprise but preferred a charge against -him for he was a malefactor. - ---Those are nice things, says the citizen, coming over here to Ireland -filling the country with bugs. - -So Bloom lets on he heard nothing and he starts talking with Joe, telling -him he needn't trouble about that little matter till the first but if he -would just say a word to Mr Crawford. And so Joe swore high and holy by -this and by that he'd do the devil and all. - ---Because, you see, says Bloom, for an advertisement you must have -repetition. That's the whole secret. - ---Rely on me, says Joe. - ---Swindling the peasants, says the citizen, and the poor of Ireland. We -want no more strangers in our house. - ---O, I'm sure that will be all right, Hynes, says Bloom. It's just that -Keyes, you see. - ---Consider that done, says Joe. - ---Very kind of you, says Bloom. - ---The strangers, says the citizen. Our own fault. We let them come in. We -brought them in. The adulteress and her paramour brought the Saxon -robbers here. - ---Decree NISI, says J. J. - -And Bloom letting on to be awfully deeply interested in nothing, a -spider's web in the corner behind the barrel, and the citizen scowling -after him and the old dog at his feet looking up to know who to bite and -when. - ---A dishonoured wife, says the citizen, that's what's the cause of all our -misfortunes. - ---And here she is, says Alf, that was giggling over the POLICE GAZETTE -with Terry on the counter, in all her warpaint. - ---Give us a squint at her, says I. - -And what was it only one of the smutty yankee pictures Terry -borrows off of Corny Kelleher. Secrets for enlarging your private parts. -Misconduct of society belle. Norman W. Tupper, wealthy Chicago -contractor, finds pretty but faithless wife in lap of officer Taylor. -Belle in her bloomers misconducting herself, and her fancyman feeling for -her tickles and Norman W. Tupper bouncing in with his peashooter just in -time to be late after she doing the trick of the loop with officer Taylor. - ---O jakers, Jenny, says Joe, how short your shirt is! - ---There's hair, Joe, says I. Get a queer old tailend of corned beef off of -that one, what? - -So anyhow in came John Wyse Nolan and Lenehan with him with a -face on him as long as a late breakfast. - ---Well, says the citizen, what's the latest from the scene of action? What -did those tinkers in the city hall at their caucus meeting decide about -the Irish language? - -O'Nolan, clad in shining armour, low bending made obeisance to the -puissant and high and mighty chief of all Erin and did him to wit of that -which had befallen, how that the grave elders of the most obedient city, -second of the realm, had met them in the tholsel, and there, after due -prayers to the gods who dwell in ether supernal, had taken solemn counsel -whereby they might, if so be it might be, bring once more into honour -among mortal men the winged speech of the seadivided Gael. - ---It's on the march, says the citizen. To hell with the bloody brutal -Sassenachs and their PATOIS. - -So J. J. puts in a word, doing the toff about one story was good till -you heard another and blinking facts and the Nelson policy, putting your -blind eye to the telescope and drawing up a bill of attainder to impeach a -nation, and Bloom trying to back him up moderation and botheration and -their colonies and their civilisation. - ---Their syphilisation, you mean, says the citizen. To hell with them! The -curse of a goodfornothing God light sideways on the bloody thicklugged -sons of whores' gets! No music and no art and no literature worthy of the -name. Any civilisation they have they stole from us. Tonguetied sons of -bastards' ghosts. - ---The European family, says J. J. ... - ---They're not European, says the citizen. I was in Europe with Kevin Egan -of Paris. You wouldn't see a trace of them or their language anywhere in -Europe except in a CABINET D'AISANCE. - -And says John Wyse: - ---Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. - -And says Lenehan that knows a bit of the lingo: - ---CONSPUEZ LES ANGLAIS! PERFIDE ALBION! - -He said and then lifted he in his rude great brawny strengthy hands -the medher of dark strong foamy ale and, uttering his tribal slogan LAMH -DEARG ABU, he drank to the undoing of his foes, a race of mighty valorous -heroes, rulers of the waves, who sit on thrones of alabaster silent as the -deathless gods. - ---What's up with you, says I to Lenehan. You look like a fellow that had -lost a bob and found a tanner. - ---Gold cup, says he. - ---Who won, Mr Lenehan? says Terry. - ---THROWAWAY, says he, at twenty to one. A rank outsider. And the rest -nowhere. - ---And Bass's mare? says Terry. - ---Still running, says he. We're all in a cart. Boylan plunged two quid on -my tip SCEPTRE for himself and a lady friend. - ---I had half a crown myself, says Terry, on ZINFANDEL that Mr Flynn gave -me. Lord Howard de Walden's. - ---Twenty to one, says Lenehan. Such is life in an outhouse. THROWAWAY, -says he. Takes the biscuit, and talking about bunions. Frailty, thy name -is SCEPTRE. - -So he went over to the biscuit tin Bob Doran left to see if there was -anything he could lift on the nod, the old cur after him backing his luck -with his mangy snout up. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard. - ---Not there, my child, says he. - ---Keep your pecker up, says Joe. She'd have won the money only for the -other dog. - -And J. J. and the citizen arguing about law and history with Bloom -sticking in an odd word. - ---Some people, says Bloom, can see the mote in others' eyes but they can't -see the beam in their own. - ---RAIMEIS, says the citizen. There's no-one as blind as the fellow that -won't see, if you know what that means. Where are our missing -twenty millions of Irish should be here today instead of four, -our lost tribes? And our potteries and textiles, the finest in -the whole world! And our wool that was sold in Rome in the time -of Juvenal and our flax and our damask from the looms of Antrim -and our Limerick lace, our tanneries and our white flint glass -down there by Ballybough and our Huguenot poplin that we have since -Jacquard de Lyon and our woven silk and our Foxford tweeds and ivory -raised point from the Carmelite convent in New Ross, nothing like it in -the whole wide world. Where are the Greek merchants that came through the -pillars of Hercules, the Gibraltar now grabbed by the foe of mankind, with -gold and Tyrian purple to sell in Wexford at the fair of Carmen? Read -Tacitus and Ptolemy, even Giraldus Cambrensis. Wine, peltries, -Connemara marble, silver from Tipperary, second to none, our farfamed -horses even today, the Irish hobbies, with king Philip of Spain offering -to pay customs duties for the right to fish in our waters. What do the -yellowjohns of Anglia owe us for our ruined trade and our ruined hearths? -And the beds of the Barrow and Shannon they won't deepen with millions -of acres of marsh and bog to make us all die of consumption? - ---As treeless as Portugal we'll be soon, says John Wyse, or Heligoland -with its one tree if something is not done to reafforest the land. -Larches, firs, all the trees of the conifer family are going fast. I was -reading a report of lord Castletown's ... - ---Save them, says the citizen, the giant ash of Galway and the chieftain -elm of Kildare with a fortyfoot bole and an acre of foliage. Save the -trees of Ireland for the future men of Ireland on the fair hills of -Eire, O. - ---Europe has its eyes on you, says Lenehan. - -The fashionable international world attended EN MASSE this afternoon -at the wedding of the chevalier Jean Wyse de Neaulan, grand high chief -ranger of the Irish National Foresters, with Miss Fir Conifer of Pine -Valley. Lady Sylvester Elmshade, Mrs Barbara Lovebirch, Mrs Poll Ash, -Mrs Holly Hazeleyes, Miss Daphne Bays, Miss Dorothy Canebrake, Mrs -Clyde Twelvetrees, Mrs Rowan Greene, Mrs Helen Vinegadding, Miss -Virginia Creeper, Miss Gladys Beech, Miss Olive Garth, Miss Blanche -Maple, Mrs Maud Mahogany, Miss Myra Myrtle, Miss Priscilla -Elderflower, Miss Bee Honeysuckle, Miss Grace Poplar, Miss O Mimosa -San, Miss Rachel Cedarfrond, the Misses Lilian and Viola Lilac, Miss -Timidity Aspenall, Mrs Kitty Dewey-Mosse, Miss May Hawthorne, Mrs -Gloriana Palme, Mrs Liana Forrest, Mrs Arabella Blackwood and Mrs -Norma Holyoake of Oakholme Regis graced the ceremony by their -presence. The bride who was given away by her father, the M'Conifer of -the Glands, looked exquisitely charming in a creation carried out in green -mercerised silk, moulded on an underslip of gloaming grey, sashed with a -yoke of broad emerald and finished with a triple flounce of darkerhued -fringe, the scheme being relieved by bretelles and hip insertions of acorn -bronze. The maids of honour, Miss Larch Conifer and Miss Spruce Conifer, -sisters of the bride, wore very becoming costumes in the same tone, a -dainty MOTIF of plume rose being worked into the pleats in a pinstripe and -repeated capriciously in the jadegreen toques in the form of heron -feathers of paletinted coral. Senhor Enrique Flor presided at the -organ with his wellknown ability and, in addition to the prescribed -numbers of the nuptial mass, played a new and striking arrangement -of WOODMAN, SPARE THAT TREE at the conclusion of the service. On -leaving the church of Saint Fiacre IN HORTO after the papal -blessing the happy pair were subjected to a playful crossfire -of hazelnuts, beechmast, bayleaves, catkins of willow, ivytod, -hollyberries, mistletoe sprigs and quicken shoots. Mr and Mrs Wyse -Conifer Neaulan will spend a quiet honeymoon in the Black Forest. - ---And our eyes are on Europe, says the citizen. We had our trade with -Spain and the French and with the Flemings before those mongrels were -pupped, Spanish ale in Galway, the winebark on the winedark waterway. - ---And will again, says Joe. - ---And with the help of the holy mother of God we will again, says the -citizen, clapping his thigh. our harbours that are empty will be full -again, Queenstown, Kinsale, Galway, Blacksod Bay, Ventry in the kingdom of -Kerry, Killybegs, the third largest harbour in the wide world with a fleet -of masts of the Galway Lynches and the Cavan O'Reillys and the -O'Kennedys of Dublin when the earl of Desmond could make a treaty with -the emperor Charles the Fifth himself. And will again, says he, when the -first Irish battleship is seen breasting the waves with our own flag to -the fore, none of your Henry Tudor's harps, no, the oldest flag afloat, -the flag of the province of Desmond and Thomond, three crowns on a blue -field, the three sons of Milesius. - -And he took the last swig out of the pint. Moya. All wind and piss like -a tanyard cat. Cows in Connacht have long horns. As much as his bloody -life is worth to go down and address his tall talk to the assembled -multitude in Shanagolden where he daren't show his nose with the Molly -Maguires looking for him to let daylight through him for grabbing the -holding of an evicted tenant. - ---Hear, hear to that, says John Wyse. What will you have? - ---An imperial yeomanry, says Lenehan, to celebrate the occasion. - ---Half one, Terry, says John Wyse, and a hands up. Terry! Are you asleep? - ---Yes, sir, says Terry. Small whisky and bottle of Allsop. Right, sir. - -Hanging over the bloody paper with Alf looking for spicy bits instead -of attending to the general public. Picture of a butting match, trying to -crack their bloody skulls, one chap going for the other with his head down -like a bull at a gate. And another one: BLACK BEAST BURNED IN OMAHA, GA. -A lot of Deadwood Dicks in slouch hats and they firing at a Sambo strung -up in a tree with his tongue out and a bonfire under him. Gob, they ought -to drown him in the sea after and electrocute and crucify him to make sure -of their job. - ---But what about the fighting navy, says Ned, that keeps our foes at bay? - ---I'll tell you what about it, says the citizen. Hell upon earth it is. -Read the revelations that's going on in the papers about flogging on the -training ships at Portsmouth. A fellow writes that calls himself DISGUSTED -ONE. - -So he starts telling us about corporal punishment and about the crew -of tars and officers and rearadmirals drawn up in cocked hats and the -parson with his protestant bible to witness punishment and a young lad -brought out, howling for his ma, and they tie him down on the buttend of a -gun. - ---A rump and dozen, says the citizen, was what that old ruffian sir John -Beresford called it but the modern God's Englishman calls it caning on the -breech. - -And says John Wyse: - ---'Tis a custom more honoured in the breach than in the observance. - -Then he was telling us the master at arms comes along with a long -cane and he draws out and he flogs the bloody backside off of the poor lad -till he yells meila murder. - ---That's your glorious British navy, says the citizen, that bosses the -earth. - -The fellows that never will be slaves, with the only hereditary chamber on -the face of God's earth and their land in the hands of a dozen gamehogs -and cottonball barons. That's the great empire they boast about of drudges -and whipped serfs. - ---On which the sun never rises, says Joe. - ---And the tragedy of it is, says the citizen, they believe it. The -unfortunate yahoos believe it. - -They believe in rod, the scourger almighty, creator of hell upon earth, -and in Jacky Tar, the son of a gun, who was conceived of unholy boast, -born of the fighting navy, suffered under rump and dozen, was scarified, -flayed and curried, yelled like bloody hell, the third day he arose again -from the bed, steered into haven, sitteth on his beamend till further -orders whence he shall come to drudge for a living and be paid. - ---But, says Bloom, isn't discipline the same everywhere. I mean wouldn't -it be the same here if you put force against force? - -Didn't I tell you? As true as I'm drinking this porter if he was at his -last gasp he'd try to downface you that dying was living. - ---We'll put force against force, says the citizen. We have our greater -Ireland beyond the sea. They were driven out of house and home in the -black 47. Their mudcabins and their shielings by the roadside were laid -low by the batteringram and the TIMES rubbed its hands and told the -whitelivered Saxons there would soon be as few Irish in Ireland as -redskins in America. Even the Grand Turk sent us his piastres. But the -Sassenach tried to starve the nation at home while the land was full of -crops that the British hyenas bought and sold in Rio de Janeiro. Ay, they -drove out the peasants in hordes. Twenty thousand of them died in the -coffinships. But those that came to the land of the free remember the -land of bondage. And they will come again and with a vengeance, no -cravens, the sons of Granuaile, the champions of Kathleen ni Houlihan. - ---Perfectly true, says Bloom. But my point was ... - ---We are a long time waiting for that day, citizen, says Ned. Since the -poor old woman told us that the French were on the sea and landed at -Killala. - ---Ay, says John Wyse. We fought for the royal Stuarts that reneged us -against the Williamites and they betrayed us. Remember Limerick and the -broken treatystone. We gave our best blood to France and Spain, the wild -geese. Fontenoy, eh? And Sarsfield and O'Donnell, duke of Tetuan in -Spain, and Ulysses Browne of Camus that was fieldmarshal to Maria Teresa. -But what did we ever get for it? - ---The French! says the citizen. Set of dancing masters! Do you know what -it is? They were never worth a roasted fart to Ireland. Aren't they -trying to make an ENTENTE CORDIALE now at Tay Pay's dinnerparty with -perfidious Albion? Firebrands of Europe and they always were. - ---CONSPUEZ LES FRANCAIS, says Lenehan, nobbling his beer. - ---And as for the Prooshians and the Hanoverians, says Joe, haven't we had -enough of those sausageeating bastards on the throne from George the -elector down to the German lad and the flatulent old bitch that's dead? - -Jesus, I had to laugh at the way he came out with that about the old one -with the winkers on her, blind drunk in her royal palace every night of -God, old Vic, with her jorum of mountain dew and her coachman carting her -up body and bones to roll into bed and she pulling him by the whiskers -and singing him old bits of songs about EHREN ON THE RHINE and come where -the boose is cheaper. - ---Well, says J. J. We have Edward the peacemaker now. - ---Tell that to a fool, says the citizen. There's a bloody sight more pox -than pax about that boyo. Edward Guelph-Wettin! - ---And what do you think, says Joe, of the holy boys, the priests and -bishops of Ireland doing up his room in Maynooth in His Satanic Majesty's -racing colours and sticking up pictures of all the horses his jockeys -rode. The earl of Dublin, no less. - ---They ought to have stuck up all the women he rode himself, says little -Alf. - -And says J. J.: - ---Considerations of space influenced their lordships' decision. - ---Will you try another, citizen? says Joe. - ---Yes, sir, says he. I will. - ---You? says Joe. - ---Beholden to you, Joe, says I. May your shadow never grow less. - ---Repeat that dose, says Joe. - -Bloom was talking and talking with John Wyse and he quite excited with -his dunducketymudcoloured mug on him and his old plumeyes rolling about. - ---Persecution, says he, all the history of the world is full of it. -Perpetuating national hatred among nations. - ---But do you know what a nation means? says John Wyse. - ---Yes, says Bloom. - ---What is it? says John Wyse. - ---A nation? says Bloom. A nation is the same people living in the same -place. - ---By God, then, says Ned, laughing, if that's so I'm a nation for I'm -living in the same place for the past five years. - -So of course everyone had the laugh at Bloom and says he, trying to -muck out of it: - ---Or also living in different places. - ---That covers my case, says Joe. - ---What is your nation if I may ask? says the citizen. - ---Ireland, says Bloom. I was born here. Ireland. - -The citizen said nothing only cleared the spit out of his gullet and, -gob, he spat a Red bank oyster out of him right in the corner. - ---After you with the push, Joe, says he, taking out his handkerchief to -swab himself dry. - ---Here you are, citizen, says Joe. Take that in your right hand and repeat -after me the following words. - -The muchtreasured and intricately embroidered ancient Irish -facecloth attributed to Solomon of Droma and Manus Tomaltach og -MacDonogh, authors of the Book of Ballymote, was then carefully -produced and called forth prolonged admiration. No need to dwell on the -legendary beauty of the cornerpieces, the acme of art, wherein one can -distinctly discern each of the four evangelists in turn presenting to each -of the four masters his evangelical symbol, a bogoak sceptre, a North -American puma (a far nobler king of beasts than the British article, be it -said in passing), a Kerry calf and a golden eagle from Carrantuohill. The -scenes depicted on the emunctory field, showing our ancient duns and raths -and cromlechs and grianauns and seats of learning and maledictive stones, -are as wonderfully beautiful and the pigments as delicate as when the -Sligo illuminators gave free rein to their artistic fantasy long long ago -in the time of the Barmecides. Glendalough, the lovely lakes of Killarney, -the ruins of Clonmacnois, Cong Abbey, Glen Inagh and the Twelve Pins, -Ireland's Eye, the Green Hills of Tallaght, Croagh Patrick, the brewery of -Messrs Arthur Guinness, Son and Company (Limited), Lough Neagh's banks, -the vale of Ovoca, Isolde's tower, the Mapas obelisk, Sir Patrick Dun's -hospital, Cape Clear, the glen of Aherlow, Lynch's castle, the Scotch -house, Rathdown Union Workhouse at Loughlinstown, Tullamore jail, -Castleconnel rapids, Kilballymacshonakill, the cross at Monasterboice, -Jury's Hotel, S. Patrick's Purgatory, the Salmon Leap, Maynooth college -refectory, Curley's hole, the three birthplaces of the first duke of -Wellington, the rock of Cashel, the bog of Allen, the Henry Street -Warehouse, Fingal's Cave--all these moving scenes are still there for us -today rendered more beautiful still by the waters of sorrow which have -passed over them and by the rich incrustations of time. - ---Show us over the drink, says I. Which is which? - ---That's mine, says Joe, as the devil said to the dead policeman. - ---And I belong to a race too, says Bloom, that is hated and persecuted. -Also now. This very moment. This very instant. - -Gob, he near burnt his fingers with the butt of his old cigar. - ---Robbed, says he. Plundered. Insulted. Persecuted. Taking what belongs -to us by right. At this very moment, says he, putting up his fist, sold by -auction in Morocco like slaves or cattle. - ---Are you talking about the new Jerusalem? says the citizen. - ---I'm talking about injustice, says Bloom. - ---Right, says John Wyse. Stand up to it then with force like men. - -That's an almanac picture for you. Mark for a softnosed bullet. Old -lardyface standing up to the business end of a gun. Gob, he'd adorn a -sweepingbrush, so he would, if he only had a nurse's apron on him. And -then he collapses all of a sudden, twisting around all the opposite, as -limp as a wet rag. - ---But it's no use, says he. Force, hatred, history, all that. That's not -life for men and women, insult and hatred. And everybody knows that it's -the very opposite of that that is really life. - ---What? says Alf. - ---Love, says Bloom. I mean the opposite of hatred. I must go now, says he -to John Wyse. Just round to the court a moment to see if Martin is there. -If he comes just say I'll be back in a second. Just a moment. - -Who's hindering you? And off he pops like greased lightning. - ---A new apostle to the gentiles, says the citizen. Universal love. - ---Well, says John Wyse. Isn't that what we're told. Love your neighbour. - ---That chap? says the citizen. Beggar my neighbour is his motto. Love, -moya! He's a nice pattern of a Romeo and Juliet. - -Love loves to love love. Nurse loves the new chemist. Constable 14A -loves Mary Kelly. Gerty MacDowell loves the boy that has the bicycle. -M. B. loves a fair gentleman. Li Chi Han lovey up kissy Cha Pu Chow. -Jumbo, the elephant, loves Alice, the elephant. Old Mr Verschoyle with the -ear trumpet loves old Mrs Verschoyle with the turnedin eye. The man in the -brown macintosh loves a lady who is dead. His Majesty the King loves Her -Majesty the Queen. Mrs Norman W. Tupper loves officer Taylor. You love -a certain person. And this person loves that other person because -everybody loves somebody but God loves everybody. - ---Well, Joe, says I, your very good health and song. More power, citizen. - ---Hurrah, there, says Joe. - ---The blessing of God and Mary and Patrick on you, says the citizen. - -And he ups with his pint to wet his whistle. - ---We know those canters, says he, preaching and picking your pocket. -What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women -and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text GOD IS LOVE -pasted round the mouth of his cannon? The bible! Did you read that skit in -the UNITED IRISHMAN today about that Zulu chief that's visiting England? - ---What's that? says Joe. - -So the citizen takes up one of his paraphernalia papers and he starts -reading out: - ---A delegation of the chief cotton magnates of Manchester was presented -yesterday to His Majesty the Alaki of Abeakuta by Gold Stick in Waiting, -Lord Walkup of Walkup on Eggs, to tender to His Majesty the heartfelt -thanks of British traders for the facilities afforded them in his -dominions. The delegation partook of luncheon at the conclusion -of which the dusky potentate, in the course of a happy speech, -freely translated by the British chaplain, the reverend Ananias -Praisegod Barebones, tendered his best thanks to Massa Walkup and -emphasised the cordial relations existing between Abeakuta and the -British empire, stating that he treasured as one of his dearest -possessions an illuminated bible, the volume of the word of God -and the secret of England's greatness, graciously presented to him by -the white chief woman, the great squaw Victoria, with a personal -dedication from the august hand of the Royal Donor. The Alaki then drank a -lovingcup of firstshot usquebaugh to the toast BLACK AND WHITE from the -skull of his immediate predecessor in the dynasty Kakachakachak, -surnamed Forty Warts, after which he visited the chief factory of -Cottonopolis and signed his mark in the visitors' book, subsequently -executing a charming old Abeakutic wardance, in the course of which he -swallowed several knives and forks, amid hilarious applause from the girl -hands. - ---Widow woman, says Ned. I wouldn't doubt her. Wonder did he put that -bible to the same use as I would. - ---Same only more so, says Lenehan. And thereafter in that fruitful land -the broadleaved mango flourished exceedingly. - ---Is that by Griffith? says John Wyse. - ---No, says the citizen. It's not signed Shanganagh. It's only -initialled: P. - ---And a very good initial too, says Joe. - ---That's how it's worked, says the citizen. Trade follows the flag. - ---Well, says J. J., if they're any worse than those Belgians in the Congo -Free State they must be bad. Did you read that report by a man what's this -his name is? - ---Casement, says the citizen. He's an Irishman. - ---Yes, that's the man, says J. J. Raping the women and girls and flogging -the natives on the belly to squeeze all the red rubber they can out of -them. - ---I know where he's gone, says Lenehan, cracking his fingers. - ---Who? says I. - ---Bloom, says he. The courthouse is a blind. He had a few bob on -THROWAWAY and he's gone to gather in the shekels. - ---Is it that whiteeyed kaffir? says the citizen, that never backed a horse -in anger in his life? - ---That's where he's gone, says Lenehan. I met Bantam Lyons going to back -that horse only I put him off it and he told me Bloom gave him the tip. -Bet you what you like he has a hundred shillings to five on. He's the only -man in Dublin has it. A dark horse. - ---He's a bloody dark horse himself, says Joe. - ---Mind, Joe, says I. Show us the entrance out. - ---There you are, says Terry. - -Goodbye Ireland I'm going to Gort. So I just went round the back of -the yard to pumpship and begob (hundred shillings to five) while I was -letting off my (THROWAWAY twenty to) letting off my load gob says I to -myself I knew he was uneasy in his (two pints off of Joe and one in -Slattery's off) in his mind to get off the mark to (hundred shillings is -five quid) and when they were in the (dark horse) pisser Burke -was telling me card party and letting on the child was sick (gob, must -have done about a gallon) flabbyarse of a wife speaking down the tube -SHE'S BETTER or SHE'S (ow!) all a plan so he could vamoose with the -pool if he won or (Jesus, full up I was) trading without a licence (ow!) -Ireland my nation says he (hoik! phthook!) never be up to those -bloody (there's the last of it) Jerusalem (ah!) cuckoos. - -So anyhow when I got back they were at it dingdong, John Wyse -saying it was Bloom gave the ideas for Sinn Fein to Griffith to put in his -paper all kinds of jerrymandering, packed juries and swindling the taxes -off of the government and appointing consuls all over the world to walk -about selling Irish industries. Robbing Peter to pay Paul. Gob, that puts -the bloody kybosh on it if old sloppy eyes is mucking up the show. Give us -a bloody chance. God save Ireland from the likes of that bloody -mouseabout. Mr Bloom with his argol bargol. And his old fellow before him -perpetrating frauds, old Methusalem Bloom, the robbing bagman, that -poisoned himself with the prussic acid after he swamping the country with -his baubles and his penny diamonds. Loans by post on easy terms. Any -amount of money advanced on note of hand. Distance no object. No security. -Gob, he's like Lanty MacHale's goat that'd go a piece of the road with -every one. - ---Well, it's a fact, says John Wyse. And there's the man now that'll tell -you all about it, Martin Cunningham. - -Sure enough the castle car drove up with Martin on it and Jack Power -with him and a fellow named Crofter or Crofton, pensioner out of the -collector general's, an orangeman Blackburn does have on the registration -and he drawing his pay or Crawford gallivanting around the country at the -king's expense. - -Our travellers reached the rustic hostelry and alighted from their -palfreys. - ---Ho, varlet! cried he, who by his mien seemed the leader of the party. -Saucy knave! To us! - -So saying he knocked loudly with his swordhilt upon the open lattice. - -Mine host came forth at the summons, girding him with his tabard. - ---Give you good den, my masters, said he with an obsequious bow. - ---Bestir thyself, sirrah! cried he who had knocked. Look to our steeds. -And for ourselves give us of your best for ifaith we need it. - ---Lackaday, good masters, said the host, my poor house has but a bare -larder. I know not what to offer your lordships. - ---How now, fellow? cried the second of the party, a man of pleasant -countenance, So servest thou the king's messengers, master Taptun? - -An instantaneous change overspread the landlord's visage. - ---Cry you mercy, gentlemen, he said humbly. An you be the king's -messengers (God shield His Majesty!) you shall not want for aught. The -king's friends (God bless His Majesty!) shall not go afasting in my house -I warrant me. - ---Then about! cried the traveller who had not spoken, a lusty trencherman -by his aspect. Hast aught to give us? - -Mine host bowed again as he made answer: - ---What say you, good masters, to a squab pigeon pasty, some collops of -venison, a saddle of veal, widgeon with crisp hog's bacon, a boar's head -with pistachios, a bason of jolly custard, a medlar tansy and a flagon of -old Rhenish? - ---Gadzooks! cried the last speaker. That likes me well. Pistachios! - ---Aha! cried he of the pleasant countenance. A poor house and a bare -larder, quotha! 'Tis a merry rogue. - -So in comes Martin asking where was Bloom. - ---Where is he? says Lenehan. Defrauding widows and orphans. - ---Isn't that a fact, says John Wyse, what I was telling the citizen about -Bloom and the Sinn Fein? - ---That's so, says Martin. Or so they allege. - ---Who made those allegations? says Alf. - ---I, says Joe. I'm the alligator. - ---And after all, says John Wyse, why can't a jew love his country like the -next fellow? - ---Why not? says J. J., when he's quite sure which country it is. - ---Is he a jew or a gentile or a holy Roman or a swaddler or what the hell -is he? says Ned. Or who is he? No offence, Crofton. - ---Who is Junius? says J. J. - ---We don't want him, says Crofter the Orangeman or presbyterian. - ---He's a perverted jew, says Martin, from a place in Hungary and it was he -drew up all the plans according to the Hungarian system. We know that in -the castle. - ---Isn't he a cousin of Bloom the dentist? says Jack Power. - ---Not at all, says Martin. Only namesakes. His name was Virag, the -father's name that poisoned himself. He changed it by deedpoll, the father -did. - ---That's the new Messiah for Ireland! says the citizen. Island of saints -and sages! - ---Well, they're still waiting for their redeemer, says Martin. For that -matter so are we. - ---Yes, says J. J., and every male that's born they think it may be their -Messiah. And every jew is in a tall state of excitement, I believe, till -he knows if he's a father or a mother. - ---Expecting every moment will be his next, says Lenehan. - ---O, by God, says Ned, you should have seen Bloom before that son of his -that died was born. I met him one day in the south city markets buying a -tin of Neave's food six weeks before the wife was delivered. - ---EN VENTRE SA MERE, says J. J. - ---Do you call that a man? says the citizen. - ---I wonder did he ever put it out of sight, says Joe. - ---Well, there were two children born anyhow, says Jack Power. - ---And who does he suspect? says the citizen. - -Gob, there's many a true word spoken in jest. One of those mixed -middlings he is. Lying up in the hotel Pisser was telling me once a month -with headache like a totty with her courses. Do you know what I'm telling -you? It'd be an act of God to take a hold of a fellow the like of that and -throw him in the bloody sea. Justifiable homicide, so it would. Then -sloping off with his five quid without putting up a pint of stuff like a -man. Give us your blessing. Not as much as would blind your eye. - ---Charity to the neighbour, says Martin. But where is he? We can't wait. - ---A wolf in sheep's clothing, says the citizen. That's what he is. Virag -from Hungary! Ahasuerus I call him. Cursed by God. - ---Have you time for a brief libation, Martin? says Ned. - ---Only one, says Martin. We must be quick. J. J. and S. - ---You, Jack? Crofton? Three half ones, Terry. - ---Saint Patrick would want to land again at Ballykinlar and convert us, -says the citizen, after allowing things like that to contaminate our -shores. - ---Well, says Martin, rapping for his glass. God bless all here is my -prayer. - ---Amen, says the citizen. - ---And I'm sure He will, says Joe. - -And at the sound of the sacring bell, headed by a crucifer with acolytes, -thurifers, boatbearers, readers, ostiarii, deacons and subdeacons, -the blessed company drew nigh of mitred abbots and priors and guardians -and monks and friars: the monks of Benedict of Spoleto, Carthusians and -Camaldolesi, Cistercians and Olivetans, Oratorians and Vallombrosans, -and the friars of Augustine, Brigittines, Premonstratensians, Servi, -Trinitarians, and the children of Peter Nolasco: and therewith from Carmel -mount the children of Elijah prophet led by Albert bishop and by Teresa of -Avila, calced and other: and friars, brown and grey, sons of poor Francis, -capuchins, cordeliers, minimes and observants and the daughters of Clara: -and the sons of Dominic, the friars preachers, and the sons of Vincent: -and the monks of S. Wolstan: and Ignatius his children: and the -confraternity of the christian brothers led by the reverend brother -Edmund Ignatius Rice. And after came all saints and martyrs, -virgins and confessors: S. Cyr and S. Isidore Arator and S. James the -Less and S. Phocas of Sinope and S. Julian Hospitator and S. Felix -de Cantalice and S. Simon Stylites and S. Stephen Protomartyr and -S. John of God and S. Ferreol and S. Leugarde and S. Theodotus and S. -Vulmar and S. Richard and S. Vincent de Paul and S. Martin of Todi -and S. Martin of Tours and S. Alfred and S. Joseph and S. -Denis and S. Cornelius and S. Leopold and S. Bernard and S. Terence and -S. Edward and S. Owen Caniculus and S. Anonymous and S. Eponymous -and S. Pseudonymous and S. Homonymous and S. Paronymous and S. -Synonymous and S. Laurence O'Toole and S. James of Dingle and -Compostella and S. Columcille and S. Columba and S. Celestine and S. -Colman and S. Kevin and S. Brendan and S. Frigidian and S. Senan and S. -Fachtna and S. Columbanus and S. Gall and S. Fursey and S. Fintan and S. -Fiacre and S. John Nepomuc and S. Thomas Aquinas and S. Ives of -Brittany and S. Michan and S. Herman-Joseph and the three patrons of -holy youth S. Aloysius Gonzaga and S. Stanislaus Kostka and S. John -Berchmans and the saints Gervasius, Servasius and Bonifacius and S. Bride -and S. Kieran and S. Canice of Kilkenny and S. Jarlath of Tuam and S. -Finbarr and S. Pappin of Ballymun and Brother Aloysius Pacificus and -Brother Louis Bellicosus and the saints Rose of Lima and of Viterbo and S. -Martha of Bethany and S. Mary of Egypt and S. Lucy and S. Brigid and S. -Attracta and S. Dympna and S. Ita and S. Marion Calpensis and the -Blessed Sister Teresa of the Child Jesus and S. Barbara and S. Scholastica -and S. Ursula with eleven thousand virgins. And all came with nimbi and -aureoles and gloriae, bearing palms and harps and swords and olive -crowns, in robes whereon were woven the blessed symbols of their -efficacies, inkhorns, arrows, loaves, cruses, fetters, axes, trees, -bridges, babes in a bathtub, shells, wallets, shears, keys, dragons, -lilies, buckshot, beards, hogs, lamps, bellows, beehives, soupladles, -stars, snakes, anvils, boxes of vaseline, bells, crutches, forceps, -stags' horns, watertight boots, hawks, millstones, eyes on a dish, wax -candles, aspergills, unicorns. And as they wended their way by Nelson's -Pillar, Henry street, Mary street, Capel street, Little Britain street -chanting the introit in EPIPHANIA DOMINI which beginneth SURGE, -ILLUMINARE and thereafter most sweetly the gradual OMNES which saith -DE SABA VENIENT they did divers wonders such as casting out devils, -raising the dead to life, multiplying fishes, healing the halt and the -blind, discovering various articles which had been mislaid, interpreting -and fulfilling the scriptures, blessing and prophesying. And last, beneath -a canopy of cloth of gold came the reverend Father O'Flynn attended by -Malachi and Patrick. And when the good fathers had reached the appointed -place, the house of Bernard Kiernan and Co, limited, 8, 9 and 10 little -Britain street, wholesale grocers, wine and brandy shippers, licensed for -the sale of beer, wine and spirits for consumption on the premises, the -celebrant blessed the house and censed the mullioned windows and the -groynes and the vaults and the arrises and the capitals and the pediments -and the cornices and the engrailed arches and the spires and the cupolas -and sprinkled the lintels thereof with blessed water and prayed that God -might bless that house as he had blessed the house of Abraham and Isaac -and Jacob and make the angels of His light to inhabit therein. And -entering he blessed the viands and the beverages and the company of all -the blessed answered his prayers. - ---ADIUTORIUM NOSTRUM IN NOMINE DOMINI. - ---QUI FECIT COELUM ET TERRAM. - ---DOMINUS VOBISCUM. - ---ET CUM SPIRITU TUO. - -And he laid his hands upon that he blessed and gave thanks and he -prayed and they all with him prayed: - ---DEUS, CUIUS VERBO SANCTIFICANTUR OMNIA, BENEDICTIONEM TUAM EFFUNDE SUPER -CREATURAS ISTAS: ET PRAESTA UT QUISQUIS EIS SECUNDUM LEGEM ET VOLUNTATEM -TUAM CUM GRATIARUM ACTIONE USUS FUERIT PER INVOCATIONEM SANCTISSIMI -NOMINIS TUI CORPORIS SANITATEM ET ANIMAE TUTELAM TE AUCTORE PERCIPIAT PER -CHRISTUM DOMINUM NOSTRUM. - ---And so say all of us, says Jack. - ---Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford. - ---Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. - - -I was just looking around to see who the happy thought would strike -when be damned but in he comes again letting on to be in a hell of a -hurry. - ---I was just round at the courthouse, says he, looking for you. I hope I'm -not ... - ---No, says Martin, we're ready. - -Courthouse my eye and your pockets hanging down with gold and silver. -Mean bloody scut. Stand us a drink itself. Devil a sweet fear! There's -a jew for you! All for number one. Cute as a shithouse rat. Hundred to -five. - ---Don't tell anyone, says the citizen, - ---Beg your pardon, says he. - ---Come on boys, says Martin, seeing it was looking blue. Come along now. - ---Don't tell anyone, says the citizen, letting a bawl out of him. It's a -secret. - -And the bloody dog woke up and let a growl. - ---Bye bye all, says Martin. - -And he got them out as quick as he could, Jack Power and Crofton or -whatever you call him and him in the middle of them letting on to be all -at sea and up with them on the bloody jaunting car. - ----Off with you, says - -Martin to the jarvey. - -The milkwhite dolphin tossed his mane and, rising in the golden poop -the helmsman spread the bellying sail upon the wind and stood off forward -with all sail set, the spinnaker to larboard. A many comely nymphs drew -nigh to starboard and to larboard and, clinging to the sides of the noble -bark, they linked their shining forms as doth the cunning wheelwright when -he fashions about the heart of his wheel the equidistant rays whereof each -one is sister to another and he binds them all with an outer ring and -giveth speed to the feet of men whenas they ride to a hosting or contend -for the smile of ladies fair. Even so did they come and set them, those -willing nymphs, the undying sisters. And they laughed, sporting in a -circle of their foam: and the bark clave the waves. - -But begob I was just lowering the heel of the pint when I saw the -citizen getting up to waddle to the door, puffing and blowing with the -dropsy, and he cursing the curse of Cromwell on him, bell, book and candle -in Irish, spitting and spatting out of him and Joe and little Alf round -him like a leprechaun trying to peacify him. - ---Let me alone, says he. - -And begob he got as far as the door and they holding him and he -bawls out of him: - ---Three cheers for Israel! - -Arrah, sit down on the parliamentary side of your arse for Christ' -sake and don't be making a public exhibition of yourself. Jesus, there's -always some bloody clown or other kicking up a bloody murder about -bloody nothing. Gob, it'd turn the porter sour in your guts, so it would. - -And all the ragamuffins and sluts of the nation round the door and Martin -telling the jarvey to drive ahead and the citizen bawling and Alf and -Joe at him to whisht and he on his high horse about the jews and the -loafers calling for a speech and Jack Power trying to get him to sit down -on the car and hold his bloody jaw and a loafer with a patch over his eye -starts singing IF THE MAN IN THE MOON WAS A JEW, JEW, JEW and a slut -shouts out of her: - ---Eh, mister! Your fly is open, mister! - -And says he: - ---Mendelssohn was a jew and Karl Marx and Mercadante and Spinoza. -And the Saviour was a jew and his father was a jew. Your God. - ---He had no father, says Martin. That'll do now. Drive ahead. - ---Whose God? says the citizen. - ---Well, his uncle was a jew, says he. Your God was a jew. Christ was a jew -like me. - -Gob, the citizen made a plunge back into the shop. - ---By Jesus, says he, I'll brain that bloody jewman for using the holy -name. - -By Jesus, I'll crucify him so I will. Give us that biscuitbox here. - ---Stop! Stop! says Joe. - -A large and appreciative gathering of friends and acquaintances from -the metropolis and greater Dublin assembled in their thousands to bid -farewell to Nagyasagos uram Lipoti Virag, late of Messrs Alexander -Thom's, printers to His Majesty, on the occasion of his departure for the -distant clime of Szazharminczbrojugulyas-Dugulas (Meadow of -Murmuring Waters). The ceremony which went off with great ECLAT was -characterised by the most affecting cordiality. An illuminated scroll of -ancient Irish vellum, the work of Irish artists, was presented to the -distinguished phenomenologist on behalf of a large section of the -community and was accompanied by the gift of a silver casket, tastefully -executed in the style of ancient Celtic ornament, a work which reflects -every credit on the makers, Messrs Jacob AGUS Jacob. The departing guest -was the recipient of a hearty ovation, many of those who were present -being visibly moved when the select orchestra of Irish pipes struck up the -wellknown strains of COME BACK TO ERIN, followed immediately by RAKOCZSY'S -MARCH. Tarbarrels and bonfires were lighted along the coastline of the four -seas on the summits of the Hill of Howth, Three Rock Mountain, Sugarloaf, -Bray Head, the mountains of Mourne, the Galtees, the Ox and Donegal and -Sperrin peaks, the Nagles and the Bograghs, the Connemara hills, the reeks -of M Gillicuddy, Slieve Aughty, Slieve Bernagh and Slieve Bloom. Amid -cheers that rent the welkin, responded to by answering cheers from a big -muster of henchmen on the distant Cambrian and Caledonian hills, the -mastodontic pleasureship slowly moved away saluted by a final floral -tribute from the representatives of the fair sex who were present in large -numbers while, as it proceeded down the river, escorted by a flotilla of -barges, the flags of the Ballast office and Custom House were dipped in -salute as were also those of the electrical power station at the -Pigeonhouse and the Poolbeg Light. VISSZONTLATASRA, KEDVES BARATON! -VISSZONTLATASRA! Gone but not forgotten. - -Gob, the devil wouldn't stop him till he got hold of the bloody tin -anyhow and out with him and little Alf hanging on to his elbow and he -shouting like a stuck pig, as good as any bloody play in the Queen's royal -theatre: - ---Where is he till I murder him? - -And Ned and J. J. paralysed with the laughing. - ---Bloody wars, says I, I'll be in for the last gospel. - -But as luck would have it the jarvey got the nag's head round the -other way and off with him. - ---Hold on, citizen, says Joe. Stop! - -Begob he drew his hand and made a swipe and let fly. Mercy of God the sun -was in his eyes or he'd have left him for dead. Gob, he near sent it -into the county Longford. The bloody nag took fright and the old mongrel -after the car like bloody hell and all the populace shouting and laughing -and the old tinbox clattering along the street. - -The catastrophe was terrific and instantaneous in its effect. The -observatory of Dunsink registered in all eleven shocks, all of the fifth -grade of Mercalli's scale, and there is no record extant of a similar -seismic disturbance in our island since the earthquake of 1534, the -year of the rebellion of Silken Thomas. The epicentre appears to have -been that part of the metropolis which constitutes the Inn's Quay -ward and parish of Saint Michan covering a surface of fortyone acres, -two roods and one square pole or perch. All the lordly residences in -the vicinity of the palace of justice were demolished and that noble -edifice itself, in which at the time of the catastrophe important -legal debates were in progress, is literally a mass of ruins beneath -which it is to be feared all the occupants have been buried alive. -From the reports of eyewitnesses it transpires that the seismic waves -were accompanied by a violent atmospheric perturbation of cyclonic -character. An article of headgear since ascertained to belong to the much -respected clerk of the crown and peace Mr George Fottrell and a silk -umbrella with gold handle with the engraved initials, crest, coat of arms -and house number of the erudite and worshipful chairman of quarter -sessions sir Frederick Falkiner, recorder of Dublin, have been discovered -by search parties in remote parts of the island respectively, the former -on the third basaltic ridge of the giant's causeway, the latter embedded -to the extent of one foot three inches in the sandy beach of Holeopen -bay near the old head of Kinsale. Other eyewitnesses depose that they -observed an incandescent object of enormous proportions hurtling through -the atmosphere at a terrifying velocity in a trajectory directed -southwest by west. Messages of condolence and sympathy are being -hourly received from all parts of the different continents and the -sovereign pontiff has been graciously pleased to decree that a -special MISSA PRO DEFUNCTIS shall be celebrated simultaneously by -the ordinaries of each and every cathedral church of all the episcopal -dioceses subject to the spiritual authority of the Holy See in suffrage of -the souls of those faithful departed who have been so unexpectedly called -away from our midst. The work of salvage, removal of DEBRIS, human remains -etc has been entrusted to Messrs Michael Meade and Son, 159 Great -Brunswick street, and Messrs T. and C. Martin, 77, 78, 79 and 80 North -Wall, assisted by the men and officers of the Duke of Cornwall's light -infantry under the general supervision of H. R. H., rear admiral, the -right honourable sir Hercules Hannibal Habeas Corpus Anderson, K. G., -K. P., K. T., P. C., K. C. B., M. P, J. P., M. B., D. S. O., S. O. D., -M. F. H., M. R. I. A., B. L., Mus. Doc., P. L. G., F. T. C. D., -F. R. U. I., F. R. C. P. I. and F. R. C. S. I. - -You never saw the like of it in all your born puff. Gob, if he got that -lottery ticket on the side of his poll he'd remember the gold cup, -he would so, but begob the citizen would have been lagged for assault -and battery and Joe for aiding and abetting. The jarvey saved his life -by furious driving as sure as God made Moses. What? O, Jesus, he did. -And he let a volley of oaths after him. - ---Did I kill him, says he, or what? - -And he shouting to the bloody dog: - ---After him, Garry! After him, boy! - -And the last we saw was the bloody car rounding the corner and old -sheepsface on it gesticulating and the bloody mongrel after it with his -lugs back for all he was bloody well worth to tear him limb from limb. -Hundred to five! Jesus, he took the value of it out of him, I promise you. - -When, lo, there came about them all a great brightness and they -beheld the chariot wherein He stood ascend to heaven. And they beheld -Him in the chariot, clothed upon in the glory of the brightness, having -raiment as of the sun, fair as the moon and terrible that for awe they -durst not look upon Him. And there came a voice out of heaven, calling: -ELIJAH! ELIJAH! And He answered with a main cry: ABBA! ADONAI! And they -beheld Him even Him, ben Bloom Elijah, amid clouds of angels ascend -to the glory of the brightness at an angle of fortyfive degrees over -Donohoe's in Little Green street like a shot off a shovel. - - - * * * * * * * - - -The summer evening had begun to fold the world in its mysterious -embrace. Far away in the west the sun was setting and the last glow of all -too fleeting day lingered lovingly on sea and strand, on the proud -promontory of dear old Howth guarding as ever the waters of the bay, on -the weedgrown rocks along Sandymount shore and, last but not least, on the -quiet church whence there streamed forth at times upon the stillness the -voice of prayer to her who is in her pure radiance a beacon ever to the -stormtossed heart of man, Mary, star of the sea. - -The three girl friends were seated on the rocks, enjoying the evening -scene and the air which was fresh but not too chilly. Many a time and oft -were they wont to come there to that favourite nook to have a cosy chat -beside the sparkling waves and discuss matters feminine, Cissy Caffrey and -Edy Boardman with the baby in the pushcar and Tommy and Jacky -Caffrey, two little curlyheaded boys, dressed in sailor suits with caps to -match and the name H.M.S. Belleisle printed on both. For Tommy and -Jacky Caffrey were twins, scarce four years old and very noisy and spoiled -twins sometimes but for all that darling little fellows with bright merry -faces and endearing ways about them. They were dabbling in the sand with -their spades and buckets, building castles as children do, or playing with -their big coloured ball, happy as the day was long. And Edy Boardman was -rocking the chubby baby to and fro in the pushcar while that young -gentleman fairly chuckled with delight. He was but eleven months and nine -days old and, though still a tiny toddler, was just beginning to lisp his -first babyish words. Cissy Caffrey bent over to him to tease his fat -little plucks and the dainty dimple in his chin. - ---Now, baby, Cissy Caffrey said. Say out big, big. I want a drink of -water. - -And baby prattled after her: - ---A jink a jink a jawbo. - -Cissy Caffrey cuddled the wee chap for she was awfully fond of children, -so patient with little sufferers and Tommy Caffrey could never be got to -take his castor oil unless it was Cissy Caffrey that held his nose and -promised him the scatty heel of the loaf or brown bread with golden syrup -on. What a persuasive power that girl had! But to be sure baby Boardman -was as good as gold, a perfect little dote in his new fancy bib. None of -your spoilt beauties, Flora MacFlimsy sort, was Cissy Caffrey. -A truerhearted lass never drew the breath of life, always with a laugh in -her gipsylike eyes and a frolicsome word on her cherryripe red lips, a -girl lovable in the extreme. And Edy Boardman laughed too at the quaint -language of little brother. - -But just then there was a slight altercation between Master Tommy -and Master Jacky. Boys will be boys and our two twins were no exception -to this golden rule. The apple of discord was a certain castle of sand -which Master Jacky had built and Master Tommy would have it right go wrong -that it was to be architecturally improved by a frontdoor like the -Martello tower had. But if Master Tommy was headstrong Master Jacky was -selfwilled too and, true to the maxim that every little Irishman's house -is his castle, he fell upon his hated rival and to such purpose that the -wouldbe assailant came to grief and (alas to relate!) the coveted castle -too. Needless to say the cries of discomfited Master Tommy drew the -attention of the girl friends. - ---Come here, Tommy, his sister called imperatively. At once! And you, -Jacky, for shame to throw poor Tommy in the dirty sand. Wait till I catch -you for that. - -His eyes misty with unshed tears Master Tommy came at her call for -their big sister's word was law with the twins. And in a sad plight he was -too after his misadventure. His little man-o'-war top and unmentionables -were full of sand but Cissy was a past mistress in the art of smoothing -over life's tiny troubles and very quickly not one speck of sand was -to be seen on his smart little suit. Still the blue eyes were glistening -with hot tears that would well up so she kissed away the hurtness and -shook her hand at Master Jacky the culprit and said if she was near -him she wouldn't be far from him, her eyes dancing in admonition. - ---Nasty bold Jacky! she cried. - -She put an arm round the little mariner and coaxed winningly: - ---What's your name? Butter and cream? - ---Tell us who is your sweetheart, spoke Edy Boardman. Is Cissy your -sweetheart? - ---Nao, tearful Tommy said. - ---Is Edy Boardman your sweetheart? Cissy queried. - ---Nao, Tommy said. - ---I know, Edy Boardman said none too amiably with an arch glance from -her shortsighted eyes. I know who is Tommy's sweetheart. Gerty is -Tommy's sweetheart. - ---Nao, Tommy said on the verge of tears. - -Cissy's quick motherwit guessed what was amiss and she whispered -to Edy Boardman to take him there behind the pushcar where the -gentleman couldn't see and to mind he didn't wet his new tan shoes. - -But who was Gerty? - -Gerty MacDowell who was seated near her companions, lost in -thought, gazing far away into the distance was, in very truth, as fair a -specimen of winsome Irish girlhood as one could wish to see. She was -pronounced beautiful by all who knew her though, as folks often said, she -was more a Giltrap than a MacDowell. Her figure was slight and graceful, -inclining even to fragility but those iron jelloids she had been taking of -late had done her a world of good much better than the Widow Welch's -female pills and she was much better of those discharges she used to get -and that tired feeling. The waxen pallor of her face was almost spiritual -in its ivorylike purity though her rosebud mouth was a genuine Cupid's -bow, Greekly perfect. Her hands were of finely veined alabaster -with tapering fingers and as white as lemonjuice and queen of ointments -could make them though it was not true that she used to wear kid gloves -in bed or take a milk footbath either. Bertha Supple told that once -to Edy Boardman, a deliberate lie, when she was black out at daggers -drawn with Gerty (the girl chums had of course their little tiffs -from time to time like the rest of mortals) and she told her not to -let on whatever she did that it was her that told her or she'd never -speak to her again. No. Honour where honour is due. There was an -innate refinement, a languid queenly HAUTEUR about Gerty which -was unmistakably evidenced in her delicate hands and higharched instep. -Had kind fate but willed her to be born a gentlewoman of high degree in -her own right and had she only received the benefit of a good education -Gerty MacDowell might easily have held her own beside any lady in the -land and have seen herself exquisitely gowned with jewels on her brow and -patrician suitors at her feet vying with one another to pay their devoirs -to her. Mayhap it was this, the love that might have been, that lent to -her softlyfeatured face at whiles a look, tense with suppressed meaning, -that imparted a strange yearning tendency to the beautiful eyes, a charm -few could resist. Why have women such eyes of witchery? Gerty's were of -the bluest Irish blue, set off by lustrous lashes and dark expressive -brows. Time was when those brows were not so silkily seductive. It was -Madame Vera Verity, directress of the Woman Beautiful page of the Princess -Novelette, who had first advised her to try eyebrowleine which gave that -haunting expression to the eyes, so becoming in leaders of fashion, and -she had never regretted it. Then there was blushing scientifically cured -and how to be tall increase your height and you have a beautiful face but -your nose? That would suit Mrs Dignam because she had a button one. But -Gerty's crowning glory was her wealth of wonderful hair. It was dark brown -with a natural wave in it. She had cut it that very morning on account -of the new moon and it nestled about her pretty head in a profusion of -luxuriant clusters and pared her nails too, Thursday for wealth. And just -now at Edy's words as a telltale flush, delicate as the faintest -rosebloom, crept into her cheeks she looked so lovely in her sweet girlish -shyness that of a surety God's fair land of Ireland did not hold -her equal. - -For an instant she was silent with rather sad downcast eyes. She was -about to retort but something checked the words on her tongue. Inclination -prompted her to speak out: dignity told her to be silent. The pretty lips -pouted awhile but then she glanced up and broke out into a joyous little -laugh which had in it all the freshness of a young May morning. She knew -right well, no-one better, what made squinty Edy say that because of him -cooling in his attentions when it was simply a lovers' quarrel. As per -usual somebody's nose was out of joint about the boy that had the bicycle -off the London bridge road always riding up and down in front of her -window. Only now his father kept him in in the evenings studying -hard to get an exhibition in the intermediate that was on and he was -going to go to Trinity college to study for a doctor when he left -the high school like his brother W. E. Wylie who was racing in the -bicycle races in Trinity college university. Little recked he perhaps -for what she felt, that dull aching void in her heart sometimes, -piercing to the core. Yet he was young and perchance he might -learn to love her in time. They were protestants in his family -and of course Gerty knew Who came first and after Him the Blessed -Virgin and then Saint Joseph. But he was undeniably handsome with an -exquisite nose and he was what he looked, every inch a gentleman, the -shape of his head too at the back without his cap on that she would know -anywhere something off the common and the way he turned the bicycle at -the lamp with his hands off the bars and also the nice perfume of those -good cigarettes and besides they were both of a size too he and she and -that was why Edy Boardman thought she was so frightfully clever because -he didn't go and ride up and down in front of her bit of a garden. - -Gerty was dressed simply but with the instinctive taste of a votary of -Dame Fashion for she felt that there was just a might that he might be -out. A neat blouse of electric blue selftinted by dolly dyes (because it -was expected in the LADY'S PICTORIAL that electric blue would be worn) -with a smart vee opening down to the division and kerchief pocket -(in which she always kept a piece of cottonwool scented with her -favourite perfume because the handkerchief spoiled the sit) and a -navy threequarter skirt cut to the stride showed off her slim graceful -figure to perfection. She wore a coquettish little love of a hat of -wideleaved nigger straw contrast trimmed with an underbrim of eggblue -chenille and at the side a butterfly bow of silk to tone. All Tuesday -week afternoon she was hunting to match that chenille but at last -she found what she wanted at Clery's summer sales, the very it, slightly -shopsoiled but you would never notice, seven fingers two and a penny. She -did it up all by herself and what joy was hers when she tried it on then, -smiling at the lovely reflection which the mirror gave back to her! -And when she put it on the waterjug to keep the shape she knew that that -would take the shine out of some people she knew. Her shoes were the -newest thing in footwear (Edy Boardman prided herself that she was very -PETITE but she never had a foot like Gerty MacDowell, a five, and never -would ash, oak or elm) with patent toecaps and just one smart buckle over -her higharched instep. Her wellturned ankle displayed its perfect -proportions beneath her skirt and just the proper amount and no more of -her shapely limbs encased in finespun hose with highspliced heels and wide -garter tops. As for undies they were Gerty's chief care and who that knows -the fluttering hopes and fears of sweet seventeen (though Gerty would -never see seventeen again) can find it in his heart to blame her? She had -four dinky sets with awfully pretty stitchery, three garments and -nighties extra, and each set slotted with different coloured ribbons, -rosepink, pale blue, mauve and peagreen, and she aired them herself -and blued them when they came home from the wash and ironed them -and she had a brickbat to keep the iron on because she wouldn't trust -those washerwomen as far as she'd see them scorching the things. -She was wearing the blue for luck, hoping against hope, her own -colour and lucky too for a bride to have a bit of blue somewhere -on her because the green she wore that day week brought grief because -his father brought him in to study for the intermediate exhibition -and because she thought perhaps he might be out because when she was -dressing that morning she nearly slipped up the old pair on her inside out -and that was for luck and lovers' meeting if you put those things on -inside out or if they got untied that he was thinking about you so long -as it wasn't of a Friday. - -And yet and yet! That strained look on her face! A gnawing sorrow is -there all the time. Her very soul is in her eyes and she would give worlds -to be in the privacy of her own familiar chamber where, giving way to -tears, she could have a good cry and relieve her pentup feelingsthough not -too much because she knew how to cry nicely before the mirror. You are -lovely, Gerty, it said. The paly light of evening falls upon a face -infinitely sad and wistful. Gerty MacDowell yearns in vain. Yes, she had -known from the very first that her daydream of a marriage has been -arranged and the weddingbells ringing for Mrs Reggy Wylie T. C. D. -(because the one who married the elder brother would be Mrs Wylie) and in -the fashionable intelligence Mrs Gertrude Wylie was wearing a sumptuous -confection of grey trimmed with expensive blue fox was not to be. He was -too young to understand. He would not believe in love, a woman's -birthright. The night of the party long ago in Stoer's (he was still in -short trousers) when they were alone and he stole an arm round her waist -she went white to the very lips. He called her little one in a strangely -husky voice and snatched a half kiss (the first!) but it was only the end -of her nose and then he hastened from the room with a remark about -refreshments. Impetuous fellow! Strength of character had never been Reggy -Wylie's strong point and he who would woo and win Gerty MacDowell must be -a man among men. But waiting, always waiting to be asked and it was leap -year too and would soon be over. No prince charming is her beau ideal to -lay a rare and wondrous love at her feet but rather a manly man with a -strong quiet face who had not found his ideal, perhaps his hair slightly -flecked with grey, and who would understand, take her in his sheltering -arms, strain her to him in all the strength of his deep passionate nature -and comfort her with a long long kiss. It would be like heaven. For such -a one she yearns this balmy summer eve. With all the heart of her she -longs to be his only, his affianced bride for riches for poor, in sickness -in health, till death us two part, from this to this day forward. - -And while Edy Boardman was with little Tommy behind the pushcar she was -just thinking would the day ever come when she could call herself his -little wife to be. Then they could talk about her till they went blue in -the face, Bertha Supple too, and Edy, little spitfire, because she would -be twentytwo in November. She would care for him with creature comforts -too for Gerty was womanly wise and knew that a mere man liked that -feeling of hominess. Her griddlecakes done to a goldenbrown hue and -queen Ann's pudding of delightful creaminess had won golden opinions from -all because she had a lucky hand also for lighting a fire, dredge in the -fine selfraising flour and always stir in the same direction, then cream -the milk and sugar and whisk well the white of eggs though she didn't like -the eating part when there were any people that made her shy and often she -wondered why you couldn't eat something poetical like violets or roses and -they would have a beautifully appointed drawingroom with pictures and -engravings and the photograph of grandpapa Giltrap's lovely dog -Garryowen that almost talked it was so human and chintz covers for the -chairs and that silver toastrack in Clery's summer jumble sales like they -have in rich houses. He would be tall with broad shoulders (she had always -admired tall men for a husband) with glistening white teeth under his -carefully trimmed sweeping moustache and they would go on the continent -for their honeymoon (three wonderful weeks!) and then, when they settled -down in a nice snug and cosy little homely house, every morning they -would both have brekky, simple but perfectly served, for their own two -selves and before he went out to business he would give his dear little -wifey a good hearty hug and gaze for a moment deep down into her eyes. - -Edy Boardman asked Tommy Caffrey was he done and he said yes so -then she buttoned up his little knickerbockers for him and told him to run -off and play with Jacky and to be good now and not to fight. But Tommy -said he wanted the ball and Edy told him no that baby was playing with the -ball and if he took it there'd be wigs on the green but Tommy said it was -his ball and he wanted his ball and he pranced on the ground, if you -please. The temper of him! O, he was a man already was little Tommy -Caffrey since he was out of pinnies. Edy told him no, no and to be off now -with him and she told Cissy Caffrey not to give in to him. - ---You're not my sister, naughty Tommy said. It's my ball. - -But Cissy Caffrey told baby Boardman to look up, look up high at her -finger and she snatched the ball quickly and threw it along the sand and -Tommy after it in full career, having won the day. - ---Anything for a quiet life, laughed Ciss. - -And she tickled tiny tot's two cheeks to make him forget and played here's -the lord mayor, here's his two horses, here's his gingerbread carriage -and here he walks in, chinchopper, chinchopper, chinchopper chin. But Edy -got as cross as two sticks about him getting his own way like that from -everyone always petting him. - ---I'd like to give him something, she said, so I would, where I won't say. - ---On the beeoteetom, laughed Cissy merrily. - -Gerty MacDowell bent down her head and crimsoned at the idea of Cissy -saying an unladylike thing like that out loud she'd be ashamed of her -life to say, flushing a deep rosy red, and Edy Boardman said she was sure -the gentleman opposite heard what she said. But not a pin cared Ciss. - ---Let him! she said with a pert toss of her head and a piquant tilt of her -nose. Give it to him too on the same place as quick as I'd look at him. - -Madcap Ciss with her golliwog curls. You had to laugh at her -sometimes. For instance when she asked you would you have some more -Chinese tea and jaspberry ram and when she drew the jugs too and the men's -faces on her nails with red ink make you split your sides or when she -wanted to go where you know she said she wanted to run and pay a visit to -the Miss White. That was just like Cissycums. O, and will you ever forget -her the evening she dressed up in her father's suit and hat and the burned -cork moustache and walked down Tritonville road, smoking a cigarette. -There was none to come up to her for fun. But she was sincerity itself, -one of the bravest and truest hearts heaven ever made, not one of your -twofaced things, too sweet to be wholesome. - -And then there came out upon the air the sound of voices and the -pealing anthem of the organ. It was the men's temperance retreat conducted -by the missioner, the reverend John Hughes S. J., rosary, sermon and -benediction of the Most Blessed Sacrament. They were there gathered -together without distinction of social class (and a most edifying -spectacle it was to see) in that simple fane beside the waves, -after the storms of this weary world, kneeling before the feet of -the immaculate, reciting the litany of Our Lady of Loreto, -beseeching her to intercede for them, the old familiar words, -holy Mary, holy virgin of virgins. How sad to poor Gerty's ears! -Had her father only avoided the clutches of the demon drink, by -taking the pledge or those powders the drink habit cured in Pearson's -Weekly, she might now be rolling in her carriage, second to none. Over and -over had she told herself that as she mused by the dying embers in a brown -study without the lamp because she hated two lights or oftentimes gazing -out of the window dreamily by the hour at the rain falling on the rusty -bucket, thinking. But that vile decoction which has ruined so many hearths -and homes had cist its shadow over her childhood days. Nay, she had even -witnessed in the home circle deeds of violence caused by intemperance and -had seen her own father, a prey to the fumes of intoxication, forget -himself completely for if there was one thing of all things that Gerty -knew it was that the man who lifts his hand to a woman save in the way of -kindness, deserves to be branded as the lowest of the low. - -And still the voices sang in supplication to the Virgin most powerful, -Virgin most merciful. And Gerty, rapt in thought, scarce saw or heard her -companions or the twins at their boyish gambols or the gentleman off -Sandymount green that Cissy Caffrey called the man that was so like -himself passing along the strand taking a short walk. You never saw him -any way screwed but still and for all that she would not like him for a -father because he was too old or something or on account of his face (it -was a palpable case of Doctor Fell) or his carbuncly nose with the pimples -on it and his sandy moustache a bit white under his nose. Poor father! -With all his faults she loved him still when he sang TELL ME, MARY, HOW TO -WOO THEE or MY LOVE AND COTTAGE NEAR ROCHELLE and they had stewed cockles -and lettuce with Lazenby's salad dressing for supper and when he sang THE -MOON HATH RAISED with Mr Dignam that died suddenly and was buried, God -have mercy on him, from a stroke. Her mother's birthday that was and -Charley was home on his holidays and Tom and Mr Dignam and Mrs and -Patsy and Freddy Dignam and they were to have had a group taken. -No-one would have thought the end was so near. Now he was laid to rest. -And her mother said to him to let that be a warning to him for the rest of -his days and he couldn't even go to the funeral on account of the gout and -she had to go into town to bring him the letters and samples from his -office about Catesby's cork lino, artistic, standard designs, fit for a -palace, gives tiptop wear and always bright and cheery in the home. - -A sterling good daughter was Gerty just like a second mother in the house, -a ministering angel too with a little heart worth its weight in gold. -And when her mother had those raging splitting headaches who was it -rubbed the menthol cone on her forehead but Gerty though she didn't like -her mother's taking pinches of snuff and that was the only single thing -they ever had words about, taking snuff. Everyone thought the world of her -for her gentle ways. It was Gerty who turned off the gas at the main every -night and it was Gerty who tacked up on the wall of that place where she -never forgot every fortnight the chlorate of lime Mr Tunney the grocer's -christmas almanac, the picture of halcyon days where a young gentleman in -the costume they used to wear then with a threecornered hat was offering a -bunch of flowers to his ladylove with oldtime chivalry through her lattice -window. You could see there was a story behind it. The colours were done -something lovely. She was in a soft clinging white in a studied attitude -and the gentleman was in chocolate and he looked a thorough aristocrat. -She often looked at them dreamily when she went there for a certain -purpose and felt her own arms that were white and soft just like hers with -the sleeves back and thought about those times because she had found out -in Walker's pronouncing dictionary that belonged to grandpapa Giltrap -about the halcyon days what they meant. - -The twins were now playing in the most approved brotherly fashion till at -last Master Jacky who was really as bold as brass there was no getting -behind that deliberately kicked the ball as hard as ever he could down -towards the seaweedy rocks. Needless to say poor Tommy was not slow to -voice his dismay but luckily the gentleman in black who was sitting there -by himself came gallantly to the rescue and intercepted the ball. Our two -champions claimed their plaything with lusty cries and to avoid trouble -Cissy Caffrey called to the gentleman to throw it to her please. The -gentleman aimed the ball once or twice and then threw it up the strand -towards Cissy Caffrey but it rolled down the slope and stopped right under -Gerty's skirt near the little pool by the rock. The twins clamoured again -for it and Cissy told her to kick it away and let them fight for it so -Gerty drew back her foot but she wished their stupid ball hadn't come -rolling down to her and she gave a kick but she missed and Edy and Cissy -laughed. - ---If you fail try again, Edy Boardman said. - -Gerty smiled assent and bit her lip. A delicate pink crept into her -pretty cheek but she was determined to let them see so she just lifted her -skirt a little but just enough and took good aim and gave the ball a jolly -good kick and it went ever so far and the two twins after it down towards -the shingle. Pure jealousy of course it was nothing else to draw attention -on account of the gentleman opposite looking. She felt the warm flush, a -danger signal always with Gerty MacDowell, surging and flaming into her -cheeks. Till then they had only exchanged glances of the most casual but -now under the brim of her new hat she ventured a look at him and the face -that met her gaze there in the twilight, wan and strangely drawn, seemed -to her the saddest she had ever seen. - -Through the open window of the church the fragrant incense was wafted and -with it the fragrant names of her who was conceived without stain of -original sin, spiritual vessel, pray for us, honourable vessel, pray for -us, vessel of singular devotion, pray for us, mystical rose. And careworn -hearts were there and toilers for their daily bread and many who had erred -and wandered, their eyes wet with contrition but for all that bright with -hope for the reverend father Father Hughes had told them what the great -saint Bernard said in his famous prayer of Mary, the most pious Virgin's -intercessory power that it was not recorded in any age that those who -implored her powerful protection were ever abandoned by her. - -The twins were now playing again right merrily for the troubles of -childhood are but as fleeting summer showers. Cissy Caffrey played with -baby Boardman till he crowed with glee, clapping baby hands in air. Peep -she cried behind the hood of the pushcar and Edy asked where was Cissy -gone and then Cissy popped up her head and cried ah! and, my word, -didn't the little chap enjoy that! And then she told him to say papa. - ---Say papa, baby. Say pa pa pa pa pa pa pa. - -And baby did his level best to say it for he was very intelligent for -eleven months everyone said and big for his age and the picture of health, -a perfect little bunch of love, and he would certainly turn out to be -something great, they said. - ---Haja ja ja haja. - -Cissy wiped his little mouth with the dribbling bib and wanted him to sit -up properly and say pa pa pa but when she undid the strap she cried out, -holy saint Denis, that he was possing wet and to double the half blanket -the other way under him. Of course his infant majesty was most -obstreperous at such toilet formalities and he let everyone know it: - ---Habaa baaaahabaaa baaaa. - -And two great big lovely big tears coursing down his cheeks. It was all no -use soothering him with no, nono, baby, no and telling him about the -geegee and where was the puffpuff but Ciss, always readywitted, gave him -in his mouth the teat of the suckingbottle and the young heathen was -quickly appeased. - -Gerty wished to goodness they would take their squalling baby home out of -that and not get on her nerves, no hour to be out, and the little brats -of twins. She gazed out towards the distant sea. It was like the paintings -that man used to do on the pavement with all the coloured chalks and such -a pity too leaving them there to be all blotted out, the evening and the -clouds coming out and the Bailey light on Howth and to hear the music like -that and the perfume of those incense they burned in the church like a -kind of waft. And while she gazed her heart went pitapat. Yes, it was her -he was looking at, and there was meaning in his look. His eyes burned into -her as though they would search her through and through, read her very -soul. Wonderful eyes they were, superbly expressive, but could you trust -them? People were so queer. She could see at once by his dark eyes and his -pale intellectual face that he was a foreigner, the image of the photo she -had of Martin Harvey, the matinee idol, only for the moustache which she -preferred because she wasn't stagestruck like Winny Rippingham that -wanted they two to always dress the same on account of a play but she -could not see whether he had an aquiline nose or a slightly RETROUSSE from -where he was sitting. He was in deep mourning, she could see that, and the -story of a haunting sorrow was written on his face. She would have given -worlds to know what it was. He was looking up so intently, so still, and -he saw her kick the ball and perhaps he could see the bright steel buckles -of her shoes if she swung them like that thoughtfully with the toes down. -She was glad that something told her to put on the transparent stockings -thinking Reggy Wylie might be out but that was far away. Here was that of -which she had so often dreamed. It was he who mattered and there was joy -on her face because she wanted him because she felt instinctively that he -was like no-one else. The very heart of the girlwoman went out to him, her -dreamhusband, because she knew on the instant it was him. If he had -suffered, more sinned against than sinning, or even, even, if he had been -himself a sinner, a wicked man, she cared not. Even if he was a protestant -or methodist she could convert him easily if he truly loved her. There -were wounds that wanted healing with heartbalm. She was a womanly woman -not like other flighty girls unfeminine he had known, those cyclists -showing off what they hadn't got and she just yearned to know all, to -forgive all if she could make him fall in love with her, make him forget -the memory of the past. Then mayhap he would embrace her gently, like a -real man, crushing her soft body to him, and love her, his ownest girlie, -for herself alone. - -Refuge of sinners. Comfortress of the afflicted. ORA PRO NOBIS. Well -has it been said that whosoever prays to her with faith and constancy can -never be lost or cast away: and fitly is she too a haven of refuge for the -afflicted because of the seven dolours which transpierced her own heart. -Gerty could picture the whole scene in the church, the stained glass -windows lighted up, the candles, the flowers and the blue banners of the -blessed Virgin's sodality and Father Conroy was helping Canon O'Hanlon at -the altar, carrying things in and out with his eyes cast down. He looked -almost a saint and his confessionbox was so quiet and clean and dark and -his hands were just like white wax and if ever she became a Dominican nun -in their white habit perhaps he might come to the convent for the novena -of Saint Dominic. He told her that time when she told him about that in -confession, crimsoning up to the roots of her hair for fear he could see, -not to be troubled because that was only the voice of nature and we were -all subject to nature's laws, he said, in this life and that that was no -sin because that came from the nature of woman instituted by God, he said, -and that Our Blessed Lady herself said to the archangel Gabriel be it done -unto me according to Thy Word. He was so kind and holy and often and often -she thought and thought could she work a ruched teacosy with embroidered -floral design for him as a present or a clock but they had a clock she -noticed on the mantelpiece white and gold with a canarybird that came out -of a little house to tell the time the day she went there about the -flowers for the forty hours' adoration because it was hard to know what -sort of a present to give or perhaps an album of illuminated views of -Dublin or some place. - -The exasperating little brats of twins began to quarrel again and Jacky -threw the ball out towards the sea and they both ran after it. Little -monkeys common as ditchwater. Someone ought to take them and give them -a good hiding for themselves to keep them in their places, the both of -them. And Cissy and Edy shouted after them to come back because they -were afraid the tide might come in on them and be drowned. - ---Jacky! Tommy! - -Not they! What a great notion they had! So Cissy said it was the very -last time she'd ever bring them out. She jumped up and called them and she -ran down the slope past him, tossing her hair behind her which had a good -enough colour if there had been more of it but with all the thingamerry -she was always rubbing into it she couldn't get it to grow long because it -wasn't natural so she could just go and throw her hat at it. She ran -with long gandery strides it was a wonder she didn't rip up her skirt at -the side that was too tight on her because there was a lot of the tomboy -about Cissy Caffrey and she was a forward piece whenever she thought -she had a good opportunity to show and just because she was a good runner -she ran like that so that he could see all the end of her petticoat -running and her skinny shanks up as far as possible. It would have -served her just right if she had tripped up over something accidentally -on purpose with her high crooked French heels on her to make her look -tall and got a fine tumble. TABLEAU! That would have been a very charming -expose for a gentleman like that to witness. - -Queen of angels, queen of patriarchs, queen of prophets, of all saints, -they prayed, queen of the most holy rosary and then Father Conroy handed -the thurible to Canon O'Hanlon and he put in the incense and censed the -Blessed Sacrament and Cissy Caffrey caught the two twins and she was -itching to give them a ringing good clip on the ear but she didn't because -she thought he might be watching but she never made a bigger mistake in -all her life because Gerty could see without looking that he never -took his eyes off of her and then Canon O'Hanlon handed the thurible -back to Father Conroy and knelt down looking up at the Blessed Sacrament -and the choir began to sing the TANTUM ERGO and she just swung her foot -in and out in time as the music rose and fell to the TANTUMER GOSA -CRAMEN TUM. Three and eleven she paid for those stockings in Sparrow's -of George's street on the Tuesday, no the Monday before Easter and there -wasn't a brack on them and that was what he was looking at, transparent, -and not at her insignificant ones that had neither shape nor form -(the cheek of her!) because he had eyes in his head to see the difference -for himself. - -Cissy came up along the strand with the two twins and their ball with -her hat anyhow on her to one side after her run and she did look a streel -tugging the two kids along with the flimsy blouse she bought only a -fortnight before like a rag on her back and a bit of her petticoat hanging -like a caricature. Gerty just took off her hat for a moment to settle her -hair and a prettier, a daintier head of nutbrown tresses was never seen on -a girl's shoulders--a radiant little vision, in sooth, almost maddening in -its sweetness. You would have to travel many a long mile before you found -a head of hair the like of that. She could almost see the swift answering -flash of admiration in his eyes that set her tingling in every nerve. -She put on her hat so that she could see from underneath the brim and -swung her buckled shoe faster for her breath caught as she caught the -expression in his eyes. He was eying her as a snake eyes its prey. Her -woman's instinct told her that she had raised the devil in him and at the -thought a burning scarlet swept from throat to brow till the lovely colour -of her face became a glorious rose. - -Edy Boardman was noticing it too because she was squinting at Gerty, -half smiling, with her specs like an old maid, pretending to nurse the -baby. Irritable little gnat she was and always would be and that was why -no-one could get on with her poking her nose into what was no concern of -hers. And she said to Gerty: - ---A penny for your thoughts. - ---What? replied Gerty with a smile reinforced by the whitest of teeth. -I was only wondering was it late. - -Because she wished to goodness they'd take the snottynosed twins and their -babby home to the mischief out of that so that was why she just gave a -gentle hint about its being late. And when Cissy came up Edy asked her the -time and Miss Cissy, as glib as you like, said it was half past kissing -time, time to kiss again. But Edy wanted to know because they were told to -be in early. - ---Wait, said Cissy, I'll run ask my uncle Peter over there what's the time -by his conundrum. - -So over she went and when he saw her coming she could see him take his -hand out of his pocket, getting nervous, and beginning to play with his -watchchain, looking up at the church. Passionate nature though he was -Gerty could see that he had enormous control over himself. One moment he -had been there, fascinated by a loveliness that made him gaze, and the -next moment it was the quiet gravefaced gentleman, selfcontrol expressed -in every line of his distinguishedlooking figure. - -Cissy said to excuse her would he mind please telling her what was the -right time and Gerty could see him taking out his watch, listening to it -and looking up and clearing his throat and he said he was very sorry his -watch was stopped but he thought it must be after eight because the sun -was set. His voice had a cultured ring in it and though he spoke in -measured accents there was a suspicion of a quiver in the mellow tones. -Cissy said thanks and came back with her tongue out and said uncle said -his waterworks were out of order. - -Then they sang the second verse of the TANTUM ERGO and Canon -O'Hanlon got up again and censed the Blessed Sacrament and knelt down and -he told Father Conroy that one of the candles was just going to set fire -to the flowers and Father Conroy got up and settled it all right and she -could see the gentleman winding his watch and listening to the works and -she swung her leg more in and out in time. It was getting darker but he -could see and he was looking all the time that he was winding the watch or -whatever he was doing to it and then he put it back and put his hands back -into his pockets. She felt a kind of a sensation rushing all over her and -she knew by the feel of her scalp and that irritation against her stays -that that thing must be coming on because the last time too was when she -clipped her hair on account of the moon. His dark eyes fixed themselves -on her again drinking in her every contour, literally worshipping at her -shrine. If ever there was undisguised admiration in a man's passionate -gaze it was there plain to be seen on that man's face. It is for you, -Gertrude MacDowell, and you know it. - -Edy began to get ready to go and it was high time for her and Gerty -noticed that that little hint she gave had had the desired effect because -it was a long way along the strand to where there was the place to push up -the pushcar and Cissy took off the twins' caps and tidied their hair to -make herself attractive of course and Canon O'Hanlon stood up with his -cope poking up at his neck and Father Conroy handed him the card to read -off and he read out PANEM DE COELO PRAESTITISTI EIS and Edy and Cissy were -talking about the time all the time and asking her but Gerty could pay -them back in their own coin and she just answered with scathing politeness -when Edy asked her was she heartbroken about her best boy throwing her -over. Gerty winced sharply. A brief cold blaze shone from her eyes that -spoke volumes of scorn immeasurable. It hurt--O yes, it cut deep because -Edy had her own quiet way of saying things like that she knew would wound -like the confounded little cat she was. Gerty's lips parted swiftly to -frame the word but she fought back the sob that rose to her throat, -so slim, so flawless, so beautifully moulded it seemed one an artist -might have dreamed of. She had loved him better than he knew. -Lighthearted deceiver and fickle like all his sex he would never -understand what he had meant to her and for an instant there was -in the blue eyes a quick stinging of tears. Their eyes were -probing her mercilessly but with a brave effort she sparkled back in -sympathy as she glanced at her new conquest for them to see. - ---O, responded Gerty, quick as lightning, laughing, and the proud head -flashed up. I can throw my cap at who I like because it's leap year. - -Her words rang out crystalclear, more musical than the cooing of the -ringdove, but they cut the silence icily. There was that in her young -voice that told that she was not a one to be lightly trifled with. -As for Mr Reggy with his swank and his bit of money she could just -chuck him aside as if he was so much filth and never again would she -cast as much as a second thought on him and tear his silly postcard -into a dozen pieces. And if ever after he dared to presume she -could give him one look of measured scorn that would make him -shrivel up on the spot. Miss puny little Edy's countenance fell to -no slight extent and Gerty could see by her looking as black as -thunder that she was simply in a towering rage though she hid it, the -little kinnatt, because that shaft had struck home for her petty jealousy -and they both knew that she was something aloof, apart, in another sphere, -that she was not of them and never would be and there was somebody else -too that knew it and saw it so they could put that in their pipe -and smoke it. - -Edy straightened up baby Boardman to get ready to go and Cissy -tucked in the ball and the spades and buckets and it was high time too -because the sandman was on his way for Master Boardman junior. And -Cissy told him too that billy winks was coming and that baby was to go -deedaw and baby looked just too ducky, laughing up out of his gleeful -eyes, and Cissy poked him like that out of fun in his wee fat tummy and -baby, without as much as by your leave, sent up his compliments to all -and sundry on to his brandnew dribbling bib. - ---O my! Puddeny pie! protested Ciss. He has his bib destroyed. - -The slight CONTRETEMPS claimed her attention but in two twos she set -that little matter to rights. - -Gerty stifled a smothered exclamation and gave a nervous cough and -Edy asked what and she was just going to tell her to catch it while it was -flying but she was ever ladylike in her deportment so she simply passed it -off with consummate tact by saying that that was the benediction because -just then the bell rang out from the steeple over the quiet seashore -because Canon O'Hanlon was up on the altar with the veil that Father -Conroy put round his shoulders giving the benediction with the Blessed -Sacrament in his hands. - -How moving the scene there in the gathering twilight, the last glimpse of -Erin, the touching chime of those evening bells and at the same time a bat -flew forth from the ivied belfry through the dusk, hither, thither, with a -tiny lost cry. And she could see far away the lights of the lighthouses so -picturesque she would have loved to do with a box of paints because it was -easier than to make a man and soon the lamplighter would be going his -rounds past the presbyterian church grounds and along by shady -Tritonville avenue where the couples walked and lighting the lamp near her -window where Reggy Wylie used to turn his freewheel like she read in that -book THE LAMPLIGHTER by Miss Cummins, author of MABEL VAUGHAN and -other tales. For Gerty had her dreams that no-one knew of. She loved to -read poetry and when she got a keepsake from Bertha Supple of that lovely -confession album with the coralpink cover to write her thoughts in she -laid it in the drawer of her toilettable which, though it did not err -on the side of luxury, was scrupulously neat and clean. It was there -she kept her girlish treasure trove, the tortoiseshell combs, her -child of Mary badge, the whiterose scent, the eyebrowleine, her -alabaster pouncetbox and the ribbons to change when her things came -home from the wash and there were some beautiful thoughts written -in it in violet ink that she bought in Hely's of Dame Street for -she felt that she too could write poetry if she could only express -herself like that poem that appealed to her so deeply that she had -copied out of the newspaper she found one evening round the potherbs. ART -THOU REAL, MY IDEAL? it was called by Louis J Walsh, Magherafelt, and -after there was something about TWILIGHT, WILT THOU EVER? and ofttimes -the beauty of poetry, so sad in its transient loveliness, had misted -her eyes with silent tears for she felt that the years were slipping -by for her, one by one, and but for that one shortcoming she knew she -need fear no competition and that was an accident coming down Dalkey -hill and she always tried to conceal it. But it must end, she felt. -If she saw that magic lure in his eyes there would be no holding -back for her. Love laughs at locksmiths. She would make the great -sacrifice. Her every effort would be to share his thoughts. Dearer than -the whole world would she be to him and gild his days with happiness. -There was the allimportant question and she was dying to know was he a -married man or a widower who had lost his wife or some tragedy like the -nobleman with the foreign name from the land of song had to have her put -into a madhouse, cruel only to be kind. But even if--what then? Would it -make a very great difference? From everything in the least indelicate her -finebred nature instinctively recoiled. She loathed that sort of person, -the fallen women off the accommodation walk beside the Dodder that went -with the soldiers and coarse men with no respect for a girl's honour, -degrading the sex and being taken up to the police station. No, no: not -that. They would be just good friends like a big brother and sister -without all that other in spite of the conventions of Society with a big -ess. Perhaps it was an old flame he was in mourning for from the days -beyond recall. She thought she understood. She would try to understand -him because men were so different. The old love was waiting, waiting -with little white hands stretched out, with blue appealing eyes. Heart -of mine! She would follow, her dream of love, the dictates of her heart -that told her he was her all in all, the only man in all the world -for her for love was the master guide. Nothing else mattered. Come what -might she would be wild, untrammelled, free. - -Canon O'Hanlon put the Blessed Sacrament back into the tabernacle -and genuflected and the choir sang LAUDATE DOMINUM OMNES GENTES and -then he locked the tabernacle door because the benediction was over and -Father Conroy handed him his hat to put on and crosscat Edy asked wasn't -she coming but Jacky Caffrey called out: - ---O, look, Cissy! - -And they all looked was it sheet lightning but Tommy saw it too over -the trees beside the church, blue and then green and purple. - ---It's fireworks, Cissy Caffrey said. - -And they all ran down the strand to see over the houses and the -church, helterskelter, Edy with the pushcar with baby Boardman in it and -Cissy holding Tommy and Jacky by the hand so they wouldn't fall running. - ---Come on, Gerty, Cissy called. It's the bazaar fireworks. - -But Gerty was adamant. She had no intention of being at their beck and -call. If they could run like rossies she could sit so she said she could -see from where she was. The eyes that were fastened upon her set -her pulses tingling. She looked at him a moment, meeting his glance, -and a light broke in upon her. Whitehot passion was in that face, passion -silent as the grave, and it had made her his. At last they were left -alone without the others to pry and pass remarks and she knew he -could be trusted to the death, steadfast, a sterling man, a man of -inflexible honour to his fingertips. His hands and face were working -and a tremour went over her. She leaned back far to look up where -the fireworks were and she caught her knee in her hands so as not -to fall back looking up and there was no-one to see only him and -her when she revealed all her graceful beautifully shaped legs like that, -supply soft and delicately rounded, and she seemed to hear the panting -of his heart, his hoarse breathing, because she knew too about the passion -of men like that, hotblooded, because Bertha Supple told her once in dead -secret and made her swear she'd never about the gentleman lodger that was -staying with them out of the Congested Districts Board that had pictures -cut out of papers of those skirtdancers and highkickers and she said he -used to do something not very nice that you could imagine sometimes in -the bed. But this was altogether different from a thing like that -because there was all the difference because she could almost feel -him draw her face to his and the first quick hot touch of his -handsome lips. Besides there was absolution so long as you didn't -do the other thing before being married and there ought to be -women priests that would understand without your telling out and -Cissy Caffrey too sometimes had that dreamy kind of dreamy look -in her eyes so that she too, my dear, and Winny Rippingham so mad -about actors' photographs and besides it was on account of that other -thing coming on the way it did. - -And Jacky Caffrey shouted to look, there was another and she leaned back -and the garters were blue to match on account of the transparent and they -all saw it and they all shouted to look, look, there it was and she leaned -back ever so far to see the fireworks and something queer was flying -through the air, a soft thing, to and fro, dark. And she saw a long Roman -candle going up over the trees, up, up, and, in the tense hush, -they were all breathless with excitement as it went higher and higher -and she had to lean back more and more to look up after it, high, -high, almost out of sight, and her face was suffused with a divine, -an entrancing blush from straining back and he could see her other -things too, nainsook knickers, the fabric that caresses the skin, -better than those other pettiwidth, the green, four and eleven, -on account of being white and she let him and she saw that he saw and then -it went so high it went out of sight a moment and she was trembling in -every limb from being bent so far back that he had a full view -high up above her knee where no-one ever not even on the swing or wading -and she wasn't ashamed and he wasn't either to look in that immodest way -like that because he couldn't resist the sight of the wondrous revealment -half offered like those skirtdancers behaving so immodest before gentlemen -looking and he kept on looking, looking. She would fain have cried to him -chokingly, held out her snowy slender arms to him to come, to feel his -lips laid on her white brow, the cry of a young girl's love, a little -strangled cry, wrung from her, that cry that has rung through the ages. -And then a rocket sprang and bang shot blind blank and O! then the Roman -candle burst and it was like a sigh of O! and everyone cried O! O! in -raptures and it gushed out of it a stream of rain gold hair threads and -they shed and ah! they were all greeny dewy stars falling with golden, -O so lovely, O, soft, sweet, soft! - -Then all melted away dewily in the grey air: all was silent. Ah! She -glanced at him as she bent forward quickly, a pathetic little glance of -piteous protest, of shy reproach under which he coloured like a girl -He was leaning back against the rock behind. Leopold Bloom (for it is he) -stands silent, with bowed head before those young guileless eyes. What a -brute he had been! At it again? A fair unsullied soul had called to him -and, wretch that he was, how had he answered? An utter cad he had been! -He of all men! But there was an infinite store of mercy in those eyes, -for him too a word of pardon even though he had erred and sinned and -wandered. Should a girl tell? No, a thousand times no. That was their -secret, only theirs, alone in the hiding twilight and there was none to -know or tell save the little bat that flew so softly through the evening -to and fro and little bats don't tell. - -Cissy Caffrey whistled, imitating the boys in the football field to show -what a great person she was: and then she cried: - ---Gerty! Gerty! We're going. Come on. We can see from farther up. - -Gerty had an idea, one of love's little ruses. She slipped a hand into -her kerchief pocket and took out the wadding and waved in reply of course -without letting him and then slipped it back. Wonder if he's too far to. -She rose. Was it goodbye? No. She had to go but they would meet again, -there, and she would dream of that till then, tomorrow, of her dream of -yester eve. She drew herself up to her full height. Their souls met in a -last lingering glance and the eyes that reached her heart, full of a -strange shining, hung enraptured on her sweet flowerlike face. She half -smiled at him wanly, a sweet forgiving smile, a smile that verged on -tears, and then they parted. - -Slowly, without looking back she went down the uneven strand to -Cissy, to Edy to Jacky and Tommy Caffrey, to little baby Boardman. It was -darker now and there were stones and bits of wood on the strand and slippy -seaweed. She walked with a certain quiet dignity characteristic of her but -with care and very slowly because--because Gerty MacDowell was ... - -Tight boots? No. She's lame! O! - -Mr Bloom watched her as she limped away. Poor girl! That's why she's left -on the shelf and the others did a sprint. Thought something was wrong by -the cut of her jib. Jilted beauty. A defect is ten times worse in a woman. -But makes them polite. Glad I didn't know it when she was on show. Hot -little devil all the same. I wouldn't mind. Curiosity like a nun or a -negress or a girl with glasses. That squinty one is delicate. Near her -monthlies, I expect, makes them feel ticklish. I have such a bad headache -today. Where did I put the letter? Yes, all right. All kinds of crazy -longings. Licking pennies. Girl in Tranquilla convent that nun told -me liked to smell rock oil. Virgins go mad in the end I suppose. -Sister? How many women in Dublin have it today? Martha, she. Something -in the air. That's the moon. But then why don't all women menstruate -at the same time with the same moon, I mean? Depends on the time -they were born I suppose. Or all start scratch then get out of step. -Sometimes Molly and Milly together. Anyhow I got the best of that. -Damned glad I didn't do it in the bath this morning over her silly -I will punish you letter. Made up for that tramdriver this morning. -That gouger M'Coy stopping me to say nothing. And his wife -engagement in the country valise, voice like a pickaxe. Thankful for small -mercies. Cheap too. Yours for the asking. Because they want it themselves. -Their natural craving. Shoals of them every evening poured out of offices. -Reserve better. Don't want it they throw it at you. Catch em alive, O. -Pity they can't see themselves. A dream of wellfilled hose. Where was -that? Ah, yes. Mutoscope pictures in Capel street: for men only. Peeping -Tom. Willy's hat and what the girls did with it. Do they snapshot -those girls or is it all a fake? LINGERIE does it. Felt for the -curves inside her DESHABILLE. Excites them also when they're. I'm all -clean come and dirty me. And they like dressing one another for the -sacrifice. Milly delighted with Molly's new blouse. At first. -Put them all on to take them all off. Molly. Why I bought her the violet -garters. Us too: the tie he wore, his lovely socks and turnedup trousers. -He wore a pair of gaiters the night that first we met. His lovely -shirt was shining beneath his what? of jet. Say a woman loses a charm with -every pin she takes out. Pinned together. O, Mairy lost the pin of her. -Dressed up to the nines for somebody. Fashion part of their charm. Just -changes when you're on the track of the secret. Except the east: Mary, -Martha: now as then. No reasonable offer refused. She wasn't in a hurry -either. Always off to a fellow when they are. They never forget an -appointment. Out on spec probably. They believe in chance because like -themselves. And the others inclined to give her an odd dig. Girl friends -at school, arms round each other's necks or with ten fingers locked, -kissing and whispering secrets about nothing in the convent garden. Nuns -with whitewashed faces, cool coifs and their rosaries going up and down, -vindictive too for what they can't get. Barbed wire. Be sure now and write -to me. And I'll write to you. Now won't you? Molly and Josie Powell. Till -Mr Right comes along, then meet once in a blue moon. TABLEAU! O, look -who it is for the love of God! How are you at all? What have you been -doing with yourself? Kiss and delighted to, kiss, to see you. Picking -holes in each other's appearance. You're looking splendid. Sister souls. -Showing their teeth at one another. How many have you left? Wouldn't lend -each other a pinch of salt. - -Ah! - -Devils they are when that's coming on them. Dark devilish appearance. -Molly often told me feel things a ton weight. Scratch the sole of -my foot. O that way! O, that's exquisite! Feel it myself too. Good to rest -once in a way. Wonder if it's bad to go with them then. Safe in one way. -Turns milk, makes fiddlestrings snap. Something about withering plants I -read in a garden. Besides they say if the flower withers she wears she's a -flirt. All are. Daresay she felt 1. When you feel like that you often meet -what you feel. Liked me or what? Dress they look at. Always know a fellow -courting: collars and cuffs. Well cocks and lions do the same and stags. -Same time might prefer a tie undone or something. Trousers? Suppose I -when I was? No. Gently does it. Dislike rough and tumble. Kiss in the dark -and never tell. Saw something in me. Wonder what. Sooner have me as I am -than some poet chap with bearsgrease plastery hair, lovelock over his -dexter optic. To aid gentleman in literary. Ought to attend to my -appearance my age. Didn't let her see me in profile. Still, you -never know. Pretty girls and ugly men marrying. Beauty and the -beast. Besides I can't be so if Molly. Took off her hat to show -her hair. Wide brim. Bought to hide her face, meeting someone might -know her, bend down or carry a bunch of flowers to smell. Hair -strong in rut. Ten bob I got for Molly's combings when we were on -the rocks in Holles street. Why not? Suppose he gave her money. -Why not? All a prejudice. She's worth ten, fifteen, more, a pound. What? I -think so. All that for nothing. Bold hand: Mrs Marion. Did I forget to -write address on that letter like the postcard I sent to Flynn? And the -day I went to Drimmie's without a necktie. Wrangle with Molly it was put -me off. No, I remember. Richie Goulding: he's another. Weighs on his mind. -Funny my watch stopped at half past four. Dust. Shark liver oil they use -to clean. Could do it myself. Save. Was that just when he, she? - -O, he did. Into her. She did. Done. - -Ah! - -Mr Bloom with careful hand recomposed his wet shirt. O Lord, that little -limping devil. Begins to feel cold and clammy. Aftereffect not pleasant. -Still you have to get rid of it someway. They don't care. Complimented -perhaps. Go home to nicey bread and milky and say night prayers with the -kiddies. Well, aren't they? See her as she is spoil all. Must have the -stage setting, the rouge, costume, position, music. The name too. AMOURS -of actresses. Nell Gwynn, Mrs Bracegirdle, Maud Branscombe. Curtain up. -Moonlight silver effulgence. Maiden discovered with pensive bosom. Little -sweetheart come and kiss me. Still, I feel. The strength it gives a man. -That's the secret of it. Good job I let off there behind the wall coming -out of Dignam's. Cider that was. Otherwise I couldn't have. Makes you want -to sing after. LACAUS ESANT TARATARA. Suppose I spoke to her. What about? -Bad plan however if you don't know how to end the conversation. Ask them a -question they ask you another. Good idea if you're stuck. Gain time. But -then you're in a cart. Wonderful of course if you say: good evening, and -you see she's on for it: good evening. O but the dark evening in the -Appian way I nearly spoke to Mrs Clinch O thinking she was. Whew! Girl in -Meath street that night. All the dirty things I made her say. All wrong of -course. My arks she called it. It's so hard to find one who. Aho! If you -don't answer when they solicit must be horrible for them till they harden. -And kissed my hand when I gave her the extra two shillings. Parrots. Press -the button and the bird will squeak. Wish she hadn't called me sir. O, her -mouth in the dark! And you a married man with a single girl! That's what -they enjoy. Taking a man from another woman. Or even hear of it. -Different with me. Glad to get away from other chap's wife. Eating off his -cold plate. Chap in the Burton today spitting back gumchewed gristle. -French letter still in my pocketbook. Cause of half the trouble. But might -happen sometime, I don't think. Come in, all is prepared. I dreamt. What? -Worst is beginning. How they change the venue when it's not what they -like. Ask you do you like mushrooms because she once knew a gentleman -who. Or ask you what someone was going to say when he changed his -mind and stopped. Yet if I went the whole hog, say: I want to, something -like that. Because I did. She too. Offend her. Then make it up. Pretend to -want something awfully, then cry off for her sake. Flatters them. She must -have been thinking of someone else all the time. What harm? Must since she -came to the use of reason, he, he and he. First kiss does the trick. The -propitious moment. Something inside them goes pop. Mushy like, tell by -their eye, on the sly. First thoughts are best. Remember that till their -dying day. Molly, lieutenant Mulvey that kissed her under the Moorish wall -beside the gardens. Fifteen she told me. But her breasts were developed. -Fell asleep then. After Glencree dinner that was when we drove home. -Featherbed mountain. Gnashing her teeth in sleep. Lord mayor had his eye -on her too. Val Dillon. Apoplectic. - -There she is with them down there for the fireworks. My fireworks. -Up like a rocket, down like a stick. And the children, twins they must be, -waiting for something to happen. Want to be grownups. Dressing in -mother's clothes. Time enough, understand all the ways of the world. And -the dark one with the mop head and the nigger mouth. I knew she could -whistle. Mouth made for that. Like Molly. Why that highclass whore in -Jammet's wore her veil only to her nose. Would you mind, please, telling -me the right time? I'll tell you the right time up a dark lane. Say prunes -and prisms forty times every morning, cure for fat lips. Caressing the -little boy too. Onlookers see most of the game. Of course they understand -birds, animals, babies. In their line. - -Didn't look back when she was going down the strand. Wouldn't give that -satisfaction. Those girls, those girls, those lovely seaside girls. Fine -eyes she had, clear. It's the white of the eye brings that out not so much -the pupil. Did she know what I? Course. Like a cat sitting beyond a dog's -jump. Women never meet one like that Wilkins in the high school drawing a -picture of Venus with all his belongings on show. Call that innocence? -Poor idiot! His wife has her work cut out for her. Never see them sit -on a bench marked WET PAINT. Eyes all over them. Look under the bed -for what's not there. Longing to get the fright of their lives. -Sharp as needles they are. When I said to Molly the man at the corner -of Cuffe street was goodlooking, thought she might like, twigged at -once he had a false arm. Had, too. Where do they get that? Typist -going up Roger Greene's stairs two at a time to show her understandings. -Handed down from father to, mother to daughter, I mean. Bred in the -bone. Milly for example drying her handkerchief on the mirror to -save the ironing. Best place for an ad to catch a woman's eye on a -mirror. And when I sent her for Molly's Paisley shawl to Prescott's -by the way that ad I must, carrying home the change in her stocking! -Clever little minx. I never told her. Neat way she carries parcels -too. Attract men, small thing like that. Holding up her hand, shaking it, -to let the blood flow back when it was red. Who did you learn that from? -Nobody. Something the nurse taught me. O, don't they know! Three years -old she was in front of Molly's dressingtable, just before we left Lombard -street west. Me have a nice pace. Mullingar. Who knows? Ways of the -world. Young student. Straight on her pins anyway not like the other. -Still she was game. Lord, I am wet. Devil you are. Swell of her calf. -Transparent stockings, stretched to breaking point. Not like that frump -today. A. E. Rumpled stockings. Or the one in Grafton street. White. Wow! -Beef to the heel. - -A monkey puzzle rocket burst, spluttering in darting crackles. Zrads -and zrads, zrads, zrads. And Cissy and Tommy and Jacky ran out to see -and Edy after with the pushcar and then Gerty beyond the curve of the -rocks. Will she? Watch! Watch! See! Looked round. She smelt an onion. -Darling, I saw, your. I saw all. - -Lord! - -Did me good all the same. Off colour after Kiernan's, Dignam's. For -this relief much thanks. In HAMLET, that is. Lord! It was all things -combined. Excitement. When she leaned back, felt an ache at the butt of my -tongue. Your head it simply swirls. He's right. Might have made a worse -fool of myself however. Instead of talking about nothing. Then I will tell -you all. Still it was a kind of language between us. It couldn't be? No, -Gerty they called her. Might be false name however like my name and the -address Dolphin's barn a blind. - - - HER MAIDEN NAME WAS JEMINA BROWN - AND SHE LIVED WITH HER MOTHER IN IRISHTOWN. - - -Place made me think of that I suppose. All tarred with the same brush. -Wiping pens in their stockings. But the ball rolled down to her as if it -understood. Every bullet has its billet. Course I never could throw -anything straight at school. Crooked as a ram's horn. Sad however because -it lasts only a few years till they settle down to potwalloping and papa's -pants will soon fit Willy and fuller's earth for the baby when they hold -him out to do ah ah. No soft job. Saves them. Keeps them out of harm's -way. Nature. Washing child, washing corpse. Dignam. Children's hands -always round them. Cocoanut skulls, monkeys, not even closed at first, -sour milk in their swaddles and tainted curds. Oughtn't to have given -that child an empty teat to suck. Fill it up with wind. Mrs Beaufoy, -Purefoy. Must call to the hospital. Wonder is nurse Callan there still. -She used to look over some nights when Molly was in the Coffee Palace. -That young doctor O'Hare I noticed her brushing his coat. And Mrs Breen -and Mrs Dignam once like that too, marriageable. Worst of all at night -Mrs Duggan told me in the City Arms. Husband rolling in drunk, stink of -pub off him like a polecat. Have that in your nose in the dark, -whiff of stale boose. Then ask in the morning: was I drunk last -night? Bad policy however to fault the husband. Chickens come -home to roost. They stick by one another like glue. Maybe the -women's fault also. That's where Molly can knock spots off them. It's the -blood of the south. Moorish. Also the form, the figure. Hands felt for the -opulent. Just compare for instance those others. Wife locked up at home, -skeleton in the cupboard. Allow me to introduce my. Then they trot you out -some kind of a nondescript, wouldn't know what to call her. Always see a -fellow's weak point in his wife. Still there's destiny in it, falling in -love. Have their own secrets between them. Chaps that would go to the dogs -if some woman didn't take them in hand. Then little chits of girls, -height of a shilling in coppers, with little hubbies. As God made them he -matched them. Sometimes children turn out well enough. Twice nought makes -one. Or old rich chap of seventy and blushing bride. Marry in May and -repent in December. This wet is very unpleasant. Stuck. Well the foreskin -is not back. Better detach. - -Ow! - -Other hand a sixfooter with a wifey up to his watchpocket. Long and -the short of it. Big he and little she. Very strange about my watch. -Wristwatches are always going wrong. Wonder is there any magnetic -influence between the person because that was about the time he. Yes, I -suppose, at once. Cat's away, the mice will play. I remember looking in -Pill lane. Also that now is magnetism. Back of everything magnetism. Earth -for instance pulling this and being pulled. That causes movement. And -time, well that's the time the movement takes. Then if one thing stopped -the whole ghesabo would stop bit by bit. Because it's all arranged. -Magnetic needle tells you what's going on in the sun, the stars. Little -piece of steel iron. When you hold out the fork. Come. Come. Tip. Woman -and man that is. Fork and steel. Molly, he. Dress up and look and suggest -and let you see and see more and defy you if you're a man to see that and, -like a sneeze coming, legs, look, look and if you have any guts in you. -Tip. Have to let fly. - -Wonder how is she feeling in that region. Shame all put on before -third person. More put out about a hole in her stocking. Molly, her -underjaw stuck out, head back, about the farmer in the ridingboots and -spurs at the horse show. And when the painters were in Lombard street -west. Fine voice that fellow had. How Giuglini began. Smell that I did. -Like flowers. It was too. Violets. Came from the turpentine probably in -the paint. Make their own use of everything. Same time doing it scraped -her slipper on the floor so they wouldn't hear. But lots of them can't -kick the beam, I think. Keep that thing up for hours. Kind of a general -all round over me and half down my back. - -Wait. Hm. Hm. Yes. That's her perfume. Why she waved her hand. I -leave you this to think of me when I'm far away on the pillow. What is it? -Heliotrope? No. Hyacinth? Hm. Roses, I think. She'd like scent of that -kind. Sweet and cheap: soon sour. Why Molly likes opoponax. Suits her, -with a little jessamine mixed. Her high notes and her low notes. At the -dance night she met him, dance of the hours. Heat brought it out. She was -wearing her black and it had the perfume of the time before. Good -conductor, is it? Or bad? Light too. Suppose there's some connection. For -instance if you go into a cellar where it's dark. Mysterious thing too. -Why did I smell it only now? Took its time in coming like herself, slow -but sure. Suppose it's ever so many millions of tiny grains blown across. -Yes, it is. Because those spice islands, Cinghalese this morning, smell -them leagues off. Tell you what it is. It's like a fine fine veil or web -they have all over the skin, fine like what do you call it gossamer, and -they're always spinning it out of them, fine as anything, like rainbow -colours without knowing it. Clings to everything she takes off. Vamp of -her stockings. Warm shoe. Stays. Drawers: little kick, taking them off. -Byby till next time. Also the cat likes to sniff in her shift on -the bed. Know her smell in a thousand. Bathwater too. Reminds me of -strawberries and cream. Wonder where it is really. There or the armpits -or under the neck. Because you get it out of all holes and corners. -Hyacinth perfume made of oil of ether or something. Muskrat. -Bag under their tails. One grain pour off odour for years. Dogs at -each other behind. Good evening. Evening. How do you sniff? Hm. Hm. -Very well, thank you. Animals go by that. Yes now, look at it that way. -We're the same. Some women, instance, warn you off when they have their -period. Come near. Then get a hogo you could hang your hat on. Like -what? Potted herrings gone stale or. Boof! Please keep off the grass. - -Perhaps they get a man smell off us. What though? Cigary gloves long -John had on his desk the other day. Breath? What you eat and drink gives -that. No. Mansmell, I mean. Must be connected with that because priests -that are supposed to be are different. Women buzz round it like flies -round treacle. Railed off the altar get on to it at any cost. The tree -of forbidden priest. O, father, will you? Let me be the first to. -That diffuses itself all through the body, permeates. Source of life. -And it's extremely curious the smell. Celery sauce. Let me. - -Mr Bloom inserted his nose. Hm. Into the. Hm. Opening of his -waistcoat. Almonds or. No. Lemons it is. Ah no, that's the soap. - -O by the by that lotion. I knew there was something on my mind. -Never went back and the soap not paid. Dislike carrying bottles like that -hag this morning. Hynes might have paid me that three shillings. I could -mention Meagher's just to remind him. Still if he works that paragraph. -Two and nine. Bad opinion of me he'll have. Call tomorrow. How much do -I owe you? Three and nine? Two and nine, sir. Ah. Might stop him giving -credit another time. Lose your customers that way. Pubs do. Fellows run up -a bill on the slate and then slinking around the back streets into -somewhere else. - -Here's this nobleman passed before. Blown in from the bay. Just went -as far as turn back. Always at home at dinnertime. Looks mangled out: had -a good tuck in. Enjoying nature now. Grace after meals. After supper walk -a mile. Sure he has a small bank balance somewhere, government sit. Walk -after him now make him awkward like those newsboys me today. Still you -learn something. See ourselves as others see us. So long as women don't -mock what matter? That's the way to find out. Ask yourself who is he now. -THE MYSTERY MAN ON THE BEACH, prize titbit story by Mr Leopold Bloom. -Payment at the rate of one guinea per column. And that fellow today at the -graveside in the brown macintosh. Corns on his kismet however. Healthy -perhaps absorb all the. Whistle brings rain they say. Must be some -somewhere. Salt in the Ormond damp. The body feels the atmosphere. Old -Betty's joints are on the rack. Mother Shipton's prophecy that is about -ships around they fly in the twinkling. No. Signs of rain it is. The royal -reader. And distant hills seem coming nigh. - -Howth. Bailey light. Two, four, six, eight, nine. See. Has to change or -they might think it a house. Wreckers. Grace Darling. People afraid of the -dark. Also glowworms, cyclists: lightingup time. Jewels diamonds flash -better. Women. Light is a kind of reassuring. Not going to hurt you. -Better now of course than long ago. Country roads. Run you through the -small guts for nothing. Still two types there are you bob against. -Scowl or smile. Pardon! Not at all. Best time to spray plants too in the -shade after the sun. Some light still. Red rays are longest. Roygbiv -Vance taught us: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. -A star I see. Venus? Can't tell yet. Two. When three it's night. Were -those nightclouds there all the time? Looks like a phantom ship. No. -Wait. Trees are they? An optical illusion. Mirage. Land of the setting -sun this. Homerule sun setting in the southeast. My native land, -goodnight. - -Dew falling. Bad for you, dear, to sit on that stone. Brings on white -fluxions. Never have little baby then less he was big strong fight his way -up through. Might get piles myself. Sticks too like a summer cold, sore on -the mouth. Cut with grass or paper worst. Friction of the position. -Like to be that rock she sat on. O sweet little, you don't know how nice -you looked. I begin to like them at that age. Green apples. Grab at all -that offer. Suppose it's the only time we cross legs, seated. Also the -library today: those girl graduates. Happy chairs under them. But it's -the evening influence. They feel all that. Open like flowers, know -their hours, sunflowers, Jerusalem artichokes, in ballrooms, chandeliers, -avenues under the lamps. Nightstock in Mat Dillon's garden where I kissed -her shoulder. Wish I had a full length oilpainting of her then. June -that was too I wooed. The year returns. History repeats itself. -Ye crags and peaks I'm with you once again. Life, love, voyage round -your own little world. And now? Sad about her lame of course but must -be on your guard not to feel too much pity. They take advantage. - -All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The -rhododendrons. I am a fool perhaps. He gets the plums, and I the -plumstones. Where I come in. All that old hill has seen. Names change: -that's all. Lovers: yum yum. - -Tired I feel now. Will I get up? O wait. Drained all the manhood out -of me, little wretch. She kissed me. Never again. My youth. Only once it -comes. Or hers. Take the train there tomorrow. No. Returning not the -same. Like kids your second visit to a house. The new I want. Nothing new -under the sun. Care of P. O. Dolphin's Barn. Are you not happy in your? -Naughty darling. At Dolphin's barn charades in Luke Doyle's house. Mat -Dillon and his bevy of daughters: Tiny, Atty, Floey, Maimy, Louy, Hetty. -Molly too. Eightyseven that was. Year before we. And the old major, -partial to his drop of spirits. Curious she an only child, I an only -child. So it returns. Think you're escaping and run into yourself. Longest -way round is the shortest way home. And just when he and she. Circus horse -walking in a ring. Rip van Winkle we played. Rip: tear in Henny Doyle's -overcoat. Van: breadvan delivering. Winkle: cockles and periwinkles. Then -I did Rip van Winkle coming back. She leaned on the sideboard watching. -Moorish eyes. Twenty years asleep in Sleepy Hollow. All changed. -Forgotten. The young are old. His gun rusty from the dew. - -Ba. What is that flying about? Swallow? Bat probably. Thinks I'm a tree, -so blind. Have birds no smell? Metempsychosis. They believed you could be -changed into a tree from grief. Weeping willow. Ba. There he goes. -Funny little beggar. Wonder where he lives. Belfry up there. Very likely. -Hanging by his heels in the odour of sanctity. Bell scared him out, I -suppose. Mass seems to be over. Could hear them all at it. Pray for us. -And pray for us. And pray for us. Good idea the repetition. Same -thing with ads. Buy from us. And buy from us. Yes, there's the light -in the priest's house. Their frugal meal. Remember about the mistake -in the valuation when I was in Thom's. Twentyeight it is. Two houses -they have. Gabriel Conroy's brother is curate. Ba. Again. Wonder why -they come out at night like mice. They're a mixed breed. Birds are -like hopping mice. What frightens them, light or noise? Better sit still. -All instinct like the bird in drouth got water out of the end of a -jar by throwing in pebbles. Like a little man in a cloak he is with tiny -hands. Weeny bones. Almost see them shimmering, kind of a bluey white. -Colours depend on the light you see. Stare the sun for example -like the eagle then look at a shoe see a blotch blob yellowish. Wants to -stamp his trademark on everything. Instance, that cat this morning on the -staircase. Colour of brown turf. Say you never see them with three -colours. Not true. That half tabbywhite tortoiseshell in the CITY ARMS -with the letter em on her forehead. Body fifty different colours. Howth -a while ago amethyst. Glass flashing. That's how that wise man what's his -name with the burning glass. Then the heather goes on fire. It can't be -tourists' matches. What? Perhaps the sticks dry rub together in the wind -and light. Or broken bottles in the furze act as a burning glass in the -sun. Archimedes. I have it! My memory's not so bad. - -Ba. Who knows what they're always flying for. Insects? That bee last week -got into the room playing with his shadow on the ceiling. Might be the -one bit me, come back to see. Birds too. Never find out. Or what they say. -Like our small talk. And says she and says he. Nerve they have to fly over -the ocean and back. Lots must be killed in storms, telegraph wires. -Dreadful life sailors have too. Big brutes of oceangoing steamers -floundering along in the dark, lowing out like seacows. FAUGH A BALLAGH! -Out of that, bloody curse to you! Others in vessels, bit of a handkerchief -sail, pitched about like snuff at a wake when the stormy winds do blow. -Married too. Sometimes away for years at the ends of the earth somewhere. -No ends really because it's round. Wife in every port they say. She has a -good job if she minds it till Johnny comes marching home again. If ever he -does. Smelling the tail end of ports. How can they like the sea? Yet they -do. The anchor's weighed. Off he sails with a scapular or a medal -on him for luck. Well. And the tephilim no what's this they call it poor -papa's father had on his door to touch. That brought us out of the land -of Egypt and into the house of bondage. Something in all those -superstitions because when you go out never know what dangers. Hanging -on to a plank or astride of a beam for grim life, lifebelt round him, -gulping salt water, and that's the last of his nibs till the sharks -catch hold of him. Do fish ever get seasick? - -Then you have a beautiful calm without a cloud, smooth sea, placid, -crew and cargo in smithereens, Davy Jones' locker, moon looking down so -peaceful. Not my fault, old cockalorum. - -A last lonely candle wandered up the sky from Mirus bazaar in search -of funds for Mercer's hospital and broke, drooping, and shed a cluster of -violet but one white stars. They floated, fell: they faded. The shepherd's -hour: the hour of folding: hour of tryst. From house to house, giving his -everwelcome double knock, went the nine o'clock postman, the -glowworm's lamp at his belt gleaming here and there through the laurel -hedges. And among the five young trees a hoisted lintstock lit the lamp at -Leahy's terrace. By screens of lighted windows, by equal gardens a shrill -voice went crying, wailing: EVENING TELEGRAPH, STOP PRESS EDITION! RESULT -OF THE GOLD CUP RACE! and from the door of Dignam's house a boy ran out -and called. Twittering the bat flew here, flew there. Far out over the -sands the coming surf crept, grey. Howth settled for slumber, tired of -long days, of yumyum rhododendrons (he was old) and felt gladly the night -breeze lift, ruffle his fell of ferns. He lay but opened a red eye -unsleeping, deep and slowly breathing, slumberous but awake. And far on -Kish bank the anchored lightship twinkled, winked at Mr Bloom. - -Life those chaps out there must have, stuck in the same spot. Irish -Lights board. Penance for their sins. Coastguards too. Rocket and breeches -buoy and lifeboat. Day we went out for the pleasure cruise in the Erin's -King, throwing them the sack of old papers. Bears in the zoo. Filthy trip. -Drunkards out to shake up their livers. Puking overboard to feed the -herrings. Nausea. And the women, fear of God in their faces. Milly, -no sign of funk. Her blue scarf loose, laughing. Don't know what death -is at that age. And then their stomachs clean. But being lost they fear. -When we hid behind the tree at Crumlin. I didn't want to. Mamma! Mamma! -Babes in the wood. Frightening them with masks too. Throwing them up -in the air to catch them. I'll murder you. Is it only half fun? -Or children playing battle. Whole earnest. How can people aim guns at -each other. Sometimes they go off. Poor kids! Only troubles wildfire -and nettlerash. Calomel purge I got her for that. After getting better -asleep with Molly. Very same teeth she has. What do they love? -Another themselves? But the morning she chased her with the umbrella. -Perhaps so as not to hurt. I felt her pulse. Ticking. Little hand -it was: now big. Dearest Papli. All that the hand says when you -touch. Loved to count my waistcoat buttons. Her first stays I -remember. Made me laugh to see. Little paps to begin with. Left one -is more sensitive, I think. Mine too. Nearer the heart? Padding -themselves out if fat is in fashion. Her growing pains at night, calling, -wakening me. Frightened she was when her nature came on her first. -Poor child! Strange moment for the mother too. Brings back her girlhood. -Gibraltar. Looking from Buena Vista. O'Hara's tower. The seabirds -screaming. Old Barbary ape that gobbled all his family. Sundown, -gunfire for the men to cross the lines. Looking out over the sea she -told me. Evening like this, but clear, no clouds. I always thought I'd -marry a lord or a rich gentleman coming with a private yacht. BUENAS -NOCHES, SENORITA. EL HOMBRE AMA LA MUCHACHA HERMOSA. Why me? Because -you were so foreign from the others. - -Better not stick here all night like a limpet. This weather makes you -dull. Must be getting on for nine by the light. Go home. Too late for LEAH, -LILY OF KILLARNEY. No. Might be still up. Call to the hospital to see. -Hope she's over. Long day I've had. Martha, the bath, funeral, house of -Keyes, museum with those goddesses, Dedalus' song. Then that bawler in -Barney Kiernan's. Got my own back there. Drunken ranters what I said about -his God made him wince. Mistake to hit back. Or? No. Ought to go home and -laugh at themselves. Always want to be swilling in company. Afraid to be -alone like a child of two. Suppose he hit me. Look at it other way round. -Not so bad then. Perhaps not to hurt he meant. Three cheers for Israel. -Three cheers for the sister-in-law he hawked about, three fangs in her -mouth. Same style of beauty. Particularly nice old party for a cup of tea. -The sister of the wife of the wild man of Borneo has just come to town. -Imagine that in the early morning at close range. Everyone to his taste as -Morris said when he kissed the cow. But Dignam's put the boots on it. -Houses of mourning so depressing because you never know. Anyhow she -wants the money. Must call to those Scottish Widows as I promised. Strange -name. Takes it for granted we're going to pop off first. That widow -on Monday was it outside Cramer's that looked at me. Buried the poor -husband but progressing favourably on the premium. Her widow's mite. -Well? What do you expect her to do? Must wheedle her way along. -Widower I hate to see. Looks so forlorn. Poor man O'Connor wife and five -children poisoned by mussels here. The sewage. Hopeless. Some good -matronly woman in a porkpie hat to mother him. Take him in tow, platter -face and a large apron. Ladies' grey flannelette bloomers, three shillings -a pair, astonishing bargain. Plain and loved, loved for ever, they say. -Ugly: no woman thinks she is. Love, lie and be handsome for tomorrow we -die. See him sometimes walking about trying to find out who played the -trick. U. p: up. Fate that is. He, not me. Also a shop often noticed. -Curse seems to dog it. Dreamt last night? Wait. Something confused. She -had red slippers on. Turkish. Wore the breeches. Suppose she does? Would -I like her in pyjamas? Damned hard to answer. Nannetti's gone. Mailboat. -Near Holyhead by now. Must nail that ad of Keyes's. Work Hynes and -Crawford. Petticoats for Molly. She has something to put in them. What's -that? Might be money. - -Mr Bloom stooped and turned over a piece of paper on the strand. He -brought it near his eyes and peered. Letter? No. Can't read. Better go. -Better. I'm tired to move. Page of an old copybook. All those holes and -pebbles. Who could count them? Never know what you find. Bottle with -story of a treasure in it, thrown from a wreck. Parcels post. Children -always want to throw things in the sea. Trust? Bread cast on the waters. -What's this? Bit of stick. - -O! Exhausted that female has me. Not so young now. Will she come -here tomorrow? Wait for her somewhere for ever. Must come back. -Murderers do. Will I? - -Mr Bloom with his stick gently vexed the thick sand at his foot. Write -a message for her. Might remain. What? - -I. - -Some flatfoot tramp on it in the morning. Useless. Washed away. Tide comes -here. Saw a pool near her foot. Bend, see my face there, dark mirror, -breathe on it, stirs. All these rocks with lines and scars and letters. O, -those transparent! Besides they don't know. What is the meaning of that -other world. I called you naughty boy because I do not like. - -AM. A. - -No room. Let it go. - -Mr Bloom effaced the letters with his slow boot. Hopeless thing sand. -Nothing grows in it. All fades. No fear of big vessels coming up here. -Except Guinness's barges. Round the Kish in eighty days. Done half by -design. - -He flung his wooden pen away. The stick fell in silted sand, stuck. -Now if you were trying to do that for a week on end you couldn't. Chance. -We'll never meet again. But it was lovely. Goodbye, dear. Thanks. Made me -feel so young. - -Short snooze now if I had. Must be near nine. Liverpool boat long -gone.. Not even the smoke. And she can do the other. Did too. And Belfast. -I won't go. Race there, race back to Ennis. Let him. Just close my eyes a -moment. Won't sleep, though. Half dream. It never comes the same. Bat -again. No harm in him. Just a few. - -O sweety all your little girlwhite up I saw dirty bracegirdle made me -do love sticky we two naughty Grace darling she him half past the bed met -him pike hoses frillies for Raoul de perfume your wife black hair heave -under embon SENORITA young eyes Mulvey plump bubs me breadvan Winkle -red slippers she rusty sleep wander years of dreams return tail end -Agendath swoony lovey showed me her next year in drawers return next in -her next her next. - -A bat flew. Here. There. Here. Far in the grey a bell chimed. Mr -Bloom with open mouth, his left boot sanded sideways, leaned, breathed. -Just for a few - - - CUCKOO - CUCKOO - CUCKOO. - - -The clock on the mantelpiece in the priest's house cooed where Canon -O'Hanlon and Father Conroy and the reverend John Hughes S. J. were -taking tea and sodabread and butter and fried mutton chops with catsup -and talking about - - - CUCKOO - CUCKOO - CUCKOO. - - -Because it was a little canarybird that came out of its little house to -tell the time that Gerty MacDowell noticed the time she was there because -she was as quick as anything about a thing like that, was Gerty MacDowell, -and she noticed at once that that foreign gentleman that was sitting on -the rocks looking was - - - CUCKOO - CUCKOO - CUCKOO. - - - * * * * * * * - - -Deshil Holles Eamus. Deshil Holles Eamus. Deshil Holles Eamus. - -Send us bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit. Send -us bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit. Send us -bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit. - -Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa! Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa! Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa! - -Universally that person's acumen is esteemed very little perceptive -concerning whatsoever matters are being held as most profitably by mortals -with sapience endowed to be studied who is ignorant of that which the most -in doctrine erudite and certainly by reason of that in them high mind's -ornament deserving of veneration constantly maintain when by general -consent they affirm that other circumstances being equal by no exterior -splendour is the prosperity of a nation more efficaciously asserted than -by the measure of how far forward may have progressed the tribute of its -solicitude for that proliferent continuance which of evils the original if -it be absent when fortunately present constitutes the certain sign of -omnipotent nature's incorrupted benefaction. For who is there who anything -of some significance has apprehended but is conscious that that exterior -splendour may be the surface of a downwardtending lutulent reality or on -the contrary anyone so is there unilluminated as not to perceive that as -no nature's boon can contend against the bounty of increase so it behoves -every most just citizen to become the exhortator and admonisher of his -semblables and to tremble lest what had in the past been by the nation -excellently commenced might be in the future not with similar excellence -accomplished if an inverecund habit shall have gradually traduced the -honourable by ancestors transmitted customs to that thither of profundity -that that one was audacious excessively who would have the hardihood to -rise affirming that no more odious offence can for anyone be than to -oblivious neglect to consign that evangel simultaneously command and -promise which on all mortals with prophecy of abundance or with -diminution's menace that exalted of reiteratedly procreating function ever -irrevocably enjoined? - -It is not why therefore we shall wonder if, as the best historians relate, -among the Celts, who nothing that was not in its nature admirable admired, -the art of medicine shall have been highly honoured. Not to speak of -hostels, leperyards, sweating chambers, plaguegraves, their greatest -doctors, the O'Shiels, the O'Hickeys, the O'Lees, have sedulously set down -the divers methods by which the sick and the relapsed found again health -whether the malady had been the trembling withering or loose boyconnell -flux. Certainly in every public work which in it anything of gravity -contains preparation should be with importance commensurate and therefore -a plan was by them adopted (whether by having preconsidered or as the -maturation of experience it is difficult in being said which the -discrepant opinions of subsequent inquirers are not up to the present -congrued to render manifest) whereby maternity was so far from all -accident possibility removed that whatever care the patient in that -all hardest of woman hour chiefly required and not solely for the -copiously opulent but also for her who not being sufficiently moneyed -scarcely and often not even scarcely could subsist valiantly and for an -inconsiderable emolument was provided. - -To her nothing already then and thenceforward was anyway able to be -molestful for this chiefly felt all citizens except with proliferent -mothers prosperity at all not to can be and as they had received eternity -gods mortals generation to befit them her beholding, when the case was so -hoving itself, parturient in vehicle thereward carrying desire immense -among all one another was impelling on of her to be received into that -domicile. O thing of prudent nation not merely in being seen but also -even in being related worthy of being praised that they her by -anticipation went seeing mother, that she by them suddenly to be about to -be cherished had been begun she felt! - -Before born bliss babe had. Within womb won he worship. Whatever -in that one case done commodiously done was. A couch by midwives -attended with wholesome food reposeful, cleanest swaddles as though -forthbringing were now done and by wise foresight set: but to this no less -of what drugs there is need and surgical implements which are pertaining -to her case not omitting aspect of all very distracting spectacles in -various latitudes by our terrestrial orb offered together with images, -divine and human, the cogitation of which by sejunct females is to -tumescence conducive or eases issue in the high sunbright wellbuilt fair -home of mothers when, ostensibly far gone and reproductitive, it is come -by her thereto to lie in, her term up. - -Some man that wayfaring was stood by housedoor at night's -oncoming. Of Israel's folk was that man that on earth wandering far had -fared. Stark ruth of man his errand that him lone led till that house. - -Of that house A. Horne is lord. Seventy beds keeps he there teeming -mothers are wont that they lie for to thole and bring forth bairns hale so -God's angel to Mary quoth. Watchers tway there walk, white sisters in -ward sleepless. Smarts they still, sickness soothing: in twelve moons -thrice an hundred. Truest bedthanes they twain are, for Horne holding -wariest ward. - -In ward wary the watcher hearing come that man mildhearted eft -rising with swire ywimpled to him her gate wide undid. Lo, levin leaping -lightens in eyeblink Ireland's westward welkin. Full she drad that God the -Wreaker all mankind would fordo with water for his evil sins. Christ's -rood made she on breastbone and him drew that he would rathe infare under -her thatch. That man her will wotting worthful went in Horne's house. - -Loth to irk in Horne's hall hat holding the seeker stood. On her stow -he ere was living with dear wife and lovesome daughter that then over land -and seafloor nine years had long outwandered. Once her in townhithe -meeting he to her bow had not doffed. Her to forgive now he craved with -good ground of her allowed that that of him swiftseen face, hers, so young -then had looked. Light swift her eyes kindled, bloom of blushes his word -winning. - -As her eyes then ongot his weeds swart therefor sorrow she feared. -Glad after she was that ere adread was. Her he asked if O'Hare Doctor -tidings sent from far coast and she with grameful sigh him answered that -O'Hare Doctor in heaven was. Sad was the man that word to hear that him -so heavied in bowels ruthful. All she there told him, ruing death for -friend so young, algate sore unwilling God's rightwiseness to withsay. She -said that he had a fair sweet death through God His goodness with -masspriest to be shriven, holy housel and sick men's oil to his limbs. The -man then right earnest asked the nun of which death the dead man was died -and the nun answered him and said that he was died in Mona Island through -bellycrab three year agone come Childermas and she prayed to God the -Allruthful to have his dear soul in his undeathliness. He heard her sad -words, in held hat sad staring. So stood they there both awhile in wanhope -sorrowing one with other. - -Therefore, everyman, look to that last end that is thy death and the -dust that gripeth on every man that is born of woman for as he came naked -forth from his mother's womb so naked shall he wend him at the last for to -go as he came. - -The man that was come in to the house then spoke to the -nursingwoman and he asked her how it fared with the woman that lay there -in childbed. The nursingwoman answered him and said that that woman -was in throes now full three days and that it would be a hard birth unneth -to bear but that now in a little it would be. She said thereto that she -had seen many births of women but never was none so hard as was that -woman's birth. Then she set it all forth to him for because she knew the -man that time was had lived nigh that house. The man hearkened to her -words for he felt with wonder women's woe in the travail that they have of -motherhood and he wondered to look on her face that was a fair face for -any man to see but yet was she left after long years a handmaid. Nine -twelve bloodflows chiding her childless. - -And whiles they spake the door of the castle was opened and there -nighed them a mickle noise as of many that sat there at meat. And there -came against the place as they stood a young learningknight yclept Dixon. -And the traveller Leopold was couth to him sithen it had happed that they -had had ado each with other in the house of misericord where this -learningknight lay by cause the traveller Leopold came there to be healed -for he was sore wounded in his breast by a spear wherewith a horrible and -dreadful dragon was smitten him for which he did do make a salve of -volatile salt and chrism as much as he might suffice. And he said now that -he should go in to that castle for to make merry with them that were -there. And the traveller Leopold said that he should go otherwhither for -he was a man of cautels and a subtile. Also the lady was of his avis and -repreved the learningknight though she trowed well that the traveller had -said thing that was false for his subtility. But the learningknight would -not hear say nay nor do her mandement ne have him in aught contrarious to -his list and he said how it was a marvellous castle. And the traveller -Leopold went into the castle for to rest him for a space being sore of -limb after many marches environing in divers lands and sometime venery. - -And in the castle was set a board that was of the birchwood of -Finlandy and it was upheld by four dwarfmen of that country but they -durst not move more for enchantment. And on this board were frightful -swords and knives that are made in a great cavern by swinking demons out -of white flames that they fix then in the horns of buffalos and stags that -there abound marvellously. And there were vessels that are wrought by -magic of Mahound out of seasand and the air by a warlock with his breath -that he blases in to them like to bubbles. And full fair cheer and rich -was on the board that no wight could devise a fuller ne richer. And there -was a vat of silver that was moved by craft to open in the which lay -strange fishes withouten heads though misbelieving men nie that this -be possible thing without they see it natheless they are so. And these -fishes lie in an oily water brought there from Portugal land because -of the fatness that therein is like to the juices of the olivepress. -And also it was a marvel to see in that castle how by magic they make -a compost out of fecund wheatkidneys out of Chaldee that by aid of -certain angry spirits that they do in to it swells up wondrously like -to a vast mountain. And they teach the serpents there to entwine -themselves up on long sticks out of the ground and of the scales of -these serpents they brew out a brewage like to mead. - -And the learning knight let pour for childe Leopold a draught and halp -thereto the while all they that were there drank every each. And childe -Leopold did up his beaver for to pleasure him and took apertly somewhat in -amity for he never drank no manner of mead which he then put by and -anon full privily he voided the more part in his neighbour glass and his -neighbour nist not of this wile. And he sat down in that castle with them -for to rest him there awhile. Thanked be Almighty God. - -This meanwhile this good sister stood by the door and begged them at -the reverence of Jesu our alther liege Lord to leave their wassailing for -there was above one quick with child, a gentle dame, whose time hied fast. -Sir Leopold heard on the upfloor cry on high and he wondered what cry that -it was whether of child or woman and I marvel, said he, that it be not -come or now. Meseems it dureth overlong. And he was ware and saw a -franklin that hight Lenehan on that side the table that was older than any -of the tother and for that they both were knights virtuous in the one -emprise and eke by cause that he was elder he spoke to him full gently. -But, said he, or it be long too she will bring forth by God His bounty and -have joy of her childing for she hath waited marvellous long. And the -franklin that had drunken said, Expecting each moment to be her next. -Also he took the cup that stood tofore him for him needed never none -asking nor desiring of him to drink and, Now drink, said he, fully -delectably, and he quaffed as far as he might to their both's health -for he was a passing good man of his lustiness. And sir Leopold -that was the goodliest guest that ever sat in scholars' hall and -that was the meekest man and the kindest that ever laid husbandly -hand under hen and that was the very truest knight of the world -one that ever did minion service to lady gentle pledged him courtly in -the cup. Woman's woe with wonder pondering. - -Now let us speak of that fellowship that was there to the intent to be -drunken an they might. There was a sort of scholars along either side the -board, that is to wit, Dixon yclept junior of saint Mary Merciable's with -other his fellows Lynch and Madden, scholars of medicine, and the franklin -that hight Lenehan and one from Alba Longa, one Crotthers, and young -Stephen that had mien of a frere that was at head of the board and -Costello that men clepen Punch Costello all long of a mastery of him -erewhile gested (and of all them, reserved young Stephen, he was the most -drunken that demanded still of more mead) and beside the meek sir -Leopold. But on young Malachi they waited for that he promised to -have come and such as intended to no goodness said how he had broke -his avow. And sir Leopold sat with them for he bore fast friendship -to sir Simon and to this his son young Stephen and for that his languor -becalmed him there after longest wanderings insomuch as they feasted -him for that time in the honourablest manner. Ruth red him, love led -on with will to wander, loth to leave. - -For they were right witty scholars. And he heard their aresouns each gen -other as touching birth and righteousness, young Madden maintaining that -put such case it were hard the wife to die (for so it had fallen out a -matter of some year agone with a woman of Eblana in Horne's house that -now was trespassed out of this world and the self night next before her -death all leeches and pothecaries had taken counsel of her case). And -they said farther she should live because in the beginning, they said, -the woman should bring forth in pain and wherefore they that were of this -imagination affirmed how young Madden had said truth for he had -conscience to let her die. And not few and of these was young Lynch were -in doubt that the world was now right evil governed as it was never other -howbeit the mean people believed it otherwise but the law nor his judges -did provide no remedy. A redress God grant. This was scant said but all -cried with one acclaim nay, by our Virgin Mother, the wife should live -and the babe to die. In colour whereof they waxed hot upon that head what -with argument and what for their drinking but the franklin Lenehan was -prompt each when to pour them ale so that at the least way mirth might -not lack. Then young Madden showed all the whole affair and said how that -she was dead and how for holy religion sake by rede of palmer and -bedesman and for a vow he had made to Saint Ultan of Arbraccan her -goodman husband would not let her death whereby they were all wondrous -grieved. To whom young Stephen had these words following: Murmur, sirs, -is eke oft among lay folk. Both babe and parent now glorify their Maker, -the one in limbo gloom, the other in purgefire. But, gramercy, what of -those Godpossibled souls that we nightly impossibilise, which is the sin -against the Holy Ghost, Very God, Lord and Giver of Life? For, sirs, he -said, our lust is brief. We are means to those small creatures within us -and nature has other ends than we. Then said Dixon junior to Punch -Costello wist he what ends. But he had overmuch drunken and the best word -he could have of him was that he would ever dishonest a woman whoso she -were or wife or maid or leman if it so fortuned him to be delivered of -his spleen of lustihead. Whereat Crotthers of Alba Longa sang young -Malachi's praise of that beast the unicorn how once in the millennium he -cometh by his horn, the other all this while, pricked forward with their -jibes wherewith they did malice him, witnessing all and several by saint -Foutinus his engines that he was able to do any manner of thing that lay -in man to do. Thereat laughed they all right jocundly only young Stephen -and sir Leopold which never durst laugh too open by reason of a strange -humour which he would not bewray and also for that he rued for her that -bare whoso she might be or wheresoever. Then spake young Stephen orgulous -of mother Church that would cast him out of her bosom, of law of canons, -of Lilith, patron of abortions, of bigness wrought by wind of seeds of -brightness or by potency of vampires mouth to mouth or, as Virgilius -saith, by the influence of the occident or by the reek of moonflower or -an she lie with a woman which her man has but lain with, EFFECTU SECUTO, -or peradventure in her bath according to the opinions of Averroes and -Moses Maimonides. He said also how at the end of the second month a human -soul was infused and how in all our holy mother foldeth ever souls for -God's greater glory whereas that earthly mother which was but a dam to -bear beastly should die by canon for so saith he that holdeth the -fisherman's seal, even that blessed Peter on which rock was holy church -for all ages founded. All they bachelors then asked of sir Leopold would -he in like case so jeopard her person as risk life to save life. A -wariness of mind he would answer as fitted all and, laying hand to jaw, -he said dissembling, as his wont was, that as it was informed him, who -had ever loved the art of physic as might a layman, and agreeing also -with his experience of so seldomseen an accident it was good for that -mother Church belike at one blow had birth and death pence and in such -sort deliverly he scaped their questions. That is truth, pardy, said -Dixon, and, or I err, a pregnant word. Which hearing young Stephen was a -marvellous glad man and he averred that he who stealeth from the poor -lendeth to the Lord for he was of a wild manner when he was drunken and -that he was now in that taking it appeared eftsoons. - -But sir Leopold was passing grave maugre his word by cause he still had -pity of the terrorcausing shrieking of shrill women in their labour and -as he was minded of his good lady Marion that had borne him an only -manchild which on his eleventh day on live had died and no man of art -could save so dark is destiny. And she was wondrous stricken of heart for -that evil hap and for his burial did him on a fair corselet of lamb's -wool, the flower of the flock, lest he might perish utterly and lie -akeled (for it was then about the midst of the winter) and now Sir -Leopold that had of his body no manchild for an heir looked upon him his -friend's son and was shut up in sorrow for his forepassed happiness and -as sad as he was that him failed a son of such gentle courage (for all -accounted him of real parts) so grieved he also in no less measure for -young Stephen for that he lived riotously with those wastrels and -murdered his goods with whores. - -About that present time young Stephen filled all cups that stood empty so -as there remained but little mo if the prudenter had not shadowed their -approach from him that still plied it very busily who, praying for the -intentions of the sovereign pontiff, he gave them for a pledge the vicar -of Christ which also as he said is vicar of Bray. Now drink we, quod he, -of this mazer and quaff ye this mead which is not indeed parcel of my -body but my soul's bodiment. Leave ye fraction of bread to them that live -by bread alone. Be not afeard neither for any want for this will comfort -more than the other will dismay. See ye here. And he showed them -glistering coins of the tribute and goldsmith notes the worth of two -pound nineteen shilling that he had, he said, for a song which he writ. -They all admired to see the foresaid riches in such dearth of money as -was herebefore. His words were then these as followeth: Know all men, he -said, time's ruins build eternity's mansions. What means this? Desire's -wind blasts the thorntree but after it becomes from a bramblebush to be a -rose upon the rood of time. Mark me now. In woman's womb word is made -flesh but in the spirit of the maker all flesh that passes becomes the -word that shall not pass away. This is the postcreation. OMNIS CARO AD TE -VENIET. No question but her name is puissant who aventried the dear corse -of our Agenbuyer, Healer and Herd, our mighty mother and mother most -venerable and Bernardus saith aptly that She hath an OMNIPOTENTIAM -DEIPARAE SUPPLICEM, that is to wit, an almightiness of petition because -she is the second Eve and she won us, saith Augustine too, whereas that -other, our grandam, which we are linked up with by successive anastomosis -of navelcords sold us all, seed, breed and generation, for a penny -pippin. But here is the matter now. Or she knew him, that second I say, -and was but creature of her creature, VERGINE MADRE, FIGLIA DI TUO -FIGLIO, or she knew him not and then stands she in the one denial or -ignorancy with Peter Piscator who lives in the house that Jack built and -with Joseph the joiner patron of the happy demise of all unhappy -marriages, PARCEQUE M. LEO TAXIL NOUS A DIT QUE QUI L'AVAIT MISE DANS -CETTE FICHUE POSITION C'ETAIT LE SACRE PIGEON, VENTRE DE DIEU! ENTWEDER -transubstantiality ODER consubstantiality but in no case -subsubstantiality. And all cried out upon it for a very scurvy word. A -pregnancy without joy, he said, a birth without pangs, a body without -blemish, a belly without bigness. Let the lewd with faith and fervour -worship. With will will we withstand, withsay. - -Hereupon Punch Costello dinged with his fist upon the board and would -sing a bawdy catch STABOO STABELLA about a wench that was put in pod of a -jolly swashbuckler in Almany which he did straightways now attack: THE -FIRST THREE MONTHS SHE WAS NOT WELL, STABOO, when here nurse Quigley from -the door angerly bid them hist ye should shame you nor was it not meet as -she remembered them being her mind was to have all orderly against lord -Andrew came for because she was jealous that no gasteful turmoil might -shorten the honour of her guard. It was an ancient and a sad matron of a -sedate look and christian walking, in habit dun beseeming her megrims and -wrinkled visage, nor did her hortative want of it effect for -incontinently Punch Costello was of them all embraided and they reclaimed -the churl with civil rudeness some and shaked him with menace of -blandishments others whiles they all chode with him, a murrain seize the -dolt, what a devil he would be at, thou chuff, thou puny, thou got in -peasestraw, thou losel, thou chitterling, thou spawn of a rebel, thou -dykedropt, thou abortion thou, to shut up his drunken drool out of that -like a curse of God ape, the good sir Leopold that had for his cognisance -the flower of quiet, margerain gentle, advising also the time's occasion -as most sacred and most worthy to be most sacred. In Horne's house rest -should reign. - -To be short this passage was scarce by when Master Dixon of Mary in -Eccles, goodly grinning, asked young Stephen what was the reason why he -had not cided to take friar's vows and he answered him obedience in the -womb, chastity in the tomb but involuntary poverty all his days. Master -Lenehan at this made return that he had heard of those nefarious deeds -and how, as he heard hereof counted, he had besmirched the lily virtue of -a confiding female which was corruption of minors and they all -intershowed it too, waxing merry and toasting to his fathership. But he -said very entirely it was clean contrary to their suppose for he was the -eternal son and ever virgin. Thereat mirth grew in them the more and they -rehearsed to him his curious rite of wedlock for the disrobing and -deflowering of spouses, as the priests use in Madagascar island, she to -be in guise of white and saffron, her groom in white and grain, with -burning of nard and tapers, on a bridebed while clerks sung kyries and -the anthem UT NOVETUR SEXUS OMNIS CORPORIS MYSTERIUM till she was there -unmaided. He gave them then a much admirable hymen minim by those -delicate poets Master John Fletcher and Master Francis Beaumont that is -in their MAID'S TRAGEDY that was writ for a like twining of lovers: TO -BED, TO BED was the burden of it to be played with accompanable concent -upon the virginals. An exquisite dulcet epithalame of most mollificative -suadency for juveniles amatory whom the odoriferous flambeaus of the -paranymphs have escorted to the quadrupedal proscenium of connubial -communion. Well met they were, said Master Dixon, joyed, but, harkee, -young sir, better were they named Beau Mount and Lecher for, by my troth, -of such a mingling much might come. Young Stephen said indeed to his best -remembrance they had but the one doxy between them and she of the stews -to make shift with in delights amorous for life ran very high in those -days and the custom of the country approved with it. Greater love than -this, he said, no man hath that a man lay down his wife for his friend. -Go thou and do likewise. Thus, or words to that effect, saith -Zarathustra, sometime regius professor of French letters to the -university of Oxtail nor breathed there ever that man to whom mankind was -more beholden. Bring a stranger within thy tower it will go hard but thou -wilt have the secondbest bed. ORATE, FRATRES, PRO MEMETIPSO. And all the -people shall say, Amen. Remember, Erin, thy generations and thy days of -old, how thou settedst little by me and by my word and broughtedst in a -stranger to my gates to commit fornication in my sight and to wax fat and -kick like Jeshurum. Therefore hast thou sinned against my light and hast -made me, thy lord, to be the slave of servants. Return, return, Clan -Milly: forget me not, O Milesian. Why hast thou done this abomination -before me that thou didst spurn me for a merchant of jalaps and didst -deny me to the Roman and to the Indian of dark speech with whom thy -daughters did lie luxuriously? Look forth now, my people, upon the land -of behest, even from Horeb and from Nebo and from Pisgah and from the -Horns of Hatten unto a land flowing with milk and money. But thou hast -suckled me with a bitter milk: my moon and my sun thou hast quenched for -ever. And thou hast left me alone for ever in the dark ways of my -bitterness: and with a kiss of ashes hast thou kissed my mouth. This -tenebrosity of the interior, he proceeded to say, hath not been illumined -by the wit of the septuagint nor so much as mentioned for the Orient from -on high Which brake hell's gates visited a darkness that was foraneous. -Assuefaction minorates atrocities (as Tully saith of his darling Stoics) -and Hamlet his father showeth the prince no blister of combustion. The -adiaphane in the noon of life is an Egypt's plague which in the nights of -prenativity and postmortemity is their most proper UBI and QUOMODO. And -as the ends and ultimates of all things accord in some mean and measure -with their inceptions and originals, that same multiplicit concordance -which leads forth growth from birth accomplishing by a retrogressive -metamorphosis that minishing and ablation towards the final which is -agreeable unto nature so is it with our subsolar being. The aged sisters -draw us into life: we wail, batten, sport, clip, clasp, sunder, dwindle, -die: over us dead they bend. First, saved from waters of old Nile, among -bulrushes, a bed of fasciated wattles: at last the cavity of a mountain, -an occulted sepulchre amid the conclamation of the hillcat and the -ossifrage. And as no man knows the ubicity of his tumulus nor to what -processes we shall thereby be ushered nor whether to Tophet or to -Edenville in the like way is all hidden when we would backward see from -what region of remoteness the whatness of our whoness hath fetched his -whenceness. - -Thereto Punch Costello roared out mainly ETIENNE CHANSON but he loudly -bid them, lo, wisdom hath built herself a house, this vast majestic -longstablished vault, the crystal palace of the Creator, all in applepie -order, a penny for him who finds the pea. - - - BEHOLD THE MANSION REARED BY DEDAL JACK - SEE THE MALT STORED IN MANY A REFLUENT SACK, - IN THE PROUD CIRQUE OF JACKJOHN'S BIVOUAC. - - -A black crack of noise in the street here, alack, bawled back. Loud on -left Thor thundered: in anger awful the hammerhurler. Came now the storm -that hist his heart. And Master Lynch bade him have a care to flout and -witwanton as the god self was angered for his hellprate and paganry. And -he that had erst challenged to be so doughty waxed wan as they might all -mark and shrank together and his pitch that was before so haught uplift -was now of a sudden quite plucked down and his heart shook within the -cage of his breast as he tasted the rumour of that storm. Then did some -mock and some jeer and Punch Costello fell hard again to his yale which -Master Lenehan vowed he would do after and he was indeed but a word and a -blow on any the least colour. But the braggart boaster cried that an old -Nobodaddy was in his cups it was muchwhat indifferent and he would not -lag behind his lead. But this was only to dye his desperation as cowed he -crouched in Horne's hall. He drank indeed at one draught to pluck up a -heart of any grace for it thundered long rumblingly over all the heavens -so that Master Madden, being godly certain whiles, knocked him on his -ribs upon that crack of doom and Master Bloom, at the braggart's side, -spoke to him calming words to slumber his great fear, advertising how it -was no other thing but a hubbub noise that he heard, the discharge of -fluid from the thunderhead, look you, having taken place, and all of the -order of a natural phenomenon. - -But was young Boasthard's fear vanquished by Calmer's words? No, for he -had in his bosom a spike named Bitterness which could not by words be -done away. And was he then neither calm like the one nor godly like the -other? He was neither as much as he would have liked to be either. But -could he not have endeavoured to have found again as in his youth the -bottle Holiness that then he lived withal? Indeed no for Grace was not -there to find that bottle. Heard he then in that clap the voice of the -god Bringforth or, what Calmer said, a hubbub of Phenomenon? Heard? Why, -he could not but hear unless he had plugged him up the tube Understanding -(which he had not done). For through that tube he saw that he was in the -land of Phenomenon where he must for a certain one day die as he was like -the rest too a passing show. And would he not accept to die like the rest -and pass away? By no means would he though he must nor would he make more -shows according as men do with wives which Phenomenon has commanded them -to do by the book Law. Then wotted he nought of that other land which is -called Believe-on-Me, that is the land of promise which behoves to the -king Delightful and shall be for ever where there is no death and no -birth neither wiving nor mothering at which all shall come as many as -believe on it? Yes, Pious had told him of that land and Chaste had -pointed him to the way but the reason was that in the way he fell in with -a certain whore of an eyepleasing exterior whose name, she said, is Bird- -in-the-Hand and she beguiled him wrongways from the true path by her -flatteries that she said to him as, Ho, you pretty man, turn aside hither -and I will show you a brave place, and she lay at him so flatteringly -that she had him in her grot which is named Two-in-the-Bush or, by some -learned, Carnal Concupiscence. - -This was it what all that company that sat there at commons in Manse of -Mothers the most lusted after and if they met with this whore Bird-in- -the-Hand (which was within all foul plagues, monsters and a wicked devil) -they would strain the last but they would make at her and know her. For -regarding Believe-on-Me they said it was nought else but notion and they -could conceive no thought of it for, first, Two-in-the-Bush whither she -ticed them was the very goodliest grot and in it were four pillows on -which were four tickets with these words printed on them, Pickaback and -Topsyturvy and Shameface and Cheek by Jowl and, second, for that foul -plague Allpox and the monsters they cared not for them for Preservative -had given them a stout shield of oxengut and, third, that they might take -no hurt neither from Offspring that was that wicked devil by virtue of -this same shield which was named Killchild. So were they all in their -blind fancy, Mr Cavil and Mr Sometimes Godly, Mr Ape Swillale, Mr False -Franklin, Mr Dainty Dixon, Young Boasthard and Mr Cautious Calmer. -Wherein, O wretched company, were ye all deceived for that was the voice -of the god that was in a very grievous rage that he would presently lift -his arm up and spill their souls for their abuses and their spillings -done by them contrariwise to his word which forth to bring brenningly -biddeth. - -So Thursday sixteenth June Patk. Dignam laid in clay of an apoplexy and -after hard drought, please God, rained, a bargeman coming in by water a -fifty mile or thereabout with turf saying the seed won't sprout, fields -athirst, very sadcoloured and stunk mightily, the quags and tofts too. -Hard to breathe and all the young quicks clean consumed without sprinkle -this long while back as no man remembered to be without. The rosy buds -all gone brown and spread out blobs and on the hills nought but dry flag -and faggots that would catch at first fire. All the world saying, for -aught they knew, the big wind of last February a year that did havoc the -land so pitifully a small thing beside this barrenness. But by and by, as -said, this evening after sundown, the wind sitting in the west, biggish -swollen clouds to be seen as the night increased and the weatherwise -poring up at them and some sheet lightnings at first and after, past ten -of the clock, one great stroke with a long thunder and in a brace of -shakes all scamper pellmell within door for the smoking shower, the men -making shelter for their straws with a clout or kerchief, womenfolk -skipping off with kirtles catched up soon as the pour came. In Ely place, -Baggot street, Duke's lawn, thence through Merrion green up to Holles -street a swash of water flowing that was before bonedry and not one chair -or coach or fiacre seen about but no more crack after that first. Over -against the Rt. Hon. Mr Justice Fitzgibbon's door (that is to sit with Mr -Healy the lawyer upon the college lands) Mal. Mulligan a gentleman's -gentleman that had but come from Mr Moore's the writer's (that was a -papish but is now, folk say, a good Williamite) chanced against Alec. -Bannon in a cut bob (which are now in with dance cloaks of Kendal green) -that was new got to town from Mullingar with the stage where his coz and -Mal M's brother will stay a month yet till Saint Swithin and asks what in -the earth he does there, he bound home and he to Andrew Horne's being -stayed for to crush a cup of wine, so he said, but would tell him of a -skittish heifer, big of her age and beef to the heel, and all this while -poured with rain and so both together on to Horne's. There Leop. Bloom of -Crawford's journal sitting snug with a covey of wags, likely brangling -fellows, Dixon jun., scholar of my lady of Mercy's, Vin. Lynch, a Scots -fellow, Will. Madden, T. Lenehan, very sad about a racer he fancied and -Stephen D. Leop. Bloom there for a languor he had but was now better, be -having dreamed tonight a strange fancy of his dame Mrs Moll with red -slippers on in a pair of Turkey trunks which is thought by those in ken -to be for a change and Mistress Purefoy there, that got in through -pleading her belly, and now on the stools, poor body, two days past her -term, the midwives sore put to it and can't deliver, she queasy for a -bowl of riceslop that is a shrewd drier up of the insides and her breath -very heavy more than good and should be a bullyboy from the knocks, they -say, but God give her soon issue. 'Tis her ninth chick to live, I hear, -and Lady day bit off her last chick's nails that was then a twelvemonth -and with other three all breastfed that died written out in a fair hand -in the king's bible. Her hub fifty odd and a methodist but takes the -sacrament and is to be seen any fair sabbath with a pair of his boys off -Bullock harbour dapping on the sound with a heavybraked reel or in a punt -he has trailing for flounder and pollock and catches a fine bag, I hear. -In sum an infinite great fall of rain and all refreshed and will much -increase the harvest yet those in ken say after wind and water fire shall -come for a prognostication of Malachi's almanac (and I hear that Mr -Russell has done a prophetical charm of the same gist out of the -Hindustanish for his farmer's gazette) to have three things in all but -this a mere fetch without bottom of reason for old crones and bairns yet -sometimes they are found in the right guess with their queerities no -telling how. - -With this came up Lenehan to the feet of the table to say how the letter -was in that night's gazette and he made a show to find it about him (for -he swore with an oath that he had been at pains about it) but on -Stephen's persuasion he gave over the search and was bidden to sit near -by which he did mighty brisk. He was a kind of sport gentleman that went -for a merryandrew or honest pickle and what belonged of women, horseflesh -or hot scandal he had it pat. To tell the truth he was mean in fortunes -and for the most part hankered about the coffeehouses and low taverns -with crimps, ostlers, bookies, Paul's men, runners, flatcaps, -waistcoateers, ladies of the bagnio and other rogues of the game or with -a chanceable catchpole or a tipstaff often at nights till broad day of -whom he picked up between his sackpossets much loose gossip. He took his -ordinary at a boilingcook's and if he had but gotten into him a mess of -broken victuals or a platter of tripes with a bare tester in his purse he -could always bring himself off with his tongue, some randy quip he had -from a punk or whatnot that every mother's son of them would burst their -sides. The other, Costello that is, hearing this talk asked was it poetry -or a tale. Faith, no, he says, Frank (that was his name), 'tis all about -Kerry cows that are to be butchered along of the plague. But they can go -hang, says he with a wink, for me with their bully beef, a pox on it. -There's as good fish in this tin as ever came out of it and very friendly -he offered to take of some salty sprats that stood by which he had eyed -wishly in the meantime and found the place which was indeed the chief -design of his embassy as he was sharpset. MORT AUX VACHES, says Frank -then in the French language that had been indentured to a brandyshipper -that has a winelodge in Bordeaux and he spoke French like a gentleman -too. From a child this Frank had been a donought that his father, a -headborough, who could ill keep him to school to learn his letters and -the use of the globes, matriculated at the university to study the -mechanics but he took the bit between his teeth like a raw colt and was -more familiar with the justiciary and the parish beadle than with his -volumes. One time he would be a playactor, then a sutler or a welsher, -then nought would keep him from the bearpit and the cocking main, then he -was for the ocean sea or to hoof it on the roads with the romany folk, -kidnapping a squire's heir by favour of moonlight or fecking maids' linen -or choking chicken behind a hedge. He had been off as many times as a cat -has lives and back again with naked pockets as many more to his father -the headborough who shed a pint of tears as often as he saw him. What, -says Mr Leopold with his hands across, that was earnest to know the drift -of it, will they slaughter all? I protest I saw them but this day morning -going to the Liverpool boats, says he. I can scarce believe 'tis so bad, -says he. And he had experience of the like brood beasts and of springers, -greasy hoggets and wether wool, having been some years before actuary for -Mr Joseph Cuffe, a worthy salesmaster that drove his trade for live stock -and meadow auctions hard by Mr Gavin Low's yard in Prussia street. I -question with you there, says he. More like 'tis the hoose or the timber -tongue. Mr Stephen, a little moved but very handsomely told him no such -matter and that he had dispatches from the emperor's chief tailtickler -thanking him for the hospitality, that was sending over Doctor -Rinderpest, the bestquoted cowcatcher in all Muscovy, with a bolus or two -of physic to take the bull by the horns. Come, come, says Mr Vincent, -plain dealing. He'll find himself on the horns of a dilemma if he meddles -with a bull that's Irish, says he. Irish by name and irish by nature, -says Mr Stephen, and he sent the ale purling about, an Irish bull in an -English chinashop. I conceive you, says Mr Dixon. It is that same bull -that was sent to our island by farmer Nicholas, the bravest cattlebreeder -of them all, with an emerald ring in his nose. True for you, says Mr -Vincent cross the table, and a bullseye into the bargain, says he, and a -plumper and a portlier bull, says he, never shit on shamrock. He had -horns galore, a coat of cloth of gold and a sweet smoky breath coming out -of his nostrils so that the women of our island, leaving doughballs and -rollingpins, followed after him hanging his bulliness in daisychains. -What for that, says Mr Dixon, but before he came over farmer Nicholas -that was a eunuch had him properly gelded by a college of doctors who -were no better off than himself. So be off now, says he, and do all my -cousin german the lord Harry tells you and take a farmer's blessing, and -with that he slapped his posteriors very soundly. But the slap and the -blessing stood him friend, says Mr Vincent, for to make up he taught him -a trick worth two of the other so that maid, wife, abbess and widow to -this day affirm that they would rather any time of the month whisper in -his ear in the dark of a cowhouse or get a lick on the nape from his long -holy tongue than lie with the finest strapping young ravisher in the four -fields of all Ireland. Another then put in his word: And they dressed -him, says he, in a point shift and petticoat with a tippet and girdle and -ruffles on his wrists and clipped his forelock and rubbed him all over -with spermacetic oil and built stables for him at every turn of the road -with a gold manger in each full of the best hay in the market so that he -could doss and dung to his heart's content. By this time the father of -the faithful (for so they called him) was grown so heavy that he could -scarce walk to pasture. To remedy which our cozening dames and damsels -brought him his fodder in their apronlaps and as soon as his belly was -full he would rear up on his hind uarters to show their ladyships a -mystery and roar and bellow out of him in bulls' language and they all -after him. Ay, says another, and so pampered was he that he would suffer -nought to grow in all the land but green grass for himself (for that was -the only colour to his mind) and there was a board put up on a hillock in -the middle of the island with a printed notice, saying: By the Lord -Harry, Green is the grass that grows on the ground. And, says Mr Dixon, -if ever he got scent of a cattleraider in Roscommon or the wilds of -Connemara or a husbandman in Sligo that was sowing as much as a handful -of mustard or a bag of rapeseed out he'd run amok over half the -countryside rooting up with his horns whatever was planted and all by -lord Harry's orders. There was bad blood between them at first, says Mr -Vincent, and the lord Harry called farmer Nicholas all the old Nicks in -the world and an old whoremaster that kept seven trulls in his house and -I'll meddle in his matters, says he. I'll make that animal smell hell, -says he, with the help of that good pizzle my father left me. But one -evening, says Mr Dixon, when the lord Harry was cleaning his royal pelt -to go to dinner after winning a boatrace (he had spade oars for himself -but the first rule of the course was that the others were to row with -pitchforks) he discovered in himself a wonderful likeness to a bull and -on picking up a blackthumbed chapbook that he kept in the pantry he found -sure enough that he was a lefthanded descendant of the famous champion -bull of the Romans, BOS BOVUM, which is good bog Latin for boss of the -show. After that, says Mr Vincent, the lord Harry put his head into a -cow's drinkingtrough in the presence of all his courtiers and pulling it -out again told them all his new name. Then, with the water running off -him, he got into an old smock and skirt that had belonged to his -grandmother and bought a grammar of the bulls' language to study but he -could never learn a word of it except the first personal pronoun which he -copied out big and got off by heart and if ever he went out for a walk he -filled his pockets with chalk to write it upon what took his fancy, the -side of a rock or a teahouse table or a bale of cotton or a corkfloat. In -short, he and the bull of Ireland were soon as fast friends as an arse -and a shirt. They were, says Mr Stephen, and the end was that the men of -the island seeing no help was toward, as the ungrate women were all of -one mind, made a wherry raft, loaded themselves and their bundles of -chattels on shipboard, set all masts erect, manned the yards, sprang -their luff, heaved to, spread three sheets in the wind, put her head -between wind and water, weighed anchor, ported her helm, ran up the jolly -Roger, gave three times three, let the bullgine run, pushed off in their -bumboat and put to sea to recover the main of America. Which was the -occasion, says Mr Vincent, of the composing by a boatswain of that -rollicking chanty: - - - --POPE PETER'S BUT A PISSABED. - A MAN'S A MAN FOR A' THAT. - - -Our worthy acquaintance Mr Malachi Mulligan now appeared in the doorway -as the students were finishing their apologue accompanied with a friend -whom he had just rencountered, a young gentleman, his name Alec Bannon, -who had late come to town, it being his intention to buy a colour or a -cornetcy in the fencibles and list for the wars. Mr Mulligan was civil -enough to express some relish of it all the more as it jumped with a -project of his own for the cure of the very evil that had been touched -on. Whereat he handed round to the company a set of pasteboard cards -which he had had printed that day at Mr Quinnell's bearing a legend -printed in fair italics: MR MALACHI MULLIGAN. FERTILISER AND INCUBATOR. -LAMBAY ISLAND. His project, as he went on to expound, was to withdraw -from the round of idle pleasures such as form the chief business of sir -Fopling Popinjay and sir Milksop Quidnunc in town and to devote himself -to the noblest task for which our bodily organism has been framed. Well, -let us hear of it, good my friend, said Mr Dixon. I make no doubt it -smacks of wenching. Come, be seated, both. 'Tis as cheap sitting as -standing. Mr Mulligan accepted of the invitation and, expatiating upon -his design, told his hearers that he had been led into this thought by a -consideration of the causes of sterility, both the inhibitory and the -prohibitory, whether the inhibition in its turn were due to conjugal -vexations or to a parsimony of the balance as well as whether the -prohibition proceeded from defects congenital or from proclivities -acquired. It grieved him plaguily, he said, to see the nuptial couch -defrauded of its dearest pledges: and to reflect upon so many agreeable -females with rich jointures, a prey to the vilest bonzes, who hide their -flambeau under a bushel in an uncongenial cloister or lose their womanly -bloom in the embraces of some unaccountable muskin when they might -multiply the inlets of happiness, sacrificing the inestimable jewel of -their sex when a hundred pretty fellows were at hand to caress, this, he -assured them, made his heart weep. To curb this inconvenient (which he -concluded due to a suppression of latent heat), having advised with -certain counsellors of worth and inspected into this matter, he had -resolved to purchase in fee simple for ever the freehold of Lambay island -from its holder, lord Talbot de Malahide, a Tory gentleman of note much -in favour with our ascendancy party. He proposed to set up there a -national fertilising farm to be named OMPHALOS with an obelisk hewn and -erected after the fashion of Egypt and to offer his dutiful yeoman -services for the fecundation of any female of what grade of life soever -who should there direct to him with the desire of fulfilling the -functions of her natural. Money was no object, he said, nor would he take -a penny for his pains. The poorest kitchenwench no less than the opulent -lady of fashion, if so be their constructions and their tempers were warm -persuaders for their petitions, would find in him their man. For his -nutriment he shewed how he would feed himself exclusively upon a diet of -savoury tubercles and fish and coneys there, the flesh of these latter -prolific rodents being highly recommended for his purpose, both broiled -and stewed with a blade of mace and a pod or two of capsicum chillies. -After this homily which he delivered with much warmth of asseveration Mr -Mulligan in a trice put off from his hat a kerchief with which he had -shielded it. They both, it seems, had been overtaken by the rain and for -all their mending their pace had taken water, as might be observed by Mr -Mulligan's smallclothes of a hodden grey which was now somewhat piebald. -His project meanwhile was very favourably entertained by his auditors and -won hearty eulogies from all though Mr Dixon of Mary's excepted to it, -asking with a finicking air did he purpose also to carry coals to -Newcastle. Mr Mulligan however made court to the scholarly by an apt -quotation from the classics which, as it dwelt upon his memory, seemed to -him a sound and tasteful support of his contention: TALIS AC TANTA -DEPRAVATIO HUJUS SECULI, O QUIRITES, UT MATRESFAMILIARUM NOSTRAE LASCIVAS -CUJUSLIBET SEMIVIRI LIBICI TITILLATIONES TESTIBUS PONDEROSIS ATQUE -EXCELSIS ERECTIONIBUS CENTURIONUM ROMANORUM MAGNOPERE ANTEPONUNT, while -for those of ruder wit he drove home his point by analogies of the animal -kingdom more suitable to their stomach, the buck and doe of the forest -glade, the farmyard drake and duck. - -Valuing himself not a little upon his elegance, being indeed a proper man -of person, this talkative now applied himself to his dress with -animadversions of some heat upon the sudden whimsy of the atmospherics -while the company lavished their encomiums upon the project he had -advanced. The young gentleman, his friend, overjoyed as he was at a -passage that had late befallen him, could not forbear to tell it his -nearest neighbour. Mr Mulligan, now perceiving the table, asked for whom -were those loaves and fishes and, seeing the stranger, he made him a -civil bow and said, Pray, sir, was you in need of any professional -assistance we could give? Who, upon his offer, thanked him very heartily, -though preserving his proper distance, and replied that he was come there -about a lady, now an inmate of Horne's house, that was in an interesting -condition, poor body, from woman's woe (and here he fetched a deep sigh) -to know if her happiness had yet taken place. Mr Dixon, to turn the -table, took on to ask of Mr Mulligan himself whether his incipient -ventripotence, upon which he rallied him, betokened an ovoblastic -gestation in the prostatic utricle or male womb or was due, as with the -noted physician, Mr Austin Meldon, to a wolf in the stomach. For answer -Mr Mulligan, in a gale of laughter at his smalls, smote himself bravely -below the diaphragm, exclaiming with an admirable droll mimic of Mother -Grogan (the most excellent creature of her sex though 'tis pity she's a -trollop): There's a belly that never bore a bastard. This was so happy a -conceit that it renewed the storm of mirth and threw the whole room into -the most violent agitations of delight. The spry rattle had run on in the -same vein of mimicry but for some larum in the antechamber. - -Here the listener who was none other than the Scotch student, a little -fume of a fellow, blond as tow, congratulated in the liveliest fashion -with the young gentleman and, interrupting the narrative at a salient -point, having desired his visavis with a polite beck to have the -obligingness to pass him a flagon of cordial waters at the same time by a -questioning poise of the head (a whole century of polite breeding had not -achieved so nice a gesture) to which was united an equivalent but -contrary balance of the bottle asked the narrator as plainly as was ever -done in words if he might treat him with a cup of it. MAIS BIEN SUR, -noble stranger, said he cheerily, ET MILLE COMPLIMENTS. That you may and -very opportunely. There wanted nothing but this cup to crown my felicity. -But, gracious heaven, was I left with but a crust in my wallet and a -cupful of water from the well, my God, I would accept of them and find it -in my heart to kneel down upon the ground and give thanks to the powers -above for the happiness vouchsafed me by the Giver of good things. With -these words he approached the goblet to his lips, took a complacent -draught of the cordial, slicked his hair and, opening his bosom, out -popped a locket that hung from a silk riband, that very picture which he -had cherished ever since her hand had wrote therein. Gazing upon those -features with a world of tenderness, Ah, Monsieur, he said, had you but -beheld her as I did with these eyes at that affecting instant with her -dainty tucker and her new coquette cap (a gift for her feastday as she -told me prettily) in such an artless disorder, of so melting a -tenderness, 'pon my conscience, even you, Monsieur, had been impelled by -generous nature to deliver yourself wholly into the hands of such an -enemy or to quit the field for ever. I declare, I was never so touched in -all my life. God, I thank thee, as the Author of my days! Thrice happy -will he be whom so amiable a creature will bless with her favours. A sigh -of affection gave eloquence to these words and, having replaced the -locket in his bosom, he wiped his eye and sighed again. Beneficent -Disseminator of blessings to all Thy creatures, how great and universal -must be that sweetest of Thy tyrannies which can hold in thrall the free -and the bond, the simple swain and the polished coxcomb, the lover in the -heyday of reckless passion and the husband of maturer years. But indeed, -sir, I wander from the point. How mingled and imperfect are all our -sublunary joys. Maledicity! he exclaimed in anguish. Would to God that -foresight had but remembered me to take my cloak along! I could weep to -think of it. Then, though it had poured seven showers, we were neither of -us a penny the worse. But beshrew me, he cried, clapping hand to his -forehead, tomorrow will be a new day and, thousand thunders, I know of a -MARCHAND DE CAPOTES, Monsieur Poyntz, from whom I can have for a livre as -snug a cloak of the French fashion as ever kept a lady from wetting. Tut, -tut! cries Le Fecondateur, tripping in, my friend Monsieur Moore, that -most accomplished traveller (I have just cracked a half bottle AVEC LUI -in a circle of the best wits of the town), is my authority that in Cape -Horn, VENTRE BICHE, they have a rain that will wet through any, even the -stoutest cloak. A drenching of that violence, he tells me, SANS BLAGUE, -has sent more than one luckless fellow in good earnest posthaste to -another world. Pooh! A LIVRE! cries Monsieur Lynch. The clumsy things are -dear at a sou. One umbrella, were it no bigger than a fairy mushroom, is -worth ten such stopgaps. No woman of any wit would wear one. My dear -Kitty told me today that she would dance in a deluge before ever she -would starve in such an ark of salvation for, as she reminded me -(blushing piquantly and whispering in my ear though there was none to -snap her words but giddy butterflies), dame Nature, by the divine -blessing, has implanted it in our hearts and it has become a household -word that IL Y A DEUX CHOSES for which the innocence of our original -garb, in other circumstances a breach of the proprieties, is the fittest, -nay, the only garment. The first, said she (and here my pretty -philosopher, as I handed her to her tilbury, to fix my attention, gently -tipped with her tongue the outer chamber of my ear), the first is a bath -... But at this point a bell tinkling in the hall cut short a discourse -which promised so bravely for the enrichment of our store of knowledge. - -Amid the general vacant hilarity of the assembly a bell rang and, while -all were conjecturing what might be the cause, Miss Callan entered and, -having spoken a few words in a low tone to young Mr Dixon, retired with a -profound bow to the company. The presence even for a moment among a party -of debauchees of a woman endued with every quality of modesty and not -less severe than beautiful refrained the humourous sallies even of the -most licentious but her departure was the signal for an outbreak of -ribaldry. Strike me silly, said Costello, a low fellow who was fuddled. A -monstrous fine bit of cowflesh! I'll be sworn she has rendezvoused you. -What, you dog? Have you a way with them? Gad's bud, immensely so, said Mr -Lynch. The bedside manner it is that they use in the Mater hospice. -Demme, does not Doctor O'Gargle chuck the nuns there under the chin. As I -look to be saved I had it from my Kitty who has been wardmaid there any -time these seven months. Lawksamercy, doctor, cried the young blood in -the primrose vest, feigning a womanish simper and with immodest -squirmings of his body, how you do tease a body! Drat the man! Bless me, -I'm all of a wibbly wobbly. Why, you're as bad as dear little Father -Cantekissem, that you are! May this pot of four half choke me, cried -Costello, if she aint in the family way. I knows a lady what's got a -white swelling quick as I claps eyes on her. The young surgeon, however, -rose and begged the company to excuse his retreat as the nurse had just -then informed him that he was needed in the ward. Merciful providence had -been pleased to put a period to the sufferings of the lady who was -ENCEINTE which she had borne with a laudable fortitude and she had given -birth to a bouncing boy. I want patience, said he, with those who, -without wit to enliven or learning to instruct, revile an ennobling -profession which, saving the reverence due to the Deity, is the greatest -power for happiness upon the earth. I am positive when I say that if need -were I could produce a cloud of witnesses to the excellence of her noble -exercitations which, so far from being a byword, should be a glorious -incentive in the human breast. I cannot away with them. What? Malign such -an one, the amiable Miss Callan, who is the lustre of her own sex and the -astonishment of ours? And at an instant the most momentous that can -befall a puny child of clay? Perish the thought! I shudder to think of -the future of a race where the seeds of such malice have been sown and -where no right reverence is rendered to mother and maid in house of -Horne. Having delivered himself of this rebuke he saluted those present -on the by and repaired to the door. A murmur of approval arose from all -and some were for ejecting the low soaker without more ado, a design -which would have been effected nor would he have received more than his -bare deserts had he not abridged his transgression by affirming with a -horrid imprecation (for he swore a round hand) that he was as good a son -of the true fold as ever drew breath. Stap my vitals, said he, them was -always the sentiments of honest Frank Costello which I was bred up most -particular to honour thy father and thy mother that had the best hand to -a rolypoly or a hasty pudding as you ever see what I always looks back on -with a loving heart. - -To revert to Mr Bloom who, after his first entry, had been conscious of -some impudent mocks which he however had borne with as being the fruits -of that age upon which it is commonly charged that it knows not pity. The -young sparks, it is true, were as full of extravagancies as overgrown -children: the words of their tumultuary discussions were difficultly -understood and not often nice: their testiness and outrageous MOTS were -such that his intellects resiled from: nor were they scrupulously -sensible of the proprieties though their fund of strong animal spirits -spoke in their behalf. But the word of Mr Costello was an unwelcome -language for him for he nauseated the wretch that seemed to him a -cropeared creature of a misshapen gibbosity, born out of wedlock and -thrust like a crookback toothed and feet first into the world, which the -dint of the surgeon's pliers in his skull lent indeed a colour to, so as -to put him in thought of that missing link of creation's chain -desiderated by the late ingenious Mr Darwin. It was now for more than the -middle span of our allotted years that he had passed through the thousand -vicissitudes of existence and, being of a wary ascendancy and self a man -of rare forecast, he had enjoined his heart to repress all motions of a -rising choler and, by intercepting them with the readiest precaution, -foster within his breast that plenitude of sufferance which base minds -jeer at, rash judgers scorn and all find tolerable and but tolerable. To -those who create themselves wits at the cost of feminine delicacy (a -habit of mind which he never did hold with) to them he would concede -neither to bear the name nor to herit the tradition of a proper breeding: -while for such that, having lost all forbearance, can lose no more, there -remained the sharp antidote of experience to cause their insolency to -beat a precipitate and inglorious retreat. Not but what he could feel -with mettlesome youth which, caring nought for the mows of dotards or the -gruntlings of the severe, is ever (as the chaste fancy of the Holy Writer -expresses it) for eating of the tree forbid it yet not so far forth as to -pretermit humanity upon any condition soever towards a gentlewoman when -she was about her lawful occasions. To conclude, while from the sister's -words he had reckoned upon a speedy delivery he was, however, it must be -owned, not a little alleviated by the intelligence that the issue so -auspicated after an ordeal of such duress now testified once more to the -mercy as well as to the bounty of the Supreme Being. - -Accordingly he broke his mind to his neighbour, saying that, to express -his notion of the thing, his opinion (who ought not perchance to express -one) was that one must have a cold constitution and a frigid genius not -to be rejoiced by this freshest news of the fruition of her confinement -since she had been in such pain through no fault of hers. The dressy -young blade said it was her husband's that put her in that expectation or -at least it ought to be unless she were another Ephesian matron. I must -acquaint you, said Mr Crotthers, clapping on the table so as to evoke a -resonant comment of emphasis, old Glory Allelujurum was round again -today, an elderly man with dundrearies, preferring through his nose a -request to have word of Wilhelmina, my life, as he calls her. I bade him -hold himself in readiness for that the event would burst anon. 'Slife, -I'll be round with you. I cannot but extol the virile potency of the old -bucko that could still knock another child out of her. All fell to -praising of it, each after his own fashion, though the same young blade -held with his former view that another than her conjugial had been the -man in the gap, a clerk in orders, a linkboy (virtuous) or an itinerant -vendor of articles needed in every household. Singular, communed the -guest with himself, the wonderfully unequal faculty of metempsychosis -possessed by them, that the puerperal dormitory and the dissecting -theatre should be the seminaries of such frivolity, that the mere -acquisition of academic titles should suffice to transform in a pinch of -time these votaries of levity into exemplary practitioners of an art -which most men anywise eminent have esteemed the noblest. But, he further -added, it is mayhap to relieve the pentup feelings that in common oppress -them for I have more than once observed that birds of a feather laugh -together. - -But with what fitness, let it be asked of the noble lord, his patron, has -this alien, whom the concession of a gracious prince has admitted to -civic rights, constituted himself the lord paramount of our internal -polity? Where is now that gratitude which loyalty should have counselled? -During the recent war whenever the enemy had a temporary advantage with -his granados did this traitor to his kind not seize that moment to -discharge his piece against the empire of which he is a tenant at will -while he trembled for the security of his four per cents? Has he -forgotten this as he forgets all benefits received? Or is it that from -being a deluder of others he has become at last his own dupe as he is, if -report belie him not, his own and his only enjoyer? Far be it from -candour to violate the bedchamber of a respectable lady, the daughter of -a gallant major, or to cast the most distant reflections upon her virtue -but if he challenges attention there (as it was indeed highly his -interest not to have done) then be it so. Unhappy woman, she has been too -long and too persistently denied her legitimate prerogative to listen to -his objurgations with any other feeling than the derision of the -desperate. He says this, a censor of morals, a very pelican in his piety, -who did not scruple, oblivious of the ties of nature, to attempt illicit -intercourse with a female domestic drawn from the lowest strata of -society! Nay, had the hussy's scouringbrush not been her tutelary angel, -it had gone with her as hard as with Hagar, the Egyptian! In the question -of the grazing lands his peevish asperity is notorious and in Mr Cuffe's -hearing brought upon him from an indignant rancher a scathing retort -couched in terms as straightforward as they were bucolic. It ill becomes -him to preach that gospel. Has he not nearer home a seedfield that lies -fallow for the want of the ploughshare? A habit reprehensible at puberty -is second nature and an opprobrium in middle life. If he must dispense -his balm of Gilead in nostrums and apothegms of dubious taste to restore -to health a generation of unfledged profligates let his practice consist -better with the doctrines that now engross him. His marital breast is the -repository of secrets which decorum is reluctant to adduce. The lewd -suggestions of some faded beauty may console him for a consort neglected -and debauched but this new exponent of morals and healer of ills is at -his best an exotic tree which, when rooted in its native orient, throve -and flourished and was abundant in balm but, transplanted to a clime more -temperate, its roots have lost their quondam vigour while the stuff that -comes away from it is stagnant, acid and inoperative. - -The news was imparted with a circumspection recalling the ceremonial -usage of the Sublime Porte by the second female infirmarian to the junior -medical officer in residence, who in his turn announced to the delegation -that an heir had been born, When he had betaken himself to the women's -apartment to assist at the prescribed ceremony of the afterbirth in the -presence of the secretary of state for domestic affairs and the members -of the privy council, silent in unanimous exhaustion and approbation the -delegates, chafing under the length and solemnity of their vigil and -hoping that the joyful occurrence would palliate a licence which the -simultaneous absence of abigail and obstetrician rendered the easier, -broke out at once into a strife of tongues. In vain the voice of Mr -Canvasser Bloom was heard endeavouring to urge, to mollify, to refrain. -The moment was too propitious for the display of that discursiveness -which seemed the only bond of union among tempers so divergent. Every -phase of the situation was successively eviscerated: the prenatal -repugnance of uterine brothers, the Caesarean section, posthumity with -respect to the father and, that rarer form, with respect to the mother, -the fratricidal case known as the Childs Murder and rendered memorable by -the impassioned plea of Mr Advocate Bushe which secured the acquittal of -the wrongfully accused, the rights of primogeniture and king's bounty -touching twins and triplets, miscarriages and infanticides, simulated or -dissimulated, the acardiac FOETUS IN FOETU and aprosopia due to a -congestion, the agnathia of certain chinless Chinamen (cited by Mr -Candidate Mulligan) in consequence of defective reunion of the maxillary -knobs along the medial line so that (as he said) one ear could hear what -the other spoke, the benefits of anesthesia or twilight sleep, the -prolongation of labour pains in advanced gravidancy by reason of pressure -on the vein, the premature relentment of the amniotic fluid (as -exemplified in the actual case) with consequent peril of sepsis to the -matrix, artificial insemination by means of syringes, involution of the -womb consequent upon the menopause, the problem of the perpetration of -the species in the case of females impregnated by delinquent rape, that -distressing manner of delivery called by the Brandenburghers STURZGEBURT, -the recorded instances of multiseminal, twikindled and monstrous births -conceived during the catamenic period or of consanguineous parents--in a -word all the cases of human nativity which Aristotle has classified in -his masterpiece with chromolithographic illustrations. The gravest -problems of obstetrics and forensic medicine were examined with as much -animation as the most popular beliefs on the state of pregnancy such as -the forbidding to a gravid woman to step over a countrystile lest, by her -movement, the navelcord should strangle her creature and the injunction -upon her in the event of a yearning, ardently and ineffectually -entertained, to place her hand against that part of her person which long -usage has consecrated as the seat of castigation. The abnormalities of -harelip, breastmole, supernumerary digits, negro's inkle, strawberry mark -and portwine stain were alleged by one as a PRIMA FACIE and natural -hypothetical explanation of those swineheaded (the case of Madame Grissel -Steevens was not forgotten) or doghaired infants occasionally born. The -hypothesis of a plasmic memory, advanced by the Caledonian envoy and -worthy of the metaphysical traditions of the land he stood for, envisaged -in such cases an arrest of embryonic development at some stage antecedent -to the human. An outlandish delegate sustained against both these views, -with such heat as almost carried conviction, the theory of copulation -between women and the males of brutes, his authority being his own -avouchment in support of fables such as that of the Minotaur which the -genius of the elegant Latin poet has handed down to us in the pages of -his Metamorphoses. The impression made by his words was immediate but -shortlived. It was effaced as easily as it had been evoked by an -allocution from Mr Candidate Mulligan in that vein of pleasantry which -none better than he knew how to affect, postulating as the supremest -object of desire a nice clean old man. Contemporaneously, a heated -argument having arisen between Mr Delegate Madden and Mr Candidate Lynch -regarding the juridical and theological dilemma created in the event of -one Siamese twin predeceasing the other, the difficulty by mutual consent -was referred to Mr Canvasser Bloom for instant submittal to Mr Coadjutor -Deacon Dedalus. Hitherto silent, whether the better to show by -preternatural gravity that curious dignity of the garb with which he was -invested or in obedience to an inward voice, he delivered briefly and, as -some thought, perfunctorily the ecclesiastical ordinance forbidding man -to put asunder what God has joined. - -But Malachias' tale began to freeze them with horror. He conjured up the -scene before them. The secret panel beside the chimney slid back and in -the recess appeared ... Haines! Which of us did not feel his flesh creep! -He had a portfolio full of Celtic literature in one hand, in the other a -phial marked POISON. Surprise, horror, loathing were depicted on all -faces while he eyed them with a ghostly grin. I anticipated some such -reception, he began with an eldritch laugh, for which, it seems, history -is to blame. Yes, it is true. I am the murderer of Samuel Childs. And how -I am punished! The inferno has no terrors for me. This is the appearance -is on me. Tare and ages, what way would I be resting at all, he muttered -thickly, and I tramping Dublin this while back with my share of songs and -himself after me the like of a soulth or a bullawurrus? My hell, and -Ireland's, is in this life. It is what I tried to obliterate my crime. -Distractions, rookshooting, the Erse language (he recited some), laudanum -(he raised the phial to his lips), camping out. In vain! His spectre -stalks me. Dope is my only hope ... Ah! Destruction! The black panther! -With a cry he suddenly vanished and the panel slid back. An instant later -his head appeared in the door opposite and said: Meet me at Westland Row -station at ten past eleven. He was gone. Tears gushed from the eyes of -the dissipated host. The seer raised his hand to heaven, murmuring: The -vendetta of Mananaun! The sage repeated: LEX TALIONIS. The sentimentalist -is he who would enjoy without incurring the immense debtorship for a -thing done. Malachias, overcome by emotion, ceased. The mystery was -unveiled. Haines was the third brother. His real name was Childs. The -black panther was himself the ghost of his own father. He drank drugs to -obliterate. For this relief much thanks. The lonely house by the -graveyard is uninhabited. No soul will live there. The spider pitches her -web in the solitude. The nocturnal rat peers from his hole. A curse is on -it. It is haunted. Murderer's ground. - -What is the age of the soul of man? As she hath the virtue of the -chameleon to change her hue at every new approach, to be gay with the -merry and mournful with the downcast, so too is her age changeable as her -mood. No longer is Leopold, as he sits there, ruminating, chewing the cud -of reminiscence, that staid agent of publicity and holder of a modest -substance in the funds. A score of years are blown away. He is young -Leopold. There, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a -mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is -seen, precociously manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house -in Clanbrassil street to the high school, his booksatchel on him -bandolierwise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother's -thought. Or it is the same figure, a year or so gone over, in his first -hard hat (ah, that was a day!), already on the road, a fullfledged -traveller for the family firm, equipped with an orderbook, a scented -handkerchief (not for show only), his case of bright trinketware (alas! a -thing now of the past!) and a quiverful of compliant smiles for this or -that halfwon housewife reckoning it out upon her fingertips or for a -budding virgin, shyly acknowledging (but the heart? tell me!) his studied -baisemoins. The scent, the smile, but, more than these, the dark eyes and -oleaginous address, brought home at duskfall many a commission to the -head of the firm, seated with Jacob's pipe after like labours in the -paternal ingle (a meal of noodles, you may be sure, is aheating), reading -through round horned spectacles some paper from the Europe of a month -before. But hey, presto, the mirror is breathed on and the young -knighterrant recedes, shrivels, dwindles to a tiny speck within the mist. -Now he is himself paternal and these about him might be his sons. Who can -say? The wise father knows his own child. He thinks of a drizzling night -in Hatch street, hard by the bonded stores there, the first. Together -(she is a poor waif, a child of shame, yours and mine and of all for a -bare shilling and her luckpenny), together they hear the heavy tread of -the watch as two raincaped shadows pass the new royal university. Bridie! -Bridie Kelly! He will never forget the name, ever remember the night: -first night, the bridenight. They are entwined in nethermost darkness, -the willer with the willed, and in an instant (FIAT!) light shall flood -the world. Did heart leap to heart? Nay, fair reader. In a breath 'twas -done but--hold! Back! It must not be! In terror the poor girl flees away -through the murk. She is the bride of darkness, a daughter of night. She -dare not bear the sunnygolden babe of day. No, Leopold. Name and memory -solace thee not. That youthful illusion of thy strength was taken from -thee--and in vain. No son of thy loins is by thee. There is none now to -be for Leopold, what Leopold was for Rudolph. - -The voices blend and fuse in clouded silence: silence that is the -infinite of space: and swiftly, silently the soul is wafted over regions -of cycles of generations that have lived. A region where grey twilight -ever descends, never falls on wide sagegreen pasturefields, shedding her -dusk, scattering a perennial dew of stars. She follows her mother with -ungainly steps, a mare leading her fillyfoal. Twilight phantoms are they, -yet moulded in prophetic grace of structure, slim shapely haunches, a -supple tendonous neck, the meek apprehensive skull. They fade, sad -phantoms: all is gone. Agendath is a waste land, a home of screechowls -and the sandblind upupa. Netaim, the golden, is no more. And on the -highway of the clouds they come, muttering thunder of rebellion, the -ghosts of beasts. Huuh! Hark! Huuh! Parallax stalks behind and goads -them, the lancinating lightnings of whose brow are scorpions. Elk and -yak, the bulls of Bashan and of Babylon, mammoth and mastodon, they come -trooping to the sunken sea, LACUS MORTIS. Ominous revengeful zodiacal -host! They moan, passing upon the clouds, horned and capricorned, the -trumpeted with the tusked, the lionmaned, the giantantlered, snouter and -crawler, rodent, ruminant and pachyderm, all their moving moaning -multitude, murderers of the sun. - -Onward to the dead sea they tramp to drink, unslaked and with horrible -gulpings, the salt somnolent inexhaustible flood. And the equine portent -grows again, magnified in the deserted heavens, nay to heaven's own -magnitude, till it looms, vast, over the house of Virgo. And lo, wonder -of metempsychosis, it is she, the everlasting bride, harbinger of the -daystar, the bride, ever virgin. It is she, Martha, thou lost one, -Millicent, the young, the dear, the radiant. How serene does she now -arise, a queen among the Pleiades, in the penultimate antelucan hour, -shod in sandals of bright gold, coifed with a veil of what do you call it -gossamer. It floats, it flows about her starborn flesh and loose it -streams, emerald, sapphire, mauve and heliotrope, sustained on currents -of the cold interstellar wind, winding, coiling, simply swirling, -writhing in the skies a mysterious writing till, after a myriad -metamorphoses of symbol, it blazes, Alpha, a ruby and triangled sign upon -the forehead of Taurus. - -Francis was reminding Stephen of years before when they had been at -school together in Conmee's time. He asked about Glaucon, Alcibiades, -Pisistratus. Where were they now? Neither knew. You have spoken of the -past and its phantoms, Stephen said. Why think of them? If I call them -into life across the waters of Lethe will not the poor ghosts troop to my -call? Who supposes it? I, Bous Stephanoumenos, bullockbefriending bard, -am lord and giver of their life. He encircled his gadding hair with a -coronal of vineleaves, smiling at Vincent. That answer and those leaves, -Vincent said to him, will adorn you more fitly when something more, and -greatly more, than a capful of light odes can call your genius father. -All who wish you well hope this for you. All desire to see you bring -forth the work you meditate, to acclaim you Stephaneforos. I heartily -wish you may not fail them. O no, Vincent Lenehan said, laying a hand on -the shoulder near him. Have no fear. He could not leave his mother an -orphan. The young man's face grew dark. All could see how hard it was for -him to be reminded of his promise and of his recent loss. He would have -withdrawn from the feast had not the noise of voices allayed the smart. -Madden had lost five drachmas on Sceptre for a whim of the rider's name: -Lenehan as much more. He told them of the race. The flag fell and, huuh! -off, scamper, the mare ran out freshly with O. Madden up. She was leading -the field. All hearts were beating. Even Phyllis could not contain -herself. She waved her scarf and cried: Huzzah! Sceptre wins! But in the -straight on the run home when all were in close order the dark horse -Throwaway drew level, reached, outstripped her. All was lost now. Phyllis -was silent: her eyes were sad anemones. Juno, she cried, I am undone. But -her lover consoled her and brought her a bright casket of gold in which -lay some oval sugarplums which she partook. A tear fell: one only. A -whacking fine whip, said Lenehan, is W. Lane. Four winners yesterday and -three today. What rider is like him? Mount him on the camel or the -boisterous buffalo the victory in a hack canter is still his. But let us -bear it as was the ancient wont. Mercy on the luckless! Poor Sceptre! he -said with a light sigh. She is not the filly that she was. Never, by this -hand, shall we behold such another. By gad, sir, a queen of them. Do you -remember her, Vincent? I wish you could have seen my queen today, Vincent -said. How young she was and radiant (Lalage were scarce fair beside her) -in her yellow shoes and frock of muslin, I do not know the right name of -it. The chestnuts that shaded us were in bloom: the air drooped with -their persuasive odour and with pollen floating by us. In the sunny -patches one might easily have cooked on a stone a batch of those buns -with Corinth fruit in them that Periplipomenes sells in his booth near -the bridge. But she had nought for her teeth but the arm with which I -held her and in that she nibbled mischievously when I pressed too close. -A week ago she lay ill, four days on the couch, but today she was free, -blithe, mocked at peril. She is more taking then. Her posies tool Mad -romp that she is, she had pulled her fill as we reclined together. And in -your ear, my friend, you will not think who met us as we left the field. -Conmee himself! He was walking by the hedge, reading, I think a brevier -book with, I doubt not, a witty letter in it from Glycera or Chloe to -keep the page. The sweet creature turned all colours in her confusion, -feigning to reprove a slight disorder in her dress: a slip of underwood -clung there for the very trees adore her. When Conmee had passed she -glanced at her lovely echo in that little mirror she carries. But he had -been kind. In going by he had blessed us. The gods too are ever kind, -Lenehan said. If I had poor luck with Bass's mare perhaps this draught of -his may serve me more propensely. He was laying his hand upon a winejar: -Malachi saw it and withheld his act, pointing to the stranger and to the -scarlet label. Warily, Malachi whispered, preserve a druid silence. His -soul is far away. It is as painful perhaps to be awakened from a vision -as to be born. Any object, intensely regarded, may be a gate of access to -the incorruptible eon of the gods. Do you not think it, Stephen? -Theosophos told me so, Stephen answered, whom in a previous existence -Egyptian priests initiated into the mysteries of karmic law. The lords of -the moon, Theosophos told me, an orangefiery shipload from planet Alpha -of the lunar chain would not assume the etheric doubles and these were -therefore incarnated by the rubycoloured egos from the second -constellation. - -However, as a matter of fact though, the preposterous surmise about him -being in some description of a doldrums or other or mesmerised which was. -entirely due to a misconception of the shallowest character, was not the -case at all. The individual whose visual organs while the above was going -on were at this juncture commencing to exhibit symptoms of animation was -as astute if not astuter than any man living and anybody that conjectured -the contrary would have found themselves pretty speedily in the wrong -shop. During the past four minutes or thereabouts he had been staring -hard at a certain amount of number one Bass bottled by Messrs Bass and Co -at Burton-on-Trent which happened to be situated amongst a lot of others -right opposite to where he was and which was certainly calculated to -attract anyone's remark on account of its scarlet appearance. He was -simply and solely, as it subsequently transpired for reasons best known -to himself, which put quite an altogether different complexion on the -proceedings, after the moment before's observations about boyhood days -and the turf, recollecting two or three private transactions of his own -which the other two were as mutually innocent of as the babe unborn. -Eventually, however, both their eyes met and as soon as it began to dawn -on him that the other was endeavouring to help himself to the thing he -involuntarily determined to help him himself and so he accordingly took -hold of the neck of the mediumsized glass recipient which contained the -fluid sought after and made a capacious hole in it by pouring a lot of it -out with, also at the same time, however, a considerable degree of -attentiveness in order not to upset any of the beer that was in it about -the place. - -The debate which ensued was in its scope and progress an epitome of the -course of life. Neither place nor council was lacking in dignity. The -debaters were the keenest in the land, the theme they were engaged on the -loftiest and most vital. The high hall of Horne's house had never beheld -an assembly so representative and so varied nor had the old rafters of -that establishment ever listened to a language so encyclopaedic. A -gallant scene in truth it made. Crotthers was there at the foot of the -table in his striking Highland garb, his face glowing from the briny airs -of the Mull of Galloway. There too, opposite to him, was Lynch whose -countenance bore already the stigmata of early depravity and premature -wisdom. Next the Scotchman was the place assigned to Costello, the -eccentric, while at his side was seated in stolid repose the squat form -of Madden. The chair of the resident indeed stood vacant before the -hearth but on either flank of it the figure of Bannon in explorer's kit -of tweed shorts and salted cowhide brogues contrasted sharply with the -primrose elegance and townbred manners of Malachi Roland St John -Mulligan. Lastly at the head of the board was the young poet who found a -refuge from his labours of pedagogy and metaphysical inquisition in the -convivial atmosphere of Socratic discussion, while to right and left of -him were accommodated the flippant prognosticator, fresh from the -hippodrome, and that vigilant wanderer, soiled by the dust of travel and -combat and stained by the mire of an indelible dishonour, but from whose -steadfast and constant heart no lure or peril or threat or degradation -could ever efface the image of that voluptuous loveliness which the -inspired pencil of Lafayette has limned for ages yet to come. - -It had better be stated here and now at the outset that the perverted -transcendentalism to which Mr S. Dedalus' (Div. Scep.) contentions would -appear to prove him pretty badly addicted runs directly counter to -accepted scientific methods. Science, it cannot be too often repeated, -deals with tangible phenomena. The man of science like the man in the -street has to face hardheaded facts that cannot be blinked and explain -them as best he can. There may be, it is true, some questions which -science cannot answer--at present--such as the first problem submitted by -Mr L. Bloom (Pubb. Canv.) regarding the future determination of sex. Must -we accept the view of Empedocles of Trinacria that the right ovary (the -postmenstrual period, assert others) is responsible for the birth of -males or are the too long neglected spermatozoa or nemasperms the -differentiating factors or is it, as most embryologists incline to opine, -such as Culpepper, Spallanzani, Blumenbach, Lusk, Hertwig, Leopold and -Valenti, a mixture of both? This would be tantamount to a cooperation -(one of nature's favourite devices) between the NISUS FORMATIVUS of the -nemasperm on the one hand and on the other a happily chosen position, -SUCCUBITUS FELIX of the passive element. The other problem raised by the -same inquirer is scarcely less vital: infant mortality. It is interesting -because, as he pertinently remarks, we are all born in the same way but -we all die in different ways. Mr M. Mulligan (Hyg. et Eug. Doc.) blames -the sanitary conditions in which our greylunged citizens contract -adenoids, pulmonary complaints etc. by inhaling the bacteria which lurk -in dust. These factors, he alleged, and the revolting spectacles offered -by our streets, hideous publicity posters, religious ministers of all -denominations, mutilated soldiers and sailors, exposed scorbutic -cardrivers, the suspended carcases of dead animals, paranoic bachelors -and unfructified duennas--these, he said, were accountable for any and -every fallingoff in the calibre of the race. Kalipedia, he prophesied, -would soon be generally adopted and all the graces of life, genuinely -good music, agreeable literature, light philosophy, instructive pictures, -plastercast reproductions of the classical statues such as Venus and -Apollo, artistic coloured photographs of prize babies, all these little -attentions would enable ladies who were in a particular condition to pass -the intervening months in a most enjoyable manner. Mr J. Crotthers (Disc. -Bacc.) attributes some of these demises to abdominal trauma in the case -of women workers subjected to heavy labours in the workshop and to -marital discipline in the home but by far the vast majority to neglect, -private or official, culminating in the exposure of newborn infants, the -practice of criminal abortion or in the atrocious crime of infanticide. -Although the former (we are thinking of neglect) is undoubtedly only too -true the case he cites of nurses forgetting to count the sponges in the -peritoneal cavity is too rare to be normative. In fact when one comes to -look into it the wonder is that so many pregnancies and deliveries go off -so well as they do, all things considered and in spite of our human -shortcomings which often baulk nature in her intentions. An ingenious -suggestion is that thrown out by Mr V. Lynch (Bacc. Arith.) that both -natality and mortality, as well as all other phenomena of evolution, -tidal movements, lunar phases, blood temperatures, diseases in general, -everything, in fine, in nature's vast workshop from the extinction of -some remote sun to the blossoming of one of the countless flowers which -beautify our public parks is subject to a law of numeration as yet -unascertained. Still the plain straightforward question why a child of -normally healthy parents and seemingly a healthy child and properly -looked after succumbs unaccountably in early childhood (though other -children of the same marriage do not) must certainly, in the poet's -words, give us pause. Nature, we may rest assured, has her own good and -cogent reasons for whatever she does and in all probability such deaths -are due to some law of anticipation by which organisms in which morbous -germs have taken up their residence (modern science has conclusively -shown that only the plasmic substance can be said to be immortal) tend to -disappear at an increasingly earlier stage of development, an arrangement -which, though productive of pain to some of our feelings (notably the -maternal), is nevertheless, some of us think, in the long run beneficial -to the race in general in securing thereby the survival of the fittest. -Mr S. Dedalus' (Div. Scep.) remark (or should it be called an -interruption?) that an omnivorous being which can masticate, deglute, -digest and apparently pass through the ordinary channel with -pluterperfect imperturbability such multifarious aliments as cancrenous -females emaciated by parturition, corpulent professional gentlemen, not -to speak of jaundiced politicians and chlorotic nuns, might possibly find -gastric relief in an innocent collation of staggering bob, reveals as -nought else could and in a very unsavoury light the tendency above -alluded to. For the enlightenment of those who are not so intimately -acquainted with the minutiae of the municipal abattoir as this -morbidminded esthete and embryo philosopher who for all his overweening -bumptiousness in things scientific can scarcely distinguish an acid from -an alkali prides himself on being, it should perhaps be stated that -staggering bob in the vile parlance of our lowerclass licensed -victuallers signifies the cookable and eatable flesh of a calf newly -dropped from its mother. In a recent public controversy with Mr L. Bloom -(Pubb. Canv.) which took place in the commons' hall of the National -Maternity Hospital, 29, 30 and 31 Holles street, of which, as is well -known, Dr A. Horne (Lic. in Midw., F. K. Q. C. P. I.) is the able and -popular master, he is reported by eyewitnesses as having stated that once -a woman has let the cat into the bag (an esthete's allusion, presumably, -to one of the most complicated and marvellous of all nature's processes-- -the act of sexual congress) she must let it out again or give it life, as -he phrased it, to save her own. At the risk of her own, was the telling -rejoinder of his interlocutor, none the less effective for the moderate -and measured tone in which it was delivered. - -Meanwhile the skill and patience of the physician had brought about a -happy ACCOUCHEMENT. It had been a weary weary while both for patient and -doctor. All that surgical skill could do was done and the brave woman had -manfully helped. She had. She had fought the good fight and now she was -very very happy. Those who have passed on, who have gone before, are -happy too as they gaze down and smile upon the touching scene. Reverently -look at her as she reclines there with the motherlight in her eyes, that -longing hunger for baby fingers (a pretty sight it is to see), in the -first bloom of her new motherhood, breathing a silent prayer of -thanksgiving to One above, the Universal Husband. And as her loving eyes -behold her babe she wishes only one blessing more, to have her dear Doady -there with her to share her joy, to lay in his arms that mite of God's -clay, the fruit of their lawful embraces. He is older now (you and I may -whisper it) and a trifle stooped in the shoulders yet in the whirligig of -years a grave dignity has come to the conscientious second accountant of -the Ulster bank, College Green branch. O Doady, loved one of old, -faithful lifemate now, it may never be again, that faroff time of the -roses! With the old shake of her pretty head she recalls those days. God! -How beautiful now across the mist of years! But their children are -grouped in her imagination about the bedside, hers and his, Charley, Mary -Alice, Frederick Albert (if he had lived), Mamy, Budgy (Victoria -Frances), Tom, Violet Constance Louisa, darling little Bobsy (called -after our famous hero of the South African war, lord Bobs of Waterford -and Candahar) and now this last pledge of their union, a Purefoy if ever -there was one, with the true Purefoy nose. Young hopeful will be -christened Mortimer Edward after the influential third cousin of Mr -Purefoy in the Treasury Remembrancer's office, Dublin Castle. And so time -wags on: but father Cronion has dealt lightly here. No, let no sigh break -from that bosom, dear gentle Mina. And Doady, knock the ashes from your -pipe, the seasoned briar you still fancy when the curfew rings for you -(may it be the distant day!) and dout the light whereby you read in the -Sacred Book for the oil too has run low, and so with a tranquil heart to -bed, to rest. He knows and will call in His own good time. You too have -fought the good fight and played loyally your man's part. Sir, to you my -hand. Well done, thou good and faithful servant! - -There are sins or (let us call them as the world calls them) evil -memories which are hidden away by man in the darkest places of the heart -but they abide there and wait. He may suffer their memory to grow dim, -let them be as though they had not been and all but persuade himself that -they were not or at least were otherwise. Yet a chance word will call -them forth suddenly and they will rise up to confront him in the most -various circumstances, a vision or a dream, or while timbrel and harp -soothe his senses or amid the cool silver tranquility of the evening or -at the feast, at midnight, when he is now filled with wine. Not to insult -over him will the vision come as over one that lies under her wrath, not -for vengeance to cut him off from the living but shrouded in the piteous -vesture of the past, silent, remote, reproachful. - -The stranger still regarded on the face before him a slow recession of -that false calm there, imposed, as it seemed, by habit or some studied -trick, upon words so embittered as to accuse in their speaker an -unhealthiness, a FLAIR, for the cruder things of life. A scene disengages -itself in the observer's memory, evoked, it would seem, by a word of so -natural a homeliness as if those days were really present there (as some -thought) with their immediate pleasures. A shaven space of lawn one soft -May evening, the wellremembered grove of lilacs at Roundtown, purple and -white, fragrant slender spectators of the game but with much real -interest in the pellets as they run slowly forward over the sward or -collide and stop, one by its fellow, with a brief alert shock. And yonder -about that grey urn where the water moves at times in thoughtful -irrigation you saw another as fragrant sisterhood, Floey, Atty, Tiny and -their darker friend with I know not what of arresting in her pose then, -Our Lady of the Cherries, a comely brace of them pendent from an ear, -bringing out the foreign warmth of the skin so daintily against the cool -ardent fruit. A lad of four or five in linseywoolsey (blossomtime but -there will be cheer in the kindly hearth when ere long the bowls are -gathered and hutched) is standing on the urn secured by that circle of -girlish fond hands. He frowns a little just as this young man does now -with a perhaps too conscious enjoyment of the danger but must needs -glance at whiles towards where his mother watches from the PIAZZETTA -giving upon the flowerclose with a faint shadow of remoteness or of -reproach (ALLES VERGANGLICHE) in her glad look. - -Mark this farther and remember. The end comes suddenly. Enter that -antechamber of birth where the studious are assembled and note their -faces. Nothing, as it seems, there of rash or violent. Quietude of -custody, rather, befitting their station in that house, the vigilant -watch of shepherds and of angels about a crib in Bethlehem of Juda long -ago. But as before the lightning the serried stormclouds, heavy with -preponderant excess of moisture, in swollen masses turgidly distended, -compass earth and sky in one vast slumber, impending above parched field -and drowsy oxen and blighted growth of shrub and verdure till in an -instant a flash rives their centres and with the reverberation of the -thunder the cloudburst pours its torrent, so and not otherwise was the -transformation, violent and instantaneous, upon the utterance of the -word. - -Burke's! outflings my lord Stephen, giving the cry, and a tag and bobtail -of all them after, cockerel, jackanapes, welsher, pilldoctor, punctual -Bloom at heels with a universal grabbing at headgear, ashplants, bilbos, -Panama hats and scabbards, Zermatt alpenstocks and what not. A dedale of -lusty youth, noble every student there. Nurse Callan taken aback in the -hallway cannot stay them nor smiling surgeon coming downstairs with news -of placentation ended, a full pound if a milligramme. They hark him on. -The door! It is open? Ha! They are out, tumultuously, off for a minute's -race, all bravely legging it, Burke's of Denzille and Holles their -ulterior goal. Dixon follows giving them sharp language but raps out an -oath, he too, and on. Bloom stays with nurse a thought to send a kind -word to happy mother and nurseling up there. Doctor Diet and Doctor -Quiet. Looks she too not other now? Ward of watching in Horne's house has -told its tale in that washedout pallor. Then all being gone, a glance of -motherwit helping, he whispers close in going: Madam, when comes the -storkbird for thee? - -The air without is impregnated with raindew moisture, life essence -celestial, glistening on Dublin stone there under starshiny COELUM. God's -air, the Allfather's air, scintillant circumambient cessile air. Breathe -it deep into thee. By heaven, Theodore Purefoy, thou hast done a doughty -deed and no botch! Thou art, I vow, the remarkablest progenitor barring -none in this chaffering allincluding most farraginous chronicle. -Astounding! In her lay a Godframed Godgiven preformed possibility which -thou hast fructified with thy modicum of man's work. Cleave to her! -Serve! Toil on, labour like a very bandog and let scholarment and all -Malthusiasts go hang. Thou art all their daddies, Theodore. Art drooping -under thy load, bemoiled with butcher's bills at home and ingots (not -thine!) in the countinghouse? Head up! For every newbegotten thou shalt -gather thy homer of ripe wheat. See, thy fleece is drenched. Dost envy -Darby Dullman there with his Joan? A canting jay and a rheumeyed curdog -is all their progeny. Pshaw, I tell thee! He is a mule, a dead -gasteropod, without vim or stamina, not worth a cracked kreutzer. -Copulation without population! No, say I! Herod's slaughter of the -innocents were the truer name. Vegetables, forsooth, and sterile -cohabitation! Give her beefsteaks, red, raw, bleeding! She is a hoary -pandemonium of ills, enlarged glands, mumps, quinsy, bunions, hayfever, -bedsores, ringworm, floating kidney, Derbyshire neck, warts, bilious -attacks, gallstones, cold feet, varicose veins. A truce to threnes and -trentals and jeremies and all such congenital defunctive music! Twenty -years of it, regret them not. With thee it was not as with many that will -and would and wait and never--do. Thou sawest thy America, thy lifetask, -and didst charge to cover like the transpontine bison. How saith -Zarathustra? DEINE KUH TRUBSAL MELKEST DU. NUN TRINKST DU DIE SUSSE MILCH -DES EUTERS. See! it displodes for thee in abundance. Drink, man, an -udderful! Mother's milk, Purefoy, the milk of human kin, milk too of -those burgeoning stars overhead rutilant in thin rainvapour, punch milk, -such as those rioters will quaff in their guzzling den, milk of madness, -the honeymilk of Canaan's land. Thy cow's dug was tough, what? Ay, but -her milk is hot and sweet and fattening. No dollop this but thick rich -bonnyclaber. To her, old patriarch! Pap! PER DEAM PARTULAM ET PERTUNDAM -NUNC EST BIBENDUM! - -All off for a buster, armstrong, hollering down the street. Bonafides. -Where you slep las nigh? Timothy of the battered naggin. Like ole Billyo. -Any brollies or gumboots in the fambly? Where the Henry Nevil's sawbones -and ole clo? Sorra one o' me knows. Hurrah there, Dix! Forward to the -ribbon counter. Where's Punch? All serene. Jay, look at the drunken -minister coming out of the maternity hospal! BENEDICAT VOS OMNIPOTENS -DEUS, PATER ET FILIUS. A make, mister. The Denzille lane boys. Hell, -blast ye! Scoot. Righto, Isaacs, shove em out of the bleeding limelight. -Yous join uz, dear sir? No hentrusion in life. Lou heap good man. Allee -samee dis bunch. EN AVANT, MES ENFANTS! Fire away number one on the gun. -Burke's! Burke's! Thence they advanced five parasangs. Slattery's mounted -foot. Where's that bleeding awfur? Parson Steve, apostates' creed! No, -no, Mulligan! Abaft there! Shove ahead. Keep a watch on the clock. -Chuckingout time. Mullee! What's on you? MA MERE M'A MARIEE. British -Beatitudes! RETAMPLATAN DIGIDI BOUMBOUM. Ayes have it. To be printed and -bound at the Druiddrum press by two designing females. Calf covers of -pissedon green. Last word in art shades. Most beautiful book come out of -Ireland my time. SILENTIUM! Get a spurt on. Tention. Proceed to nearest -canteen and there annex liquor stores. March! Tramp, tramp, tramp, the -boys are (atitudes!) parching. Beer, beef, business, bibles, bulldogs -battleships, buggery and bishops. Whether on the scaffold high. Beer, -beef, trample the bibles. When for Irelandear. Trample the trampellers. -Thunderation! Keep the durned millingtary step. We fall. Bishops -boosebox. Halt! Heave to. Rugger. Scrum in. No touch kicking. Wow, my -tootsies! You hurt? Most amazingly sorry! - -Query. Who's astanding this here do? Proud possessor of damnall. Declare -misery. Bet to the ropes. Me nantee saltee. Not a red at me this week -gone. Yours? Mead of our fathers for the UBERMENSCH. Dittoh. Five number -ones. You, sir? Ginger cordial. Chase me, the cabby's caudle. Stimulate -the caloric. Winding of his ticker. Stopped short never to go again when -the old. Absinthe for me, savvy? CARAMBA! Have an eggnog or a prairie -oyster. Enemy? Avuncular's got my timepiece. Ten to. Obligated awful. -Don't mention it. Got a pectoral trauma, eh, Dix? Pos fact. Got bet be a -boomblebee whenever he wus settin sleepin in hes bit garten. Digs up near -the Mater. Buckled he is. Know his dona? Yup, sartin I do. Full of a -dure. See her in her dishybilly. Peels off a credit. Lovey lovekin. None -of your lean kine, not much. Pull down the blind, love. Two Ardilauns. -Same here. Look slippery. If you fall don't wait to get up. Five, seven, -nine. Fine! Got a prime pair of mincepies, no kid. And her take me to -rests and her anker of rum. Must be seen to be believed. Your starving -eyes and allbeplastered neck you stole my heart, O gluepot. Sir? Spud -again the rheumatiz? All poppycock, you'll scuse me saying. For the hoi -polloi. I vear thee beest a gert vool. Well, doc? Back fro Lapland? Your -corporosity sagaciating O K? How's the squaws and papooses? Womanbody -after going on the straw? Stand and deliver. Password. There's hair. Ours -the white death and the ruddy birth. Hi! Spit in your own eye, boss! -Mummer's wire. Cribbed out of Meredith. Jesified, orchidised, polycimical -jesuit! Aunty mine's writing Pa Kinch. Baddybad Stephen lead astray -goodygood Malachi. - -Hurroo! Collar the leather, youngun. Roun wi the nappy. Here, Jock braw -Hielentman's your barleybree. Lang may your lum reek and your kailpot -boil! My tipple. MERCI. Here's to us. How's that? Leg before wicket. -Don't stain my brandnew sitinems. Give's a shake of peppe, you there. -Catch aholt. Caraway seed to carry away. Twig? Shrieks of silence. Every -cove to his gentry mort. Venus Pandemos. LES PETITES FEMMES. Bold bad -girl from the town of Mullingar. Tell her I was axing at her. Hauding -Sara by the wame. On the road to Malahide. Me? If she who seduced me had -left but the name. What do you want for ninepence? Machree, macruiskeen. -Smutty Moll for a mattress jig. And a pull all together. EX! - -Waiting, guvnor? Most deciduously. Bet your boots on. Stunned like, -seeing as how no shiners is acoming. Underconstumble? He've got the chink -AD LIB. Seed near free poun on un a spell ago a said war hisn. Us come -right in on your invite, see? Up to you, matey. Out with the oof. Two bar -and a wing. You larn that go off of they there Frenchy bilks? Won't wash -here for nuts nohow. Lil chile velly solly. Ise de cutest colour coon -down our side. Gawds teruth, Chawley. We are nae fou. We're nae tha fou. -Au reservoir, mossoo. Tanks you. - -'Tis, sure. What say? In the speakeasy. Tight. I shee you, shir. Bantam, -two days teetee. Bowsing nowt but claretwine. Garn! Have a glint, do. -Gum, I'm jiggered. And been to barber he have. Too full for words. With a -railway bloke. How come you so? Opera he'd like? Rose of Castile. Rows of -cast. Police! Some H2O for a gent fainted. Look at Bantam's flowers. -Gemini. He's going to holler. The colleen bawn. My colleen bawn. O, -cheese it! Shut his blurry Dutch oven with a firm hand. Had the winner -today till I tipped him a dead cert. The ruffin cly the nab of Stephen -Hand as give me the jady coppaleen. He strike a telegramboy paddock wire -big bug Bass to the depot. Shove him a joey and grahamise. Mare on form -hot order. Guinea to a goosegog. Tell a cram, that. Gospeltrue. Criminal -diversion? I think that yes. Sure thing. Land him in chokeechokee if the -harman beck copped the game. Madden back Madden's a maddening back. O -lust our refuge and our strength. Decamping. Must you go? Off to mammy. -Stand by. Hide my blushes someone. All in if he spots me. Come ahome, our -Bantam. Horryvar, mong vioo. Dinna forget the cowslips for hersel. -Cornfide. Wha gev ye thon colt? Pal to pal. Jannock. Of John Thomas, her -spouse. No fake, old man Leo. S'elp me, honest injun. Shiver my timbers -if I had. There's a great big holy friar. Vyfor you no me tell? Vel, I -ses, if that aint a sheeny nachez, vel, I vil get misha mishinnah. -Through yerd our lord, Amen. - -You move a motion? Steve boy, you're going it some. More bluggy -drunkables? Will immensely splendiferous stander permit one stooder of -most extreme poverty and one largesize grandacious thirst to terminate -one expensive inaugurated libation? Give's a breather. Landlord, -landlord, have you good wine, staboo? Hoots, mon, a wee drap to pree. Cut -and come again. Right. Boniface! Absinthe the lot. NOS OMNES BIBERIMUS -VIRIDUM TOXICUM DIABOLUS CAPIAT POSTERIORIA NOSTRIA. Closingtime, gents. -Eh? Rome boose for the Bloom toff. I hear you say onions? Bloo? Cadges -ads. Photo's papli, by all that's gorgeous. Play low, pardner. Slide. -BONSOIR LA COMPAGNIE. And snares of the poxfiend. Where's the buck and -Namby Amby? Skunked? Leg bail. Aweel, ye maun e'en gang yer gates. -Checkmate. King to tower. Kind Kristyann wil yu help yung man hoose frend -tuk bungellow kee tu find plais whear tu lay crown of his hed 2 night. -Crickey, I'm about sprung. Tarnally dog gone my shins if this beent the -bestest puttiest longbreak yet. Item, curate, couple of cookies for this -child. Cot's plood and prandypalls, none! Not a pite of sheeses? Thrust -syphilis down to hell and with him those other licensed spirits. Time, -gents! Who wander through the world. Health all! A LA VOTRE! - -Golly, whatten tunket's yon guy in the mackintosh? Dusty Rhodes. Peep at -his wearables. By mighty! What's he got? Jubilee mutton. Bovril, by -James. Wants it real bad. D'ye ken bare socks? Seedy cuss in the -Richmond? Rawthere! Thought he had a deposit of lead in his penis. -Trumpery insanity. Bartle the Bread we calls him. That, sir, was once a -prosperous cit. Man all tattered and torn that married a maiden all -forlorn. Slung her hook, she did. Here see lost love. Walking Mackintosh -of lonely canyon. Tuck and turn in. Schedule time. Nix for the hornies. -Pardon? Seen him today at a runefal? Chum o' yourn passed in his checks? -Ludamassy! Pore piccaninnies! Thou'll no be telling me thot, Pold veg! -Did ums blubble bigsplash crytears cos fren Padney was took off in black -bag? Of all de darkies Massa Pat was verra best. I never see the like -since I was born. TIENS, TIENS, but it is well sad, that, my faith, yes. -O, get, rev on a gradient one in nine. Live axle drives are souped. Lay -you two to one Jenatzy licks him ruddy well hollow. Jappies? High angle -fire, inyah! Sunk by war specials. Be worse for him, says he, nor any -Rooshian. Time all. There's eleven of them. Get ye gone. Forward, woozy -wobblers! Night. Night. May Allah the Excellent One your soul this night -ever tremendously conserve. - -Your attention! We're nae tha fou. The Leith police dismisseth us. The -least tholice. Ware hawks for the chap puking. Unwell in his abominable -regions. Yooka. Night. Mona, my true love. Yook. Mona, my own love. Ook. - -Hark! Shut your obstropolos. Pflaap! Pflaap! Blaze on. There she goes. -Brigade! Bout ship. Mount street way. Cut up! Pflaap! Tally ho. You not -come? Run, skelter, race. Pflaaaap! - -Lynch! Hey? Sign on long o' me. Denzille lane this way. Change here for -Bawdyhouse. We two, she said, will seek the kips where shady Mary is. -Righto, any old time. LAETABUNTUR IN CUBILIBUS SUIS. You coming long? -Whisper, who the sooty hell's the johnny in the black duds? Hush! Sinned -against the light and even now that day is at hand when he shall come to -judge the world by fire. Pflaap! UT IMPLERENTUR SCRIPTURAE. Strike up a -ballad. Then outspake medical Dick to his comrade medical Davy. -Christicle, who's this excrement yellow gospeller on the Merrion hall? -Elijah is coming! Washed in the blood of the Lamb. Come on you -winefizzling, ginsizzling, booseguzzling existences! Come on, you dog- -gone, bullnecked, beetlebrowed, hogjowled, peanutbrained, weaseleyed -fourflushers, false alarms and excess baggage! Come on, you triple -extract of infamy! Alexander J Christ Dowie, that's my name, that's -yanked to glory most half this planet from Frisco beach to Vladivostok. -The Deity aint no nickel dime bumshow. I put it to you that He's on the -square and a corking fine business proposition. He's the grandest thing -yet and don't you forget it. Shout salvation in King Jesus. You'll need -to rise precious early you sinner there, if you want to diddle the -Almighty God. Pflaaaap! Not half. He's got a coughmixture with a punch in -it for you, my friend, in his back pocket. Just you try it on. - - - * * * * * * * - - -THE MABBOT STREET ENTRANCE OF NIGHTTOWN, BEFORE WHICH STRETCHES AN -UNCOBBLED TRAMSIDING SET WITH SKELETON TRACKS, RED AND GREEN WILL-O'-THE- -WISPS AND DANGER SIGNALS. ROWS OF GRIMY HOUSES WITH GAPING DOORS. RARE -LAMPS WITH FAINT RAINBOW FINS. ROUND RABAIOTTI'S HALTED ICE GONDOLA -STUNTED MEN AND WOMEN SQUABBLE. THEY GRAB WAFERS BETWEEN WHICH ARE WEDGED -LUMPS OF CORAL AND COPPER SNOW. SUCKING, THEY SCATTER SLOWLY. CHILDREN. -THE SWANCOMB OF THE GONDOLA, HIGHREARED, FORGES ON THROUGH THE MURK, -WHITE AND BLUE UNDER A LIGHTHOUSE. WHISTLES CALL AND ANSWER. - -THE CALLS: Wait, my love, and I'll be with you. - -THE ANSWERS: Round behind the stable. - -(A DEAFMUTE IDIOT WITH GOGGLE EYES, HIS SHAPELESS MOUTH DRIBBLING, JERKS -PAST, SHAKEN IN SAINT VITUS' DANCE. A CHAIN OF CHILDREN 'S HANDS -IMPRISONS HIM.) - -THE CHILDREN: Kithogue! Salute! - -THE IDIOT: (LIFTS A PALSIED LEFT ARM AND GURGLES) Grhahute! - -THE CHILDREN: Where's the great light? - -THE IDIOT: (GOBBING) Ghaghahest. - -(THEY RELEASE HIM. HE JERKS ON. A PIGMY WOMAN SWINGS ON A ROPE SLUNG -BETWEEN TWO RAILINGS, COUNTING. A FORM SPRAWLED AGAINST A DUSTBIN AND -MUFFLED BY ITS ARM AND HAT SNORES, GROANS, GRINDING GROWLING TEETH, AND -SNORES AGAIN. ON A STEP A GNOME TOTTING AMONG A RUBBISHTIP CROUCHES TO -SHOULDER A SACK OF RAGS AND BONES. A CRONE STANDING BY WITH A SMOKY -OILLAMP RAMS HER LAST BOTTLE IN THE MAW OF HIS SACK. HE HEAVES HIS BOOTY, -TUGS ASKEW HIS PEAKED CAP AND HOBBLES OFF MUTELY. THE CRONE MAKES BACK -FOR HER LAIR, SWAYING HER LAMP. A BANDY CHILD, ASQUAT ON THE DOORSTEP -WITH A PAPER SHUTTLECOCK, CRAWLS SIDLING AFTER HER IN SPURTS, CLUTCHES -HER SKIRT, SCRAMBLES UP. A DRUNKEN NAVVY GRIPS WITH BOTH HANDS THE -RAILINGS OF AN AREA, LURCHING HEAVILY. AT A COMER TWO NIGHT WATCH IN -SHOULDERCAPES, THEIR HANDS UPON THEIR STAFFHOLSTERS, LOOM TALL. A PLATE -CRASHES: A WOMAN SCREAMS: A CHILD WAILS. OATHS OF A MAN ROAR, MUTTER, -CEASE. FIGURES WANDER, LURK, PEER FROM WARRENS. IN A ROOM LIT BY A CANDLE -STUCK IN A BOTTLENECK A SLUT COMBS OUT THE TATTS FROM THE HAIR OF A -SCROFULOUS CHILD. CISSY CAFFREY'S VOICE, STILL YOUNG, SINGS SHRILL FROM A -LANE.) - -CISSY CAFFREY: - - - I GAVE IT TO MOLLY - BECAUSE SHE WAS JOLLY, - THE LEG OF THE DUCK, - THE LEG OF THE DUCK. - - -(PRIVATE CARR AND PRIVATE COMPTON, SWAGGERSTICKS TIGHT IN THEIR OXTERS, -AS THEY MARCH UNSTEADILY RIGHTABOUTFACE AND BURST TOGETHER FROM THEIR -MOUTHS A VOLLEYED FART. LAUGHTER OF MEN FROM THE LANE. A HOARSE VIRAGO -RETORTS.) - -THE VIRAGO: Signs on you, hairy arse. More power the Cavan girl. - -CISSY CAFFREY: More luck to me. Cavan, Cootehill and Belturbet. (SHE -SINGS) - - - I GAVE IT TO NELLY - TO STICK IN HER BELLY, - THE LEG OF THE DUCK, - THE LEG OF THE DUCK. - - -(PRIVATE CARR AND PRIVATE COMPTON TURN AND COUNTERRETORT, THEIR TUNICS -BLOODBRIGHT IN A LAMPGLOW, BLACK SOCKETS OF CAPS ON THEIR BLOND CROPPED -POLLS. STEPHEN DEDALUS AND LYNCH PASS THROUGH THE CROWD CLOSE TO THE -REDCOATS.) - -PRIVATE COMPTON: (JERKS HIS FINGER) Way for the parson. - -PRIVATE CARR: (TURNS AND CALLS) What ho, parson! - -CISSY CAFFREY: (HER VOICE SOARING HIGHER) - - - SHE HAS IT, SHE GOT IT, - WHEREVER SHE PUT IT, - THE LEG OF THE DUCK. - - -(STEPHEN, FLOURISHING THE ASHPLANT IN HIS LEFT HAND, CHANTS WITH JOY THE -INTROIT FOR PASCHAL TIME. LYNCH, HIS JOCKEYCAP LOW ON HIS BROW, ATTENDS -HIM, A SNEER OF DISCONTENT WRINKLING HIS FACE.) - -STEPHEN: VIDI AQUAM EGREDIENTEM DE TEMPLO A LATERE DEXTRO. ALLELUIA. - -(THE FAMISHED SNAGGLETUSKS OF AN ELDERLY BAWD PROTRUDE FROM A DOORWAY.) - -THE BAWD: (HER VOICE WHISPERING HUSKILY) Sst! Come here till I tell you. -Maidenhead inside. Sst! - -STEPHEN: (ALTIUS ALIQUANTULUM) ET OMNES AD QUOS PERVENIT AQUA ISTA. - -THE BAWD: (SPITS IN THEIR TRAIL HER JET OF VENOM) Trinity medicals. -Fallopian tube. All prick and no pence. - -(EDY BOARDMAN, SNIFFLING, CROUCHED WITH BERTHA SUPPLE, DRAWS HER SHAWL -ACROSS HER NOSTRILS.) - -EDY BOARDMAN: (BICKERING) And says the one: I seen you up Faithful place -with your squarepusher, the greaser off the railway, in his cometobed -hat. Did you, says I. That's not for you to say, says I. You never seen -me in the mantrap with a married highlander, says I. The likes of her! -Stag that one is! Stubborn as a mule! And her walking with two fellows -the one time, Kilbride, the enginedriver, and lancecorporal Oliphant. - -STEPHEN: (TRIUMPHALITER) SALVI FACTI SUNT. - -(HE FLOURISHES HIS ASHPLANT, SHIVERING THE LAMP IMAGE, SHATTERING LIGHT -OVER THE WORLD. A LIVER AND WHITE SPANIEL ON THE PROWL SLINKS AFTER HIM, -GROWLING. LYNCH SCARES IT WITH A KICK.) - -LYNCH: So that? - -STEPHEN: (LOOKS BEHIND) So that gesture, not music not odour, would be a -universal language, the gift of tongues rendering visible not the lay -sense but the first entelechy, the structural rhythm. - -LYNCH: Pornosophical philotheology. Metaphysics in Mecklenburgh street! - -STEPHEN: We have shrewridden Shakespeare and henpecked Socrates. Even the -allwisest Stagyrite was bitted, bridled and mounted by a light of love. - -LYNCH: Ba! - -STEPHEN: Anyway, who wants two gestures to illustrate a loaf and a jug? -This movement illustrates the loaf and jug of bread or wine in Omar. Hold -my stick. - -LYNCH: Damn your yellow stick. Where are we going? - -STEPHEN: Lecherous lynx, TO LA BELLE DAME SANS MERCI, Georgina Johnson, -AD DEAM QUI LAETIFICAT IUVENTUTEM MEAM. - -(STEPHEN THRUSTS THE ASHPLANT ON HIM AND SLOWLY HOLDS OUT HIS HANDS, HIS -HEAD GOING BACK TILL BOTH HANDS ARE A SPAN FROM HIS BREAST, DOWN TURNED, -IN PLANES INTERSECTING, THE FINGERS ABOUT TO PART, THE LEFT BEING -HIGHER.) - -LYNCH: Which is the jug of bread? It skills not. That or the customhouse. -Illustrate thou. Here take your crutch and walk. - -(THEY PASS. TOMMY CAFFREY SCRAMBLES TO A GASLAMP AND, CLASPING, CLIMBS IN -SPASMS. FROM THE TOP SPUR HE SLIDES DOWN. JACKY CAFFREY CLASPS TO CLIMB. -THE NAVVY LURCHES AGAINST THE LAMP. THE TWINS SCUTTLE OFF IN THE DARK. -THE NAVVY, SWAYING, PRESSES A FOREFINGER AGAINST A WING OF HIS NOSE AND -EJECTS FROM THE FARTHER NOSTRIL A LONG LIQUID JET OF SNOT. SHOULDERING -THE LAMP HE STAGGERS AWAY THROUGH THE CROWD WITH HIS FLARING CRESSET. - -SNAKES OF RIVER FOG CREEP SLOWLY. FROM DRAINS, CLEFTS, CESSPOOLS, MIDDENS -ARISE ON ALL SIDES STAGNANT FUMES. A GLOW LEAPS IN THE SOUTH BEYOND THE -SEAWARD REACHES OF THE RIVER. THE NAVVY, STAGGERING FORWARD, CLEAVES THE -CROWD AND LURCHES TOWARDS THE TRAMSIDING ON THE FARTHER SIDE UNDER THE -RAILWAY BRIDGE BLOOM APPEARS, FLUSHED, PANTING, CRAMMING BREAD AND -CHOCOLATE INTO A SIDEPOCKET. FROM GILLEN'S HAIRDRESSER'S WINDOW A -COMPOSITE PORTRAIT SHOWS HIM GALLANT NELSON'S IMAGE. A CONCAVE MIRROR AT -THE SIDE PRESENTS TO HIM LOVELORN LONGLOST LUGUBRU BOOLOOHOOM. GRAVE -GLADSTONE SEES HIM LEVEL, BLOOM FOR BLOOM. HE PASSES, STRUCK BY THE STARE -OF TRUCULENT WELLINGTON, BUT IN THE CONVEX MIRROR GRIN UNSTRUCK THE -BONHAM EYES AND FATCHUCK CHEEKCHOPS OF JOLLYPOLDY THE RIXDIX DOLDY. - -AT ANTONIO PABAIOTTI'S DOOR BLOOM HALTS, SWEATED UNDER THE BRIGHT -ARCLAMP. HE DISAPPEARS. IN A MOMENT HE REAPPEARS AND HURRIES ON.) - -BLOOM: Fish and taters. N. g. Ah! - -(HE DISAPPEARS INTO OLHAUSEN'S, THE PORKBUTCHER'S, UNDER THE DOWNCOMING -ROLLSHUTTER. A FEW MOMENTS LATER HE EMERGES FROM UNDER THE SHUTTER, -PUFFING POLDY, BLOWING BLOOHOOM. IN EACH HAND HE HOLDS A PARCEL, ONE -CONTAINING A LUKEWARM PIG'S CRUBEEN, THE OTHER A COLD SHEEP'S TROTTER, -SPRINKLED WITH WHOLEPEPPER. HE GASPS, STANDING UPRIGHT. THEN BENDING TO -ONE SIDE HE PRESSES A PARCEL AGAINST HIS RIBS AND GROANS.) - -BLOOM: Stitch in my side. Why did I run? - -(HE TAKES BREATH WITH CARE AND GOES FORWARD SLOWLY TOWARDS THE LAMPSET -SIDING. THE GLOW LEAPS AGAIN.) - -BLOOM: What is that? A flasher? Searchlight. - -(HE STANDS AT CORMACK'S CORNER, WATCHING) - -BLOOM: AURORA BOREALIS or a steel foundry? Ah, the brigade, of course. -South side anyhow. Big blaze. Might be his house. Beggar's bush. We're -safe. (HE HUMS CHEERFULLY) London's burning, London's burning! On fire, -on fire! (HE CATCHES SIGHT OF THE NAVVY LURCHING THROUGH THE CROWD AT THE -FARTHER SIDE OF TALBOT STREET) I'll miss him. Run. Quick. Better cross -here. - -(HE DARTS TO CROSS THE ROAD. URCHINS SHOUT.) - -THE URCHINS: Mind out, mister! (TWO CYCLISTS, WITH LIGHTED PAPER LANTERNS -ASWING, SWIM BY HIM, GRAZING HIM, THEIR BELLS RATTLING) - -THE BELLS: Haltyaltyaltyall. - -BLOOM: (HALTS ERECT, STUNG BY A SPASM) Ow! - -(HE LOOKS ROUND, DARTS FORWARD SUDDENLY. THROUGH RISING FOG A DRAGON -SANDSTREWER, TRAVELLING AT CAUTION, SLEWS HEAVILY DOWN UPON HIM, ITS HUGE -RED HEADLIGHT WINKING, ITS TROLLEY HISSING ON THE WIRE. THE MOTORMAN -BANGS HIS FOOTGONG.) - -THE GONG: Bang Bang Bla Bak Blud Bugg Bloo. - -(THE BRAKE CRACKS VIOLENTLY. BLOOM, RAISING A POLICEMAN'S WHITEGLOVED -HAND, BLUNDERS STIFFLEGGED OUT OF THE TRACK. THE MOTORMAN, THROWN -FORWARD, PUGNOSED, ON THE GUIDEWHEEL, YELLS AS HE SLIDES PAST OVER CHAINS -AND KEYS.) - -THE MOTORMAN: Hey, shitbreeches, are you doing the hat trick? - -BLOOM: (BLOOM TRICKLEAPS TO THE CURBSTONE AND HALTS AGAIN. HE BRUSHES A -MUDFLAKE FROM HIS CHEEK WITH A PARCELLED HAND.) No thoroughfare. Close -shave that but cured the stitch. Must take up Sandow's exercises again. -On the hands down. Insure against street accident too. The Providential. -(HE FEELS HIS TROUSER POCKET) Poor mamma's panacea. Heel easily catch in -track or bootlace in a cog. Day the wheel of the black Maria peeled off -my shoe at Leonard's corner. Third time is the charm. Shoe trick. -Insolent driver. I ought to report him. Tension makes them nervous. Might -be the fellow balked me this morning with that horsey woman. Same style -of beauty. Quick of him all the same. The stiff walk. True word spoken in -jest. That awful cramp in Lad lane. Something poisonous I ate. Emblem of -luck. Why? Probably lost cattle. Mark of the beast. (HE CLOSES HIS EYES -AN INSTANT) Bit light in the head. Monthly or effect of the other. -Brainfogfag. That tired feeling. Too much for me now. Ow! - -(A SINISTER FIGURE LEANS ON PLAITED LEGS AGAINST O'BEIRNE'S WALL, A -VISAGE UNKNOWN, INJECTED WITH DARK MERCURY. FROM UNDER A WIDELEAVED -SOMBRERO THE FIGURE REGARDS HIM WITH EVIL EYE.) - -BLOOM: BUENAS NOCHES, SENORITA BLANCA. QUE CALLE ES ESTA? - -THE FIGURE: (IMPASSIVE, RAISES A SIGNAL ARM) Password. SRAID MABBOT. - -BLOOM: Haha. MERCI. Esperanto. SLAN LEATH. (HE MUTTERS) Gaelic league -spy, sent by that fireeater. - -(HE STEPS FORWARD. A SACKSHOULDERED RAGMAN BARS HIS PATH. HE STEPS LEFT, -RAGSACKMAN LEFT.) - -BLOOM: I beg. (HE SWERVES, SIDLES, STEPASIDE, SLIPS PAST AND ON.) - -BLOOM: Keep to the right, right, right. If there is a signpost planted by -the Touring Club at Stepaside who procured that public boon? I who lost -my way and contributed to the columns of the IRISH CYCLIST the letter -headed IN DARKEST STEPASIDE. Keep, keep, keep to the right. Rags and -bones at midnight. A fence more likely. First place murderer makes for. -Wash off his sins of the world. - -(JACKY CAFFREY, HUNTED BY TOMMY CAFFREY, RUNS FULL TILT AGAINST BLOOM.) - -BLOOM: O - -(SHOCKED, ON WEAK HAMS, HE HALTS. TOMMY AND JACKY VANISH THERE, THERE. -BLOOM PATS WITH PARCELLED HANDS WATCH FOBPOCKET, BOOKPOCKET, PURSEPOKET, -SWEETS OF SIN, POTATO SOAP.) - -BLOOM: Beware of pickpockets. Old thieves' dodge. Collide. Then snatch -your purse. - -(THE RETRIEVER APPROACHES SNIFFING, NOSE TO THE GROUND. A SPRAWLED FORM -SNEEZES. A STOOPED BEARDED FIGURE APPEARS GARBED IN THE LONG CAFTAN OF AN -ELDER IN ZION AND A SMOKINGCAP WITH MAGENTA TASSELS. HORNED SPECTACLES -HANG DOWN AT THE WINGS OF THE NOSE. YELLOW POISON STREAKS ARE ON THE -DRAWN FACE.) - -RUDOLPH: Second halfcrown waste money today. I told you not go with -drunken goy ever. So you catch no money. - -BLOOM: (HIDES THE CRUBEEN AND TROTTER BEHIND HIS BACK AND, CRESTFALLEN, -FEELS WARM AND COLD FEETMEAT) JA, ICH WEISS, PAPACHI. - -RUDOLPH: What you making down this place? Have you no soul? (WITH FEEBLE -VULTURE TALONS HE FEELS THE SILENT FACE OF BLOOM) Are you not my son -Leopold, the grandson of Leopold? Are you not my dear son Leopold who -left the house of his father and left the god of his fathers Abraham and -Jacob? - -BLOOM: (WITH PRECAUTION) I suppose so, father. Mosenthal. All that's left -of him. - -RUDOLPH: (SEVERELY) One night they bring you home drunk as dog after -spend your good money. What you call them running chaps? - -BLOOM: (IN YOUTH'S SMART BLUE OXFORD SUIT WITH WHITE VESTSLIPS, -NARROWSHOULDERED, IN BROWN ALPINE HAT, WEARING GENT'S STERLING SILVER -WATERBURY KEYLESS WATCH AND DOUBLE CURB ALBERT WITH SEAL ATTACHED, ONE -SIDE OF HIM COATED WITH STIFFENING MUD) Harriers, father. Only that once. - -RUDOLPH: Once! Mud head to foot. Cut your hand open. Lockjaw. They make -you kaputt, Leopoldleben. You watch them chaps. - -BLOOM: (WEAKLY) They challenged me to a sprint. It was muddy. I slipped. - -RUDOLPH: (WITH CONTEMPT) GOIM NACHEZ! Nice spectacles for your poor -mother! - -BLOOM: Mamma! - -ELLEN BLOOM: (IN PANTOMIME DAME'S STRINGED MOBCAP, WIDOW TWANKEY'S -CRINOLINE AND BUSTLE, BLOUSE WITH MUTTONLEG SLEEVES BUTTONED BEHIND, GREY -MITTENS AND CAMEO BROOCH, HER PLAITED HAIR IN A CRISPINE NET, APPEARS -OVER THE STAIRCASE BANISTERS, A SLANTED CANDLESTICK IN HER HAND, AND -CRIES OUT IN SHRILL ALARM) O blessed Redeemer, what have they done to -him! My smelling salts! (SHE HAULS UP A REEF OF SKIRT AND RANSACKS THE -POUCH OF HER STRIPED BLAY PETTICOAT. A PHIAL, AN AGNUS DEI, A SHRIVELLED -POTATO AND A CELLULOID DOLL FALL OUT) Sacred Heart of Mary, where were -you at all at all? - -(BLOOM, MUMBLING, HIS EYES DOWNCAST, BEGINS TO BESTOW HIS PARCELS IN HIS -FILLED POCKETS BUT DESISTS, MUTTERING.) - -A VOICE: (SHARPLY) Poldy! - -BLOOM: Who? (HE DUCKS AND WARDS OFF A BLOW CLUMSILY) At your service. - -(HE LOOKS UP. BESIDE HER MIRAGE OF DATEPALMS A HANDSOME WOMAN IN TURKISH -COSTUME STANDS BEFORE HIM. OPULENT CURVES FILL OUT HER SCARLET TROUSERS -AND JACKET, SLASHED WITH GOLD. A WIDE YELLOW CUMMERBUND GIRDLES HER. A -WHITE YASHMAK, VIOLET IN THE NIGHT, COVERS HER FACE, LEAVING FREE ONLY -HER LARGE DARK EYES AND RAVEN HAIR.) - -BLOOM: Molly! - -MARION: Welly? Mrs Marion from this out, my dear man, when you speak to -me. (SATIRICALLY) Has poor little hubby cold feet waiting so long? - -BLOOM: (SHIFTS FROM FOOT TO FOOT) No, no. Not the least little bit. - -(HE BREATHES IN DEEP AGITATION, SWALLOWING GULPS OF AIR, QUESTIONS, -HOPES, CRUBEENS FOR HER SUPPER, THINGS TO TELL HER, EXCUSE, DESIRE, -SPELLBOUND. A COIN GLEAMS ON HER FOREHEAD. ON HER FEET ARE JEWELLED -TOERINGS. HER ANKLES ARE LINKED BY A SLENDER FETTERCHAIN. BESIDE HER A -CAMEL, HOODED WITH A TURRETING TURBAN, WAITS. A SILK LADDER OF -INNUMERABLE RUNGS CLIMBS TO HIS BOBBING HOWDAH. HE AMBLES NEAR WITH -DISGRUNTLED HINDQUARTERS. FIERCELY SHE SLAPS HIS HAUNCH, HER GOLDCURB -WRISTBANGLES ANGRILING, SCOLDING HIM IN MOORISH.) - -MARION: Nebrakada! Femininum! - -(THE CAMEL, LIFTING A FORELEG, PLUCKS FROM A TREE A LARGE MANGO FRUIT, -OFFERS IT TO HIS MISTRESS, BLINKING, IN HIS CLOVEN HOOF, THEN DROOPS HIS -HEAD AND, GRUNTING, WITH UPLIFTED NECK, FUMBLES TO KNEEL. BLOOM STOOPS -HIS BACK FOR LEAPFROG.) - -BLOOM: I can give you ... I mean as your business menagerer ... Mrs -Marion ... if you ... - -MARION: So you notice some change? (HER HANDS PASSING SLOWLY OVER HER -TRINKETED STOMACHER, A SLOW FRIENDLY MOCKERY IN HER EYES) O Poldy, Poldy, -you are a poor old stick in the mud! Go and see life. See the wide world. - -BLOOM: I was just going back for that lotion whitewax, orangeflower -water. Shop closes early on Thursday. But the first thing in the morning. -(HE PATS DIVERS POCKETS) This moving kidney. Ah! - -(HE POINTS TO THE SOUTH, THEN TO THE EAST. A CAKE OF NEW CLEAN LEMON SOAP -ARISES, DIFFUSING LIGHT AND PERFUME.) - -THE SOAP: - - - We're a capital couple are Bloom and I. - He brightens the earth. I polish the sky. - - -(THE FRECKLED FACE OF SWENY, THE DRUGGIST, APPEARS IN THE DISC OF THE -SOAPSUN.) - -SWENY: Three and a penny, please. - -BLOOM: Yes. For my wife. Mrs Marion. Special recipe. - -MARION: (SOFTLY) Poldy! - -BLOOM: Yes, ma'am? - -MARION: TI TREMA UN POCO IL CUORE? - -(IN DISDAIN SHE SAUNTERS AWAY, PLUMP AS A PAMPERED POUTER PIGEON, HUMMING -THE DUET FROM Don Giovanni.) - -BLOOM: Are you sure about that VOGLIO? I mean the pronunciati ... - -(HE FOLLOWS, FOLLOWED BY THE SNIFFING TERRIER. THE ELDERLY BAWD SEIZES -HIS SLEEVE, THE BRISTLES OF HER CHINMOLE GLITTERING.) - -THE BAWD: Ten shillings a maidenhead. Fresh thing was never touched. -Fifteen. There's no-one in it only her old father that's dead drunk. - -(SHE POINTS. IN THE GAP OF HER DARK DEN FURTIVE, RAINBEDRAGGLED, BRIDIE -KELLY STANDS.) - -BRIDIE: Hatch street. Any good in your mind? - -(WITH A SQUEAK SHE FLAPS HER BAT SHAWL AND RUNS. A BURLY ROUGH PURSUES -WITH BOOTED STRIDES. HE STUMBLES ON THE STEPS, RECOVERS, PLUNGES INTO -GLOOM. WEAK SQUEAKS OF LAUGHTER ARE HEARD, WEAKER.) - -THE BAWD: (HER WOLFEYES SHINING) He's getting his pleasure. You won't get -a virgin in the flash houses. Ten shillings. Don't be all night before -the polis in plain clothes sees us. Sixtyseven is a bitch. - -(LEERING, GERTY MACDOWELL LIMPS FORWARD. SHE DRAWS FROM BEHIND, OGLING, -AND SHOWS COYLY HER BLOODIED CLOUT.) - -GERTY: With all my worldly goods I thee and thou. (SHE MURMURS) You did -that. I hate you. - -BLOOM: I? When? You're dreaming. I never saw you. - -THE BAWD: Leave the gentleman alone, you cheat. Writing the gentleman -false letters. Streetwalking and soliciting. Better for your mother take -the strap to you at the bedpost, hussy like you. - -GERTY: (TO BLOOM) When you saw all the secrets of my bottom drawer. (SHE -PAWS HIS SLEEVE, SLOBBERING) Dirty married man! I love you for doing that -to me. - -(SHE GLIDES AWAY CROOKEDLY. MRS BREEN IN MAN'S FRIEZE OVERCOAT WITH LOOSE -BELLOWS POCKETS, STANDS IN THE CAUSEWAY, HER ROGUISH EYES WIDEOPEN, -SMILING IN ALL HER HERBIVOROUS BUCKTEETH.) - -MRS BREEN: Mr ... - -BLOOM: (COUGHS GRAVELY) Madam, when we last had this pleasure by letter -dated the sixteenth instant ... - -MRS BREEN: Mr Bloom! You down here in the haunts of sin! I caught you -nicely! Scamp! - -BLOOM: (HURRIEDLY) Not so loud my name. Whatever do you think of me? -Don't give me away. Walls have ears. How do you do? It's ages since I. -You're looking splendid. Absolutely it. Seasonable weather we are having -this time of year. Black refracts heat. Short cut home here. Interesting -quarter. Rescue of fallen women. Magdalen asylum. I am the secretary ... - -MRS BREEN: (HOLDS UP A FINGER) Now, don't tell a big fib! I know somebody -won't like that. O just wait till I see Molly! (SLILY) Account for -yourself this very sminute or woe betide you! - -BLOOM: (LOOKS BEHIND) She often said she'd like to visit. Slumming. The -exotic, you see. Negro servants in livery too if she had money. Othello -black brute. Eugene Stratton. Even the bones and cornerman at the -Livermore christies. Bohee brothers. Sweep for that matter. - -(TOM AND SAM BOHEE, COLOURED COONS IN WHITE DUCK SUITS, SCARLET SOCKS, -UPSTARCHED SAMBO CHOKERS AND LARGE SCARLET ASTERS IN THEIR BUTTONHOLES, -LEAP OUT. EACH HAS HIS BANJO SLUNG. THEIR PALER SMALLER NEGROID HANDS -JINGLE THE TWINGTWANG WIRES. FLASHING WHITE KAFFIR EYES AND TUSKS THEY -RATTLE THROUGH A BREAKDOWN IN CLUMSY CLOGS, TWINGING, SINGING, BACK TO -BACK, TOE HEEL, HEEL TOE, WITH SMACKFATCLACKING NIGGER LIPS.) - -TOM AND SAM: - - - There's someone in the house with Dina - There's someone in the house, I know, - There's someone in the house with Dina - Playing on the old banjo. - - -(THEY WHISK BLACK MASKS FROM RAW BABBY FACES: THEN, CHUCKLING, CHORTLING, -TRUMMING, TWANGING, THEY DIDDLE DIDDLE CAKEWALK DANCE AWAY.) - -BLOOM: (WITH A SOUR TENDERISH SMILE) A little frivol, shall we, if you -are so inclined? Would you like me perhaps to embrace you just for a -fraction of a second? - -MRS BREEN: (SCREAMS GAILY) O, you ruck! You ought to see yourself! - -BLOOM: For old sake' sake. I only meant a square party, a mixed marriage -mingling of our different little conjugials. You know I had a soft corner -for you. (GLOOMILY) 'Twas I sent you that valentine of the dear gazelle. - -MRS BREEN: Glory Alice, you do look a holy show! Killing simply. (SHE -PUTS OUT HER HAND INQUISITIVELY) What are you hiding behind your back? -Tell us, there's a dear. - -BLOOM: (SEIZES HER WRIST WITH HIS FREE HAND) Josie Powell that was, -prettiest deb in Dublin. How time flies by! Do you remember, harking back -in a retrospective arrangement, Old Christmas night, Georgina Simpson's -housewarming while they were playing the Irving Bishop game, finding the -pin blindfold and thoughtreading? Subject, what is in this snuffbox? - -MRS BREEN: You were the lion of the night with your seriocomic recitation -and you looked the part. You were always a favourite with the ladies. - -BLOOM: (SQUIRE OF DAMES, IN DINNER JACKET WITH WATEREDSILK FACINGS, BLUE -MASONIC BADGE IN HIS BUTTONHOLE, BLACK BOW AND MOTHER-OF-PEARL STUDS, A -PRISMATIC CHAMPAGNE GLASS TILTED IN HIS HAND) Ladies and gentlemen, I -give you Ireland, home and beauty. - -MRS BREEN: The dear dead days beyond recall. Love's old sweet song. - -BLOOM: (MEANINGFULLY DROPPING HIS VOICE) I confess I'm teapot with -curiosity to find out whether some person's something is a little teapot -at present. - -MRS BREEN: (GUSHINGLY) Tremendously teapot! London's teapot and I'm -simply teapot all over me! (SHE RUBS SIDES WITH HIM) After the parlour -mystery games and the crackers from the tree we sat on the staircase -ottoman. Under the mistletoe. Two is company. - -BLOOM: (WEARING A PURPLE NAPOLEON HAT WITH AN AMBER HALFMOON, HIS FINGERS -AND THUMB PASSING SLOWLY DOWN TO HER SOFT MOIST MEATY PALM WHICH SHE -SURRENDERS GENTLY) The witching hour of night. I took the splinter out of -this hand, carefully, slowly. (TENDERLY, AS HE SLIPS ON HER FINGER A RUBY -RING) LA CI DAREM LA MANO. - -MRS BREEN: (IN A ONEPIECE EVENING FROCK EXECUTED IN MOONLIGHT BLUE, A -TINSEL SYLPH'S DIADEM ON HER BROW WITH HER DANCECARD FALLEN BESIDE HER -MOONBLUE SATIN SLIPPER, CURVES HER PALM SOFTLY, BREATHING QUICKLY) VOGLIO -E NON. You're hot! You're scalding! The left hand nearest the heart. - -BLOOM: When you made your present choice they said it was beauty and the -beast. I can never forgive you for that. (HIS CLENCHED FIST AT HIS BROW) -Think what it means. All you meant to me then. (HOARSELY) Woman, it's -breaking me! - -(DENIS BREEN, WHITETALLHATTED, WITH WISDOM HELY'S SANDWICH- BOARDS, -SHUFFLES PAST THEM IN CARPET SLIPPERS, HIS DULL BEARD THRUST OUT, -MUTTERING TO RIGHT AND LEFT. LITTLE ALF BERGAN, CLOAKED IN THE PALL OF -THE ACE OF SPADES, DOGS HIM TO LEFT AND RIGHT, DOUBLED IN LAUGHTER.) - -ALF BERGAN: (POINTS JEERING AT THE SANDWICHBOARDS) U. p: Up. - -MRS BREEN: (TO BLOOM) High jinks below stairs. (SHE GIVES HIM THE GLAD -EYE) Why didn't you kiss the spot to make it well? You wanted to. - -BLOOM: (SHOCKED) Molly's best friend! Could you? - -MRS BREEN: (HER PULPY TONGUE BETWEEN HER LIPS, OFFERS A PIGEON KISS) -Hnhn. The answer is a lemon. Have you a little present for me there? - -BLOOM: (OFFHANDEDLY) Kosher. A snack for supper. The home without potted -meat is incomplete. I was at LEAH. Mrs Bandmann Palmer. Trenchant -exponent of Shakespeare. Unfortunately threw away the programme. Rattling -good place round there for pigs' feet. Feel. - -(RICHIE GOULDING, THREE LADIES' HATS PINNED ON HIS HEAD, APPEARS WEIGHTED -TO ONE SIDE BY THE BLACK LEGAL BAG OF COLLIS AND WARD ON WHICH A SKULL -AND CROSSBONES ARE PAINTED IN WHITE LIMEWASH. HE OPENS IT AND SHOWS IT -FULL OF POLONIES, KIPPERED HERRINGS, FINDON HADDIES AND TIGHTPACKED -PILLS.) - -RICHIE: Best value in Dub. - -(BALD PAT, BOTHERED BEETLE, STANDS ON THE CURBSTONE, FOLDING HIS NAPKIN, -WAITING TO WAIT.) - -PAT: (ADVANCES WITH A TILTED DISH OF SPILLSPILLING GRAVY) Steak and -kidney. Bottle of lager. Hee hee hee. Wait till I wait. - -RICHIE: Goodgod. Inev erate inall ... - -(WITH HANGING HEAD HE MARCHES DOGGEDLY FORWARD. THE NAVVY, LURCHING BY, -GORES HIM WITH HIS FLAMING PRONGHORN.) - -RICHIE: (WITH A CRY OF PAIN, HIS HAND TO HIS BACK) Ah! Bright's! Lights! - -BLOOM: (POINTS TO THE NAVVY) A spy. Don't attract attention. I hate -stupid crowds. I am not on pleasure bent. I am in a grave predicament. - -MRS BREEN: Humbugging and deluthering as per usual with your cock and -bull story. - -BLOOM: I want to tell you a little secret about how I came to be here. -But you must never tell. Not even Molly. I have a most particular reason. - -MRS BREEN: (ALL AGOG) O, not for worlds. - -BLOOM: Let's walk on. Shall us? - -MRS BREEN: Let's. - -(THE BAWD MAKES AN UNHEEDED SIGN. BLOOM WALKS ON WITH MRS BREEN. THE -TERRIER FOLLOWS, WHINING PITEOUSLY, WAGGING HIS TAIL.) - -THE BAWD: Jewman's melt! - -BLOOM: (IN AN OATMEAL SPORTING SUIT, A SPRIG OF WOODBINE IN THE LAPEL, -TONY BUFF SHIRT, SHEPHERD'S PLAID SAINT ANDREW'S CROSS SCARFTIE, WHITE -SPATS, FAWN DUSTCOAT ON HIS ARM, TAWNY RED BROGUES, FIELDGLASSES IN -BANDOLIER AND A GREY BILLYCOCK HAT) Do you remember a long long time, -years and years ago, just after Milly, Marionette we called her, was -weaned when we all went together to Fairyhouse races, was it? - -MRS BREEN: (IN SMART SAXE TAILORMADE, WHITE VELOURS HAT AND SPIDER VEIL) -Leopardstown. - -BLOOM: I mean, Leopardstown. And Molly won seven shillings on a three -year old named Nevertell and coming home along by Foxrock in that old -fiveseater shanderadan of a waggonette you were in your heyday then and -you had on that new hat of white velours with a surround of molefur that -Mrs Hayes advised you to buy because it was marked down to nineteen and -eleven, a bit of wire and an old rag of velveteen, and I'll lay you what -you like she did it on purpose ... - -MRS BREEN: She did, of course, the cat! Don't tell me! Nice adviser! - -BLOOM: Because it didn't suit you one quarter as well as the other ducky -little tammy toque with the bird of paradise wing in it that I admired on -you and you honestly looked just too fetching in it though it was a pity -to kill it, you cruel naughty creature, little mite of a thing with a -heart the size of a fullstop. - -MRS BREEN: (SQUEEZES HIS ARM, SIMPERS) Naughty cruel I was! - -BLOOM: (LOW, SECRETLY, EVER MORE RAPIDLY) And Molly was eating a sandwich -of spiced beef out of Mrs Joe Gallaher's lunch basket. Frankly, though -she had her advisers or admirers, I never cared much for her style. She -was ... - -MRS BREEN: Too ... - -BLOOM: Yes. And Molly was laughing because Rogers and Maggot O'Reilly -were mimicking a cock as we passed a farmhouse and Marcus Tertius Moses, -the tea merchant, drove past us in a gig with his daughter, Dancer Moses -was her name, and the poodle in her lap bridled up and you asked me if I -ever heard or read or knew or came across ... - -MRS BREEN: (EAGERLY) Yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes. - -(SHE FADES FROM HIS SIDE. FOLLOWED BY THE WHINING DOG HE WALKS ON TOWARDS -HELLSGATES. IN AN ARCHWAY A STANDING WOMAN, BENT FORWARD, HER FEET APART, -PISSES COWILY. OUTSIDE A SHUTTERED PUB A BUNCH OF LOITERERS LISTEN TO A -TALE WHICH THEIR BROKENSNOUTED GAFFER RASPS OUT WITH RAUCOUS HUMOUR. AN -ARMLESS PAIR OF THEM FLOP WRESTLING, GROWLING, IN MAIMED SODDEN -PLAYFIGHT.) - -THE GAFFER: (CROUCHES, HIS VOICE TWISTED IN HIS SNOUT) And when Cairns -came down from the scaffolding in Beaver street what was he after doing -it into only into the bucket of porter that was there waiting on the -shavings for Derwan's plasterers. - -THE LOITERERS: (GUFFAW WITH CLEFT PALATES) O jays! - -(THEIR PAINTSPECKLED HATS WAG. SPATTERED WITH SIZE AND LIME OF THEIR -LODGES THEY FRISK LIMBLESSLY ABOUT HIM.) - -BLOOM: Coincidence too. They think it funny. Anything but that. Broad -daylight. Trying to walk. Lucky no woman. - -THE LOITERERS: Jays, that's a good one. Glauber salts. O jays, into the -men's porter. - -(BLOOM PASSES. CHEAP WHORES, SINGLY, COUPLED, SHAWLED, DISHEVELLED, CALL -FROM LANES, DOORS, CORNERS.) - -THE WHORES: - - Are you going far, queer fellow? - How's your middle leg? - Got a match on you? - Eh, come here till I stiffen it for you. - -(HE PLODGES THROUGH THEIR SUMP TOWARDS THE LIGHTED STREET BEYOND. FROM A -BULGE OF WINDOW CURTAINS A GRAMOPHONE REARS A BATTERED BRAZEN TRUNK. IN -THE SHADOW A SHEBEENKEEPER HAGGLES WITH THE NAVVY AND THE TWO REDCOATS.) - -THE NAVVY: (BELCHING) Where's the bloody house? - -THE SHEBEENKEEPER: Purdon street. Shilling a bottle of stout. Respectable -woman. - -THE NAVVY: (GRIPPING THE TWO REDCOATS, STAGGERS FORWARD WITH THEM) Come -on, you British army! - -PRIVATE CARR: (BEHIND HIS BACK) He aint half balmy. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: (LAUGHS) What ho! - -PRIVATE CARR: (TO THE NAVVY) Portobello barracks canteen. You ask for -Carr. Just Carr. - -THE NAVVY: (SHOUTS) - - We are the boys. Of Wexford. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: Say! What price the sergeantmajor? - -PRIVATE CARR: Bennett? He's my pal. I love old Bennett. - -THE NAVVY: (SHOUTS) - - The galling chain. - And free our native land. - -(HE STAGGERS FORWARD, DRAGGING THEM WITH HIM. BLOOM STOPS, AT FAULT. THE -DOG APPROACHES, HIS TONGUE OUTLOLLING, PANTING) - -BLOOM: Wildgoose chase this. Disorderly houses. Lord knows where they are -gone. Drunks cover distance double quick. Nice mixup. Scene at Westland -row. Then jump in first class with third ticket. Then too far. Train with -engine behind. Might have taken me to Malahide or a siding for the night -or collision. Second drink does it. Once is a dose. What am I following -him for? Still, he's the best of that lot. If I hadn't heard about Mrs -Beaufoy Purefoy I wouldn't have gone and wouldn't have met. Kismet. He'll -lose that cash. Relieving office here. Good biz for cheapjacks, organs. -What do ye lack? Soon got, soon gone. Might have lost my life too with -that mangongwheeltracktrolleyglarejuggernaut only for presence of mind. -Can't always save you, though. If I had passed Truelock's window that day -two minutes later would have been shot. Absence of body. Still if bullet -only went through my coat get damages for shock, five hundred pounds. -What was he? Kildare street club toff. God help his gamekeeper. - -(HE GAZES AHEAD, READING ON THE WALL A SCRAWLED CHALK LEGEND Wet Dream -AND A PHALLIC DESIGN.) Odd! Molly drawing on the frosted carriagepane at -Kingstown. What's that like? (GAUDY DOLLWOMEN LOLL IN THE LIGHTED -DOORWAYS, IN WINDOW EMBRASURES, SMOKING BIRDSEYE CIGARETTES. THE ODOUR OF -THE SICKSWEET WEED FLOATS TOWARDS HIM IN SLOW ROUND OVALLING WREATHS.) - -THE WREATHS: Sweet are the sweets. Sweets of sin. - -BLOOM: My spine's a bit limp. Go or turn? And this food? Eat it and get -all pigsticky. Absurd I am. Waste of money. One and eightpence too much. -(THE RETRIEVER DRIVES A COLD SNIVELLING MUZZLE AGAINST HIS HAND, WAGGING -HIS TAIL.) Strange how they take to me. Even that brute today. Better -speak to him first. Like women they like RENCONTRES. Stinks like a -polecat. CHACUN SON GOUT. He might be mad. Dogdays. Uncertain in his -movements. Good fellow! Fido! Good fellow! Garryowen! (THE WOLFDOG -SPRAWLS ON HIS BACK, WRIGGLING OBSCENELY WITH BEGGING PAWS, HIS LONG -BLACK TONGUE LOLLING OUT.) Influence of his surroundings. Give and have -done with it. Provided nobody. (CALLING ENCOURAGING WORDS HE SHAMBLES -BACK WITH A FURTIVE POACHER'S TREAD, DOGGED BY THE SETTER INTO A DARK -STALESTUNK CORNER. HE UNROLLS ONE PARCEL AND GOES TO DUMP THE CRUBEEN -SOFTLY BUT HOLDS BACK AND FEELS THE TROTTER.) Sizeable for threepence. -But then I have it in my left hand. Calls for more effort. Why? Smaller -from want of use. O, let it slide. Two and six. - -(WITH REGRET HE LETS THE UNROLLED CRUBEEN AND TROTTER SLIDE. THE MASTIFF -MAULS THE BUNDLE CLUMSILY AND GLUTS HIMSELF WITH GROWLING GREED, -CRUNCHING THE BONES. TWO RAINCAPED WATCH APPROACH, SILENT, VIGILANT. THEY -MURMUR TOGETHER.) - -THE WATCH: Bloom. Of Bloom. For Bloom. Bloom. - -(EACH LAYS HAND ON BLOOM'S SHOULDER.) - -FIRST WATCH: Caught in the act. Commit no nuisance. - -BLOOM: (STAMMERS) I am doing good to others. - -(A COVEY OF GULLS, STORM PETRELS, RISES HUNGRILY FROM LIFFEY SLIME WITH -BANBURY CAKES IN THEIR BEAKS.) - -THE GULLS: Kaw kave kankury kake. - -BLOOM: The friend of man. Trained by kindness. - -(HE POINTS. BOB DORAN, TOPPLING FROM A HIGH BARSTOOL, SWAYS OVER THE -MUNCHING SPANIEL.) - -BOB DORAN: Towser. Give us the paw. Give the paw. - -(THE BULLDOG GROWLS, HIS SCRUFF STANDING, A GOBBET OF PIG'S KNUCKLE -BETWEEN HIS MOLARS THROUGH WHICH RABID SCUMSPITTLE DRIBBLES. BOB DORAN -FILLS SILENTLY INTO AN AREA.) - -SECOND WATCH: Prevention of cruelty to animals. - -BLOOM: (ENTHUSIASTICALLY) A noble work! I scolded that tramdriver on -Harold's cross bridge for illusing the poor horse with his harness scab. -Bad French I got for my pains. Of course it was frosty and the last tram. -All tales of circus life are highly demoralising. - -(SIGNOR MAFFEI, PASSIONPALE, IN LIONTAMER'S COSTUME WITH DIAMOND STUDS IN -HIS SHIRTFRONT, STEPS FORWARD, HOLDING A CIRCUS PAPERHOOP, A CURLING -CARRIAGEWHIP AND A REVOLVER WITH WHICH HE COVERS THE GORGING BOARHOUND.) - -SIGNOR MAFFEI: (WITH A SINISTER SMILE) Ladies and gentlemen, my educated -greyhound. It was I broke in the bucking broncho Ajax with my patent -spiked saddle for carnivores. Lash under the belly with a knotted thong. -Block tackle and a strangling pulley will bring your lion to heel, no -matter how fractious, even LEO FEROX there, the Libyan maneater. A redhot -crowbar and some liniment rubbing on the burning part produced Fritz of -Amsterdam, the thinking hyena. (HE GLARES) I possess the Indian sign. The -glint of my eye does it with these breastsparklers. (WITH A BEWITCHING -SMILE) I now introduce Mademoiselle Ruby, the pride of the ring. - -FIRST WATCH: Come. Name and address. - -BLOOM: I have forgotten for the moment. Ah, yes! (HE TAKES OFF HIS HIGH -GRADE HAT, SALUTING) Dr Bloom, Leopold, dental surgeon. You have heard of -von Blum Pasha. Umpteen millions. DONNERWETTER! Owns half Austria. Egypt. -Cousin. - -FIRST WATCH: Proof. - -(A CARD FALLS FROM INSIDE THE LEATHER HEADBAND OF BLOOM'S HAT.) - -BLOOM: (IN RED FEZ, CADI'S DRESS COAT WITH BROAD GREEN SASH, WEARING A -FALSE BADGE OF THE LEGION OF HONOUR, PICKS UP THE CARD HASTILY AND OFFERS -IT) Allow me. My club is the Junior Army and Navy. Solicitors: Messrs -John Henry Menton, 27 Bachelor's Walk. - -FIRST WATCH: (READS) Henry Flower. No fixed abode. Unlawfully watching -and besetting. - -SECOND WATCH: An alibi. You are cautioned. - -BLOOM: (PRODUCES FROM HIS HEARTPOCKET A CRUMPLED YELLOW FLOWER) This is -the flower in question. It was given me by a man I don't know his name. -(PLAUSIBLY) You know that old joke, rose of Castile. Bloom. The change of -name. Virag. (HE MURMURS PRIVATELY AND CONFIDENTIALLY) We are engaged you -see, sergeant. Lady in the case. Love entanglement. (HE SHOULDERS THE -SECOND WATCH GENTLY) Dash it all. It's a way we gallants have in the -navy. Uniform that does it. (HE TURNS GRAVELY TO THE FIRST WATCH) Still, -of course, you do get your Waterloo sometimes. Drop in some evening and -have a glass of old Burgundy. (TO THE SECOND WATCH GAILY) I'll introduce -you, inspector. She's game. Do it in the shake of a lamb's tail. - -(A DARK MERCURIALISED FACE APPEARS, LEADING A VEILED FIGURE.) - -THE DARK MERCURY: The Castle is looking for him. He was drummed out of -the army. - -MARTHA: (THICKVEILED, A CRIMSON HALTER ROUND HER NECK, A COPY OF THE -Irish Times IN HER HAND, IN TONE OF REPROACH, POINTING) Henry! Leopold! -Lionel, thou lost one! Clear my name. - -FIRST WATCH: (STERNLY) Come to the station. - -BLOOM: (SCARED, HATS HIMSELF, STEPS BACK, THEN, PLUCKING AT HIS HEART AND -LIFTING HIS RIGHT FOREARM ON THE SQUARE, HE GIVES THE SIGN AND DUEGUARD -OF FELLOWCRAFT) No, no, worshipful master, light of love. Mistaken -identity. The Lyons mail. Lesurques and Dubosc. You remember the Childs -fratricide case. We medical men. By striking him dead with a hatchet. I -am wrongfully accused. Better one guilty escape than ninetynine -wrongfully condemned. - -MARTHA: (SOBBING BEHIND HER VEIL) Breach of promise. My real name is -Peggy Griffin. He wrote to me that he was miserable. I'll tell my -brother, the Bective rugger fullback, on you, heartless flirt. - -BLOOM: (BEHIND HIS HAND) She's drunk. The woman is inebriated. (HE -MURMURS VAGUELY THE PASS OF EPHRAIM) Shitbroleeth. - -SECOND WATCH: (TEARS IN HIS EYES, TO BLOOM) You ought to be thoroughly -well ashamed of yourself. - -BLOOM: Gentlemen of the jury, let me explain. A pure mare's nest. I am a -man misunderstood. I am being made a scapegoat of. I am a respectable -married man, without a stain on my character. I live in Eccles street. My -wife, I am the daughter of a most distinguished commander, a gallant -upstanding gentleman, what do you call him, Majorgeneral Brian Tweedy, -one of Britain's fighting men who helped to win our battles. Got his -majority for the heroic defence of Rorke's Drift. - -FIRST WATCH: Regiment. - -BLOOM: (TURNS TO THE GALLERY) The royal Dublins, boys, the salt of the -earth, known the world over. I think I see some old comrades in arms up -there among you. The R. D. F., with our own Metropolitan police, -guardians of our homes, the pluckiest lads and the finest body of men, as -physique, in the service of our sovereign. - -A VOICE: Turncoat! Up the Boers! Who booed Joe Chamberlain? - -BLOOM: (HIS HAND ON THE SHOULDER OF THE FIRST WATCH) My old dad too was a -J. P. I'm as staunch a Britisher as you are, sir. I fought with the -colours for king and country in the absentminded war under general Gough -in the park and was disabled at Spion Kop and Bloemfontein, was mentioned -in dispatches. I did all a white man could. (WITH QUIET FEELING) Jim -Bludso. Hold her nozzle again the bank. - -FIRST WATCH: Profession or trade. - -BLOOM: Well, I follow a literary occupation, author-journalist. In fact -we are just bringing out a collection of prize stories of which I am the -inventor, something that is an entirely new departure. I am connected -with the British and Irish press. If you ring up ... - -(MYLES CRAWFORD STRIDES OUT JERKILY, A QUILL BETWEEN HIS TEETH. HIS -SCARLET BEAK BLAZES WITHIN THE AUREOLE OF HIS STRAW HAT. HE DANGLES A -HANK OF SPANISH ONIONS IN ONE HAND AND HOLDS WITH THE OTHER HAND A -TELEPHONE RECEIVER NOZZLE TO HIS EAR.) - -MYLES CRAWFORD: (HIS COCK'S WATTLES WAGGING) Hello, seventyseven -eightfour. Hello. FREEMAN'S URINAL and WEEKLY ARSEWIPE here. Paralyse -Europe. You which? Bluebags? Who writes? Is it Bloom? - -(MR PHILIP BEAUFOY, PALEFACED, STANDS IN THE WITNESSBOX, IN ACCURATE -MORNING DRESS, OUTBREAST POCKET WITH PEAK OF HANDKERCHIEF SHOWING, -CREASED LAVENDER TROUSERS AND PATENT BOOTS. HE CARRIES A LARGE PORTFOLIO -LABELLED Matcham's Masterstrokes.) - -BEAUFOY: (DRAWLS) No, you aren't. Not by a long shot if I know it. I -don't see it that's all. No born gentleman, no-one with the most -rudimentary promptings of a gentleman would stoop to such particularly -loathsome conduct. One of those, my lord. A plagiarist. A soapy sneak -masquerading as a litterateur. It's perfectly obvious that with the most -inherent baseness he has cribbed some of my bestselling copy, really -gorgeous stuff, a perfect gem, the love passages in which are beneath -suspicion. The Beaufoy books of love and great possessions, with which -your lordship is doubtless familiar, are a household word throughout the -kingdom. - -BLOOM: (MURMURS WITH HANGDOG MEEKNESS GLUM) That bit about the laughing -witch hand in hand I take exception to, if I may ... - -BEAUFOY: (HIS LIP UPCURLED, SMILES SUPERCILIOUSLY ON THE COURT) You funny -ass, you! You're too beastly awfully weird for words! I don't think you -need over excessively disincommodate yourself in that regard. My literary -agent Mr J. B. Pinker is in attendance. I presume, my lord, we shall -receive the usual witnesses' fees, shan't we? We are considerably out of -pocket over this bally pressman johnny, this jackdaw of Rheims, who has -not even been to a university. - -BLOOM: (INDISTINCTLY) University of life. Bad art. - -BEAUFOY: (SHOUTS) It's a damnably foul lie, showing the moral rottenness -of the man! (HE EXTENDS HIS PORTFOLIO) We have here damning evidence, the -CORPUS DELICTI, my lord, a specimen of my maturer work disfigured by the -hallmark of the beast. - -A VOICE FROM THE GALLERY: - - Moses, Moses, king of the jews, - Wiped his arse in the Daily News. - -BLOOM: (BRAVELY) Overdrawn. - -BEAUFOY: You low cad! You ought to be ducked in the horsepond, you -rotter! (TO THE COURT) Why, look at the man's private life! Leading a -quadruple existence! Street angel and house devil. Not fit to be -mentioned in mixed society! The archconspirator of the age! - -BLOOM: (TO THE COURT) And he, a bachelor, how ... - -FIRST WATCH: The King versus Bloom. Call the woman Driscoll. - -THE CRIER: Mary Driscoll, scullerymaid! - -(MARY DRISCOLL, A SLIPSHOD SERVANT GIRL, APPROACHES. SHE HAS A BUCKET ON -THE CROOK OF HER ARM AND A SCOURINGBRUSH IN HER HAND.) - -SECOND WATCH: Another! Are you of the unfortunate class? - -MARY DRISCOLL: (INDIGNANTLY) I'm not a bad one. I bear a respectable -character and was four months in my last place. I was in a situation, six -pounds a year and my chances with Fridays out and I had to leave owing to -his carryings on. - -FIRST WATCH: What do you tax him with? - -MARY DRISCOLL: He made a certain suggestion but I thought more of myself -as poor as I am. - -BLOOM: (IN HOUSEJACKET OF RIPPLECLOTH, FLANNEL TROUSERS, HEELLESS -SLIPPERS, UNSHAVEN, HIS HAIR RUMPLED: SOFTLY) I treated you white. I gave -you mementos, smart emerald garters far above your station. Incautiously -I took your part when you were accused of pilfering. There's a medium in -all things. Play cricket. - -MARY DRISCOLL: (EXCITEDLY) As God is looking down on me this night if -ever I laid a hand to them oysters! - -FIRST WATCH: The offence complained of? Did something happen? - -MARY DRISCOLL: He surprised me in the rere of the premises, Your honour, -when the missus was out shopping one morning with a request for a safety -pin. He held me and I was discoloured in four places as a result. And he -interfered twict with my clothing. - -BLOOM: She counterassaulted. - -MARY DRISCOLL: (SCORNFULLY) I had more respect for the scouringbrush, so -I had. I remonstrated with him, Your lord, and he remarked: keep it -quiet. - -(GENERAL LAUGHTER.) - -GEORGE FOTTRELL: (CLERK OF THE CROWN AND PEACE, RESONANTLY) Order in -court! The accused will now make a bogus statement. - -(BLOOM, PLEADING NOT GUILTY AND HOLDING A FULLBLOWN WATERLILY, BEGINS A -LONG UNINTELLIGIBLE SPEECH. THEY WOULD HEAR WHAT COUNSEL HAD TO SAY IN -HIS STIRRING ADDRESS TO THE GRAND JURY. HE WAS DOWN AND OUT BUT, THOUGH -BRANDED AS A BLACK SHEEP, IF HE MIGHT SAY SO, HE MEANT TO REFORM, TO -RETRIEVE THE MEMORY OF THE PAST IN A PURELY SISTERLY WAY AND RETURN TO -NATURE AS A PURELY DOMESTIC ANIMAL. A SEVENMONTHS' CHILD, HE HAD BEEN -CAREFULLY BROUGHT UP AND NURTURED BY AN AGED BEDRIDDEN PARENT. THERE -MIGHT HAVE BEEN LAPSES OF AN ERRING FATHER BUT HE WANTED TO TURN OVER A -NEW LEAF AND NOW, WHEN AT LONG LAST IN SIGHT OF THE WHIPPING POST, TO -LEAD A HOMELY LIFE IN THE EVENING OF HIS DAYS, PERMEATED BY THE -AFFECTIONATE SURROUNDINGS OF THE HEAVING BOSOM OF THE FAMILY. AN -ACCLIMATISED BRITISHER, HE HAD SEEN THAT SUMMER EVE FROM THE FOOTPLATE OF -AN ENGINE CAB OF THE LOOP LINE RAILWAY COMPANY WHILE THE RAIN REFRAINED -FROM FALLING GLIMPSES, AS IT WERE, THROUGH THE WINDOWS OF LOVEFUL -HOUSEHOLDS IN DUBLIN CITY AND URBAN DISTRICT OF SCENES TRULY RURAL OF -HAPPINESS OF THE BETTER LAND WITH DOCKRELL'S WALLPAPER AT ONE AND -NINEPENCE A DOZEN, INNOCENT BRITISHBORN BAIRNS LISPING PRAYERS TO THE -SACRED INFANT, YOUTHFUL SCHOLARS GRAPPLING WITH THEIR PENSUMS OR MODEL -YOUNG LADIES PLAYING ON THE PIANOFORTE OR ANON ALL WITH FERVOUR RECITING -THE FAMILY ROSARY ROUND THE CRACKLING YULELOG WHILE IN THE BOREENS AND -GREEN LANES THE COLLEENS WITH THEIR SWAINS STROLLED WHAT TIMES THE -STRAINS OF THE ORGANTONED MELODEON BRITANNIA METALBOUND WITH FOUR ACTING -STOPS AND TWELVEFOLD BELLOWS, A SACRIFICE, GREATEST BARGAIN EVER...) - -(RENEWED LAUGHTER. HE MUMBLES INCOHERENTLY. REPORTERS COMPLAIN THAT THEY -CANNOT HEAR.) - -LONGHAND AND SHORTHAND: (WITHOUT LOOKING UP FROM THEIR NOTEBOOKS) Loosen -his boots. - -PROFESSOR MACHUGH: (FROM THE PRESSTABLE, COUGHS AND CALLS) Cough it up, -man. Get it out in bits. - -(THE CROSSEXAMINATION PROCEEDS RE BLOOM AND THE BUCKET. A LARGE BUCKET. -BLOOM HIMSELF. BOWEL TROUBLE. IN BEAVER STREET GRIPE, YES. QUITE BAD. A -PLASTERER'S BUCKET. BY WALKING STIFFLEGGED. SUFFERED UNTOLD MISERY. -DEADLY AGONY. ABOUT NOON. LOVE OR BURGUNDY. YES, SOME SPINACH. CRUCIAL -MOMENT. HE DID NOT LOOK IN THE BUCKET NOBODY. RATHER A MESS. NOT -COMPLETELY. A Titbits BACK NUMBER.) - -(UPROAR AND CATCALLS. BLOOM IN A TORN FROCKCOAT STAINED WITH WHITEWASH, -DINGED SILK HAT SIDEWAYS ON HIS HEAD, A STRIP OF STICKINGPLASTER ACROSS -HIS NOSE, TALKS INAUDIBLY.) - -J. J. O'MOLLOY: (IN BARRISTER'S GREY WIG AND STUFFGOWN, SPEAKING WITH A -VOICE OF PAINED PROTEST) This is no place for indecent levity at the -expense of an erring mortal disguised in liquor. We are not in a -beargarden nor at an Oxford rag nor is this a travesty of justice. My -client is an infant, a poor foreign immigrant who started scratch as a -stowaway and is now trying to turn an honest penny. The trumped up -misdemeanour was due to a momentary aberration of heredity, brought on by -hallucination, such familiarities as the alleged guilty occurrence being -quite permitted in my client's native place, the land of the Pharaoh. -PRIMA FACIE, I put it to you that there was no attempt at carnally -knowing. Intimacy did not occur and the offence complained of by -Driscoll, that her virtue was solicited, was not repeated. I would deal -in especial with atavism. There have been cases of shipwreck and -somnambulism in my client's family. If the accused could speak he could a -tale unfold--one of the strangest that have ever been narrated between -the covers of a book. He himself, my lord, is a physical wreck from -cobbler's weak chest. His submission is that he is of Mongolian -extraction and irresponsible for his actions. Not all there, in fact. - -BLOOM: (BAREFOOT, PIGEONBREASTED, IN LASCAR'S VEST AND TROUSERS, -APOLOGETIC TOES TURNED IN, OPENS HIS TINY MOLE'S EYES AND LOOKS ABOUT HIM -DAZEDLY, PASSING A SLOW HAND ACROSS HIS FOREHEAD. THEN HE HITCHES HIS -BELT SAILOR FASHION AND WITH A SHRUG OF ORIENTAL OBEISANCE SALUTES THE -COURT, POINTING ONE THUMB HEAVENWARD.) Him makee velly muchee fine night. -(HE BEGINS TO LILT SIMPLY) - - Li li poo lil chile - Blingee pigfoot evly night - Payee two shilly ... - -(HE IS HOWLED DOWN.) - -J. J. O'MOLLOY: (HOTLY TO THE POPULACE) This is a lonehand fight. By -Hades, I will not have any client of mine gagged and badgered in this -fashion by a pack of curs and laughing hyenas. The Mosaic code has -superseded the law of the jungle. I say it and I say it emphatically, -without wishing for one moment to defeat the ends of justice, accused was -not accessory before the act and prosecutrix has not been tampered with. -The young person was treated by defendant as if she were his very own -daughter. (BLOOM TAKES J. J. O'MOLLOY'S HAND AND RAISES IT TO HIS LIPS.) -I shall call rebutting evidence to prove up to the hilt that the hidden -hand is again at its old game. When in doubt persecute Bloom. My client, -an innately bashful man, would be the last man in the world to do -anything ungentlemanly which injured modesty could object to or cast a -stone at a girl who took the wrong turning when some dastard, responsible -for her condition, had worked his own sweet will on her. He wants to go -straight. I regard him as the whitest man I know. He is down on his luck -at present owing to the mortgaging of his extensive property at Agendath -Netaim in faraway Asia Minor, slides of which will now be shown. (TO -BLOOM) I suggest that you will do the handsome thing. - -BLOOM: A penny in the pound. - -(THE IMAGE OF THE LAKE OF KINNERETH WITH BLURRED CATTLE CROPPING IN -SILVER HAZE IS PROJECTED ON THE WALL. MOSES DLUGACZ, FERRETEYED ALBINO, -IN BLUE DUNGAREES, STANDS UP IN THE GALLERY, HOLDING IN EACH HAND AN -ORANGE CITRON AND A PORK KIDNEY.) - -DLUGACZ: (HOARSELY) Bleibtreustrasse, Berlin, W.13. - -(J. J. O'MOLLOY STEPS ON TO A LOW PLINTH AND HOLDS THE LAPEL OF HIS COAT -WITH SOLEMNITY. HIS FACE LENGTHENS, GROWS PALE AND BEARDED, WITH SUNKEN -EYES, THE BLOTCHES OF PHTHISIS AND HECTIC CHEEKBONES OF JOHN F. TAYLOR. -HE APPLIES HIS HANDKERCHIEF TO HIS MOUTH AND SCRUTINISES THE GALLOPING -TIDE OF ROSEPINK BLOOD.) - -J.J.O'MOLLOY: (ALMOST VOICELESSLY) Excuse me. I am suffering from a -severe chill, have recently come from a sickbed. A few wellchosen words. -(HE ASSUMES THE AVINE HEAD, FOXY MOUSTACHE AND PROBOSCIDAL ELOQUENCE OF -SEYMOUR BUSHE.) When the angel's book comes to be opened if aught that -the pensive bosom has inaugurated of soultransfigured and of -soultransfiguring deserves to live I say accord the prisoner at the bar -the sacred benefit of the doubt. (A PAPER WITH SOMETHING WRITTEN ON IT IS -HANDED INTO COURT.) - -BLOOM: (IN COURT DRESS) Can give best references. Messrs Callan, Coleman. -Mr Wisdom Hely J. P. My old chief Joe Cuffe. Mr V. B. Dillon, ex lord -mayor of Dublin. I have moved in the charmed circle of the highest ... -Queens of Dublin society. (CARELESSLY) I was just chatting this afternoon -at the viceregal lodge to my old pals, sir Robert and lady Ball, -astronomer royal at the levee. Sir Bob, I said ... - -MRS YELVERTON BARRY: (IN LOWCORSAGED OPAL BALLDRESS AND ELBOWLENGTH IVORY -GLOVES, WEARING A SABLETRIMMED BRICKQUILTED DOLMAN, A COMB OF BRILLIANTS -AND PANACHE OF OSPREY IN HER HAIR) Arrest him, constable. He wrote me an -anonymous letter in prentice backhand when my husband was in the North -Riding of Tipperary on the Munster circuit, signed James Lovebirch. He -said that he had seen from the gods my peerless globes as I sat in a box -of the THEATRE ROYAL at a command performance of LA CIGALE. I deeply -inflamed him, he said. He made improper overtures to me to misconduct -myself at half past four p.m. on the following Thursday, Dunsink time. He -offered to send me through the post a work of fiction by Monsieur Paul de -Kock, entitled THE GIRL WITH THE THREE PAIRS OF STAYS. - -MRS BELLINGHAM: (IN CAP AND SEAL CONEY MANTLE, WRAPPED UP TO THE NOSE, -STEPS OUT OF HER BROUGHAM AND SCANS THROUGH TORTOISESHELL QUIZZING- -GLASSES WHICH SHE TAKES FROM INSIDE HER HUGE OPOSSUM MUFF) Also to me. -Yes, I believe it is the same objectionable person. Because he closed my -carriage door outside sir Thornley Stoker's one sleety day during the -cold snap of February ninetythree when even the grid of the wastepipe and -the ballstop in my bath cistern were frozen. Subsequently he enclosed a -bloom of edelweiss culled on the heights, as he said, in my honour. I had -it examined by a botanical expert and elicited the information that it -was ablossom of the homegrown potato plant purloined from a forcingcase -of the model farm. - -MRS YELVERTON BARRY: Shame on him! - -(A CROWD OF SLUTS AND RAGAMUFFINS SURGES FORWARD) - -THE SLUTS AND RAGAMUFFINS: (SCREAMING) Stop thief! Hurrah there, -Bluebeard! Three cheers for Ikey Mo! - -SECOND WATCH: (PRODUCES HANDCUFFS) Here are the darbies. - -MRS BELLINGHAM: He addressed me in several handwritings with fulsome -compliments as a Venus in furs and alleged profound pity for my -frostbound coachman Palmer while in the same breath he expressed himself -as envious of his earflaps and fleecy sheepskins and of his fortunate -proximity to my person, when standing behind my chair wearing my livery -and the armorial bearings of the Bellingham escutcheon garnished sable, a -buck's head couped or. He lauded almost extravagantly my nether -extremities, my swelling calves in silk hose drawn up to the limit, and -eulogised glowingly my other hidden treasures in priceless lace which, he -said, he could conjure up. He urged me (stating that he felt it his -mission in life to urge me) to defile the marriage bed, to commit -adultery at the earliest possible opportunity. - -THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS: (IN AMAZON COSTUME, HARD HAT, -JACKBOOTS COCKSPURRED, VERMILION WAISTCOAT, FAWN MUSKETEER GAUNTLETS WITH -BRAIDED DRUMS, LONG TRAIN HELD UP AND HUNTING CROP WITH WHICH SHE STRIKES -HER WELT CONSTANTLY) Also me. Because he saw me on the polo ground of the -Phoenix park at the match All Ireland versus the Rest of Ireland. My -eyes, I know, shone divinely as I watched Captain Slogger Dennehy of the -Inniskillings win the final chukkar on his darling cob CENTAUR. This -plebeian Don Juan observed me from behind a hackney car and sent me in -double envelopes an obscene photograph, such as are sold after dark on -Paris boulevards, insulting to any lady. I have it still. It represents a -partially nude senorita, frail and lovely (his wife, as he solemnly -assured me, taken by him from nature), practising illicit intercourse -with a muscular torero, evidently a blackguard. He urged me to do -likewise, to misbehave, to sin with officers of the garrison. He implored -me to soil his letter in an unspeakable manner, to chastise him as he -richly deserves, to bestride and ride him, to give him a most vicious -horsewhipping. - -MRS BELLINGHAM: Me too. - -MRS YELVERTON BARRY: Me too. - -(SEVERAL HIGHLY RESPECTABLE DUBLIN LADIES HOLD UP IMPROPER LETTERS -RECEIVED FROM BLOOM.) - -THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS: (STAMPS HER JINGLING SPURS IN A SUDDEN -PAROXYSM OF FURY) I will, by the God above me. I'll scourge the -pigeonlivered cur as long as I can stand over him. I'll flay him alive. - -BLOOM: (HIS EYES CLOSING, QUAILS EXPECTANTLY) Here? (HE SQUIRMS) Again! -(HE PANTS CRINGING) I love the danger. - -THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS: Very much so! I'll make it hot for -you. I'll make you dance Jack Latten for that. - -MRS BELLINGHAM: Tan his breech well, the upstart! Write the stars and -stripes on it! - -MRS YELVERTON BARRY: Disgraceful! There's no excuse for him! A married -man! - -BLOOM: All these people. I meant only the spanking idea. A warm tingling -glow without effusion. Refined birching to stimulate the circulation. - -THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS: (LAUGHS DERISIVELY) O, did you, my -fine fellow? Well, by the living God, you'll get the surprise of your -life now, believe me, the most unmerciful hiding a man ever bargained -for. You have lashed the dormant tigress in my nature into fury. - -MRS BELLINGHAM: (SHAKES HER MUFF AND QUIZZING-GLASSES VINDICTIVELY) Make -him smart, Hanna dear. Give him ginger. Thrash the mongrel within an inch -of his life. The cat-o'-nine-tails. Geld him. Vivisect him. - -BLOOM: (SHUDDERING, SHRINKING, JOINS HIS HANDS: WITH HANGDOG MIEN) O -cold! O shivery! It was your ambrosial beauty. Forget, forgive. Kismet. -Let me off this once. (HE OFFERS THE OTHER CHEEK) - -MRS YELVERTON BARRY: (SEVERELY) Don't do so on any account, Mrs Talboys! -He should be soundly trounced! - -THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS: (UNBUTTONING HER GAUNTLET VIOLENTLY) -I'll do no such thing. Pigdog and always was ever since he was pupped! To -dare address me! I'll flog him black and blue in the public streets. I'll -dig my spurs in him up to the rowel. He is a wellknown cuckold. (SHE -SWISHES HER HUNTINGCROP SAVAGELY IN THE AIR) Take down his trousers -without loss of time. Come here, sir! Quick! Ready? - -BLOOM: (TREMBLING, BEGINNING TO OBEY) The weather has been so warm. - -(DAVY STEPHENS, RINGLETTED, PASSES WITH A BEVY OF BAREFOOT NEWSBOYS.) - -DAVY STEPHENS: MESSENGER OF THE SACRED HEART and EVENING TELEGRAPH with -Saint Patrick's Day supplement. Containing the new addresses of all the -cuckolds in Dublin. - -(THE VERY REVEREND CANON O'HANLON IN CLOTH OF GOLD COPE ELEVATES AND -EXPOSES A MARBLE TIMEPIECE. BEFORE HIM FATHER CONROY AND THE REVEREND -JOHN HUGHES S.J. BEND LOW.) - -THE TIMEPIECE: (UNPORTALLING) - - - Cuckoo. - Cuckoo. - Cuckoo. - - -(THE BRASS QUOITS OF A BED ARE HEARD TO JINGLE.) - -THE QUOITS: Jigjag. Jigajiga. Jigjag. - -(A PANEL OF FOG ROLLS BACK RAPIDLY, REVEALING RAPIDLY IN THE JURYBOX THE -FACES OF MARTIN CUNNINGHAM, FOREMAN, SILKHATTED, JACK POWER, SIMON -DEDALUS, TOM KERNAN, NED LAMBERT, JOHN HENRY MENTON MYLES CRAWFORD, -LENEHAN, PADDY LEONARD, NOSEY FLYNN, M'COY AND THE FEATURELESS FACE OF A -NAMELESS ONE.) - -THE NAMELESS ONE: Bareback riding. Weight for age. Gob, he organised her. - -THE JURORS: (ALL THEIR HEADS TURNED TO HIS VOICE) Really? - -THE NAMELESS ONE: (SNARLS) Arse over tip. Hundred shillings to five. - -THE JURORS: (ALL THEIR HEADS LOWERED IN ASSENT) Most of us thought as -much. - -FIRST WATCH: He is a marked man. Another girl's plait cut. Wanted: Jack -the Ripper. A thousand pounds reward. - -SECOND WATCH: (AWED, WHISPERS) And in black. A mormon. Anarchist. - -THE CRIER: (LOUDLY) Whereas Leopold Bloom of no fixed abode is a -wellknown dynamitard, forger, bigamist, bawd and cuckold and a public -nuisance to the citizens of Dublin and whereas at this commission of -assizes the most honourable ... - -(HIS HONOUR, SIR FREDERICK FALKINER, RECORDER OF DUBLIN, IN JUDICIAL GARB -OF GREY STONE RISES FROM THE BENCH, STONEBEARDED. HE BEARS IN HIS ARMS AN -UMBRELLA SCEPTRE. FROM HIS FOREHEAD ARISE STARKLY THE MOSAIC RAMSHORNS.) - -THE RECORDER: I will put an end to this white slave traffic and rid -Dublin of this odious pest. Scandalous! (HE DONS THE BLACK CAP) Let him -be taken, Mr Subsheriff, from the dock where he now stands and detained -in custody in Mountjoy prison during His Majesty's pleasure and there be -hanged by the neck until he is dead and therein fail not at your peril or -may the Lord have mercy on your soul. Remove him. (A BLACK SKULLCAP -DESCENDS UPON HIS HEAD.) - -(THE SUBSHERIFF LONG JOHN FANNING APPEARS, SMOKING A PUNGENT HENRY CLAY.) - -LONG JOHN FANNING: (SCOWLS AND CALLS WITH RICH ROLLING UTTERANCE) Who'll -hang Judas Iscariot? - -(H. RUMBOLD, MASTER BARBER, IN A BLOODCOLOURED JERKIN AND TANNER'S APRON, -A ROPE COILED OVER HIS SHOULDER, MOUNTS THE BLOCK. A LIFE PRESERVER AND A -NAILSTUDDED BLUDGEON ARE STUCK IN HIS BELT. HE RUBS GRIMLY HIS GRAPPLING -HANDS, KNOBBED WITH KNUCKLEDUSTERS.) - -RUMBOLD: (TO THE RECORDER WITH SINISTER FAMILIARITY) Hanging Harry, your -Majesty, the Mersey terror. Five guineas a jugular. Neck or nothing. - -(THE BELLS OF GEORGE'S CHURCH TOLL SLOWLY, LOUD DARK IRON.) - -THE BELLS: Heigho! Heigho! - -BLOOM: (DESPERATELY) Wait. Stop. Gulls. Good heart. I saw. Innocence. -Girl in the monkeyhouse. Zoo. Lewd chimpanzee. (BREATHLESSLY) Pelvic -basin. Her artless blush unmanned me. (OVERCOME WITH EMOTION) I left the -precincts. (HE TURNS TO A FIGURE IN THE CROWD, APPEALING) Hynes, may I -speak to you? You know me. That three shillings you can keep. If you want -a little more ... - -HYNES: (COLDLY) You are a perfect stranger. - -SECOND WATCH: (POINTS TO THE CORNER) The bomb is here. - -FIRST WATCH: Infernal machine with a time fuse. - -BLOOM: No, no. Pig's feet. I was at a funeral. - -FIRST WATCH: (DRAWS HIS TRUNCHEON) Liar! - -(THE BEAGLE LIFTS HIS SNOUT, SHOWING THE GREY SCORBUTIC FACE OF PADDY -DIGNAM. HE HAS GNAWED ALL. HE EXHALES A PUTRID CARCASEFED BREATH. HE -GROWS TO HUMAN SIZE AND SHAPE. HIS DACHSHUND COAT BECOMES A BROWN -MORTUARY HABIT. HIS GREEN EYE FLASHES BLOODSHOT. HALF OF ONE EAR, ALL THE -NOSE AND BOTH THUMBS ARE GHOULEATEN.) - -PADDY DIGNAM: (IN A HOLLOW VOICE) It is true. It was my funeral. Doctor -Finucane pronounced life extinct when I succumbed to the disease from -natural causes. - -(HE LIFTS HIS MUTILATED ASHEN FACE MOONWARDS AND BAYS LUGUBRIOUSLY.) - -BLOOM: (IN TRIUMPH) You hear? - -PADDY DIGNAM: Bloom, I am Paddy Dignam's spirit. List, list, O list! - -BLOOM: The voice is the voice of Esau. - -SECOND WATCH: (BLESSES HIMSELF) How is that possible? - -FIRST WATCH: It is not in the penny catechism. - -PADDY DIGNAM: By metempsychosis. Spooks. - -A VOICE: O rocks. - -PADDY DIGNAM: (EARNESTLY) Once I was in the employ of Mr J. H. Menton, -solicitor, commissioner for oaths and affidavits, of 27 Bachelor's Walk. -Now I am defunct, the wall of the heart hypertrophied. Hard lines. The -poor wife was awfully cut up. How is she bearing it? Keep her off that -bottle of sherry. (HE LOOKS ROUND HIM) A lamp. I must satisfy an animal -need. That buttermilk didn't agree with me. - -(THE PORTLY FIGURE OF JOHN O'CONNELL, CARETAKER, STANDS FORTH, HOLDING A -BUNCH OF KEYS TIED WITH CRAPE. BESIDE HIM STANDS FATHER COFFEY, CHAPLAIN, -TOADBELLIED, WRYNECKED, IN A SURPLICE AND BANDANNA NIGHTCAP, HOLDING -SLEEPILY A STAFF TWISTED POPPIES.) - -FATHER COFFEY: (YAWNS, THEN CHANTS WITH A HOARSE CROAK) Namine. Jacobs. -Vobiscuits. Amen. - -JOHN O'CONNELL: (FOGHORNS STORMILY THROUGH HIS MEGAPHONE) Dignam, Patrick -T, deceased. - -PADDY DIGNAM: (WITH PRICKED UP EARS, WINCES) Overtones. (HE WRIGGLES -FORWARD AND PLACES AN EAR TO THE GROUND) My master's voice! - -JOHN O'CONNELL: Burial docket letter number U. P. eightyfive thousand. -Field seventeen. House of Keys. Plot, one hundred and one. - -(PADDY DIGNAM LISTENS WITH VISIBLE EFFORT, THINKING, HIS TAIL -STIFFPOINTCD, HIS EARS COCKED.) - -PADDY DIGNAM: Pray for the repose of his soul. - -(HE WORMS DOWN THROUGH A COALHOLE, HIS BROWN HABIT TRAILING ITS TETHER -OVER RATTLING PEBBLES. AFTER HIM TODDLES AN OBESE GRANDFATHER RAT ON -FUNGUS TURTLE PAWS UNDER A GREY CARAPACE. DIGNAM'S VOICE, MUFFLED, IS -HEARD BAYING UNDER GROUND: Dignam's dead and gone below. TOM ROCHFORD, -ROBINREDBREASTED, IN CAP AND BREECHES, JUMPS FROM HIS TWOCOLUMNED -MACHINE.) - -TOM ROCHFORD: (A HAND TO HIS BREASTBONE, BOWS) Reuben J. A florin I find -him. (HE FIXES THE MANHOLE WITH A RESOLUTE STARE) My turn now on. Follow -me up to Carlow. - -(HE EXECUTES A DAREDEVIL SALMON LEAP IN THE AIR AND IS ENGULFED IN THE -COALHOLE. TWO DISCS ON THE COLUMNS WOBBLE, EYES OF NOUGHT. ALL RECEDES. -BLOOM PLODGES FORWARD AGAIN THROUGH THE SUMP. KISSES CHIRP AMID THE RIFTS -OF FOG A PIANO SOUNDS. HE STANDS BEFORE A LIGHTED HOUSE, LISTENING. THE -KISSES, WINGING FROM THEIR BOWERS FLY ABOUT HIM, TWITTERING, WARBLING, -COOING.) - -THE KISSES: (WARBLING) Leo! (TWITTERING) Icky licky micky sticky for Leo! -(COOING) Coo coocoo! Yummyyum, Womwom! (WARBLING) Big comebig! Pirouette! -Leopopold! (TWITTERING) Leeolee! (WARBLING) O Leo! - -(THEY RUSTLE, FLUTTER UPON HIS GARMENTS, ALIGHT, BRIGHT GIDDY FLECKS, -SILVERY SEQUINS.) - -BLOOM: A man's touch. Sad music. Church music. Perhaps here. - -(ZOE HIGGINS, A YOUNG WHORE IN A SAPPHIRE SLIP, CLOSED WITH THREE BRONZE -BUCKLES, A SLIM BLACK VELVET FILLET ROUND HER THROAT, NODS, TRIPS DOWN -THE STEPS AND ACCOSTS HIM.) - -ZOE: Are you looking for someone? He's inside with his friend. - -BLOOM: Is this Mrs Mack's? - -ZOE: No, eightyone. Mrs Cohen's. You might go farther and fare worse. -Mother Slipperslapper. (FAMILIARLY) She's on the job herself tonight with -the vet her tipster that gives her all the winners and pays for her son -in Oxford. Working overtime but her luck's turned today. (SUSPICIOUSLY) -You're not his father, are you? - -BLOOM: Not I! - -ZOE: You both in black. Has little mousey any tickles tonight? - -(HIS SKIN, ALERT, FEELS HER FINGERTIPS APPROACH. A HAND GLIDES OVER HIS -LEFT THIGH.) - -ZOE: How's the nuts? - -BLOOM: Off side. Curiously they are on the right. Heavier, I suppose. One -in a million my tailor, Mesias, says. - -ZOE: (IN SUDDEN ALARM) You've a hard chancre. - -BLOOM: Not likely. - -ZOE: I feel it. - -(HER HAND SLIDES INTO HIS LEFT TROUSER POCKET AND BRINGS OUT A HARD BLACK -SHRIVELLED POTATO. SHE REGARDS IT AND BLOOM WITH DUMB MOIST LIPS.) - -BLOOM: A talisman. Heirloom. - -ZOE: For Zoe? For keeps? For being so nice, eh? - -(SHE PUTS THE POTATO GREEDILY INTO A POCKET THEN LINKS HIS ARM, CUDDLING -HIM WITH SUPPLE WARMTH. HE SMILES UNEASILY. SLOWLY, NOTE BY NOTE, -ORIENTAL MUSIC IS PLAYED. HE GAZES IN THE TAWNY CRYSTAL OF HER EYES, -RINGED WITH KOHOL. HIS SMILE SOFTENS.) - -ZOE: You'll know me the next time. - -BLOOM: (FORLORNLY) I never loved a dear gazelle but it was sure to ... - -(GAZELLES ARE LEAPING, FEEDING ON THE MOUNTAINS. NEAR ARE LAKES. ROUND -THEIR SHORES FILE SHADOWS BLACK OF CEDARGROVES. AROMA RISES, A STRONG -HAIRGROWTH OF RESIN. IT BURNS, THE ORIENT, A SKY OF SAPPHIRE, CLEFT BY -THE BRONZE FLIGHT OF EAGLES. UNDER IT LIES THE WOMANCITY NUDE, WHITE, -STILL, COOL, IN LUXURY. A FOUNTAIN MURMURS AMONG DAMASK ROSES. MAMMOTH -ROSES MURMUR OF SCARLET WINEGRAPES. A WINE OF SHAME, LUST, BLOOD EXUDES, -STRANGELY MURMURING.) - -ZOE: (MURMURING SINGSONG WITH THE MUSIC, HER ODALISK LIPS LUSCIOUSLY -SMEARED WITH SALVE OF SWINEFAT AND ROSEWATER) SCHORACH ANI WENOWACH, -BENOITH HIERUSHALOIM. - -BLOOM: (FASCINATED) I thought you were of good stock by your accent. - -ZOE: And you know what thought did? - -(SHE BITES HIS EAR GENTLY WITH LITTLE GOLDSTOPPED TEETH, SENDING ON HIM A -CLOYING BREATH OF STALE GARLIC. THE ROSES DRAW APART, DISCLOSE A -SEPULCHRE OF THE GOLD OF KINGS AND THEIR MOULDERING BONES.) - -BLOOM: (DRAWS BACK, MECHANICALLY CARESSING HER RIGHT BUB WITH A FLAT -AWKWARD HAND) Are you a Dublin girl? - -ZOE: (CATCHES A STRAY HAIR DEFTLY AND TWISTS IT TO HER COIL) No bloody -fear. I'm English. Have you a swaggerroot? - -BLOOM: (AS BEFORE) Rarely smoke, dear. Cigar now and then. Childish -device. (LEWDLY) The mouth can be better engaged than with a cylinder of -rank weed. - -ZOE: Go on. Make a stump speech out of it. - -BLOOM: (IN WORKMAN'S CORDUROY OVERALLS, BLACK GANSY WITH RED FLOATING TIE -AND APACHE CAP) Mankind is incorrigible. Sir Walter Ralegh brought from -the new world that potato and that weed, the one a killer of pestilence -by absorption, the other a poisoner of the ear, eye, heart, memory, will -understanding, all. That is to say he brought the poison a hundred years -before another person whose name I forget brought the food. Suicide. -Lies. All our habits. Why, look at our public life! - -(MIDNIGHT CHIMES FROM DISTANT STEEPLES.) - -THE CHIMES: Turn again, Leopold! Lord mayor of Dublin! - -BLOOM: (IN ALDERMAN'S GOWN AND CHAIN) Electors of Arran Quay, Inns Quay, -Rotunda, Mountjoy and North Dock, better run a tramline, I say, from the -cattlemarket to the river. That's the music of the future. That's my -programme. CUI BONO? But our bucaneering Vanderdeckens in their phantom -ship of finance ... - -AN ELECTOR: Three times three for our future chief magistrate! - -(THE AURORA BOREALIS OF THE TORCHLIGHT PROCESSION LEAPS.) - -THE TORCHBEARERS: Hooray! - -(SEVERAL WELLKNOWN BURGESSES, CITY MAGNATES AND FREEMEN OF THE CITY SHAKE -HANDS WITH BLOOM AND CONGRATULATE HIM. TIMOTHY HARRINGTON, LATE THRICE -LORD MAYOR OF DUBLIN, IMPOSING IN MAYORAL SCARLET, GOLD CHAIN AND WHITE -SILK TIE, CONFERS WITH COUNCILLOR LORCAN SHERLOCK, LOCUM TENENS. THEY NOD -VIGOROUSLY IN AGREEMENT.) - -LATE LORD MAYOR HARRINGTON: (IN SCARLET ROBE WITH MACE, GOLD MAYORAL -CHAIN AND LARGE WHITE SILK SCARF) That alderman sir Leo Bloom's speech be -printed at the expense of the ratepayers. That the house in which he was -born be ornamented with a commemorative tablet and that the thoroughfare -hitherto known as Cow Parlour off Cork street be henceforth designated -Boulevard Bloom. - -COUNCILLOR LORCAN SHERLOCK: Carried unanimously. - -BLOOM: (IMPASSIONEDLY) These flying Dutchmen or lying Dutchmen as they -recline in their upholstered poop, casting dice, what reck they? Machines -is their cry, their chimera, their panacea. Laboursaving apparatuses, -supplanters, bugbears, manufactured monsters for mutual murder, hideous -hobgoblins produced by a horde of capitalistic lusts upon our prostituted -labour. The poor man starves while they are grassing their royal mountain -stags or shooting peasants and phartridges in their purblind pomp of pelf -and power. But their reign is rover for rever and ever and ev ... - -(PROLONGED APPLAUSE. VENETIAN MASTS, MAYPOLES AND FESTAL ARCHES SPRING -UP. A STREAMER BEARING THE LEGENDS Cead Mile Failte AND Mah Ttob Melek -Israel SPANS THE STREET. ALL THE WINDOWS ARE THRONGED WITH SIGHTSEERS, -CHIEFLY LADIES. ALONG THE ROUTE THE REGIMENTS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN -FUSILIERS, THE KING'S OWN SCOTTISH BORDERERS, THE CAMERON HIGHLANDERS AND -THE WELSH FUSILIERS STANDING TO ATTENTION, KEEP BACK THE CROWD. BOYS FROM -HIGH SCHOOL ARE PERCHED ON THE LAMPPOSTS, TELEGRAPH POLES, WINDOWSILLS, -CORNICES, GUTTERS, CHIMNEYPOTS, RAILINGS, RAINSPOUTS, WHISTLING AND -CHEERING THE PILLAR OF THE CLOUD APPEARS. A FIFE AND DRUM BAND IS HEARD -IN THE DISTANCE PLAYING THE KOL NIDRE. THE BEATERS APPROACH WITH IMPERIAL -EAGLES HOISTED, TRAILING BANNERS AND WAVING ORIENTAL PALMS. THE -CHRYSELEPHANTINE PAPAL STANDARD RISES HIGH, SURROUNDED BY PENNONS OF THE -CIVIC FLAG. THE VAN OF THE PROCESSION APPEARS HEADED BY JOHN HOWARD -PARNELL, CITY MARSHAL, IN A CHESSBOARD TABARD, THE ATHLONE POURSUIVANT -AND ULSTER KING OF ARMS. THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOSEPH -HUTCHINSON, LORD MAYOR OF DUBLIN, HIS LORDSHIP THE LORD MAYOR OF CORK, -THEIR WORSHIPS THE MAYORS OF LIMERICK, GALWAY, SLIGO AND WATERFORD, -TWENTYEIGHT IRISH REPRESENTATIVE PEERS, SIRDARS, GRANDEES AND MAHARAJAHS -BEARING THE CLOTH OF ESTATE, THE DUBLIN METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE, THE -CHAPTER OF THE SAINTS OF FINANCE IN THEIR PLUTOCRATIC ORDER OF -PRECEDENCE, THE BISHOP OF DOWN AND CONNOR, HIS EMINENCE MICHAEL CARDINAL -LOGUE, ARCHBISHOP OF ARMAGH, PRIMATE OF ALL IRELAND, HIS GRACE, THE MOST -REVEREND DR WILLIAM ALEXANDER, ARCHBISHOP OF ARMAGH, PRIMATE OF ALL -IRELAND, THE CHIEF RABBI, THE PRESBYTERIAN MODERATOR, THE HEADS OF THE -BAPTIST, ANABAPTIST, METHODIST AND MORAVIAN CHAPELS AND THE HONORARY -SECRETARY OF THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS. AFTER THEM MARCH THE GUILDS AND -TRADES AND TRAINBANDS WITH FLYING COLOURS: COOPERS, BIRD FANCIERS, -MILLWRIGHTS, NEWSPAPER CANVASSERS, LAW SCRIVENERS, MASSEURS, VINTNERS, -TRUSSMAKERS, CHIMNEYSWEEPS, LARD REFINERS, TABINET AND POPLIN WEAVERS, -FARRIERS, ITALIAN WAREHOUSEMEN, CHURCH DECORATORS, BOOTJACK -MANUFACTURERS, UNDERTAKERS, SILK MERCERS, LAPIDARIES, SALESMASTERS, -CORKCUTTERS, ASSESSORS OF FIRE LOSSES, DYERS AND CLEANERS, EXPORT -BOTTLERS, FELLMONGERS, TICKETWRITERS, HERALDIC SEAL ENGRAVERS, HORSE -REPOSITORY HANDS, BULLION BROKERS, CRICKET AND ARCHERY OUTFITTERS, -RIDDLEMAKERS, EGG AND POTATO FACTORS, HOSIERS AND GLOVERS, PLUMBING -CONTRACTORS. AFTER THEM MARCH GENTLEMEN OF THE BEDCHAMBER, BLACK ROD, -DEPUTY GARTER, GOLD STICK, THE MASTER OF HORSE, THE LORD GREAT -CHAMBERLAIN, THE EARL MARSHAL, THE HIGH CONSTABLE CARRYING THE SWORD OF -STATE, SAINT STEPHEN'S IRON CROWN, THE CHALICE AND BIBLE. FOUR BUGLERS ON -FOOT BLOW A SENNET. BEEFEATERS REPLY, WINDING CLARIONS OF WELCOME. UNDER -AN ARCH OF TRIUMPH BLOOM APPEARS, BAREHEADED, IN A CRIMSON VELVET MANTLE -TRIMMED WITH ERMINE, BEARING SAINT EDWARD'S STAFF THE ORB AND SCEPTRE -WITH THE DOVE, THE CURTANA. HE IS SEATED ON A MILKWHITE HORSE WITH LONG -FLOWING CRIMSON TAIL, RICHLY CAPARISONED, WITH GOLDEN HEADSTALL. WILD -EXCITEMENT. THE LADIES FROM THEIR BALCONIES THROW DOWN ROSEPETALS. THE -AIR IS PERFUMED WITH ESSENCES. THE MEN CHEER. BLOOM'S BOYS RUN AMID THE -BYSTANDERS WITH BRANCHES OF HAWTHORN AND WRENBUSHES.) - -BLOOM'S BOYS: - - - The wren, the wren, - The king of all birds, - Saint Stephen's his day - Was caught in the furze. - - -A BLACKSMITH: (MURMURS) For the honour of God! And is that Bloom? He -scarcely looks thirtyone. - -A PAVIOR AND FLAGGER: That's the famous Bloom now, the world's greatest -reformer. Hats off! - -(ALL UNCOVER THEIR HEADS. WOMEN WHISPER EAGERLY.) - -A MILLIONAIRESS: (RICHLY) Isn't he simply wonderful? - -A NOBLEWOMAN: (NOBLY) All that man has seen! - -A FEMINIST: (MASCULINELY) And done! - -A BELLHANGER: A classic face! He has the forehead of a thinker. - -(BLOOM'S WEATHER. A SUNBURST APPEARS IN THE NORTHWEST.) - -THE BISHOP OF DOWN AND CONNOR: I here present your undoubted emperor- -president and king-chairman, the most serene and potent and very puissant -ruler of this realm. God save Leopold the First! - -ALL: God save Leopold the First! - -BLOOM: (IN DALMATIC AND PURPLE MANTLE, TO THE BISHOP OF DOWN AND CONNOR, -WITH DIGNITY) Thanks, somewhat eminent sir. - -WILLIAM, ARCHBISHOP OF ARMAGH: (IN PURPLE STOCK AND SHOVEL HAT) Will you -to your power cause law and mercy to be executed in all your judgments in -Ireland and territories thereunto belonging? - -BLOOM: (PLACING HIS RIGHT HAND ON HIS TESTICLES, SWEARS) So may the -Creator deal with me. All this I promise to do. - -MICHAEL, ARCHBISHOP OF ARMAGH: (POURS A CRUSE OF HAIROIL OVER BLOOM'S -HEAD) GAUDIUM MAGNUM ANNUNTIO VOBIS. HABEMUS CARNEFICEM. Leopold, -Patrick, Andrew, David, George, be thou anointed! - -(BLOOM ASSUMES A MANTLE OF CLOTH OF GOLD AND PUTS ON A RUBY RING. HE -ASCENDS AND STANDS ON THE STONE OF DESTINY. THE REPRESENTATIVE PEERS PUT -ON AT THE SAME TIME THEIR TWENTYEIGHT CROWNS. JOYBELLS RING IN CHRIST -CHURCH, SAINT PATRICK'S, GEORGE'S AND GAY MALAHIDE. MIRUS BAZAAR -FIREWORKS GO UP FROM ALL SIDES WITH SYMBOLICAL PHALLOPYROTECHNIC DESIGNS. -THE PEERS DO HOMAGE, ONE BY ONE, APPROACHING AND GENUFLECTING.) - -THE PEERS: I do become your liege man of life and limb to earthly -worship. - -(BLOOM HOLDS UP HIS RIGHT HAND ON WHICH SPARKLES THE KOH-I-NOOR DIAMOND. -HIS PALFREY NEIGHS. IMMEDIATE SILENCE. WIRELESS INTERCONTINENTAL AND -INTERPLANETARY TRANSMITTERS ARE SET FOR RECEPTION OF MESSAGE.) - -BLOOM: My subjects! We hereby nominate our faithful charger Copula Felix -hereditary Grand Vizier and announce that we have this day repudiated our -former spouse and have bestowed our royal hand upon the princess Selene, -the splendour of night. - -(THE FORMER MORGANATIC SPOUSE OF BLOOM IS HASTILY REMOVED IN THE BLACK -MARIA. THE PRINCESS SELENE, IN MOONBLUE ROBES, A SILVER CRESCENT ON HER -HEAD, DESCENDS FROM A SEDAN CHAIR, BORNE BY TWO GIANTS. AN OUTBURST OF -CHEERING.) - -JOHN HOWARD PARNELL: (RAISES THE ROYAL STANDARD) Illustrious Bloom! -Successor to my famous brother! - -BLOOM: (EMBRACES JOHN HOWARD PARNELL) We thank you from our heart, John, -for this right royal welcome to green Erin, the promised land of our -common ancestors. - -(THE FREEDOM OF THE CITY IS PRESENTED TO HIM EMBODIED IN A CHARTER. THE -KEYS OF DUBLIN, CROSSED ON A CRIMSON CUSHION, ARE GIVEN TO HIM. HE SHOWS -ALL THAT HE IS WEARING GREEN SOCKS.) - -TOM KERNAN: You deserve it, your honour. - -BLOOM: On this day twenty years ago we overcame the hereditary enemy at -Ladysmith. Our howitzers and camel swivel guns played on his lines with -telling effect. Half a league onward! They charge! All is lost now! Do we -yield? No! We drive them headlong! Lo! We charge! Deploying to the left -our light horse swept across the heights of Plevna and, uttering their -warcry BONAFIDE SABAOTH, sabred the Saracen gunners to a man. - -THE CHAPEL OF FREEMAN TYPESETTERS: Hear! Hear! - -JOHN WYSE NOLAN: There's the man that got away James Stephens. - -A BLUECOAT SCHOOLBOY: Bravo! - -AN OLD RESIDENT: You're a credit to your country, sir, that's what you -are. - -AN APPLEWOMAN: He's a man like Ireland wants. - -BLOOM: My beloved subjects, a new era is about to dawn. I, Bloom, tell -you verily it is even now at hand. Yea, on the word of a Bloom, ye shall -ere long enter into the golden city which is to be, the new Bloomusalem -in the Nova Hibernia of the future. - -(THIRTYTWO WORKMEN, WEARING ROSETTES, FROM ALL THE COUNTIES OF IRELAND, -UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF DERWAN THE BUILDER, CONSTRUCT THE NEW BLOOMUSALEM. -IT IS A COLOSSAL EDIFICE WITH CRYSTAL ROOF, BUILT IN THE SHAPE OF A HUGE -PORK KIDNEY, CONTAINING FORTY THOUSAND ROOMS. IN THE COURSE OF ITS -EXTENSION SEVERAL BUILDINGS AND MONUMENTS ARE DEMOLISHED. GOVERNMENT -OFFICES ARE TEMPORARILY TRANSFERRED TO RAILWAY SHEDS. NUMEROUS HOUSES ARE -RAZED TO THE GROUND. THE INHABITANTS ARE LODGED IN BARRELS AND BOXES, ALL -MARKED IN RED WITH THE LETTERS: L. B. SEVERAL PAUPERS FILL FROM A LADDER. -A PART OF THE WALLS OF DUBLIN, CROWDED WITH LOYAL SIGHTSEERS, COLLAPSES.) - -THE SIGHTSEERS: (DYING) MORITURI TE SALUTANT. (THEY DIE) - -(A MAN IN A BROWN MACINTOSH SPRINGS UP THROUGH A TRAPDOOR. HE POINTS AN -ELONGATED FINGER AT BLOOM.) - -THE MAN IN THE MACINTOSH: Don't you believe a word he says. That man is -Leopold M'Intosh, the notorious fireraiser. His real name is Higgins. - -BLOOM: Shoot him! Dog of a christian! So much for M'Intosh! - -(A CANNONSHOT. THE MAN IN THE MACINTOSH DISAPPEARS. BLOOM WITH HIS -SCEPTRE STRIKES DOWN POPPIES. THE INSTANTANEOUS DEATHS OF MANY POWERFUL -ENEMIES, GRAZIERS, MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT, MEMBERS OF STANDING COMMITTEES, -ARE REPORTED. BLOOM'S BODYGUARD DISTRIBUTE MAUNDY MONEY, COMMEMORATION -MEDALS, LOAVES AND FISHES, TEMPERANCE BADGES, EXPENSIVE HENRY CLAY -CIGARS, FREE COWBONES FOR SOUP, RUBBER PRESERVATIVES IN SEALED ENVELOPES -TIED WITH GOLD THREAD, BUTTER SCOTCH, PINEAPPLE ROCK, billets doux IN THE -FORM OF COCKED HATS, READYMADE SUITS, PORRINGERS OF TOAD IN THE HOLE, -BOTTLES OF JEYES' FLUID, PURCHASE STAMPS, 40 DAYS' INDULGENCES, SPURIOUS -COINS, DAIRYFED PORK SAUSAGES, THEATRE PASSES, SEASON TICKETS AVAILABLE -FOR ALL TRAMLINES, COUPONS OF THE ROYAL AND PRIVILEGED HUNGARIAN LOTTERY, -PENNY DINNER COUNTERS, CHEAP REPRINTS OF THE WORLD'S TWELVE WORST BOOKS: -FROGGY AND FRITZ (POLITIC), CARE OF THE BABY (INFANTILIC), 50 MEALS FOR -7/6 (CULINIC), WAS JESUS A SUN MYTH? (HISTORIC), EXPEL THAT PAIN (MEDIC), -INFANT'S COMPENDIUM OF THE UNIVERSE (COSMIC), LET'S ALL CHORTLE -(HILARIC), CANVASSER'S VADE MECUM (JOURNALIC), LOVELETTERS OF MOTHER -ASSISTANT (EROTIC), WHO'S WHO IN SPACE (ASTRIC), SONGS THAT REACHED OUR -HEART (MELODIC), PENNYWISE'S WAY TO WEALTH (PARSIMONIC). A GENERAL RUSH -AND SCRAMBLE. WOMEN PRESS FORWARD TO TOUCH THE HEM OF BLOOM'S ROBE. THE -LADY GWENDOLEN DUBEDAT BURSTS THROUGH THE THRONG, LEAPS ON HIS HORSE AND -KISSES HIM ON BOTH CHEEKS AMID GREAT ACCLAMATION. A MAGNESIUM FLASHLIGHT -PHOTOGRAPH IS TAKEN. BABES AND SUCKLINGS ARE HELD UP.) - -THE WOMEN: Little father! Little father! - -THE BABES AND SUCKLINGS: - - - Clap clap hands till Poldy comes home, - Cakes in his pocket for Leo alone. - - -(BLOOM, BENDING DOWN, POKES BABY BOARDMAN GENTLY IN THE STOMACH.) - -BABY BOARDMAN: (HICCUPS, CURDLED MILK FLOWING FROM HIS MOUTH) Hajajaja. - -BLOOM: (SHAKING HANDS WITH A BLIND STRIPLING) My more than Brother! -(PLACING HIS ARMS ROUND THE SHOULDERS OF AN OLD COUPLE) Dear old friends! -(HE PLAYS PUSSY FOURCORNERS WITH RAGGED BOYS AND GIRLS) Peep! Bopeep! (HE -WHEELS TWINS IN A PERAMBULATOR) Ticktacktwo wouldyousetashoe? (HE -PERFORMS JUGGLER'S TRICKS, DRAWS RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, INDIGO -AND VIOLET SILK HANDKERCHIEFS FROM HIS MOUTH) Roygbiv. 32 feet per -second. (HE CONSOLES A WIDOW) Absence makes the heart grow younger. (HE -DANCES THE HIGHLAND FLING WITH GROTESQUE ANTICS) Leg it, ye devils! (HE -KISSES THE BEDSORES OF A PALSIED VETERAN) Honourable wounds! (HE TRIPS UP -A FIT POLICEMAN) U. p: up. U. p: up. (HE WHISPERS IN THE EAR OF A -BLUSHING WAITRESS AND LAUGHS KINDLY) Ah, naughty, naughty! (HE EATS A RAW -TURNIP OFFERED HIM BY MAURICE BUTTERLY, FARMER) Fine! Splendid! (HE -REFUSES TO ACCEPT THREE SHILLINGS OFFERED HIM BY JOSEPH HYNES, -JOURNALIST) My dear fellow, not at all! (HE GIVES HIS COAT TO A BEGGAR) -Please accept. (HE TAKES PART IN A STOMACH RACE WITH ELDERLY MALE AND -FEMALE CRIPPLES) Come on, boys! Wriggle it, girls! - -THE CITIZEN: (CHOKED WITH EMOTION, BRUSHES ASIDE A TEAR IN HIS EMERALD -MUFFLER) May the good God bless him! - -(THE RAMS' HORNS SOUND FOR SILENCE. THE STANDARD OF ZION IS HOISTED.) - -BLOOM: (UNCLOAKS IMPRESSIVELY, REVEALING OBESITY, UNROLLS A PAPER AND -READS SOLEMNLY) Aleph Beth Ghimel Daleth Hagadah Tephilim Kosher Yom -Kippur Hanukah Roschaschana Beni Brith Bar Mitzvah Mazzoth Askenazim -Meshuggah Talith. - -(AN OFFICIAL TRANSLATION IS READ BY JIMMY HENRY, ASSISTANT TOWN CLERK.) - -JIMMY HENRY: The Court of Conscience is now open. His Most Catholic -Majesty will now administer open air justice. Free medical and legal -advice, solution of doubles and other problems. All cordially invited. -Given at this our loyal city of Dublin in the year I of the Paradisiacal -Era. - -PADDY LEONARD: What am I to do about my rates and taxes? - -BLOOM: Pay them, my friend. - -PADDY LEONARD: Thank you. - -NOSEY FLYNN: Can I raise a mortgage on my fire insurance? - -BLOOM: (OBDURATELY) Sirs, take notice that by the law of torts you are -bound over in your own recognisances for six months in the sum of five -pounds. - -J. J. O'MOLLOY: A Daniel did I say? Nay! A Peter O'Brien! - -NOSEY FLYNN: Where do I draw the five pounds? - -PISSER BURKE: For bladder trouble? - -BLOOM: - - - ACID. NIT. HYDROCHLOR. DIL., 20 minims - TINCT. NUX VOM., 5 minims - EXTR. TARAXEL. IIQ., 30 minims. - AQ. DIS. TER IN DIE. - - -CHRIS CALLINAN: What is the parallax of the subsolar ecliptic of -Aldebaran? - -BLOOM: Pleased to hear from you, Chris. K. II. - -JOE HYNES: Why aren't you in uniform? - -BLOOM: When my progenitor of sainted memory wore the uniform of the -Austrian despot in a dank prison where was yours? - -BEN DOLLARD: Pansies? - -BLOOM: Embellish (beautify) suburban gardens. - -BEN DOLLARD: When twins arrive? - -BLOOM: Father (pater, dad) starts thinking. - -LARRY O'ROURKE: An eightday licence for my new premises. You remember me, -sir Leo, when you were in number seven. I'm sending around a dozen of -stout for the missus. - -BLOOM: (COLDLY) You have the advantage of me. Lady Bloom accepts no -presents. - -CROFTON: This is indeed a festivity. - -BLOOM: (SOLEMNLY) You call it a festivity. I call it a sacrament. - -ALEXANDER KEYES: When will we have our own house of keys? - -BLOOM: I stand for the reform of municipal morals and the plain ten -commandments. New worlds for old. Union of all, jew, moslem and gentile. -Three acres and a cow for all children of nature. Saloon motor hearses. -Compulsory manual labour for all. All parks open to the public day and -night. Electric dishscrubbers. Tuberculosis, lunacy, war and mendicancy -must now cease. General amnesty, weekly carnival with masked licence, -bonuses for all, esperanto the universal language with universal -brotherhood. No more patriotism of barspongers and dropsical impostors. -Free money, free rent, free love and a free lay church in a free lay -state. - -O'MADDEN BURKE: Free fox in a free henroost. - -DAVY BYRNE: (YAWNING) Iiiiiiiiiaaaaaaach! - -BLOOM: Mixed races and mixed marriage. - -LENEHAN: What about mixed bathing? - -(BLOOM EXPLAINS TO THOSE NEAR HIM HIS SCHEMES FOR SOCIAL REGENERATION. -ALL AGREE WITH HIM. THE KEEPER OF THE KILDARE STREET MUSEUM APPEARS, -DRAGGING A LORRY ON WHICH ARE THE SHAKING STATUES OF SEVERAL NAKED -GODDESSES, VENUS CALLIPYGE, VENUS PANDEMOS, VENUS METEMPSYCHOSIS, AND -PLASTER FIGURES, ALSO NAKED, REPRESENTING THE NEW NINE MUSES, COMMERCE, -OPERATIC MUSIC, AMOR, PUBLICITY, MANUFACTURE, LIBERTY OF SPEECH, PLURAL -VOTING, GASTRONOMY, PRIVATE HYGIENE, SEASIDE CONCERT ENTERTAINMENTS, -PAINLESS OBSTETRICS AND ASTRONOMY FOR THE PEOPLE.) - -FATHER FARLEY: He is an episcopalian, an agnostic, an anythingarian -seeking to overthrow our holy faith. - -MRS RIORDAN: (TEARS UP HER WILL) I'm disappointed in you! You bad man! - -MOTHER GROGAN: (REMOVES HER BOOT TO THROW IT AT BLOOM) You beast! You -abominable person! - -NOSEY FLYNN: Give us a tune, Bloom. One of the old sweet songs. - -BLOOM: (WITH ROLLICKING HUMOUR) - - - I vowed that I never would leave her, - She turned out a cruel deceiver. - With my tooraloom tooraloom tooraloom tooraloom. - - -HOPPY HOLOHAN: Good old Bloom! There's nobody like him after all. - -PADDY LEONARD: Stage Irishman! - -BLOOM: What railway opera is like a tramline in Gibraltar? The Rows of -Casteele. (LAUGHTER.) - -LENEHAN: Plagiarist! Down with Bloom! - -THE VEILED SIBYL: (ENTHUSIASTICALLY) I'm a Bloomite and I glory in it. I -believe in him in spite of all. I'd give my life for him, the funniest -man on earth. - -BLOOM: (WINKS AT THE BYSTANDERS) I bet she's a bonny lassie. - -THEODORE PUREFOY: (IN FISHINGCAP AND OILSKIN JACKET) He employs a -mechanical device to frustrate the sacred ends of nature. - -THE VEILED SIBYL: (STABS HERSELF) My hero god! (SHE DIES) - -(MANY MOST ATTRACTIVE AND ENTHUSIASTIC WOMEN ALSO COMMIT SUICIDE BY -STABBING, DROWNING, DRINKING PRUSSIC ACID, ACONITE, ARSENIC, OPENING -THEIR VEINS, REFUSING FOOD, CASTING THEMSELVES UNDER STEAMROLLERS, FROM -THE TOP OF NELSON'S PILLAR, INTO THE GREAT VAT OF GUINNESS'S BREWERY, -ASPHYXIATING THEMSELVES BY PLACING THEIR HEADS IN GASOVENS, HANGING -THEMSELVES IN STYLISH GARTERS, LEAPING FROM WINDOWS OF DIFFERENT -STOREYS.) - -ALEXANDER J DOWIE: (VIOLENTLY) Fellowchristians and antiBloomites, the -man called Bloom is from the roots of hell, a disgrace to christian men. -A fiendish libertine from his earliest years this stinking goat of Mendes -gave precocious signs of infantile debauchery, recalling the cities of -the plain, with a dissolute granddam. This vile hypocrite, bronzed with -infamy, is the white bull mentioned in the Apocalypse. A worshipper of -the Scarlet Woman, intrigue is the very breath of his nostrils. The stake -faggots and the caldron of boiling oil are for him. Caliban! - -THE MOB: Lynch him! Roast him! He's as bad as Parnell was. Mr Fox! - -(MOTHER GROGAN THROWS HER BOOT AT BLOOM. SEVERAL SHOPKEEPERS FROM UPPER -AND LOWER DORSET STREET THROW OBJECTS OF LITTLE OR NO COMMERCIAL VALUE, -HAMBONES, CONDENSED MILK TINS, UNSALEABLE CABBAGE, STALE BREAD, SHEEP'S -TAILS, ODD PIECES OF FAT.) - -BLOOM: (EXCITEDLY) This is midsummer madness, some ghastly joke again. By -heaven, I am guiltless as the unsunned snow! It was my brother Henry. He -is my double. He lives in number 2 Dolphin's Barn. Slander, the viper, -has wrongfully accused me. Fellowcountrymen, SGENL INN BAN BATA COISDE -GAN CAPALL. I call on my old friend, Dr Malachi Mulligan, sex specialist, -to give medical testimony on my behalf. - -DR MULLIGAN: (IN MOTOR JERKIN, GREEN MOTORGOGGLES ON HIS BROW) Dr Bloom -is bisexually abnormal. He has recently escaped from Dr Eustace's private -asylum for demented gentlemen. Born out of bedlock hereditary epilepsy is -present, the consequence of unbridled lust. Traces of elephantiasis have -been discovered among his ascendants. There are marked symptoms of -chronic exhibitionism. Ambidexterity is also latent. He is prematurely -bald from selfabuse, perversely idealistic in consequence, a reformed -rake, and has metal teeth. In consequence of a family complex he has -temporarily lost his memory and I believe him to be more sinned against -than sinning. I have made a pervaginal examination and, after application -of the acid test to 5427 anal, axillary, pectoral and pubic hairs, I -declare him to be VIRGO INTACTA. - -(BLOOM HOLDS HIS HIGH GRADE HAT OVER HIS GENITAL ORGANS.) - -DR MADDEN: Hypsospadia is also marked. In the interest of coming -generations I suggest that the parts affected should be preserved in -spirits of wine in the national teratological museum. - -DR CROTTHERS: I have examined the patient's urine. It is albuminoid. -Salivation is insufficient, the patellar reflex intermittent. - -DR PUNCH COSTELLO: The FETOR JUDAICUS is most perceptible. - -DR DIXON: (READS A BILL OF HEALTH) Professor Bloom is a finished example -of the new womanly man. His moral nature is simple and lovable. Many have -found him a dear man, a dear person. He is a rather quaint fellow on the -whole, coy though not feebleminded in the medical sense. He has written a -really beautiful letter, a poem in itself, to the court missionary of the -Reformed Priests' Protection Society which clears up everything. He is -practically a total abstainer and I can affirm that he sleeps on a straw -litter and eats the most Spartan food, cold dried grocer's peas. He wears -a hairshirt of pure Irish manufacture winter and summer and scourges -himself every Saturday. He was, I understand, at one time a firstclass -misdemeanant in Glencree reformatory. Another report states that he was a -very posthumous child. I appeal for clemency in the name of the most -sacred word our vocal organs have ever been called upon to speak. He is -about to have a baby. - -(GENERAL COMMOTION AND COMPASSION. WOMEN FAINT. A WEALTHY AMERICAN MAKES -A STREET COLLECTION FOR BLOOM. GOLD AND SILVER COINS, BLANK CHEQUES, -BANKNOTES, JEWELS, TREASURY BONDS, MATURING BILLS OF EXCHANGE, I. O. U'S, -WEDDING RINGS, WATCHCHAINS, LOCKETS, NECKLACES AND BRACELETS ARE RAPIDLY -COLLECTED.) - -BLOOM: O, I so want to be a mother. - -MRS THORNTON: (IN NURSETENDER'S GOWN) Embrace me tight, dear. You'll be -soon over it. Tight, dear. - -(BLOOM EMBRACES HER TIGHTLY AND BEARS EIGHT MALE YELLOW AND WHITE -CHILDREN. THEY APPEAR ON A REDCARPETED STAIRCASE ADORNED WITH EXPENSIVE -PLANTS. ALL THE OCTUPLETS ARE HANDSOME, WITH VALUABLE METALLIC FACES, -WELLMADE, RESPECTABLY DRESSED AND WELLCONDUCTED, SPEAKING FIVE MODERN -LANGUAGES FLUENTLY AND INTERESTED IN VARIOUS ARTS AND SCIENCES. EACH HAS -HIS NAME PRINTED IN LEGIBLE LETTERS ON HIS SHIRTFRONT: NASODORO, -GOLDFINGER, CHRYSOSTOMOS, MAINDOREE, SILVERSMILE, SILBERSELBER, -VIFARGENT, PANARGYROS. THEY ARE IMMEDIATELY APPOINTED TO POSITIONS OF -HIGH PUBLIC TRUST IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT COUNTRIES AS MANAGING DIRECTORS OF -BANKS, TRAFFIC MANAGERS OF RAILWAYS, CHAIRMEN OF LIMITED LIABILITY -COMPANIES, VICECHAIRMEN OF HOTEL SYNDICATES.) - -A VOICE: Bloom, are you the Messiah ben Joseph or ben David? - -BLOOM: (DARKLY) You have said it. - -BROTHER BUZZ: Then perform a miracle like Father Charles. - -BANTAM LYONS: Prophesy who will win the Saint Leger. - -(BLOOM WALKS ON A NET, COVERS HIS LEFT EYE WITH HIS LEFT EAR, PASSES -THROUGH SEVERAL WALLS, CLIMBS NELSON'S PILLAR, HANGS FROM THE TOP LEDGE -BY HIS EYELIDS, EATS TWELVE DOZEN OYSTERS (SHELLS INCLUDED), HEALS -SEVERAL SUFFERERS FROM KING'S EVIL, CONTRACTS HIS FACE SO AS TO RESEMBLE -MANY HISTORICAL PERSONAGES, LORD BEACONSFIELD, LORD BYRON, WAT TYLER, -MOSES OF EGYPT, MOSES MAIMONIDES, MOSES MENDELSSOHN, HENRY IRVING, RIP -VAN WINKLE, KOSSUTH, JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, BARON LEOPOLD ROTHSCHILD, -ROBINSON CRUSOE, SHERLOCK HOLMES, PASTEUR, TURNS EACH FOOT SIMULTANEOUSLY -IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS, BIDS THE TIDE TURN BACK, ECLIPSES THE SUN BY -EXTENDING HIS LITTLE FINGER.) - -BRINI, PAPAL NUNCIO: (IN PAPAL ZOUAVE'S UNIFORM, STEEL CUIRASSES AS -BREASTPLATE, ARMPLATES, THIGHPLATES, LEGPLATES, LARGE PROFANE MOUSTACHES -AND BROWN PAPER MITRE) LEOPOLDI AUTEM GENERATIO. Moses begat Noah and -Noah begat Eunuch and Eunuch begat O'Halloran and O'Halloran begat -Guggenheim and Guggenheim begat Agendath and Agendath begat Netaim and -Netaim begat Le Hirsch and Le Hirsch begat Jesurum and Jesurum begat -MacKay and MacKay begat Ostrolopsky and Ostrolopsky begat Smerdoz and -Smerdoz begat Weiss and Weiss begat Schwarz and Schwarz begat Adrianopoli -and Adrianopoli begat Aranjuez and Aranjuez begat Lewy Lawson and Lewy -Lawson begat Ichabudonosor and Ichabudonosor begat O'Donnell Magnus and -O'Donnell Magnus begat Christbaum and Christbaum begat ben Maimun and ben -Maimun begat Dusty Rhodes and Dusty Rhodes begat Benamor and Benamor -begat Jones-Smith and Jones-Smith begat Savorgnanovich and Savorgnanovich -begat Jasperstone and Jasperstone begat Vingtetunieme and Vingtetunieme -begat Szombathely and Szombathely begat Virag and Virag begat Bloom ET -VOCABITUR NOMEN EIUS EMMANUEL. - -A DEADHAND: (WRITES ON THE WALL) Bloom is a cod. - -CRAB: (IN BUSHRANGER'S KIT) What did you do in the cattlecreep behind -Kilbarrack? - -A FEMALE INFANT: (SHAKES A RATTLE) And under Ballybough bridge? - -A HOLLYBUSH: And in the devil's glen? - -BLOOM: (BLUSHES FURIOUSLY ALL OVER FROM FRONS TO NATES, THREE TEARS -FILLING FROM HIS LEFT EYE) Spare my past. - -THE IRISH EVICTED TENANTS: (IN BODYCOATS, KNEEBREECHES, WITH DONNYBROOK -FAIR SHILLELAGHS) Sjambok him! - -(BLOOM WITH ASSES' EARS SEATS HIMSELF IN THE PILLORY WITH CROSSED ARMS, -HIS FEET PROTRUDING. HE WHISTLES Don Giovanni, a cenar teco. ARTANE -ORPHANS, JOINING HANDS, CAPER ROUND HIM. GIRLS OF THE PRISON GATE -MISSION, JOINING HANDS, CAPER ROUND IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION.) - -THE ARTANE ORPHANS: - - - You hig, you hog, you dirty dog! - You think the ladies love you! - - -THE PRISON GATE GIRLS: - - - If you see Kay - Tell him he may - See you in tea - Tell him from me. - - -HORNBLOWER: (IN EPHOD AND HUNTINGCAP, ANNOUNCES) And he shall carry the -sins of the people to Azazel, the spirit which is in the wilderness, and -to Lilith, the nighthag. And they shall stone him and defile him, yea, -all from Agendath Netaim and from Mizraim, the land of Ham. - -(ALL THE PEOPLE CAST SOFT PANTOMIME STONES AT BLOOM. MANY BONAFIDE -TRAVELLERS AND OWNERLESS DOGS COME NEAR HIM AND DEFILE HIM. MASTIANSKY -AND CITRON APPROACH IN GABERDINES, WEARING LONG EARLOCKS. THEY WAG THEIR -BEARDS AT BLOOM.) - -MASTIANSKY AND CITRON: Belial! Laemlein of Istria, the false Messiah! -Abulafia! Recant! - -(GEORGE R MESIAS, BLOOM'S TAILOR, APPEARS, A TAILOR'S GOOSE UNDER HIS -ARM, PRESENTING A BILL) - -MESIAS: To alteration one pair trousers eleven shillings. - -BLOOM: (RUBS HIS HANDS CHEERFULLY) Just like old times. Poor Bloom! - -(REUBEN J DODD, BLACKBEARDED ISCARIOT, BAD SHEPHERD, BEARING ON HIS -SHOULDERS THE DROWNED CORPSE OF HIS SON, APPROACHES THE PILLORY.) - -REUBEN J: (WHISPERS HOARSELY) The squeak is out. A split is gone for the -flatties. Nip the first rattler. - -THE FIRE BRIGADE: Pflaap! - -BROTHER BUZZ: (INVESTS BLOOM IN A YELLOW HABIT WITH EMBROIDERY OF PAINTED -FLAMES AND HIGH POINTED HAT. HE PLACES A BAG OF GUNPOWDER ROUND HIS NECK -AND HANDS HIM OVER TO THE CIVIL POWER, SAYING) Forgive him his -trespasses. - -(LIEUTENANT MYERS OF THE DUBLIN FIRE BRIGADE BY GENERAL REQUEST SETS FIRE -TO BLOOM. LAMENTATIONS.) - -THE CITIZEN: Thank heaven! - -BLOOM: (IN A SEAMLESS GARMENT MARKED I. H. S. STANDS UPRIGHT AMID PHOENIX -FLAMES) Weep not for me, O daughters of Erin. - -(HE EXHIBITS TO DUBLIN REPORTERS TRACES OF BURNING. THE DAUGHTERS OF -ERIN, IN BLACK GARMENTS, WITH LARGE PRAYERBOOKS AND LONG LIGHTED CANDLES -IN THEIR HANDS, KNEEL DOWN AND PRAY.) - -THE DAUGHTERS OF ERIN: - - - Kidney of Bloom, pray for us - Flower of the Bath, pray for us - Mentor of Menton, pray for us - Canvasser for the Freeman, pray for us - Charitable Mason, pray for us - Wandering Soap, pray for us - Sweets of Sin, pray for us - Music without Words, pray for us - Reprover of the Citizen, pray for us - Friend of all Frillies, pray for us - Midwife Most Merciful, pray for us - Potato Preservative against Plague and Pestilence, pray for us. - - -(A CHOIR OF SIX HUNDRED VOICES, CONDUCTED BY VINCENT O'BRIEN, SINGS THE -CHORUS FROM HANDEL'S MESSIAH ALLELUIA FOR THE LORD GOD OMNIPOTENT -REIGNETH, ACCOMPANIED ON THE ORGAN BY JOSEPH GLYNN. BLOOM BECOMES MUTE, -SHRUNKEN, CARBONISED.) - -ZOE: Talk away till you're black in the face. - -BLOOM: (IN CAUBEEN WITH CLAY PIPE STUCK IN THE BAND, DUSTY BROGUES, AN -EMIGRANT'S RED HANDKERCHIEF BUNDLE IN HIS HAND, LEADING A BLACK BOGOAK -PIG BY A SUGAUN, WITH A SMILE IN HIS EYE) Let me be going now, woman of -the house, for by all the goats in Connemara I'm after having the father -and mother of a bating. (WITH A TEAR IN HIS EYE) All insanity. -Patriotism, sorrow for the dead, music, future of the race. To be or not -to be. Life's dream is o'er. End it peacefully. They can live on. (HE -GAZES FAR AWAY MOURNFULLY) I am ruined. A few pastilles of aconite. The -blinds drawn. A letter. Then lie back to rest. (HE BREATHES SOFTLY) No -more. I have lived. Fare. Farewell. - -ZOE: (STIFFLY, HER FINGER IN HER NECKFILLET) Honest? Till the next time. -(SHE SNEERS) Suppose you got up the wrong side of the bed or came too -quick with your best girl. O, I can read your thoughts! - -BLOOM: (BITTERLY) Man and woman, love, what is it? A cork and bottle. I'm -sick of it. Let everything rip. - -ZOE: (IN SUDDEN SULKS) I hate a rotter that's insincere. Give a bleeding -whore a chance. - -BLOOM: (REPENTANTLY) I am very disagreeable. You are a necessary evil. -Where are you from? London? - -ZOE: (GLIBLY) Hog's Norton where the pigs plays the organs. I'm Yorkshire -born. (SHE HOLDS HIS HAND WHICH IS FEELING FOR HER NIPPLE) I say, Tommy -Tittlemouse. Stop that and begin worse. Have you cash for a short time? -Ten shillings? - -BLOOM: (SMILES, NODS SLOWLY) More, houri, more. - -ZOE: And more's mother? (SHE PATS HIM OFFHANDEDLY WITH VELVET PAWS) Are -you coming into the musicroom to see our new pianola? Come and I'll peel -off. - -BLOOM: (FEELING HIS OCCIPUT DUBIOUSLY WITH THE UNPARALLELED EMBARRASSMENT -OF A HARASSED PEDLAR GAUGING THE SYMMETRY OF HER PEELED PEARS) Somebody -would be dreadfully jealous if she knew. The greeneyed monster. -(EARNESTLY) You know how difficult it is. I needn't tell you. - -ZOE: (FLATTERED) What the eye can't see the heart can't grieve for. (SHE -PATS HIM) Come. - -BLOOM: Laughing witch! The hand that rocks the cradle. - -ZOE: Babby! - -BLOOM: (IN BABYLINEN AND PELISSE, BIGHEADED, WITH A CAUL OF DARK HAIR, -FIXES BIG EYES ON HER FLUID SLIP AND COUNTS ITS BRONZE BUCKLES WITH A -CHUBBY FINGER, HIS MOIST TONGUE LOLLING AND LISPING) One two tlee: tlee -tlwo tlone. - -THE BUCKLES: Love me. Love me not. Love me. - -ZOE: Silent means consent. (WITH LITTLE PARTED TALONS SHE CAPTURES HIS -HAND, HER FOREFINGER GIVING TO HIS PALM THE PASSTOUCH OF SECRET MONITOR, -LURING HIM TO DOOM.) Hot hands cold gizzard. - -(HE HESITATES AMID SCENTS, MUSIC, TEMPTATIONS. SHE LEADS HIM TOWARDS THE -STEPS, DRAWING HIM BY THE ODOUR OF HER ARMPITS, THE VICE OF HER PAINTED -EYES, THE RUSTLE OF HER SLIP IN WHOSE SINUOUS FOLDS LURKS THE LION REEK -OF ALL THE MALE BRUTES THAT HAVE POSSESSED HER.) - -THE MALE BRUTES: (EXHALING SULPHUR OF RUT AND DUNG AND RAMPING IN THEIR -LOOSEBOX, FAINTLY ROARING, THEIR DRUGGED HEADS SWAYING TO AND FRO) Good! - -(ZOE AND BLOOM REACH THE DOORWAY WHERE TWO SISTER WHORES ARE SEATED. THEY -EXAMINE HIM CURIOUSLY FROM UNDER THEIR PENCILLED BROWS AND SMILE TO HIS -HASTY BOW. HE TRIPS AWKWARDLY.) - -ZOE: (HER LUCKY HAND INSTANTLY SAVING HIM) Hoopsa! Don't fall upstairs. - -BLOOM: The just man falls seven times. (HE STANDS ASIDE AT THE THRESHOLD) -After you is good manners. - -ZOE: Ladies first, gentlemen after. - -(SHE CROSSES THE THRESHOLD. HE HESITATES. SHE TURNS AND, HOLDING OUT HER -HANDS, DRAWS HIM OVER. HE HOPS. ON THE ANTLERED RACK OF THE HALL HANG A -MAN 'S HAT AND WATERPROOF. BLOOM UNCOVERS HIMSELF BUT, SEEING THEM, -FROWNS, THEN SMILES, PREOCCUPIED. A DOOR ON THE RETURN LANDING IS FLUNG -OPEN. A MAN IN PURPLE SHIRT AND GREY TROUSERS, BROWNSOCKED, PASSES WITH -AN APE'S GAIT, HIS BALD HEAD AND GOATEE BEARD UPHELD, HUGGING A FULL -WATERJUGJAR, HIS TWOTAILED BLACK BRACES DANGLING AT HEELS. AVERTING HIS -FACE QUICKLY BLOOM BENDS TO EXAMINE ON THE HALLTABLE THE SPANIEL EYES OF -A RUNNING FOX: THEN, HIS LIFTED HEAD SNIFFING, FOLLOWS ZOE INTO THE -MUSICROOM. A SHADE OF MAUVE TISSUEPAPER DIMS THE LIGHT OF THE CHANDELIER. -ROUND AND ROUND A MOTH FLIES, COLLIDING, ESCAPING. THE FLOOR IS COVERED -WITH AN OILCLOTH MOSAIC OF JADE AND AZURE AND CINNABAR RHOMBOIDS. -FOOTMARKS ARE STAMPED OVER IT IN ALL SENSES, HEEL TO HEEL, HEEL TO -HOLLOW, TOE TO TOE, FEET LOCKED, A MORRIS OF SHUFFLING FEET WITHOUT BODY -PHANTOMS, ALL IN A SCRIMMAGE HIGGLEDYPIGGLEDY. THE WALLS ARE TAPESTRIED -WITH A PAPER OF YEWFRONDS AND CLEAR GLADES. IN THE GRATE IS SPREAD A -SCREEN OF PEACOCK FEATHERS. LYNCH SQUATS CROSSLEGGED ON THE HEARTHRUG OF -MATTED HAIR, HIS CAP BACK TO THE FRONT. WITH A WAND HE BEATS TIME SLOWLY. -KITTY RICKETTS, A BONY PALLID WHORE IN NAVY COSTUME, DOESKIN GLOVES -ROLLED BACK FROM A CORAL WRISTLET, A CHAIN PURSE IN HER HAND, SITS -PERCHED ON THE EDGE OF THE TABLE SWINGING HER LEG AND GLANCING AT HERSELF -IN THE GILT MIRROR OVER THE MANTELPIECE. A TAG OF HER CORSETLACE HANGS -SLIGHTLY BELOW HER JACKET. LYNCH INDICATES MOCKINGLY THE COUPLE AT THE -PIANO.) - -KITTY: (COUGHS BEHIND HER HAND) She's a bit imbecillic. (SHE SIGNS WITH A -WAGGLING FOREFINGER) Blemblem. (LYNCH LIFTS UP HER SKIRT AND WHITE -PETTICOAT WITH HIS WAND SHE SETTLES THEM DOWN QUICKLY.) Respect yourself. -(SHE HICCUPS, THEN BENDS QUICKLY HER SAILOR HAT UNDER WHICH HER HAIR -GLOWS, RED WITH HENNA) O, excuse! - -ZOE: More limelight, Charley. (SHE GOES TO THE CHANDELIER AND TURNS THE -GAS FULL COCK) - -KITTY: (PEERS AT THE GASJET) What ails it tonight? - -LYNCH: (DEEPLY) Enter a ghost and hobgoblins. - -ZOE: Clap on the back for Zoe. - -(THE WAND IN LYNCH'S HAND FLASHES: A BRASS POKER. STEPHEN STANDS AT THE -PIANOLA ON WHICH SPRAWL HIS HAT AND ASHPLANT. WITH TWO FINGERS HE REPEATS -ONCE MORE THE SERIES OF EMPTY FIFTHS. FLORRY TALBOT, A BLOND FEEBLE -GOOSEFAT WHORE IN A TATTERDEMALION GOWN OF MILDEWED STRAWBERRY, LOLLS -SPREADEAGLE IN THE SOFACORNER, HER LIMP FOREARM PENDENT OVER THE BOLSTER, -LISTENING. A HEAVY STYE DROOPS OVER HER SLEEPY EYELID.) - -KITTY: (HICCUPS AGAIN WITH A KICK OF HER HORSED FOOT) O, excuse! - -ZOE: (PROMPTLY) Your boy's thinking of you. Tie a knot on your shift. - -(KITTY RICKETTS BENDS HER HEAD. HER BOA UNCOILS, SLIDES, GLIDES OVER HER -SHOULDER, BACK, ARM, CHAIR TO THE GROUND. LYNCH LIFTS THE CURLED -CATERPILLAR ON HIS WAND. SHE SNAKES HER NECK, NESTLING. STEPHEN GLANCES -BEHIND AT THE SQUATTED FIGURE WITH ITS CAP BACK TO THE FRONT.) - -STEPHEN: As a matter of fact it is of no importance whether Benedetto -Marcello found it or made it. The rite is the poet's rest. It may be an -old hymn to Demeter or also illustrate COELA ENARRANT GLORIAM DOMINI. It -is susceptible of nodes or modes as far apart as hyperphrygian and -mixolydian and of texts so divergent as priests haihooping round David's -that is Circe's or what am I saying Ceres' altar and David's tip from the -stable to his chief bassoonist about the alrightness of his almightiness. -MAIS NOM DE NOM, that is another pair of trousers. JETEZ LA GOURME. FAUT -QUE JEUNESSE SE PASSE. (HE STOPS, POINTS AT LYNCH'S CAP, SMILES, LAUGHS) -Which side is your knowledge bump? - -THE CAP: (WITH SATURNINE SPLEEN) Bah! It is because it is. Woman's -reason. Jewgreek is greekjew. Extremes meet. Death is the highest form of -life. Bah! - -STEPHEN: You remember fairly accurately all my errors, boasts, mistakes. -How long shall I continue to close my eyes to disloyalty? Whetstone! - -THE CAP: Bah! - -STEPHEN: Here's another for you. (HE FROWNS) The reason is because the -fundamental and the dominant are separated by the greatest possible -interval which ... - -THE CAP: Which? Finish. You can't. - -STEPHEN: (WITH AN EFFORT) Interval which. Is the greatest possible -ellipse. Consistent with. The ultimate return. The octave. Which. - -THE CAP: Which? - -(OUTSIDE THE GRAMOPHONE BEGINS TO BLARE The Holy City.) - -STEPHEN: (ABRUPTLY) What went forth to the ends of the world to traverse -not itself, God, the sun, Shakespeare, a commercial traveller, having -itself traversed in reality itself becomes that self. Wait a moment. Wait -a second. Damn that fellow's noise in the street. Self which it itself -was ineluctably preconditioned to become. ECCO! - -LYNCH: (WITH A MOCKING WHINNY OF LAUGHTER GRINS AT BLOOM AND ZOE HIGGINS) -What a learned speech, eh? - -ZOE: (BRISKLY) God help your head, he knows more than you have forgotten. - -(WITH OBESE STUPIDITY FLORRY TALBOT REGARDS STEPHEN.) - -FLORRY: They say the last day is coming this summer. - -KITTY: No! - -ZOE: (EXPLODES IN LAUGHTER) Great unjust God! - -FLORRY: (OFFENDED) Well, it was in the papers about Antichrist. O, my -foot's tickling. - -(RAGGED BAREFOOT NEWSBOYS, JOGGING A WAGTAIL KITE, PATTER PAST, YELLING.) - -THE NEWSBOYS: Stop press edition. Result of the rockinghorse races. Sea -serpent in the royal canal. Safe arrival of Antichrist. - -(STEPHEN TURNS AND SEES BLOOM.) - -STEPHEN: A time, times and half a time. - -(REUBEN I ANTICHRIST, WANDERING JEW, A CLUTCHING HAND OPEN ON HIS SPINE, -STUMPS FORWARD. ACROSS HIS LOINS IS SLUNG A PILGRIM'S WALLET FROM WHICH -PROTRUDE PROMISSORY NOTES AND DISHONOURED BILLS. ALOFT OVER HIS SHOULDER -HE BEARS A LONG BOATPOLE FROM THE HOOK OF WHICH THE SODDEN HUDDLED MASS -OF HIS ONLY SON, SAVED FROM LIFFEY WATERS, HANGS FROM THE SLACK OF ITS -BREECHES. A HOBGOBLIN IN THE IMAGE OF PUNCH COSTELLO, HIPSHOT, -CROOKBACKED, HYDROCEPHALIC, PROGNATHIC WITH RECEDING FOREHEAD AND ALLY -SLOPER NOSE, TUMBLES IN SOMERSAULTS THROUGH THE GATHERING DARKNESS.) - -ALL: What? - -THE HOBGOBLIN: (HIS JAWS CHATTERING, CAPERS TO AND FRO, GOGGLING HIS -EYES, SQUEAKING, KANGAROOHOPPING WITH OUTSTRETCHED CLUTCHING ARMS, THEN -ALL AT ONCE THRUSTS HIS LIPLESS FACE THROUGH THE FORK OF HIS THIGHS) IL -VIENT! C'EST MOI! L'HOMME QUI RIT! L'HOMME PRIMIGENE! (HE WHIRLS ROUND -AND ROUND WITH DERVISH HOWLS) SIEURS ET DAMES, FAITES VOS JEUX! (HE -CROUCHES JUGGLING. TINY ROULETTE PLANETS FLY FROM HIS HANDS.) LES JEUX -SONT FAITS! (THE PLANETS RUSH TOGETHER, UTTERING CREPITANT CRACKS) RIEN -VA PLUS! (THE PLANETS, BUOYANT BALLOONS, SAIL SWOLLEN UP AND AWAY. HE -SPRINGS OFF INTO VACUUM.) - -FLORRY: (SINKING INTO TORPOR, CROSSING HERSELF SECRETLY) The end of the -world! - -(A FEMALE TEPID EFFLUVIUM LEAKS OUT FROM HER. NEBULOUS OBSCURITY OCCUPIES -SPACE. THROUGH THE DRIFTING FOG WITHOUT THE GRAMOPHONE BLARES OVER COUGHS -AND FEETSHUFFLING.) - -THE GRAMOPHONE: Jerusalem! - -Open your gates and sing - -Hosanna ... - -(A ROCKET RUSHES UP THE SKY AND BURSTS. A WHITE STAR FILLS FROM IT, -PROCLAIMING THE CONSUMMATION OF ALL THINGS AND SECOND COMING OF ELIJAH. -ALONG AN INFINITE INVISIBLE TIGHTROPE TAUT FROM ZENITH TO NADIR THE END -OF THE WORLD, A TWOHEADED OCTOPUS IN GILLIE'S KILTS, BUSBY AND TARTAN -FILIBEGS, WHIRLS THROUGH THE MURK, HEAD OVER HEELS, IN THE FORM OF THE -THREE LEGS OF MAN.) - -THE END OF THE WORLD: (WITH A SCOTCH ACCENT) Wha'll dance the keel row, -the keel row, the keel row? - -(OVER THE POSSING DRIFT AND CHOKING BREATHCOUGHS, ELIJAH'S VOICE, HARSH -AS A CORNCRAKE'S, JARS ON HIGH. PERSPIRING IN A LOOSE LAWN SURPLICE WITH -FUNNEL SLEEVES HE IS SEEN, VERGERFACED, ABOVE A ROSTRUM ABOUT WHICH THE -BANNER OF OLD GLORY IS DRAPED. HE THUMPS THE PARAPET.) - -ELIJAH: No yapping, if you please, in this booth. Jake Crane, Creole Sue, -Dove Campbell, Abe Kirschner, do your coughing with your mouths shut. -Say, I am operating all this trunk line. Boys, do it now. God's time is -12.25. Tell mother you'll be there. Rush your order and you play a slick -ace. Join on right here. Book through to eternity junction, the nonstop -run. Just one word more. Are you a god or a doggone clod? If the second -advent came to Coney Island are we ready? Florry Christ, Stephen Christ, -Zoe Christ, Bloom Christ, Kitty Christ, Lynch Christ, it's up to you to -sense that cosmic force. Have we cold feet about the cosmos? No. Be on -the side of the angels. Be a prism. You have that something within, the -higher self. You can rub shoulders with a Jesus, a Gautama, an Ingersoll. -Are you all in this vibration? I say you are. You once nobble that, -congregation, and a buck joyride to heaven becomes a back number. You got -me? It's a lifebrightener, sure. The hottest stuff ever was. It's the -whole pie with jam in. It's just the cutest snappiest line out. It is -immense, supersumptuous. It restores. It vibrates. I know and I am some -vibrator. Joking apart and, getting down to bedrock, A. J. Christ Dowie -and the harmonial philosophy, have you got that? O. K. Seventyseven west -sixtyninth street. Got me? That's it. You call me up by sunphone any old -time. Bumboosers, save your stamps. (HE SHOUTS) Now then our glory song. -All join heartily in the singing. Encore! (HE SINGS) Jeru ... - -THE GRAMOPHONE: (DROWNING HIS VOICE) Whorusalaminyourhighhohhhh ... (THE -DISC RASPS GRATINGLY AGAINST THE NEEDLE) - -THE THREE WHORES: (COVERING THEIR EARS, SQUAWK) Ahhkkk! - -ELIJAH: (IN ROLLEDUP SHIRTSLEEVES, BLACK IN THE FACE, SHOUTS AT THE TOP -OF HIS VOICE, HIS ARMS UPLIFTED) Big Brother up there, Mr President, you -hear what I done just been saying to you. Certainly, I sort of believe -strong in you, Mr President. I certainly am thinking now Miss Higgins and -Miss Ricketts got religion way inside them. Certainly seems to me I don't -never see no wusser scared female than the way you been, Miss Florry, -just now as I done seed you. Mr President, you come long and help me save -our sisters dear. (HE WINKS AT HIS AUDIENCE) Our Mr President, he twig -the whole lot and he aint saying nothing. - -KITTY-KATE: I forgot myself. In a weak moment I erred and did what I did -on Constitution hill. I was confirmed by the bishop and enrolled in the -brown scapular. My mother's sister married a Montmorency. It was a -working plumber was my ruination when I was pure. - -ZOE-FANNY: I let him larrup it into me for the fun of it. - -FLORRY-TERESA: It was in consequence of a portwine beverage on top of -Hennessy's three star. I was guilty with Whelan when he slipped into the -bed. - -STEPHEN: In the beginning was the word, in the end the world without end. -Blessed be the eight beatitudes. - -(THE BEATITUDES, DIXON, MADDEN, CROTTHERS, COSTELLO, LENEHAN, BANNON, -MULLIGAN AND LYNCH IN WHITE SURGICAL STUDENTS' GOWNS, FOUR ABREAST, -GOOSESTEPPING, TRAMP FIST PAST IN NOISY MARCHING) - -THE BEATITUDES: (INCOHERENTLY) Beer beef battledog buybull businum barnum -buggerum bishop. - -LYSTER: (IN QUAKERGREY KNEEBREECHES AND BROADBRIMMED HAT, SAYS -DISCREETLY) He is our friend. I need not mention names. Seek thou the -light. - -(HE CORANTOS BY. BEST ENTERS IN HAIRDRESSER'S ATTIRE, SHINILY LAUNDERED, -HIS LOCKS IN CURLPAPERS. HE LEADS JOHN EGLINTON WHO WEARS A MANDARIN'S -KIMONO OF NANKEEN YELLOW, LIZARDLETTERED, AND A HIGH PAGODA HAT.) - -BEST: (SMILING, LIFTS THE HAT AND DISPLAYS A SHAVEN POLL FROM THE CROWN -OF WHICH BRISTLES A PIGTAIL TOUPEE TIED WITH AN ORANGE TOPKNOT) I was -just beautifying him, don't you know. A thing of beauty, don't you know, -Yeats says, or I mean, Keats says. - -JOHN EGLINTON: (PRODUCES A GREENCAPPED DARK LANTERN AND FLASHES IT -TOWARDS A CORNER: WITH CARPING ACCENT) Esthetics and cosmetics are for -the boudoir. I am out for truth. Plain truth for a plain man. Tanderagee -wants the facts and means to get them. - -(IN THE CONE OF THE SEARCHLIGHT BEHIND THE COALSCUTTLE, OLLAVE, HOLYEYED, -THE BEARDED FIGURE OF MANANAUN MACLIR BROODS, CHIN ON KNEES. HE RISES -SLOWLY. A COLD SEAWIND BLOWS FROM HIS DRUID MOUTH. ABOUT HIS HEAD WRITHE -EELS AND ELVERS. HE IS ENCRUSTED WITH WEEDS AND SHELLS. HIS RIGHT HAND -HOLDS A BICYCLE PUMP. HIS LEFT HAND GRASPS A HUGE CRAYFISH BY ITS TWO -TALONS.) - -MANANAUN MACLIR: (WITH A VOICE OF WAVES) Aum! Hek! Wal! Ak! Lub! Mor! Ma! -White yoghin of the gods. Occult pimander of Hermes Trismegistos. (WITH A -VOICE OF WHISTLING SEAWIND) Punarjanam patsypunjaub! I won't have my leg -pulled. It has been said by one: beware the left, the cult of Shakti. -(WITH A CRY OF STORMBIRDS) Shakti Shiva, darkhidden Father! (HE SMITES -WITH HIS BICYCLE PUMP THE CRAYFISH IN HIS LEFT HAND. ON ITS COOPERATIVE -DIAL GLOW THE TWELVE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. HE WAILS WITH THE VEHEMENCE OF -THE OCEAN.) Aum! Baum! Pyjaum! I am the light of the homestead! I am the -dreamery creamery butter. - -(A SKELETON JUDASHAND STRANGLES THE LIGHT. THE GREEN LIGHT WANES TO -MAUVE. THE GASJET WAILS WHISTLING.) - -THE GASJET: Pooah! Pfuiiiiiii! - -(ZOE RUNS TO THE CHANDELIER AND, CROOKING HER LEG, ADJUSTS THE MANTLE.) - -ZOE: Who has a fag as I'm here? - -LYNCH: (TOSSING A CIGARETTE ON TO THE TABLE) Here. - -ZOE: (HER HEAD PERCHED ASIDE IN MOCK PRIDE) Is that the way to hand the -POT to a lady? (SHE STRETCHES UP TO LIGHT THE CIGARETTE OVER THE FLAME, -TWIRLING IT SLOWLY, SHOWING THE BROWN TUFTS OF HER ARMPITS. LYNCH WITH -HIS POKER LIFTS BOLDLY A SIDE OF HER SLIP. BARE FROM HER GARTERS UP HER -FLESH APPEARS UNDER THE SAPPHIRE A NIXIE'S GREEN. SHE PUFFS CALMLY AT HER -CIGARETTE.) Can you see the beautyspot of my behind? - -LYNCH: I'm not looking - -ZOE: (MAKES SHEEP'S EYES) No? You wouldn't do a less thing. Would you -suck a lemon? - -(SQUINTING IN MOCK SHAME SHE GLANCES WITH SIDELONG MEANING AT BLOOM, THEN -TWISTS ROUND TOWARDS HIM, PULLING HER SLIP FREE OF THE POKER. BLUE FLUID -AGAIN FLOWS OVER HER FLESH. BLOOM STANDS, SMILING DESIROUSLY, TWIRLING -HIS THUMBS. KITTY RICKETTS LICKS HER MIDDLE FINGER WITH HER SPITTLE AND, -GAZING IN THE MIRROR, SMOOTHS BOTH EYEBROWS. LIPOTI VIRAG, -BASILICOGRAMMATE, CHUTES RAPIDLY DOWN THROUGH THE CHIMNEYFLUE AND STRUTS -TWO STEPS TO THE LEFT ON GAWKY PINK STILTS. HE IS SAUSAGED INTO SEVERAL -OVERCOATS AND WEARS A BROWN MACINTOSH UNDER WHICH HE HOLDS A ROLL OF -PARCHMENT. IN HIS LEFT EYE FLASHES THE MONOCLE OF CASHEL BOYLE O'CONNOR -FITZMAURICE TISDALL FARRELL. ON HIS HEAD IS PERCHED AN EGYPTIAN PSHENT. -TWO QUILLS PROJECT OVER HIS EARS.) - -VIRAG: (HEELS TOGETHER, BOWS) My name is Virag Lipoti, of Szombathely. -(HE COUGHS THOUGHTFULLY, DRILY) Promiscuous nakedness is much in evidence -hereabouts, eh? Inadvertently her backview revealed the fact that she is -not wearing those rather intimate garments of which you are a particular -devotee. The injection mark on the thigh I hope you perceived? Good. - -BLOOM: Granpapachi. But ... - -VIRAG: Number two on the other hand, she of the cherry rouge and -coiffeuse white, whose hair owes not a little to our tribal elixir of -gopherwood, is in walking costume and tightly staysed by her sit, I -should opine. Backbone in front, so to say. Correct me but I always -understood that the act so performed by skittish humans with glimpses of -lingerie appealed to you in virtue of its exhibitionististicicity. In a -word. Hippogriff. Am I right? - -BLOOM: She is rather lean. - -VIRAG: (NOT UNPLEASANTLY) Absolutely! Well observed and those pannier -pockets of the skirt and slightly pegtop effect are devised to suggest -bunchiness of hip. A new purchase at some monster sale for which a gull -has been mulcted. Meretricious finery to deceive the eye. Observe the -attention to details of dustspecks. Never put on you tomorrow what you -can wear today. Parallax! (WITH A NERVOUS TWITCH OF HIS HEAD) Did you -hear my brain go snap? Pollysyllabax! - -BLOOM: (AN ELBOW RESTING IN A HAND, A FOREFINGER AGAINST HIS CHEEK) She -seems sad. - -VIRAG: (CYNICALLY, HIS WEASEL TEETH BARED YELLOW, DRAWS DOWN HIS LEFT EYE -WITH A FINGER AND BARKS HOARSELY) Hoax! Beware of the flapper and bogus -mournful. Lily of the alley. All possess bachelor's button discovered by -Rualdus Columbus. Tumble her. Columble her. Chameleon. (MORE GENIALLY) -Well then, permit me to draw your attention to item number three. There -is plenty of her visible to the naked eye. Observe the mass of oxygenated -vegetable matter on her skull. What ho, she bumps! The ugly duckling of -the party, longcasted and deep in keel. - -BLOOM: (REGRETFULLY) When you come out without your gun. - -VIRAG: We can do you all brands, mild, medium and strong. Pay your money, -take your choice. How happy could you be with either ... - -BLOOM: With ...? - -VIRAG: (HIS TONGUE UPCURLING) Lyum! Look. Her beam is broad. She is -coated with quite a considerable layer of fat. Obviously mammal in weight -of bosom you remark that she has in front well to the fore two -protuberances of very respectable dimensions, inclined to fall in the -noonday soupplate, while on her rere lower down are two additional -protuberances, suggestive of potent rectum and tumescent for palpation, -which leave nothing to be desired save compactness. Such fleshy parts are -the product of careful nurture. When coopfattened their livers reach an -elephantine size. Pellets of new bread with fennygreek and gumbenjamin -swamped down by potions of green tea endow them during their brief -existence with natural pincushions of quite colossal blubber. That suits -your book, eh? Fleshhotpots of Egypt to hanker after. Wallow in it. -Lycopodium. (HIS THROAT TWITCHES) Slapbang! There he goes again. - -BLOOM: The stye I dislike. - -VIRAG: (ARCHES HIS EYEBROWS) Contact with a goldring, they say. -ARGUMENTUM AD FEMINAM, as we said in old Rome and ancient Greece in the -consulship of Diplodocus and Ichthyosauros. For the rest Eve's sovereign -remedy. Not for sale. Hire only. Huguenot. (HE TWITCHES) It is a funny -sound. (HE COUGHS ENCOURAGINGLY) But possibly it is only a wart. I -presume you shall have remembered what I will have taught you on that -head? Wheatenmeal with honey and nutmeg. - -BLOOM: (REFLECTING) Wheatenmeal with lycopodium and syllabax. This -searching ordeal. It has been an unusually fatiguing day, a chapter of -accidents. Wait. I mean, wartsblood spreads warts, you said ... - -VIRAG: (SEVERELY, HIS NOSE HARDHUMPED, HIS SIDE EYE WINKING) Stop -twirling your thumbs and have a good old thunk. See, you have forgotten. -Exercise your mnemotechnic. LA CAUSA E SANTA. Tara. Tara. (ASIDE) He will -surely remember. - -BLOOM: Rosemary also did I understand you to say or willpower over -parasitic tissues. Then nay no I have an inkling. The touch of a deadhand -cures. Mnemo? - -VIRAG: (EXCITEDLY) I say so. I say so. E'en so. Technic. (HE TAPS HIS -PARCHMENTROLL ENERGETICALLY) This book tells you how to act with all -descriptive particulars. Consult index for agitated fear of aconite, -melancholy of muriatic, priapic pulsatilla. Virag is going to talk about -amputation. Our old friend caustic. They must be starved. Snip off with -horsehair under the denned neck. But, to change the venue to the Bulgar -and the Basque, have you made up your mind whether you like or dislike -women in male habiliments? (WITH A DRY SNIGGER) You intended to devote an -entire year to the study of the religious problem and the summer months -of 1886 to square the circle and win that million. Pomegranate! From the -sublime to the ridiculous is but a step. Pyjamas, let us say? Or -stockingette gussetted knickers, closed? Or, put we the case, those -complicated combinations, camiknickers? (HE CROWS DERISIVELY) -Keekeereekee! - -(BLOOM SURVEYS UNCERTAINLY THE THREE WHORES THEN GAZES AT THE VEILED -MAUVE LIGHT, HEARING THE EVERFLYING MOTH.) - -BLOOM: I wanted then to have now concluded. Nightdress was never. Hence -this. But tomorrow is a new day will be. Past was is today. What now is -will then morrow as now was be past yester. - -VIRAG: (PROMPTS IN A PIG'S WHISPER) Insects of the day spend their brief -existence in reiterated coition, lured by the smell of the inferiorly -pulchritudinous fumale possessing extendified pudendal nerve in dorsal -region. Pretty Poll! (HIS YELLOW PARROTBEAK GABBLES NASALLY) They had a -proverb in the Carpathians in or about the year five thousand five -hundred and fifty of our era. One tablespoonful of honey will attract -friend Bruin more than half a dozen barrels of first choice malt vinegar. -Bear's buzz bothers bees. But of this apart. At another time we may -resume. We were very pleased, we others. (HE COUGHS AND, BENDING HIS -BROW, RUBS HIS NOSE THOUGHTFULLY WITH A SCOOPING HAND) You shall find -that these night insects follow the light. An illusion for remember their -complex unadjustable eye. For all these knotty points see the seventeenth -book of my Fundamentals of Sexology or the Love Passion which Doctor L.B. -says is the book sensation of the year. Some, to example, there are again -whose movements are automatic. Perceive. That is his appropriate sun. -Nightbird nightsun nighttown. Chase me, Charley! (he blows into Bloom's -ear) Buzz! - -BLOOM: Bee or bluebottle too other day butting shadow on wall dazed self -then me wandered dazed down shirt good job I ... - -VIRAG: (HIS FACE IMPASSIVE, LAUGHS IN A RICH FEMININE KEY) Splendid! -Spanish fly in his fly or mustard plaster on his dibble. (HE GOBBLES -GLUTTONOUSLY WITH TURKEY WATTLES) Bubbly jock! Bubbly jock! Where are we? -Open Sesame! Cometh forth! (HE UNROLLS HIS PARCHMENT RAPIDLY AND READS, -HIS GLOWWORM'S NOSE RUNNING BACKWARDS OVER THE LETTERS WHICH HE CLAWS) -Stay, good friend. I bring thee thy answer. Redbank oysters will shortly -be upon us. I'm the best o'cook. Those succulent bivalves may help us and -the truffles of Perigord, tubers dislodged through mister omnivorous -porker, were unsurpassed in cases of nervous debility or viragitis. -Though they stink yet they sting. (HE WAGS HIS HEAD WITH CACKLING -RAILLERY) Jocular. With my eyeglass in my ocular. (HE SNEEZES) Amen! - -BLOOM: (ABSENTLY) Ocularly woman's bivalve case is worse. Always open -sesame. The cloven sex. Why they fear vermin, creeping things. Yet Eve -and the serpent contradicts. Not a historical fact. Obvious analogy to my -idea. Serpents too are gluttons for woman's milk. Wind their way through -miles of omnivorous forest to sucksucculent her breast dry. Like those -bubblyjocular Roman matrons one reads of in Elephantuliasis. - -VIRAG: (HIS MOUTH PROJECTED IN HARD WRINKLES, EYES STONILY FORLORNLY -CLOSED, PSALMS IN OUTLANDISH MONOTONE) That the cows with their those -distended udders that they have been the the known ... - -BLOOM: I am going to scream. I beg your pardon. Ah? So. (HE REPEATS) -Spontaneously to seek out the saurian's lair in order to entrust their -teats to his avid suction. Ant milks aphis. (PROFOUNDLY) Instinct rules -the world. In life. In death. - -VIRAG: (HEAD ASKEW, ARCHES HIS BACK AND HUNCHED WINGSHOULDERS, PEERS AT -THE MOTH OUT OF BLEAR BULGED EYES, POINTS A HORNING CLAW AND CRIES) Who's -moth moth? Who's dear Gerald? Dear Ger, that you? O dear, he is Gerald. -O, I much fear he shall be most badly burned. Will some pleashe pershon -not now impediment so catastrophics mit agitation of firstclass -tablenumpkin? (HE MEWS) Puss puss puss puss! (HE SIGHS, DRAWS BACK AND -STARES SIDEWAYS DOWN WITH DROPPING UNDERJAW) Well, well. He doth rest -anon. (he snaps his jaws suddenly on the air) - -THE MOTH: - - - I'm a tiny tiny thing - Ever flying in the spring - Round and round a ringaring. - Long ago I was a king - Now I do this kind of thing - On the wing, on the wing! - Bing! - - -(HE RUSHES AGAINST THE MAUVE SHADE, FLAPPING NOISILY) Pretty pretty -pretty pretty pretty pretty petticoats. - -(FROM LEFT UPPER ENTRANCE WITH TWO GLIDING STEPS HENRY FLOWER COMES -FORWARD TO LEFT FRONT CENTRE. HE WEARS A DARK MANTLE AND DROOPING PLUMED -SOMBRERO. HE CARRIES A SILVERSTRINGED INLAID DULCIMER AND A LONGSTEMMED -BAMBOO JACOB'S PIPE, ITS CLAY BOWL FASHIONED AS A FEMALE HEAD. HE WEARS -DARK VELVET HOSE AND SILVERBUCKLED PUMPS. HE HAS THE ROMANTIC SAVIOUR'S -FACE WITH FLOWING LOCKS, THIN BEARD AND MOUSTACHE. HIS SPINDLELEGS AND -SPARROW FEET ARE THOSE OF THE TENOR MARIO, PRINCE OF CANDIA. HE SETTLES -DOWN HIS GOFFERED RUFFS AND MOISTENS HIS LIPS WITH A PASSAGE OF HIS -AMOROUS TONGUE.) - -HENRY: (IN A LOW DULCET VOICE, TOUCHING THE STRINGS OF HIS GUITAR) There -is a flower that bloometh. - -(VIRAG TRUCULENT, HIS JOWL SET, STARES AT THE LAMP. GRAVE BLOOM REGARDS -ZOE'S NECK. HENRY GALLANT TURNS WITH PENDANT DEWLAP TO THE PIANO.) - -STEPHEN: (TO HIMSELF) Play with your eyes shut. Imitate pa. Filling my -belly with husks of swine. Too much of this. I will arise and go to my. -Expect this is the. Steve, thou art in a parlous way. Must visit old -Deasy or telegraph. Our interview of this morning has left on me a deep -impression. Though our ages. Will write fully tomorrow. I'm partially -drunk, by the way. (HE TOUCHES THE KEYS AGAIN) Minor chord comes now. -Yes. Not much however. - -(ALMIDANO ARTIFONI HOLDS OUT A BATONROLL OF MUSIC WITH VIGOROUS -MOUSTACHEWORK.) - -ARTIFONI: CI RIFLETTA. LEI ROVINA TUTTO. - -FLORRY: Sing us something. Love's old sweet song. - -STEPHEN: No voice. I am a most finished artist. Lynch, did I show you the -letter about the lute? - -FLORRY: (SMIRKING) The bird that can sing and won't sing. - -(THE SIAMESE TWINS, PHILIP DRUNK AND PHILIP SOBER, TWO OXFORD DONS WITH -LAWNMOWERS, APPEAR IN THE WINDOW EMBRASURE. BOTH ARE MASKED WITH MATTHEW -ARNOLD'S FACE.) - -PHILIP SOBER: Take a fool's advice. All is not well. Work it out with the -buttend of a pencil, like a good young idiot. Three pounds twelve you -got, two notes, one sovereign, two crowns, if youth but knew. Mooney's en -ville, Mooney's sur mer, the Moira, Larchet's, Holles street hospital, -Burke's. Eh? I am watching you. - -PHILIP DRUNK: (IMPATIENTLY) Ah, bosh, man. Go to hell! I paid my way. If -I could only find out about octaves. Reduplication of personality. Who -was it told me his name? (HIS LAWNMOWER BEGINS TO PURR) Aha, yes. ZOE MOU -SAS AGAPO. Have a notion I was here before. When was it not Atkinson his -card I have somewhere. Mac Somebody. Unmack I have it. He told me about, -hold on, Swinburne, was it, no? - -FLORRY: And the song? - -STEPHEN: Spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. - -FLORRY: Are you out of Maynooth? You're like someone I knew once. - -STEPHEN: Out of it now. (TO HIMSELF) Clever. - -PHILIP DRUNK AND PHILIP SOBER: (THEIR LAWNMOWERS PURRING WITH A RIGADOON -OF GRASSHALMS) Clever ever. Out of it out of it. By the bye have you the -book, the thing, the ashplant? Yes, there it, yes. Cleverever outofitnow. -Keep in condition. Do like us. - -ZOE: There was a priest down here two nights ago to do his bit of -business with his coat buttoned up. You needn't try to hide, I says to -him. I know you've a Roman collar. - -VIRAG: Perfectly logical from his standpoint. Fall of man. (HARSHLY, HIS -PUPILS WAXING) To hell with the pope! Nothing new under the sun. I am the -Virag who disclosed the Sex Secrets of Monks and Maidens. Why I left the -church of Rome. Read the Priest, the Woman and the Confessional. Penrose. -Flipperty Jippert. (HE WRIGGLES) Woman, undoing with sweet pudor her belt -of rushrope, offers her allmoist yoni to man's lingam. Short time after -man presents woman with pieces of jungle meat. Woman shows joy and covers -herself with featherskins. Man loves her yoni fiercely with big lingam, -the stiff one. (HE CRIES) COACTUS VOLUI. Then giddy woman will run about. -Strong man grapses woman's wrist. Woman squeals, bites, spucks. Man, now -fierce angry, strikes woman's fat yadgana. (HE CHASES HIS TAIL) Piffpaff! -Popo! (HE STOPS, SNEEZES) Pchp! (HE WORRIES HIS BUTT) Prrrrrht! - -LYNCH: I hope you gave the good father a penance. Nine glorias for -shooting a bishop. - -ZOE: (SPOUTS WALRUS SMOKE THROUGH HER NOSTRILS) He couldn't get a -connection. Only, you know, sensation. A dry rush. - -BLOOM: Poor man! - -ZOE: (LIGHTLY) Only for what happened him. - -BLOOM: How? - -VIRAG: (A DIABOLIC RICTUS OF BLACK LUMINOSITY CONTRACTING HIS VISAGE, -CRANES HIS SCRAGGY NECK FORWARD. HE LIFTS A MOONCALF NOZZLE AND HOWLS.) -VERFLUCHTE GOIM! He had a father, forty fathers. He never existed. Pig -God! He had two left feet. He was Judas Iacchia, a Libyan eunuch, the -pope's bastard. (HE LEANS OUT ON TORTURED FOREPAWS, ELBOWS BENT RIGID, -HIS EYE AGONISING IN HIS FLAT SKULLNECK AND YELPS OVER THE MUTE WORLD) A -son of a whore. Apocalypse. - -KITTY: And Mary Shortall that was in the lock with the pox she got from -Jimmy Pidgeon in the blue caps had a child off him that couldn't swallow -and was smothered with the convulsions in the mattress and we all -subscribed for the funeral. - -PHILIP DRUNK: (GRAVELY) QUI VOUS A MIS DANS CETTE FICHUE POSITION, -PHILIPPE? - -PHILIP SOBER: (GAILY) C'ETAIT LE SACRE PIGEON, PHILIPPE. - -(KITTY UNPINS HER HAT AND SETS IT DOWN CALMLY, PATTING HER HENNA HAIR. -AND A PRETTIER, A DAINTIER HEAD OF WINSOME CURLS WAS NEVER SEEN ON A -WHORE'S SHOULDERS. LYNCH PUTS ON HER HAT. SHE WHIPS IT OFF.) - -LYNCH: (LAUGHS) And to such delights has Metchnikoff inoculated -anthropoid apes. - -FLORRY: (NODS) Locomotor ataxy. - -ZOE: (GAILY) O, my dictionary. - -LYNCH: Three wise virgins. - -VIRAG: (AGUESHAKEN, PROFUSE YELLOW SPAWN FOAMING OVER HIS BONY EPILEPTIC -LIPS) She sold lovephiltres, whitewax, orangeflower. Panther, the Roman -centurion, polluted her with his genitories. (HE STICKS OUT A FLICKERING -PHOSPHORESCENT SCORPION TONGUE, HIS HAND ON HIS FORK) Messiah! He burst -her tympanum. (WITH GIBBERING BABOON'S CRIES HE JERKS HIS HIPS IN THE -CYNICAL SPASM) Hik! Hek! Hak! Hok! Huk! Kok! Kuk! - -(BEN JUMBO DOLLARD, RUBICUND, MUSCLEBOUND, HAIRYNOSTRILLED, HUGEBEARDED, -CABBAGEEARED, SHAGGYCHESTED, SHOCKMANED, FAT- PAPPED, STANDS FORTH, HIS -LOINS AND GENITALS TIGHTENED INTO A PAIR OF BLACK BATHING BAGSLOPS.) - -BEN DOLLARD: (NAKKERING CASTANET BONES IN HIS HUGE PADDED PAWS, YODELS -JOVIALLY IN BASE BARRELTONE) When love absorbs my ardent soul. - -(THE VIRGINS NURSE CALLAN AND NURSE QUIGLEY BURST THROUGH THE RINGKEEPERS -AND THE ROPES AND MOB HIM WITH OPEN ARMS.) - -THE VIRGINS: (GUSHINGLY) Big Ben! Ben my Chree! - -A VOICE: Hold that fellow with the bad breeches. - -BEN DOLLARD: (SMITES HIS THIGH IN ABUNDANT LAUGHTER) Hold him now. - -HENRY: (CARESSING ON HIS BREAST A SEVERED FEMALE HEAD, MURMURS) Thine -heart, mine love. (HE PLUCKS HIS LUTESTRINGS) When first I saw ... - -VIRAG: (SLOUGHING HIS SKINS, HIS MULTITUDINOUS PLUMAGE MOULTING) Rats! -(HE YAWNS, SHOWING A COALBLACK THROAT, AND CLOSES HIS JAWS BY AN UPWARD -PUSH OF HIS PARCHMENTROLL) After having said which I took my departure. -Farewell. Fare thee well. DRECK! - -(HENRY FLOWER COMBS HIS MOUSTACHE AND BEARD RAPIDLY WITH A POCKETCOMB AND -GIVES A COW'S LICK TO HIS HAIR. STEERED BY HIS RAPIER, HE GLIDES TO THE -DOOR, HIS WILD HARP SLUNG BEHIND HIM. VIRAG REACHES THE DOOR IN TWO -UNGAINLY STILTHOPS, HIS TAIL COCKED, AND DEFTLY CLAPS SIDEWAYS ON THE -WALL A PUSYELLOW FLYBILL, BUTTING IT WITH HIS HEAD.) - -THE FLYBILL: K. II. Post No Bills. Strictly confidential. Dr Hy Franks. - -HENRY: All is lost now. - -(VIRAG UNSCREWS HIS HEAD IN A TRICE AND HOLDS IT UNDER HIS ARM.) - -VIRAG'S HEAD: Quack! - -(EXEUNT SEVERALLY.) - -STEPHEN: (OVER HIS SHOULDER TO ZOE) You would have preferred the fighting -parson who founded the protestant error. But beware Antisthenes, the dog -sage, and the last end of Arius Heresiarchus. The agony in the closet. - -LYNCH: All one and the same God to her. - -STEPHEN: (DEVOUTLY) And sovereign Lord of all things. - -FLORRY: (TO STEPHEN) I'm sure you're a spoiled priest. Or a monk. - -LYNCH: He is. A cardinal's son. - -STEPHEN: Cardinal sin. Monks of the screw. - -(HIS EMINENCE SIMON STEPHEN CARDINAL DEDALUS, PRIMATE OF ALL IRELAND, -APPEARS IN THE DOORWAY, DRESSED IN RED SOUTANE, SANDALS AND SOCKS. SEVEN -DWARF SIMIAN ACOLYTES, ALSO IN RED, CARDINAL SINS, UPHOLD HIS TRAIN, -PEEPING UNDER IT. HE WEARS A BATTERED SILK HAT SIDEWAYS ON HIS HEAD. HIS -THUMBS ARE STUCK IN HIS ARMPITS AND HIS PALMS OUTSPREAD. ROUND HIS NECK -HANGS A ROSARY OF CORKS ENDING ON HIS BREAST IN A CORKSCREW CROSS. -RELEASING HIS THUMBS, HE INVOKES GRACE FROM ON HIGH WITH LARGE WAVE -GESTURES AND PROCLAIMS WITH BLOATED POMP:) - -THE CARDINAL: - - - Conservio lies captured - He lies in the lowest dungeon - With manacles and chains around his limbs - Weighing upwards of three tons. - - -(HE LOOKS AT ALL FOR A MOMENT, HIS RIGHT EYE CLOSED TIGHT, HIS LEFT CHEEK -PUFFED OUT. THEN, UNABLE TO REPRESS HIS MERRIMENT, HE ROCKS TO AND FRO, -ARMS AKIMBO, AND SINGS WITH BROAD ROLLICKING HUMOUR:) - - - O, the poor little fellow - Hihihihihis legs they were yellow - He was plump, fat and heavy and brisk as a snake - But some bloody savage - To graize his white cabbage - He murdered Nell Flaherty's duckloving drake. - - -(A MULTITUDE OF MIDGES SWARMS WHITE OVER HIS ROBE. HE SCRATCHES HIMSELF -WITH CROSSED ARMS AT HIS RIBS, GRIMACING, AND EXCLAIMS:) - -I'm suffering the agony of the damned. By the hoky fiddle, thanks be to -Jesus those funny little chaps are not unanimous. If they were they'd -walk me off the face of the bloody globe. - -(HIS HEAD ASLANT HE BLESSES CURTLY WITH FORE AND MIDDLE FINGERS, IMPARTS -THE EASTER KISS AND DOUBLESHUFFLES OFF COMICALLY, SWAYING HIS HAT FROM -SIDE TO SIDE, SHRINKING QUICKLY TO THE SIZE OF HIS TRAINBEARERS. THE -DWARF ACOLYTES, GIGGLING, PEEPING, NUDGING, OGLING, EASTERKISSING, ZIGZAG -BEHIND HIM. HIS VOICE IS HEARD MELLOW FROM AFAR, MERCIFUL MALE, -MELODIOUS:) - - - Shall carry my heart to thee, - Shall carry my heart to thee, - And the breath of the balmy night - Shall carry my heart to thee! - - -(THE TRICK DOORHANDLE TURNS.) - -THE DOORHANDLE: Theeee! - -ZOE: The devil is in that door. - -(A MALE FORM PASSES DOWN THE CREAKING STAIRCASE AND IS HEARD TAKING THE -WATERPROOF AND HAT FROM THE RACK. BLOOM STARTS FORWARD INVOLUNTARILY AND, -HALF CLOSING THE DOOR AS HE PASSES, TAKES THE CHOCOLATE FROM HIS POCKET -AND OFFERS IT NERVOUSLY TO ZOE.) - -ZOE: (SNIFFS HIS HAIR BRISKLY) Hmmm! Thank your mother for the rabbits. -I'm very fond of what I like. - -BLOOM: (HEARING A MALE VOICE IN TALK WITH THE WHORES ON THE DOORSTEP, -PRICKS HIS EARS) If it were he? After? Or because not? Or the double -event? - -ZOE: (TEARS OPEN THE SILVERFOIL) Fingers was made before forks. (SHE -BREAKS OFF AND NIBBLES A PIECE GIVES A PIECE TO KITTY RICKETTS AND THEN -TURNS KITTENISHLY TO LYNCH) No objection to French lozenges? (HE NODS. -SHE TAUNTS HIM.) Have it now or wait till you get it? (HE OPENS HIS -MOUTH, HIS HEAD COCKED. SHE WHIRLS THE PRIZE IN LEFT CIRCLE. HIS HEAD -FOLLOWS. SHE WHIRLS IT BACK IN RIGHT CIRCLE. HE EYES HER.) Catch! - -(SHE TOSSES A PIECE. WITH AN ADROIT SNAP HE CATCHES IT AND BITES IT -THROUGH WITH A CRACK.) - -KITTY: (CHEWING) The engineer I was with at the bazaar does have lovely -ones. Full of the best liqueurs. And the viceroy was there with his lady. -The gas we had on the Toft's hobbyhorses. I'm giddy still. - -BLOOM: (IN SVENGALI'S FUR OVERCOAT, WITH FOLDED ARMS AND NAPOLEONIC -FORELOCK, FROWNS IN VENTRILOQUIAL EXORCISM WITH PIERCING EAGLE GLANCE -TOWARDS THE DOOR. THEN RIGID WITH LEFT FOOT ADVANCED HE MAKES A SWIFT -PASS WITH IMPELLING FINGERS AND GIVES THE SIGN OF PAST MASTER, DRAWING -HIS RIGHT ARM DOWNWARDS FROM HIS LEFT SHOULDER.) Go, go, go, I conjure -you, whoever you are! - -(A MALE COUGH AND TREAD ARE HEARD PASSING THROUGH THE MIST OUTSIDE. -BLOOM'S FEATURES RELAX. HE PLACES A HAND IN HIS WAISTCOAT, POSING CALMLY. -ZOE OFFERS HIM CHOCOLATE.) - -BLOOM: (SOLEMNLY) Thanks. - -ZOE: Do as you're bid. Here! - -(A FIRM HEELCLACKING TREAD IS HEARD ON THE STAIRS.) - -BLOOM: (TAKES THE CHOCOLATE) Aphrodisiac? Tansy and pennyroyal. But I -bought it. Vanilla calms or? Mnemo. Confused light confuses memory. Red -influences lupus. Colours affect women's characters, any they have. This -black makes me sad. Eat and be merry for tomorrow. (HE EATS) Influence -taste too, mauve. But it is so long since I. Seems new. Aphro. That -priest. Must come. Better late than never. Try truffles at Andrews. - -(THE DOOR OPENS. BELLA COHEN, A MASSIVE WHOREMISTRESS, ENTERS. SHE IS -DRESSED IN A THREEQUARTER IVORY GOWN, FRINGED ROUND THE HEM WITH -TASSELLED SELVEDGE, AND COOLS HERSELF FLIRTING A BLACK HORN FAN LIKE -MINNIE HAUCK IN Carmen. ON HER LEFT HAND ARE WEDDING AND KEEPER RINGS. -HER EYES ARE DEEPLY CARBONED. SHE HAS A SPROUTING MOUSTACHE. HER OLIVE -FACE IS HEAVY, SLIGHTLY SWEATED AND FULLNOSED WITH ORANGETAINTED -NOSTRILS. SHE HAS LARGE PENDANT BERYL EARDROPS.) - -BELLA: My word! I'm all of a mucksweat. - -(SHE GLANCES ROUND HER AT THE COUPLES. THEN HER EYES REST ON BLOOM WITH -HARD INSISTENCE. HER LARGE FAN WINNOWS WIND TOWARDS HER HEATED FACENECK -AND EMBONPOINT. HER FALCON EYES GLITTER.) - -THE FAN: (FLIRTING QUICKLY, THEN SLOWLY) Married, I see. - -BLOOM: Yes. Partly, I have mislaid ... - -THE FAN: (HALF OPENING, THEN CLOSING) And the missus is master. Petticoat -government. - -BLOOM: (LOOKS DOWN WITH A SHEEPISH GRIN) That is so. - -THE FAN: (FOLDING TOGETHER, RESTS AGAINST HER LEFT EARDROP) Have you -forgotten me? - -BLOOM: Yes. Yo. - -THE FAN: (FOLDED AKIMBO AGAINST HER WAIST) Is me her was you dreamed -before? Was then she him you us since knew? Am all them and the same now -we? - -(BELLA APPROACHES, GENTLY TAPPING WITH THE FAN.) - -BLOOM: (WINCING) Powerful being. In my eyes read that slumber which women -love. - -THE FAN: (TAPPING) We have met. You are mine. It is fate. - -BLOOM: (COWED) Exuberant female. Enormously I desiderate your domination. -I am exhausted, abandoned, no more young. I stand, so to speak, with an -unposted letter bearing the extra regulation fee before the too late box -of the general postoffice of human life. The door and window open at a -right angle cause a draught of thirtytwo feet per second according to the -law of falling bodies. I have felt this instant a twinge of sciatica in -my left glutear muscle. It runs in our family. Poor dear papa, a widower, -was a regular barometer from it. He believed in animal heat. A skin of -tabby lined his winter waistcoat. Near the end, remembering king David -and the Sunamite, he shared his bed with Athos, faithful after death. A -dog's spittle as you probably ... (HE WINCES) Ah! - -RICHIE GOULDING: (BAGWEIGHTED, PASSES THE DOOR) Mocking is catch. Best -value in Dub. Fit for a prince's. Liver and kidney. - -THE FAN: (TAPPING) All things end. Be mine. Now, - -BLOOM: (UNDECIDED) All now? I should not have parted with my talisman. -Rain, exposure at dewfall on the searocks, a peccadillo at my time of -life. Every phenomenon has a natural cause. - -THE FAN: (POINTS DOWNWARDS SLOWLY) You may. - -BLOOM: (LOOKS DOWNWARDS AND PERCEIVES HER UNFASTENED BOOTLACE) We are -observed. - -THE FAN: (POINTS DOWNWARDS QUICKLY) You must. - -BLOOM: (WITH DESIRE, WITH RELUCTANCE) I can make a true black knot. -Learned when I served my time and worked the mail order line for -Kellett's. Experienced hand. Every knot says a lot. Let me. In courtesy. -I knelt once before today. Ah! - -(BELLA RAISES HER GOWN SLIGHTLY AND, STEADYING HER POSE, LIFTS TO THE -EDGE OF A CHAIR A PLUMP BUSKINED HOOF AND A FULL PASTERN, SILKSOCKED. -BLOOM, STIFFLEGGED, AGING, BENDS OVER HER HOOF AND WITH GENTLE FINGERS -DRAWS OUT AND IN HER LACES.) - -BLOOM: (MURMURS LOVINGLY) To be a shoefitter in Manfield's was my love's -young dream, the darling joys of sweet buttonhooking, to lace up -crisscrossed to kneelength the dressy kid footwear satinlined, so -incredibly impossibly small, of Clyde Road ladies. Even their wax model -Raymonde I visited daily to admire her cobweb hose and stick of rhubarb -toe, as worn in Paris. - -THE HOOF: Smell my hot goathide. Feel my royal weight. - -BLOOM: (CROSSLACING) Too tight? - -THE HOOF: If you bungle, Handy Andy, I'll kick your football for you. - -BLOOM: Not to lace the wrong eyelet as I did the night of the bazaar -dance. Bad luck. Hook in wrong tache of her ... person you mentioned. -That night she met ... Now! - -(HE KNOTS THE LACE. BELLA PLACES HER FOOT ON THE FLOOR. BLOOM RAISES HIS -HEAD. HER HEAVY FACE, HER EYES STRIKE HIM IN MIDBROW. HIS EYES GROW DULL, -DARKER AND POUCHED, HIS NOSE THICKENS.) - -BLOOM: (MUMBLES) Awaiting your further orders we remain, gentlemen, ... - -BELLO: (WITH A HARD BASILISK STARE, IN A BARITONE VOICE) Hound of -dishonour! - -BLOOM: (INFATUATED) Empress! - -BELLO: (HIS HEAVY CHEEKCHOPS SAGGING) Adorer of the adulterous rump! - -BLOOM: (PLAINTIVELY) Hugeness! - -BELLO: Dungdevourer! - -BLOOM: (WITH SINEWS SEMIFLEXED) Magmagnificence! - -BELLO: Down! (HE TAPS HER ON THE SHOULDER WITH HIS FAN) Incline feet -forward! Slide left foot one pace back! You will fall. You are falling. -On the hands down! - -BLOOM: (HER EYES UPTURNED IN THE SIGN OF ADMIRATION, CLOSING, YAPS) -Truffles! - -(WITH A PIERCING EPILEPTIC CRY SHE SINKS ON ALL FOURS, GRUNTING, -SNUFFLING, ROOTING AT HIS FEET: THEN LIES, SHAMMING DEAD, WITH EYES SHUT -TIGHT, TREMBLING EYELIDS, BOWED UPON THE GROUND IN THE ATTITUDE OF MOST -EXCELLENT MASTER.) - -BELLO: (WITH BOBBED HAIR, PURPLE GILLS, FIT MOUSTACHE RINGS ROUND HIS -SHAVEN MOUTH, IN MOUNTAINEER'S PUTTEES, GREEN SILVERBUTTONED COAT, SPORT -SKIRT AND ALPINE HAT WITH MOORCOCK'S FEATHER, HIS HANDS STUCK DEEP IN HIS -BREECHES POCKETS, PLACES HIS HEEL ON HER NECK AND GRINDS IT IN) -Footstool! Feel my entire weight. Bow, bondslave, before the throne of -your despot's glorious heels so glistening in their proud erectness. - -BLOOM: (ENTHRALLED, BLEATS) I promise never to disobey. - -BELLO: (LAUGHS LOUDLY) Holy smoke! You little know what's in store for -you. I'm the Tartar to settle your little lot and break you in! I'll bet -Kentucky cocktails all round I shame it out of you, old son. Cheek me, I -dare you. If you do tremble in anticipation of heel discipline to be -inflicted in gym costume. - -(BLOOM CREEPS UNDER THE SOFA AND PEERS OUT THROUGH THE FRINGE.) - -ZOE: (WIDENING HER SLIP TO SCREEN HER) She's not here. - -BLOOM: (CLOSING HER EYES) She's not here. - -FLORRY: (HIDING HER WITH HER GOWN) She didn't mean it, Mr Bello. She'll -be good, sir. - -KITTY: Don't be too hard on her, Mr Bello. Sure you won't, ma'amsir. - -BELLO: (COAXINGLY) Come, ducky dear, I want a word with you, darling, -just to administer correction. Just a little heart to heart talk, sweety. -(BLOOM PUTS OUT HER TIMID HEAD) There's a good girly now. (BELLO GRABS -HER HAIR VIOLENTLY AND DRAGS HER FORWARD) I only want to correct you for -your own good on a soft safe spot. How's that tender behind? O, ever so -gently, pet. Begin to get ready. - -BLOOM: (FAINTING) Don't tear my ... - -BELLO: (SAVAGELY) The nosering, the pliers, the bastinado, the hanging -hook, the knout I'll make you kiss while the flutes play like the Nubian -slave of old. You're in for it this time! I'll make you remember me for -the balance of your natural life. (HIS FOREHEAD VEINS SWOLLEN, HIS FACE -CONGESTED) I shall sit on your ottoman saddleback every morning after my -thumping good breakfast of Matterson's fat hamrashers and a bottle of -Guinness's porter. (HE BELCHES) And suck my thumping good Stock Exchange -cigar while I read the LICENSED VICTUALLER'S GAZETTE. Very possibly I -shall have you slaughtered and skewered in my stables and enjoy a slice -of you with crisp crackling from the baking tin basted and baked like -sucking pig with rice and lemon or currant sauce. It will hurt you. (HE -TWISTS HER ARM. BLOOM SQUEALS, TURNING TURTLE.) - -BLOOM: Don't be cruel, nurse! Don't! - -BELLO: (TWISTING) Another! - -BLOOM: (SCREAMS) O, it's hell itself! Every nerve in my body aches like -mad! - -BELLO: (SHOUTS) Good, by the rumping jumping general! That's the best bit -of news I heard these six weeks. Here, don't keep me waiting, damn you! -(HE SLAPS HER FACE) - -BLOOM: (WHIMPERS) You're after hitting me. I'll tell ... - -BELLO: Hold him down, girls, till I squat on him. - -ZOE: Yes. Walk on him! I will. - -FLORRY: I will. Don't be greedy. - -KITTY: No, me. Lend him to me. - -(THE BROTHEL COOK, MRS KEOGH, WRINKLED, GREYBEARDED, IN A GREASY BIB, -MEN'S GREY AND GREEN SOCKS AND BROGUES, FLOURSMEARED, A ROLLINGPIN STUCK -WITH RAW PASTRY IN HER BARE RED ARM AND HAND, APPEARS AT THE DOOR.) - -MRS KEOGH: (FEROCIOUSLY) Can I help? (THEY HOLD AND PINION BLOOM.) - -BELLO: (SQUATS WITH A GRUNT ON BLOOM'S UPTURNED FACE, PUFFING CIGARSMOKE, -NURSING A FAT LEG) I see Keating Clay is elected vicechairman of the -Richmond asylum and by the by Guinness's preference shares are at sixteen -three quaffers. Curse me for a fool that didn't buy that lot Craig and -Gardner told me about. Just my infernal luck, curse it. And that -Goddamned outsider THROWAWAY at twenty to one. (HE QUENCHES HIS CIGAR -ANGRILY ON BLOOM'S EAR) Where's that Goddamned cursed ashtray? - -BLOOM: (GOADED, BUTTOCKSMOTHERED) O! O! Monsters! Cruel one! - -BELLO: Ask for that every ten minutes. Beg. Pray for it as you never -prayed before. (HE THRUSTS OUT A FIGGED FIST AND FOUL CIGAR) Here, kiss -that. Both. Kiss. (HE THROWS A LEG ASTRIDE AND, PRESSING WITH HORSEMAN'S -KNEES, CALLS IN A HARD VOICE) Gee up! A cockhorse to Banbury cross. I'll -ride him for the Eclipse stakes. (HE BENDS SIDEWAYS AND SQUEEZES HIS -MOUNT'S TESTICLES ROUGHLY, SHOUTING) Ho! Off we pop! I'll nurse you in -proper fashion. (HE HORSERIDES COCKHORSE, LEAPING IN THE SADDLE) The lady -goes a pace a pace and the coachman goes a trot a trot and the gentleman -goes a gallop a gallop a gallop a gallop. - -FLORRY: (PULLS AT BELLO) Let me on him now. You had enough. I asked -before you. - -ZOE: (PULLING AT FLORRY) Me. Me. Are you not finished with him yet, -suckeress? - -BLOOM: (STIFLING) Can't. - -BELLO: Well, I'm not. Wait. (HE HOLDS IN HIS BREATH) Curse it. Here. This -bung's about burst. (HE UNCORKS HIMSELF BEHIND: THEN, CONTORTING HIS -FEATURES, FARTS LOUDLY) Take that! (HE RECORKS HIMSELF) Yes, by Jingo, -sixteen three quarters. - -BLOOM: (A SWEAT BREAKING OUT OVER HIM) Not man. (HE SNIFFS) Woman. - -BELLO: (STANDS UP) No more blow hot and cold. What you longed for has -come to pass. Henceforth you are unmanned and mine in earnest, a thing -under the yoke. Now for your punishment frock. You will shed your male -garments, you understand, Ruby Cohen? and don the shot silk luxuriously -rustling over head and shoulders. And quickly too! - -BLOOM: (SHRINKS) Silk, mistress said! O crinkly! scrapy! Must I tiptouch -it with my nails? - -BELLO: (POINTS TO HIS WHORES) As they are now so will you be, wigged, -singed, perfumesprayed, ricepowdered, with smoothshaven armpits. Tape -measurements will be taken next your skin. You will be laced with cruel -force into vicelike corsets of soft dove coutille with whalebone busk to -the diamondtrimmed pelvis, the absolute outside edge, while your figure, -plumper than when at large, will be restrained in nettight frocks, pretty -two ounce petticoats and fringes and things stamped, of course, with my -houseflag, creations of lovely lingerie for Alice and nice scent for -Alice. Alice will feel the pullpull. Martha and Mary will be a little -chilly at first in such delicate thighcasing but the frilly flimsiness of -lace round your bare knees will remind you ... - -BLOOM: (A CHARMING SOUBRETTE WITH DAUBY CHEEKS, MUSTARD HAIR AND LARGE -MALE HANDS AND NOSE, LEERING MOUTH) I tried her things on only twice, a -small prank, in Holles street. When we were hard up I washed them to save -the laundry bill. My own shirts I turned. It was the purest thrift. - -BELLO: (JEERS) Little jobs that make mother pleased, eh? And showed off -coquettishly in your domino at the mirror behind closedrawn blinds your -unskirted thighs and hegoat's udders in various poses of surrender, eh? -Ho! ho! I have to laugh! That secondhand black operatop shift and short -trunkleg naughties all split up the stitches at her last rape that Mrs -Miriam Dandrade sold you from the Shelbourne hotel, eh? - -BLOOM: Miriam. Black. Demimondaine. - -BELLO: (GUFFAWS) Christ Almighty it's too tickling, this! You were a -nicelooking Miriam when you clipped off your backgate hairs and lay -swooning in the thing across the bed as Mrs Dandrade about to be violated -by lieutenant Smythe-Smythe, Mr Philip Augustus Blockwell M. P., signor -Laci Daremo, the robust tenor, blueeyed Bert, the liftboy, Henri Fleury -of Gordon Bennett fame, Sheridan, the quadroon Croesus, the varsity -wetbob eight from old Trinity, Ponto, her splendid Newfoundland and Bobs, -dowager duchess of Manorhamilton. (HE GUFFAWS AGAIN) Christ, wouldn't it -make a Siamese cat laugh? - -BLOOM: (HER HANDS AND FEATURES WORKING) It was Gerald converted me to be -a true corsetlover when I was female impersonator in the High School play -VICE VERSA. It was dear Gerald. He got that kink, fascinated by sister's -stays. Now dearest Gerald uses pinky greasepaint and gilds his eyelids. -Cult of the beautiful. - -BELLO: (WITH WICKED GLEE) Beautiful! Give us a breather! When you took -your seat with womanish care, lifting your billowy flounces, on the -smoothworn throne. - -BLOOM: Science. To compare the various joys we each enjoy. (EARNESTLY) -And really it's better the position ... because often I used to wet ... - -BELLO: (STERNLY) No insubordination! The sawdust is there in the corner -for you. I gave you strict instructions, didn't I? Do it standing, sir! -I'll teach you to behave like a jinkleman! If I catch a trace on your -swaddles. Aha! By the ass of the Dorans you'll find I'm a martinet. The -sins of your past are rising against you. Many. Hundreds. - -THE SINS OF THE PAST: (IN A MEDLEY OF VOICES) He went through a form of -clandestine marriage with at least one woman in the shadow of the Black -church. Unspeakable messages he telephoned mentally to Miss Dunn at an -address in D'Olier street while he presented himself indecently to the -instrument in the callbox. By word and deed he frankly encouraged a -nocturnal strumpet to deposit fecal and other matter in an unsanitary -outhouse attached to empty premises. In five public conveniences he wrote -pencilled messages offering his nuptial partner to all strongmembered -males. And by the offensively smelling vitriol works did he not pass -night after night by loving courting couples to see if and what and how -much he could see? Did he not lie in bed, the gross boar, gloating over a -nauseous fragment of wellused toilet paper presented to him by a nasty -harlot, stimulated by gingerbread and a postal order? - -BELLO: (WHISTLES LOUDLY) Say! What was the most revolting piece of -obscenity in all your career of crime? Go the whole hog. Puke it out! Be -candid for once. - -(MUTE INHUMAN FACES THRONG FORWARD, LEERING, VANISHING, GIBBERING, -BOOLOOHOOM. POLDY KOCK, BOOTLACES A PENNY CASSIDY'S HAG, BLIND STRIPLING, -LARRY RHINOCEROS, THE GIRL, THE WOMAN, THE WHORE, THE OTHER, THE ...) - -BLOOM: Don't ask me! Our mutual faith. Pleasants street. I only thought -the half of the ... I swear on my sacred oath ... - -BELLO: (PEREMPTORILY) Answer. Repugnant wretch! I insist on knowing. Tell -me something to amuse me, smut or a bloody good ghoststory or a line of -poetry, quick, quick, quick! Where? How? What time? With how many? I give -you just three seconds. One! Two! Thr ... - -BLOOM: (DOCILE, GURGLES) I rererepugnosed in rerererepugnant - -BELLO: (IMPERIOUSLY) O, get out, you skunk! Hold your tongue! Speak when -you're spoken to. - -BLOOM: (BOWS) Master! Mistress! Mantamer! - -(HE LIFTS HIS ARMS. HIS BANGLE BRACELETS FILL.) - -BELLO: (SATIRICALLY) By day you will souse and bat our smelling -underclothes also when we ladies are unwell, and swab out our latrines -with dress pinned up and a dishclout tied to your tail. Won't that be -nice? (HE PLACES A RUBY RING ON HER FINGER) And there now! With this ring -I thee own. Say, thank you, mistress. - -BLOOM: Thank you, mistress. - -BELLO: You will make the beds, get my tub ready, empty the pisspots in -the different rooms, including old Mrs Keogh's the cook's, a sandy one. -Ay, and rinse the seven of them well, mind, or lap it up like champagne. -Drink me piping hot. Hop! You will dance attendance or I'll lecture you -on your misdeeds, Miss Ruby, and spank your bare bot right well, miss, -with the hairbrush. You'll be taught the error of your ways. At night -your wellcreamed braceletted hands will wear fortythreebutton gloves -newpowdered with talc and having delicately scented fingertips. For such -favours knights of old laid down their lives. (HE CHUCKLES) My boys will -be no end charmed to see you so ladylike, the colonel, above all, when -they come here the night before the wedding to fondle my new attraction -in gilded heels. First I'll have a go at you myself. A man I know on the -turf named Charles Alberta Marsh (I was in bed with him just now and -another gentleman out of the Hanaper and Petty Bag office) is on the -lookout for a maid of all work at a short knock. Swell the bust. Smile. -Droop shoulders. What offers? (HE POINTS) For that lot. Trained by owner -to fetch and carry, basket in mouth. (HE BARES HIS ARM AND PLUNGES IT -ELBOWDEEP IN BLOOM'S VULVA) There's fine depth for you! What, boys? That -give you a hardon? (HE SHOVES HIS ARM IN A BIDDER'S FACE) Here wet the -deck and wipe it round! - -A BIDDER: A florin. - -(DILLON'S LACQUEY RINGS HIS HANDBELL.) - -THE LACQUEY: Barang! - -A VOICE: One and eightpence too much. - -CHARLES ALBERTA MARSH: Must be virgin. Good breath. Clean. - -BELLO: (GIVES A RAP WITH HIS GAVEL) Two bar. Rockbottom figure and cheap -at the price. Fourteen hands high. Touch and examine his points. Handle -him. This downy skin, these soft muscles, this tender flesh. If I had -only my gold piercer here! And quite easy to milk. Three newlaid gallons -a day. A pure stockgetter, due to lay within the hour. His sire's milk -record was a thousand gallons of whole milk in forty weeks. Whoa my -jewel! Beg up! Whoa! (HE BRANDS HIS INITIAL C ON BLOOM'S CROUP) So! -Warranted Cohen! What advance on two bob, gentlemen? - -A DARKVISAGED MAN: (IN DISGUISED ACCENT) Hoondert punt sterlink. - -VOICES: (SUBDUED) For the Caliph. Haroun Al Raschid. - -BELLO: (GAILY) Right. Let them all come. The scanty, daringly short -skirt, riding up at the knee to show a peep of white pantalette, is a -potent weapon and transparent stockings, emeraldgartered, with the long -straight seam trailing up beyond the knee, appeal to the better instincts -of the BLASE man about town. Learn the smooth mincing walk on four inch -Louis Quinze heels, the Grecian bend with provoking croup, the thighs -fluescent, knees modestly kissing. Bring all your powers of fascination -to bear on them. Pander to their Gomorrahan vices. - -BLOOM: (BENDS HIS BLUSHING FACE INTO HIS ARMPIT AND SIMPERS WITH -FOREFINGER IN MOUTH) O, I know what you're hinting at now! - -BELLO: What else are you good for, an impotent thing like you? (HE STOOPS -AND, PEERING, POKES WITH HIS FAN RUDELY UNDER THE FAT SUET FOLDS OF -BLOOM'S HAUNCHES) Up! Up! Manx cat! What have we here? Where's your curly -teapot gone to or who docked it on you, cockyolly? Sing, birdy, sing. -It's as limp as a boy of six's doing his pooly behind a cart. Buy a -bucket or sell your pump. (LOUDLY) Can you do a man's job? - -BLOOM: Eccles street ... - -BELLO: (SARCASTICALLY) I wouldn't hurt your feelings for the world but -there's a man of brawn in possession there. The tables are turned, my gay -young fellow! He is something like a fullgrown outdoor man. Well for you, -you muff, if you had that weapon with knobs and lumps and warts all over -it. He shot his bolt, I can tell you! Foot to foot, knee to knee, belly -to belly, bubs to breast! He's no eunuch. A shock of red hair he has -sticking out of him behind like a furzebush! Wait for nine months, my -lad! Holy ginger, it's kicking and coughing up and down in her guts -already! That makes you wild, don't it? Touches the spot? (HE SPITS IN -CONTEMPT) Spittoon! - -BLOOM: I was indecently treated, I ... Inform the police. Hundred pounds. -Unmentionable. I ... - -BELLO: Would if you could, lame duck. A downpour we want not your -drizzle. - -BLOOM: To drive me mad! Moll! I forgot! Forgive! Moll ... We ... Still -... - -BELLO: (RUTHLESSLY) No, Leopold Bloom, all is changed by woman's will -since you slept horizontal in Sleepy Hollow your night of twenty years. -Return and see. - -(OLD SLEEPY HOLLOW CALLS OVER THE WOLD.) - -SLEEPY HOLLOW: Rip van Wink! Rip van Winkle! - -BLOOM: (IN TATTERED MOCASSINS WITH A RUSTY FOWLINGPIECE, TIPTOEING, -FINGERTIPPING, HIS HAGGARD BONY BEARDED FACE PEERING THROUGH THE DIAMOND -PANES, CRIES OUT) I see her! It's she! The first night at Mat Dillon's! -But that dress, the green! And her hair is dyed gold and he ... - -BELLO: (LAUGHS MOCKINGLY) That's your daughter, you owl, with a Mullingar -student. - -(MILLY BLOOM, FAIRHAIRED, GREENVESTED, SLIMSANDALLED, HER BLUE SCARF IN -THE SEAWIND SIMPLY SWIRLING, BREAKS FROM THE ARMS OF HER LOVER AND CALLS, -HER YOUNG EYES WONDERWIDE.) - -MILLY: My! It's Papli! But, O Papli, how old you've grown! - -BELLO: Changed, eh? Our whatnot, our writingtable where we never wrote, -aunt Hegarty's armchair, our classic reprints of old masters. A man and -his menfriends are living there in clover. The CUCKOOS' REST! Why not? -How many women had you, eh, following them up dark streets, flatfoot, -exciting them by your smothered grunts, what, you male prostitute? -Blameless dames with parcels of groceries. Turn about. Sauce for the -goose, my gander O. - -BLOOM: They ... I ... - -BELLO: (CUTTINGLY) Their heelmarks will stamp the Brusselette carpet you -bought at Wren's auction. In their horseplay with Moll the romp to find -the buck flea in her breeches they will deface the little statue you -carried home in the rain for art for art' sake. They will violate the -secrets of your bottom drawer. Pages will be torn from your handbook of -astronomy to make them pipespills. And they will spit in your ten -shilling brass fender from Hampton Leedom's. - -BLOOM: Ten and six. The act of low scoundrels. Let me go. I will return. -I will prove ... - -A VOICE: Swear! - -(BLOOM CLENCHES HIS FISTS AND CRAWLS FORWARD, A BOWIEKNIFE BETWEEN HIS -TEETH.) - -BELLO: As a paying guest or a kept man? Too late. You have made your -secondbest bed and others must lie in it. Your epitaph is written. You -are down and out and don't you forget it, old bean. - -BLOOM: Justice! All Ireland versus one! Has nobody ...? (HE BITES HIS -THUMB) - -BELLO: Die and be damned to you if you have any sense of decency or grace -about you. I can give you a rare old wine that'll send you skipping to -hell and back. Sign a will and leave us any coin you have! If you have -none see you damn well get it, steal it, rob it! We'll bury you in our -shrubbery jakes where you'll be dead and dirty with old Cuck Cohen, my -stepnephew I married, the bloody old gouty procurator and sodomite with a -crick in his neck, and my other ten or eleven husbands, whatever the -buggers' names were, suffocated in the one cesspool. (HE EXPLODES IN A -LOUD PHLEGMY LAUGH) We'll manure you, Mr Flower! (HE PIPES SCOFFINGLY) -Byby, Poldy! Byby, Papli! - -BLOOM: (CLASPS HIS HEAD) My willpower! Memory! I have sinned! I have suff -... - -(HE WEEPS TEARLESSLY) - -BELLO: (SNEERS) Crybabby! Crocodile tears! - -(BLOOM, BROKEN, CLOSELY VEILED FOR THE SACRIFICE, SOBS, HIS FACE TO THE -EARTH. THE PASSING BELL IS HEARD. DARKSHAWLED FIGURES OF THE CIRCUMCISED, -IN SACKCLOTH AND ASHES, STAND BY THE WAILING WALL. M. SHULOMOWITZ, JOSEPH -GOLDWATER, MOSES HERZOG, HARRIS ROSENBERG, M. MOISEL, J. CITRON, MINNIE -WATCHMAN, P. MASTIANSKY, THE REVEREND LEOPOLD ABRAMOVITZ, CHAZEN. WITH -SWAYING ARMS THEY WAIL IN PNEUMA OVER THE RECREANT BLOOM.) - -THE CIRCUMCISED: (IN DARK GUTTURAL CHANT AS THEY CAST DEAD SEA FRUIT UPON -HIM, NO FLOWERS) SHEMA ISRAEL ADONAI ELOHENU ADONAI ECHAD. - -VOICES: (SIGHING) So he's gone. Ah yes. Yes, indeed. Bloom? Never heard -of him. No? Queer kind of chap. There's the widow. That so? Ah, yes. - -(FROM THE SUTTEE PYRE THE FLAME OF GUM CAMPHIRE ASCENDS. THE PALL OF -INCENSE SMOKE SCREENS AND DISPERSES. OUT OF HER OAKFRAME A NYMPH WITH -HAIR UNBOUND, LIGHTLY CLAD IN TEABROWN ARTCOLOURS, DESCENDS FROM HER -GROTTO AND PASSING UNDER INTERLACING YEWS STANDS OVER BLOOM.) - -THE YEWS: (THEIR LEAVES WHISPERING) Sister. Our sister. Ssh! - -THE NYMPH: (SOFTLY) Mortal! (KINDLY) Nay, dost not weepest! - -BLOOM: (CRAWLS JELLILY FORWARD UNDER THE BOUGHS, STREAKED BY SUNLIGHT, -WITH DIGNITY) This position. I felt it was expected of me. Force of -habit. - -THE NYMPH: Mortal! You found me in evil company, highkickers, coster -picnicmakers, pugilists, popular generals, immoral panto boys in -fleshtights and the nifty shimmy dancers, La Aurora and Karini, musical -act, the hit of the century. I was hidden in cheap pink paper that smelt -of rock oil. I was surrounded by the stale smut of clubmen, stories to -disturb callow youth, ads for transparencies, truedup dice and bustpads, -proprietary articles and why wear a truss with testimonial from ruptured -gentleman. Useful hints to the married. - -BLOOM: (LIFTS A TURTLE HEAD TOWARDS HER LAP) We have met before. On -another star. - -THE NYMPH: (SADLY) Rubber goods. Neverrip brand as supplied to the -aristocracy. Corsets for men. I cure fits or money refunded. Unsolicited -testimonials for Professor Waldmann's wonderful chest exuber. My bust -developed four inches in three weeks, reports Mrs Gus Rublin with photo. - -BLOOM: You mean PHOTO BITS? - -THE NYMPH: I do. You bore me away, framed me in oak and tinsel, set me -above your marriage couch. Unseen, one summer eve, you kissed me in four -places. And with loving pencil you shaded my eyes, my bosom and my shame. - -BLOOM: (HUMBLY KISSES HER LONG HAIR) Your classic curves, beautiful -immortal, I was glad to look on you, to praise you, a thing of beauty, -almost to pray. - -THE NYMPH: During dark nights I heard your praise. - -BLOOM: (QUICKLY) Yes, yes. You mean that I ... Sleep reveals the worst -side of everyone, children perhaps excepted. I know I fell out of bed or -rather was pushed. Steel wine is said to cure snoring. For the rest there -is that English invention, pamphlet of which I received some days ago, -incorrectly addressed. It claims to afford a noiseless, inoffensive vent. -(HE SIGHS) 'Twas ever thus. Frailty, thy name is marriage. - -THE NYMPH: (HER FINGERS IN HER EARS) And words. They are not in my -dictionary. - -BLOOM: You understood them? - -THE YEWS: Ssh! - -THE NYMPH: (COVERS HER FACE WITH HER HANDS) What have I not seen in that -chamber? What must my eyes look down on? - -BLOOM: (APOLOGETICALLY) I know. Soiled personal linen, wrong side up with -care. The quoits are loose. From Gibraltar by long sea long ago. - -THE NYMPH: (BENDS HER HEAD) Worse, worse! - -BLOOM: (REFLECTS PRECAUTIOUSLY) That antiquated commode. It wasn't her -weight. She scaled just eleven stone nine. She put on nine pounds after -weaning. It was a crack and want of glue. Eh? And that absurd orangekeyed -utensil which has only one handle. - -(THE SOUND OF A WATERFALL IS HEARD IN BRIGHT CASCADE.) - -THE WATERFALL: - - - Poulaphouca Poulaphouca - Poulaphouca Poulaphouca. - - -THE YEWS: (MINGLING THEIR BOUGHS) Listen. Whisper. She is right, our -sister. We grew by Poulaphouca waterfall. We gave shade on languorous -summer days. - -JOHN WYSE NOLAN: (IN THE BACKGROUND, IN IRISH NATIONAL FORESTER'S -UNIFORM, DOFFS HIS PLUMED HAT) Prosper! Give shade on languorous days, -trees of Ireland! - -THE YEWS: (MURMURING) Who came to Poulaphouca with the High School -excursion? Who left his nutquesting classmates to seek our shade? - -BLOOM: (SCARED) High School of Poula? Mnemo? Not in full possession of -faculties. Concussion. Run over by tram. - -THE ECHO: Sham! - -BLOOM: (PIGEONBREASTED, BOTTLESHOULDERED, PADDED, IN NONDESCRIPT JUVENILE -GREY AND BLACK STRIPED SUIT, TOO SMALL FOR HIM, WHITE TENNIS SHOES, -BORDERED STOCKINGS WITH TURNOVER TOPS AND A RED SCHOOLCAP WITH BADGE) I -was in my teens, a growing boy. A little then sufficed, a jolting car, -the mingling odours of the ladies' cloakroom and lavatory, the throng -penned tight on the old Royal stairs (for they love crushes, instinct of -the herd, and the dark sexsmelling theatre unbridles vice), even a -pricelist of their hosiery. And then the heat. There were sunspots that -summer. End of school. And tipsycake. Halcyon days. - -(HALCYON DAYS, HIGH SCHOOL BOYS IN BLUE AND WHITE FOOTBALL JERSEYS AND -SHORTS, MASTER DONALD TURNBULL, MASTER ABRAHAM CHATTERTON, MASTER OWEN -GOLDBERG, MASTER JACK MEREDITH, MASTER PERCY APJOHN, STAND IN A CLEARING -OF THE TREES AND SHOUT TO MASTER LEOPOLD BLOOM.) - -THE HALCYON DAYS: Mackerel! Live us again. Hurray! (THEY CHEER) - -BLOOM: (HOBBLEDEHOY, WARMGLOVED, MAMMAMUFFLERED, STARRED WITH SPENT -SNOWBALLS, STRUGGLES TO RISE) Again! I feel sixteen! What a lark! Let's -ring all the bells in Montague street. (HE CHEERS FEEBLY) Hurray for the -High School! - -THE ECHO: Fool! - -THE YEWS: (RUSTLING) She is right, our sister. Whisper. (WHISPERED KISSES -ARE HEARD IN ALL THE WOOD. FACES OF HAMADRYADS PEEP OUT FROM THE BOLES -AND AMONG THE LEAVES AND BREAK, BLOSSOMING INTO BLOOM.) Who profaned our -silent shade? - -THE NYMPH: (COYLY, THROUGH PARTING FINGERS) There? In the open air? - -THE YEWS: (SWEEPING DOWNWARD) Sister, yes. And on our virgin sward. - -THE WATERFALL: - - - Poulaphouca Poulaphouca - Phoucaphouca Phoucaphouca. - - - -THE NYMPH: (WITH WIDE FINGERS) O, infamy! - -BLOOM: I was precocious. Youth. The fauna. I sacrificed to the god of the -forest. The flowers that bloom in the spring. It was pairing time. -Capillary attraction is a natural phenomenon. Lotty Clarke, flaxenhaired, -I saw at her night toilette through illclosed curtains with poor papa's -operaglasses: The wanton ate grass wildly. She rolled downhill at Rialto -bridge to tempt me with her flow of animal spirits. She climbed their -crooked tree and I ... A saint couldn't resist it. The demon possessed -me. Besides, who saw? - -(STAGGERING BOB, A WHITEPOLLED CALF, THRUSTS A RUMINATING HEAD WITH HUMID -NOSTRILS THROUGH THE FOLIAGE.) - -STAGGERING BOB: (LARGE TEARDROPS ROLLING FROM HIS PROMINENT EYES, -SNIVELS) Me. Me see. - -BLOOM: Simply satisfying a need I ... (WITH PATHOS) No girl would when I -went girling. Too ugly. They wouldn't play ... - -(HIGH ON BEN HOWTH THROUGH RHODODENDRONS A NANNYGOAT PASSES, -PLUMPUDDERED, BUTTYTAILED, DROPPING CURRANTS.) - -THE NANNYGOAT: (BLEATS) Megeggaggegg! Nannannanny! - -BLOOM: (HATLESS, FLUSHED, COVERED WITH BURRS OF THISTLEDOWN AND -GORSESPINE) Regularly engaged. Circumstances alter cases. (HE GAZES -INTENTLY DOWNWARDS ON THE WATER) Thirtytwo head over heels per second. -Press nightmare. Giddy Elijah. Fall from cliff. Sad end of government -printer's clerk. (THROUGH SILVERSILENT SUMMER AIR THE DUMMY OF BLOOM, -ROLLED IN A MUMMY, ROLLS ROTEATINGLY FROM THE LION'S HEAD CLIFF INTO THE -PURPLE WAITING WATERS.) - -THE DUMMYMUMMY: Bbbbblllllblblblblobschbg! - -(FAR OUT IN THE BAY BETWEEN BAILEY AND KISH LIGHTS THE Erin's King SAILS, -SENDING A BROADENING PLUME OF COALSMOKE FROM HER FUNNEL TOWARDS THE -LAND.) - -COUNCILLOR NANNETII: (ALONE ON DECK, IN DARK ALPACA, YELLOWKITEFACED, HIS -HAND IN HIS WAISTCOAT OPENING, DECLAIMS) When my country takes her place -among the nations of the earth, then, and not till then, let my epitaph -be written. I have ... - -BLOOM: Done. Prff! - -THE NYMPH: (LOFTILY) We immortals, as you saw today, have not such a -place and no hair there either. We are stonecold and pure. We eat -electric light. (SHE ARCHES HER BODY IN LASCIVIOUS CRISPATION, PLACING -HER FOREFINGER IN HER MOUTH) Spoke to me. Heard from behind. How then -could you ...? - -BLOOM: (PAWING THE HEATHER ABJECTLY) O, I have been a perfect pig. Enemas -too I have administered. One third of a pint of quassia to which add a -tablespoonful of rocksalt. Up the fundament. With Hamilton Long's -syringe, the ladies' friend. - -THE NYMPH: In my presence. The powderpuff. (SHE BLUSHES AND MAKES A KNEE) -And the rest! - -BLOOM: (DEJECTED) Yes. PECCAVI! I have paid homage on that living altar -where the back changes name. (WITH SUDDEN FERVOUR) For why should the -dainty scented jewelled hand, the hand that rules ...? - -(FIGURES WIND SERPENTING IN SLOW WOODLAND PATTERN AROUND THE TREESTEMS, -COOEEING) - -THE VOICE OF KITTY: (IN THE THICKET) Show us one of them cushions. - -THE VOICE OF FLORRY: Here. - -(A GROUSE WINGS CLUMSILY THROUGH THE UNDERWOOD.) - -THE VOICE OF LYNCH: (IN THE THICKET) Whew! Piping hot! - -THE VOICE OF ZOE: (FROM THE THICKET) Came from a hot place. - -THE VOICE OF VIRAG: (A BIRDCHIEF, BLUESTREAKED AND FEATHERED IN WAR -PANOPLY WITH HIS ASSEGAI, STRIDING THROUGH A CRACKLING CANEBRAKE OVER -BEECHMAST AND ACORNS) Hot! Hot! Ware Sitting Bull! - -BLOOM: It overpowers me. The warm impress of her warm form. Even to sit -where a woman has sat, especially with divaricated thighs, as though to -grant the last favours, most especially with previously well uplifted -white sateen coatpans. So womanly, full. It fills me full. - -THE WATERFALL: - - - Phillaphulla Poulaphouca - Poulaphouca Poulaphouca. - - -THE YEWS: Ssh! Sister, speak! - -THE NYMPH: (EYELESS, IN NUN'S WHITE HABIT, COIF AND HUGEWINGED WIMPLE, -SOFTLY, WITH REMOTE EYES) Tranquilla convent. Sister Agatha. Mount -Carmel. The apparitions of Knock and Lourdes. No more desire. (SHE -RECLINES HER HEAD, SIGHING) Only the ethereal. Where dreamy creamy gull -waves o'er the waters dull. - -(BLOOM HALF RISES. HIS BACK TROUSERBUTTON SNAPS.) - -THE BUTTON: Bip! - -(TWO SLUTS OF THE COOMBE DANCE RAINILY BY, SHAWLED, YELLING FLATLY.) - -THE SLUTS: - - - O, Leopold lost the pin of his drawers - He didn't know what to do, - To keep it up, - To keep it up. - - -BLOOM: (COLDLY) You have broken the spell. The last straw. If there were -only ethereal where would you all be, postulants and novices? Shy but -willing like an ass pissing. - -THE YEWS: (THEIR SILVERFOIL OF LEAVES PRECIPITATING, THEIR SKINNY ARMS -AGING AND SWAYING) Deciduously! - -THE NYMPH: (her features hardening, gropes in the folds of her habit) -Sacrilege! To attempt my virtue! (A LARGE MOIST STAIN APPEARS ON HER -ROBE) Sully my innocence! You are not fit to touch the garment of a pure -woman. (SHE CLUTCHES AGAIN IN HER ROBE) Wait. Satan, you'll sing no more -lovesongs. Amen. Amen. Amen. Amen. (SHE DRAWS A PONIARD AND, CLAD IN THE -SHEATHMAIL OF AN ELECTED KNIGHT OF NINE, STRIKES AT HIS LOINS) Nekum! - -BLOOM: (STARTS UP, SEIZES HER HAND) Hoy! Nebrakada! Cat o' nine lives! -Fair play, madam. No pruningknife. The fox and the grapes, is it? What do -you lack with your barbed wire? Crucifix not thick enough? (HE CLUTCHES -HER VEIL) A holy abbot you want or Brophy, the lame gardener, or the -spoutless statue of the watercarrier, or good mother Alphonsus, eh -Reynard? - -THE NYMPH: (WITH A CRY FLEES FROM HIM UNVEILED, HER PLASTER CAST -CRACKING, A CLOUD OF STENCH ESCAPING FROM THE CRACKS) Poli ...! - -BLOOM: (CALLS AFTER HER) As if you didn't get it on the double -yourselves. No jerks and multiple mucosities all over you. I tried it. -Your strength our weakness. What's our studfee? What will you pay on the -nail? You fee mendancers on the Riviera, I read. (THE FLEEING NYMPH -RAISES A KEEN) Eh? I have sixteen years of black slave labour behind me. -And would a jury give me five shillings alimony tomorrow, eh? Fool -someone else, not me. (HE SNIFFS) Rut. Onions. Stale. Sulphur. Grease. - -(THE FIGURE OF BELLA COHEN STANDS BEFORE HIM.) - -BELLA: You'll know me the next time. - -BLOOM: (COMPOSED, REGARDS HER) Passee. Mutton dressed as lamb. Long in -the tooth and superfluous hair. A raw onion the last thing at night would -benefit your complexion. And take some double chin drill. Your eyes are -as vapid as the glasseyes of your stuffed fox. They have the dimensions -of your other features, that's all. I'm not a triple screw propeller. - -BELLA: (CONTEMPTUOUSLY) You're not game, in fact. (HER SOWCUNT BARKS) -Fbhracht! - -BLOOM: (CONTEMPTUOUSLY) Clean your nailless middle finger first, your -bully's cold spunk is dripping from your cockscomb. Take a handful of hay -and wipe yourself. - -BELLA: I know you, canvasser! Dead cod! - -BLOOM: I saw him, kipkeeper! Pox and gleet vendor! - -BELLA: (TURNS TO THE PIANO) Which of you was playing the dead march from -SAUL? - -ZOE: Me. Mind your cornflowers. (SHE DARTS TO THE PIANO AND BANGS CHORDS -ON IT WITH CROSSED ARMS) The cat's ramble through the slag. (SHE GLANCES -BACK) Eh? Who's making love to my sweeties? (SHE DARTS BACK TO THE TABLE) -What's yours is mine and what's mine is my own. - -(KITTY, DISCONCERTED, COATS HER TEETH WITH THE SILVER PAPER. BLOOM -APPROACHES ZOE.) - -BLOOM: (GENTLY) Give me back that potato, will you? - -ZOE: Forfeits, a fine thing and a superfine thing. - -BLOOM: (WITH FEELING) It is nothing, but still, a relic of poor mamma. - -ZOE: - - - Give a thing and take it back - God'll ask you where is that - You'll say you don't know - God'll send you down below. - - -BLOOM: There is a memory attached to it. I should like to have it. - -STEPHEN: To have or not to have that is the question. - -ZOE: Here. (SHE HAULS UP A REEF OF HER SLIP, REVEALING HER BARE THIGH, -AND UNROLLS THE POTATO FROM THE TOP OF HER STOCKING) Those that hides -knows where to find. - -BELLA: (FROWNS) Here. This isn't a musical peepshow. And don't you smash -that piano. Who's paying here? - -(SHE GOES TO THE PIANOLA. STEPHEN FUMBLES IN HIS POCKET AND, TAKING OUT A -BANKNOTE BY ITS CORNER, HANDS IT TO HER.) - -STEPHEN: (WITH EXAGGERATED POLITENESS) This silken purse I made out of -the sow's ear of the public. Madam, excuse me. If you allow me. (HE -INDICATES VAGUELY LYNCH AND BLOOM) We are all in the same sweepstake, -Kinch and Lynch. DANS CE BORDEL OU TENONS NOSTRE ETAT. - -LYNCH: (CALLS FROM THE HEARTH) Dedalus! Give her your blessing for me. - -STEPHEN: (HANDS BELLA A COIN) Gold. She has it. - -BELLA: (LOOKS AT THE MONEY, THEN AT STEPHEN, THEN AT ZOE, FLORRY AND -KITTY) Do you want three girls? It's ten shillings here. - -STEPHEN: (DELIGHTEDLY) A hundred thousand apologies. (HE FUMBLES AGAIN -AND TAKES OUT AND HANDS HER TWO CROWNS) Permit, BREVI MANU, my sight is -somewhat troubled. - -(BELLA GOES TO THE TABLE TO COUNT THE MONEY WHILE STEPHEN TALKS TO -HIMSELF IN MONOSYLLABLES. ZOE BENDS OVER THE TABLE. KITTY LEANS OVER -ZOE'S NECK. LYNCH GETS UP, RIGHTS HIS CAP AND, CLASPING KITTY'S WAIST, -ADDS HIS HEAD TO THE GROUP.) - -FLORRY: (STRIVES HEAVILY TO RISE) Ow! My foot's asleep. (SHE LIMPS OVER -TO THE TABLE. BLOOM APPROACHES.) - -BELLA, ZOE, KITTY, LYNCH, BLOOM: (CHATTERING AND SQUABBLING) The -gentleman ... ten shillings ... paying for the three ... allow me a -moment ... this gentleman pays separate ... who's touching it? ... ow! -... mind who you're pinching ... are you staying the night or a short -time?... who did?... you're a liar, excuse me ... the gentleman paid down -like a gentleman ... drink ... it's long after eleven. - -STEPHEN: (AT THE PIANOLA, MAKING A GESTURE OF ABHORRENCE) No bottles! -What, eleven? A riddle! - -ZOE: (LIFTING UP HER PETTIGOWN AND FOLDING A HALF SOVEREIGN INTO THE TOP -OF HER STOCKING) Hard earned on the flat of my back. - -LYNCH: (LIFTING KITTY FROM THE TABLE) Come! - -KITTY: Wait. (SHE CLUTCHES THE TWO CROWNS) - -FLORRY: And me? - -LYNCH: Hoopla! (HE LIFTS HER, CARRIES HER AND BUMPS HER DOWN ON THE -SOFA.) - -STEPHEN: - - - The fox crew, the cocks flew, - The bells in heaven - Were striking eleven. - 'Tis time for her poor soul - To get out of heaven. - - -BLOOM: (QUIETLY LAYS A HALF SOVEREIGN ON THE TABLE BETWEEN BELLA AND -FLORRY) So. Allow me. (HE TAKES UP THE POUNDNOTE) Three times ten. We're -square. - -BELLA: (ADMIRINGLY) You're such a slyboots, old cocky. I could kiss you. - -ZOE: (POINTS) Him? Deep as a drawwell. (LYNCH BENDS KITTY BACK OVER THE -SOFA AND KISSES HER. BLOOM GOES WITH THE POUNDNOTE TO STEPHEN.) - -BLOOM: This is yours. - -STEPHEN: How is that? LES DISTRAIT or absentminded beggar. (HE FUMBLES -AGAIN IN HIS POCKET AND DRAWS OUT A HANDFUL OF COINS. AN OBJECT FILLS.) -That fell. - -BLOOM: (STOOPING, PICKS UP AND HANDS A BOX OF MATCHES) This. - -STEPHEN: Lucifer. Thanks. - -BLOOM: (QUIETLY) You had better hand over that cash to me to take care -of. Why pay more? - -STEPHEN: (HANDS HIM ALL HIS COINS) Be just before you are generous. - -BLOOM: I will but is it wise? (HE COUNTS) One, seven, eleven, and five. -Six. Eleven. I don't answer for what you may have lost. - -STEPHEN: Why striking eleven? Proparoxyton. Moment before the next -Lessing says. Thirsty fox. (HE LAUGHS LOUDLY) Burying his grandmother. -Probably he killed her. - -BLOOM: That is one pound six and eleven. One pound seven, say. - -STEPHEN: Doesn't matter a rambling damn. - -BLOOM: No, but ... - -STEPHEN: (COMES TO THE TABLE) Cigarette, please. (LYNCH TOSSES A -CIGARETTE FROM THE SOFA TO THE TABLE) And so Georgina Johnson is dead and -married. (A CIGARETTE APPEARS ON THE TABLE. STEPHEN LOOKS AT IT) Wonder. -Parlour magic. Married. Hm. (HE STRIKES A MATCH AND PROCEEDS TO LIGHT THE -CIGARETTE WITH ENIGMATIC MELANCHOLY) - -LYNCH: (WATCHING HIM) You would have a better chance of lighting it if -you held the match nearer. - -STEPHEN: (BRINGS THE MATCH NEAR HIS EYE) Lynx eye. Must get glasses. -Broke them yesterday. Sixteen years ago. Distance. The eye sees all flat. -(HE DRAWS THE MATCH AWAY. IT GOES OUT.) Brain thinks. Near: far. -Ineluctable modality of the visible. (HE FROWNS MYSTERIOUSLY) Hm. Sphinx. -The beast that has twobacks at midnight. Married. - -ZOE: It was a commercial traveller married her and took her away with -him. - -FLORRY: (NODS) Mr Lambe from London. - -STEPHEN: Lamb of London, who takest away the sins of our world. - -LYNCH: (EMBRACING KITTY ON THE SOFA, CHANTS DEEPLY) DONA NOBIS PACEM. - -(THE CIGARETTE SLIPS FROM STEPHEN 'S FINGERS. BLOOM PICKS IT UP AND -THROWS IT IN THE GRATE.) - -BLOOM: Don't smoke. You ought to eat. Cursed dog I met. (TO ZOE) You have -nothing? - -ZOE: Is he hungry? - -STEPHEN: (EXTENDS HIS HAND TO HER SMILING AND CHANTS TO THE AIR OF THE -BLOODOATH IN THE Dusk of the Gods) - - - Hangende Hunger, - Fragende Frau, - Macht uns alle kaputt. - - -ZOE: (TRAGICALLY) Hamlet, I am thy father's gimlet! (SHE TAKES HIS HAND) -Blue eyes beauty I'll read your hand. (SHE POINTS TO HIS FOREHEAD) No -wit, no wrinkles. (SHE COUNTS) Two, three, Mars, that's courage. (STEPHEN -SHAKES HIS HEAD) No kid. - -LYNCH: Sheet lightning courage. The youth who could not shiver and shake. -(TO ZOE) Who taught you palmistry? - -ZOE: (TURNS) Ask my ballocks that I haven't got. (TO STEPHEN) I see it in -your face. The eye, like that. (SHE FROWNS WITH LOWERED HEAD) - -LYNCH: (LAUGHING, SLAPS KITTY BEHIND TWICE) Like that. Pandybat. - -(TWICE LOUDLY A PANDYBAT CRACKS, THE COFFIN OF THE PIANOLA FLIES OPEN, -THE BALD LITTLE ROUND JACK-IN-THE-BOX HEAD OF FATHER DOLAN SPRINGS UP.) - -FATHER DOLAN: Any boy want flogging? Broke his glasses? Lazy idle little -schemer. See it in your eye. - -(MILD, BENIGN, RECTORIAL, REPROVING, THE HEAD OF DON JOHN CONMEE RISES -FROM THE PIANOLA COFFIN.) - -DON JOHN CONMEE: Now, Father Dolan! Now. I'm sure that Stephen is a very -good little boy! - -ZOE: (EXAMINING STEPHEN'S PALM) Woman's hand. - -STEPHEN: (MURMURS) Continue. Lie. Hold me. Caress. I never could read His -handwriting except His criminal thumbprint on the haddock. - -ZOE: What day were you born? - -STEPHEN: Thursday. Today. - -ZOE: Thursday's child has far to go. (SHE TRACES LINES ON HIS HAND) Line -of fate. Influential friends. - -FLORRY: (POINTING) Imagination. - -ZOE: Mount of the moon. You'll meet with a ... (SHE PEERS AT HIS HANDS -ABRUPTLY) I won't tell you what's not good for you. Or do you want to -know? - -BLOOM: (DETACHES HER FINGERS AND OFFERS HIS PALM) More harm than good. -Here. Read mine. - -BELLA: Show. (SHE TURNS UP BLOOM'S HAND) I thought so. Knobby knuckles -for the women. - -ZOE: (PEERING AT BLOOM'S PALM) Gridiron. Travels beyond the sea and marry -money. - -BLOOM: Wrong. - -ZOE: (QUICKLY) O, I see. Short little finger. Henpecked husband. That -wrong? - -(BLACK LIZ, A HUGE ROOSTER HATCHING IN A CHALKED CIRCLE, RISES, STRETCHES -HER WINGS AND CLUCKS.) - -BLACK LIZ: Gara. Klook. Klook. Klook. - -(SHE SIDLES FROM HER NEWLAID EGG AND WADDLES OFF) - -BLOOM: (POINTS TO HIS HAND) That weal there is an accident. Fell and cut -it twentytwo years ago. I was sixteen. - -ZOE: I see, says the blind man. Tell us news. - -STEPHEN: See? Moves to one great goal. I am twentytwo. Sixteen years ago -he was twentytwo too. Sixteen years ago I twentytwo tumbled. Twentytwo -years ago he sixteen fell off his hobbyhorse. (HE WINCES) Hurt my hand -somewhere. Must see a dentist. Money? - -(ZOE WHISPERS TO FLORRY. THEY GIGGLE. BLOOM RELEASES HIS HAND AND WRITES -IDLY ON THE TABLE IN BACKHAND, PENCILLING SLOW CURVES.) - -FLORRY: What? - -(A HACKNEYCAR, NUMBER THREE HUNDRED AND TWENTYFOUR, WITH A -GALLANTBUTTOCKED MARE, DRIVEN BY JAMES BARTON, HARMONY AVENUE, -DONNYBROOK, TROTS PAST. BLAZES BOYLAN AND LENEHAN SPRAWL SWAYING ON THE -SIDESEATS. THE ORMOND BOOTS CROUCHES BEHIND ON THE AXLE. SADLY OVER THE -CROSSBLIND LYDIA DOUCE AND MINA KENNEDY GAZE.) - -THE BOOTS: (JOGGING, MOCKS THEM WITH THUMB AND WRIGGLING WORMFINGERS) Haw -haw have you the horn? - -(BRONZE BY GOLD THEY WHISPER.) - -ZOE: (TO FLORRY) Whisper. - -(THEY WHISPER AGAIN) - -(OVER THE WELL OF THE CAR BLAZES BOYLAN LEANS, HIS BOATER STRAW SET -SIDEWAYS, A RED FLOWER IN HIS MOUTH. LENEHAN IN YACHTSMAN'S CAP AND WHITE -SHOES OFFICIOUSLY DETACHES A LONG HAIR FROM BLAZES BOYLAN'S COAT -SHOULDER.) - -LENEHAN: Ho! What do I here behold? Were you brushing the cobwebs off a -few quims? - -BOYLAN: (SEATED, SMILES) Plucking a turkey. - -LENEHAN: A good night's work. - -BOYLAN: (HOLDING UP FOUR THICK BLUNTUNGULATED FINGERS, WINKS) Blazes -Kate! Up to sample or your money back. (HE HOLDS OUT A FOREFINGER) Smell -that. - -LENEHAN: (SMELLS GLEEFULLY) Ah! Lobster and mayonnaise. Ah! - -ZOE AND FLORRY: (LAUGH TOGETHER) Ha ha ha ha. - -BOYLAN: (JUMPS SURELY FROM THE CAR AND CALLS LOUDLY FOR ALL TO HEAR) -Hello, Bloom! Mrs Bloom dressed yet? - -BLOOM: (IN FLUNKEY'S PRUNE PLUSH COAT AND KNEEBREECHES, BUFF STOCKINGS -AND POWDERED WIG) I'm afraid not, sir. The last articles ... - -BOYLAN: (TOSSES HIM SIXPENCE) Here, to buy yourself a gin and splash. (HE -HANGS HIS HAT SMARTLY ON A PEG OF BLOOM'S ANTLERED HEAD) Show me in. I -have a little private business with your wife, you understand? - -BLOOM: Thank you, sir. Yes, sir. Madam Tweedy is in her bath, sir. - -MARION: He ought to feel himself highly honoured. (SHE PLOPS SPLASHING -OUT OF THE WATER) Raoul darling, come and dry me. I'm in my pelt. Only my -new hat and a carriage sponge. - -BOYLAN: (A MERRY TWINKLE IN HIS EYE) Topping! - -BELLA: What? What is it? - -(ZOE WHISPERS TO HER.) - -MARION: Let him look, the pishogue! Pimp! And scourge himself! I'll write -to a powerful prostitute or Bartholomona, the bearded woman, to raise -weals out on him an inch thick and make him bring me back a signed and -stamped receipt. - -BOYLAN: (clasps himself) Here, I can't hold this little lot much longer. -(he strides off on stiff cavalry legs) - -BELLA: (LAUGHING) Ho ho ho ho. - -BOYLAN: (TO BLOOM, OVER HIS SHOULDER) You can apply your eye to the -keyhole and play with yourself while I just go through her a few times. - -BLOOM: Thank you, sir. I will, sir. May I bring two men chums to witness -the deed and take a snapshot? (HE HOLDS OUT AN OINTMENT JAR) Vaseline, -sir? Orangeflower ...? Lukewarm water ...? - -KITTY: (FROM THE SOFA) Tell us, Florry. Tell us. What. - -(FLORRY WHISPERS TO HER. WHISPERING LOVEWORDS MURMUR, LIPLAPPING LOUDLY, -POPPYSMIC PLOPSLOP.) - -MINA KENNEDY: (HER EYES UPTURNED) O, it must be like the scent of -geraniums and lovely peaches! O, he simply idolises every bit of her! -Stuck together! Covered with kisses! - -LYDIA DOUCE: (HER MOUTH OPENING) Yumyum. O, he's carrying her round the -room doing it! Ride a cockhorse. You could hear them in Paris and New -York. Like mouthfuls of strawberries and cream. - -KITTY: (LAUGHING) Hee hee hee. - -BOYLAN'S VOICE: (SWEETLY, HOARSELY, IN THE PIT OF HIS STOMACH) Ah! -Gooblazqruk brukarchkrasht! - -MARION'S VOICE: (HOARSELY, SWEETLY, RISING TO HER THROAT) O! -Weeshwashtkissinapooisthnapoohuck? - -BLOOM: (HIS EYES WILDLY DILATED, CLASPS HIMSELF) Show! Hide! Show! Plough -her! More! Shoot! - -BELLA, ZOE, FLORRY, KITTY: Ho ho! Ha ha! Hee hee! - -LYNCH: (POINTS) The mirror up to nature. (HE LAUGHS) Hu hu hu hu hu! - -(STEPHEN AND BLOOM GAZE IN THE MIRROR. THE FACE OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, -BEARDLESS, APPEARS THERE, RIGID IN FACIAL PARALYSIS, CROWNED BY THE -REFLECTION OF THE REINDEER ANTLERED HATRACK IN THE HALL.) - -SHAKESPEARE: (IN DIGNIFIED VENTRILOQUY) 'Tis the loud laugh bespeaks the -vacant mind. (TO BLOOM) Thou thoughtest as how thou wastest invisible. -Gaze. (HE CROWS WITH A BLACK CAPON'S LAUGH) Iagogo! How my Oldfellow -chokit his Thursdaymornun. Iagogogo! - -BLOOM: (SMILES YELLOWLY AT THE THREE WHORES) When will I hear the joke? - -ZOE: Before you're twice married and once a widower. - -BLOOM: Lapses are condoned. Even the great Napoleon when measurements -were taken next the skin after his death ... - -(MRS DIGNAM, WIDOW WOMAN, HER SNUBNOSE AND CHEEKS FLUSHED WITH DEATHTALK, -TEARS AND TUNNEY'S TAWNY SHERRY, HURRIES BY IN HER WEEDS, HER BONNET -AWRY, ROUGING AND POWDERING HER CHEEKS, LIPS AND NOSE, A PEN CHIVVYING -HER BROOD OF CYGNETS. BENEATH HER SKIRT APPEAR HER LATE HUSBAND'S -EVERYDAY TROUSERS AND TURNEDUP BOOTS, LARGE EIGHTS. SHE HOLDS A SCOTTISH -WIDOWS' INSURANCE POLICY AND A LARGE MARQUEE UMBRELLA UNDER WHICH HER -BROOD RUN WITH HER, PATSY HOPPING ON ONE SHOD FOOT, HIS COLLAR LOOSE, A -HANK OF PORKSTEAKS DANGLING, FREDDY WHIMPERING, SUSY WITH A CRYING COD'S -MOUTH, ALICE STRUGGLING WITH THE BABY. SHE CUFFS THEM ON, HER STREAMERS -FLAUNTING ALOFT.) - -FREDDY: Ah, ma, you're dragging me along! - -SUSY: Mamma, the beeftea is fizzing over! - -SHAKESPEARE: (WITH PARALYTIC RAGE) Weda seca whokilla farst. - -(THE FACE OF MARTIN CUNNINGHAM, BEARDED, REFEATURES SHAKESPEARE'S -BEARDLESS FACE. THE MARQUEE UMBRELLA SWAYS DRUNKENLY, THE CHILDREN RUN -ASIDE. UNDER THE UMBRELLA APPEARS MRS CUNNINGHAM IN MERRY WIDOW HAT AND -KIMONO GOWN. SHE GLIDES SIDLING AND BOWING, TWIRLING JAPANESILY.) - -MRS CUNNINGHAM: (SINGS) - - - And they call me the jewel of Asia! - - -MARTIN CUNNINGHAM: (GAZES ON HER, IMPASSIVE) Immense! Most bloody awful -demirep! - -STEPHEN: ET EXALTABUNTUR CORNUA IUSTI. Queens lay with prize bulls. -Remember Pasiphae for whose lust my grandoldgrossfather made the first -confessionbox. Forget not Madam Grissel Steevens nor the suine scions of -the house of Lambert. And Noah was drunk with wine. And his ark was open. - -BELLA: None of that here. Come to the wrong shop. - -LYNCH: Let him alone. He's back from Paris. - -ZOE: (RUNS TO STEPHEN AND LINKS HIM) O go on! Give us some parleyvoo. - -(STEPHEN CLAPS HAT ON HEAD AND LEAPS OVER TO THE FIREPLACE WHERE HE -STANDS WITH SHRUGGED SHOULDERS, FINNY HANDS OUTSPREAD, A PAINTED SMILE ON -HIS FACE.) - -LYNCH: (POMMELLING ON THE SOFA) Rmm Rmm Rmm Rrrrrrmmmm. - -STEPHEN: (GABBLES WITH MARIONETTE JERKS) Thousand places of entertainment -to expense your evenings with lovely ladies saling gloves and other -things perhaps hers heart beerchops perfect fashionable house very -eccentric where lots cocottes beautiful dressed much about princesses -like are dancing cancan and walking there parisian clowneries extra -foolish for bachelors foreigns the same if talking a poor english how -much smart they are on things love and sensations voluptuous. Misters -very selects for is pleasure must to visit heaven and hell show with -mortuary candles and they tears silver which occur every night. Perfectly -shocking terrific of religion's things mockery seen in universal world. -All chic womans which arrive full of modesty then disrobe and squeal loud -to see vampire man debauch nun very fresh young with DESSOUS TROUBLANTS. -(HE CLACKS HIS TONGUE LOUDLY) HO, LA LA! CE PIF QU'IL A! - -LYNCH: VIVE LE VAMPIRE! - -THE WHORES: Bravo! Parleyvoo! - -STEPHEN: (GRIMACING WITH HEAD BACK, LAUGHS LOUDLY, CLAPPING HIMSELF) -Great success of laughing. Angels much prostitutes like and holy apostles -big damn ruffians. DEMIMONDAINES nicely handsome sparkling of diamonds -very amiable costumed. Or do you are fond better what belongs they -moderns pleasure turpitude of old mans? (HE POINTS ABOUT HIM WITH -GROTESQUE GESTURES WHICH LYNCH AND THE WHORES REPLY TO) Caoutchouc statue -woman reversible or lifesize tompeeptom of virgins nudities very lesbic -the kiss five ten times. Enter, gentleman, to see in mirror every -positions trapezes all that machine there besides also if desire act -awfully bestial butcher's boy pollutes in warm veal liver or omlet on the -belly PIECE DE SHAKESPEARE. - -BELLA: (CLAPPING HER BELLY SINKS BACK ON THE SOFA, WITH A SHOUT OF -LAUGHTER) An omelette on the ... Ho! ho! ho! ho! ... omelette on the ... - -STEPHEN: (MINCINGLY) I love you, sir darling. Speak you englishman tongue -for DOUBLE ENTENTE CORDIALE. O yes, MON LOUP. How much cost? Waterloo. -Watercloset. (HE CEASES SUDDENLY AND HOLDS UP A FOREFINGER) - -BELLA: (LAUGHING) Omelette ... - -THE WHORES: (LAUGHING) Encore! Encore! - -STEPHEN: Mark me. I dreamt of a watermelon. - -ZOE: Go abroad and love a foreign lady. - -LYNCH: Across the world for a wife. - -FLORRY: Dreams goes by contraries. - -STEPHEN: (EXTENDS HIS ARMS) It was here. Street of harlots. In Serpentine -avenue Beelzebub showed me her, a fubsy widow. Where's the red carpet -spread? - -BLOOM: (APPROACHING STEPHEN) Look ... - -STEPHEN: No, I flew. My foes beneath me. And ever shall be. World without -end. (HE CRIES) PATER! Free! - -BLOOM: I say, look ... - -STEPHEN: Break my spirit, will he? O MERDE ALORS! (HE CRIES, HIS VULTURE -TALONS SHARPENED) Hola! Hillyho! - -(SIMON DEDALUS' VOICE HILLOES IN ANSWER, SOMEWHAT SLEEPY BUT READY.) - -SIMON: That's all right. (HE SWOOPS UNCERTAINLY THROUGH THE AIR, -WHEELING, UTTERING CRIES OF HEARTENING, ON STRONG PONDEROUS BUZZARD -WINGS) Ho, boy! Are you going to win? Hoop! Pschatt! Stable with those -halfcastes. Wouldn't let them within the bawl of an ass. Head up! Keep -our flag flying! An eagle gules volant in a field argent displayed. -Ulster king at arms! Haihoop! (HE MAKES THE BEAGLE'S CALL, GIVING TONGUE) -Bulbul! Burblblburblbl! Hai, boy! - -(THE FRONDS AND SPACES OF THE WALLPAPER FILE RAPIDLY ACROSS COUNTRY. A -STOUT FOX, DRAWN FROM COVERT, BRUSH POINTED, HAVING BURIED HIS -GRANDMOTHER, RUNS SWIFT FOR THE OPEN, BRIGHTEYED, SEEKING BADGER EARTH, -UNDER THE LEAVES. THE PACK OF STAGHOUNDS FOLLOWS, NOSE TO THE GROUND, -SNIFFING THEIR QUARRY, BEAGLEBAYING, BURBLBRBLING TO BE BLOODED. WARD -UNION HUNTSMEN AND HUNTSWOMEN LIVE WITH THEM, HOT FOR A KILL. FROM SIX -MILE POINT, FLATHOUSE, NINE MILE STONE FOLLOW THE FOOTPEOPLE WITH KNOTTY -STICKS, HAYFORKS, SALMONGAFFS, LASSOS, FLOCKMASTERS WITH STOCKWHIPS, -BEARBAITERS WITH TOMTOMS, TOREADORS WITH BULLSWORDS, GREYNEGROES WAVING -TORCHES. THE CROWD BAWLS OF DICERS, CROWN AND ANCHOR PLAYERS, -THIMBLERIGGERS, BROADSMEN. CROWS AND TOUTS, HOARSE BOOKIES IN HIGH WIZARD -HATS CLAMOUR DEAFENINGLY.) - -THE CROWD: - - - Card of the races. Racing card! - Ten to one the field! - Tommy on the clay here! Tommy on the clay! - Ten to one bar one! Ten to one bar one! - Try your luck on Spinning Jenny! - Ten to one bar one! - Sell the monkey, boys! Sell the monkey! - I'll give ten to one! - Ten to one bar one! - - -(A DARK HORSE, RIDERLESS, BOLTS LIKE A PHANTOM PAST THE WINNINGPOST, HIS -MANE MOONFOAMING, HIS EYEBALLS STARS. THE FIELD FOLLOWS, A BUNCH OF -BUCKING MOUNTS. SKELETON HORSES, SCEPTRE, MAXIMUM THE SECOND, ZINFANDEL, -THE DUKE OF WESTMINSTER'S SHOTOVER, REPULSE, THE DUKE OF BEAUFORT'S -CEYLON, PRIX DE PARIS. DWARFS RIDE THEM, RUSTYARMOURED, LEAPING, LEAPING -IN THEIR, IN THEIR SADDLES. LAST IN A DRIZZLE OF RAIN ON A BROKENWINDED -ISABELLE NAG, COCK OF THE NORTH, THE FAVOURITE, HONEY CAP, GREEN JACKET, -ORANGE SLEEVES, GARRETT DEASY UP, GRIPPING THE REINS, A HOCKEYSTICK AT -THE READY. HIS NAG ON SPAVINED WHITEGAITERED FEET JOGS ALONG THE ROCKY -ROAD.) - -THE ORANGE LODGES: (JEERING) Get down and push, mister. Last lap! You'll -be home the night! - -GARRETT DEASY: (BOLT UPRIGHT, HIS NAILSCRAPED FACE PLASTERED WITH -POSTAGESTAMPS, BRANDISHES HIS HOCKEYSTICK, HIS BLUE EYES FLASHING IN THE -PRISM OF THE CHANDELIER AS HIS MOUNT LOPES BY AT SCHOOLING GALLOP) - -PER VIAS RECTAS! - -(A YOKE OF BUCKETS LEOPARDS ALL OVER HIM AND HIS REARING NAG A TORRENT OF -MUTTON BROTH WITH DANCING COINS OF CARROTS, BARLEY, ONIONS, TURNIPS, -POTATOES.) - -THE GREEN LODGES: Soft day, sir John! Soft day, your honour! - -(PRIVATE CARR, PRIVATE COMPTON AND CISSY CAFFREY PASS BENEATH THE -WINDOWS, SINGING IN DISCORD.) - -STEPHEN: Hark! Our friend noise in the street. - -ZOE: (HOLDS UP HER HAND) Stop! - -PRIVATE CARR, PRIVATE COMPTON AND CISSY CAFFREY: - - - Yet I've a sort a - Yorkshire relish for ... - - -ZOE: That's me. (SHE CLAPS HER HANDS) Dance! Dance! (SHE RUNS TO THE -PIANOLA) Who has twopence? - -BLOOM: Who'll ...? - -LYNCH: (HANDING HER COINS) Here. - -STEPHEN: (CRACKING HIS FINGERS IMPATIENTLY) Quick! Quick! Where's my -augur's rod? (HE RUNS TO THE PIANO AND TAKES HIS ASHPLANT, BEATING HIS -FOOT IN TRIPUDIUM) - -ZOE: (TURNS THE DRUMHANDLE) There. - -(SHE DROPS TWO PENNIES IN THE SLOT. GOLD, PINK AND VIOLET LIGHTS START -FORTH. THE DRUM TURNS PURRING IN LOW HESITATION WALTZ. PROFESSOR GOODWIN, -IN A BOWKNOTTED PERIWIG, IN COURT DRESS, WEARING A STAINED INVERNESS -CAPE, BENT IN TWO FROM INCREDIBLE AGE, TOTTERS ACROSS THE ROOM, HIS HANDS -FLUTTERING. HE SITS TINILY ON THE PIANOSTOOL AND LIFTS AND BEATS HANDLESS -STICKS OF ARMS ON THE KEYBOARD, NODDING WITH DAMSEL'S GRACE, HIS BOWKNOT -BOBBING) - -ZOE: (TWIRLS ROUND HERSELF, HEELTAPPING) Dance. Anybody here for there? -Who'll dance? Clear the table. - -(THE PIANOLA WITH CHANGING LIGHTS PLAYS IN WALTZ TIME THE PRELUDE OF My -Girl's a Yorkshire Girl. STEPHEN THROWS HIS ASHPLANT ON THE TABLE AND -SEIZES ZOE ROUND THE WAIST. FLORRY AND BELLA PUSH THE TABLE TOWARDS THE -FIREPLACE. STEPHEN, ARMING ZOE WITH EXAGGERATED GRACE, BEGINS TO WALTZ -HER ROUND THE ROOM. BLOOM STANDS ASIDE. HER SLEEVE FILLING FROM GRACING -ARMS REVEALS A WHITE FLESHFLOWER OF VACCINATION. BETWEEN THE CURTAINS -PROFESSOR MAGINNI INSERTS A LEG ON THE TOEPOINT OF WHICH SPINS A SILK -HAT. WITH A DEFT KICK HE SENDS IT SPINNING TO HIS CROWN AND JAUNTYHATTED -SKATES IN. HE WEARS A SLATE FROCKCOAT WITH CLARET SILK LAPELS, A GORGET -OF CREAM TULLE, A GREEN LOWCUT WAISTCOAT, STOCK COLLAR WITH WHITE -KERCHIEF, TIGHT LAVENDER TROUSERS, PATENT PUMPS AND CANARY GLOVES. IN HIS -BUTTONHOLE IS AN IMMENSE DAHLIA. HE TWIRLS IN REVERSED DIRECTIONS A -CLOUDED CANE, THEN WEDGES IT TIGHT IN HIS OXTER. HE PLACES A HAND LIGHTLY -ON HIS BREASTBONE, BOWS, AND FONDLES HIS FLOWER AND BUTTONS.) - -MAGINNI: The poetry of motion, art of calisthenics. No connection with -Madam Legget Byrne's or Levenston's. Fancy dress balls arranged. -Deportment. The Katty Lanner step. So. Watch me! My terpsichorean -abilities. (HE MINUETS FORWARD THREE PACES ON TRIPPING BEE'S FEET) TOUT -LE MONDE EN AVANT! REVERENCE! TOUT LE MONDE EN PLACE! - -(THE PRELUDE CEASES. PROFESSOR GOODWIN, BEATING VAGUE ARMS SHRIVELS, -SINKS, HIS LIVE CAPE FILLING ABOUT THE STOOL. THE AIR IN FIRMER WALTZ -TIME SOUNDS. STEPHEN AND ZOE CIRCLE FREELY. THE LIGHTS CHANGE, GLOW, FIDE -GOLD ROSY VIOLET.) - -THE PIANOLA: - - - Two young fellows were talking about their girls, girls, girls, - Sweethearts they'd left behind ... - - -(FROM A CORNER THE MORNING HOURS RUN OUT, GOLDHAIRED, SLIMSANDALLED, IN -GIRLISH BLUE, WASPWAISTED, WITH INNOCENT HANDS. NIMBLY THEY DANCE, -TWIRLING THEIR SKIPPING ROPES. THE HOURS OF NOON FOLLOW IN AMBER GOLD. -LAUGHING, LINKED, HIGH HAIRCOMBS FLASHING, THEY CATCH THE SUN IN MOCKING -MIRRORS, LIFTING THEIR ARMS.) - -MAGINNI: (CLIPCLAPS GLOVESILENT HANDS) CARRE! AVANT DEUX! Breathe evenly! -BALANCE! - -(THE MORNING AND NOON HOURS WALTZ IN THEIR PLACES, TURNING, ADVANCING TO -EACH OTHER, SHAPING THEIR CURVES, BOWING VISAVIS. CAVALIERS BEHIND THEM -ARCH AND SUSPEND THEIR ARMS, WITH HANDS DESCENDING TO, TOUCHING, RISING -FROM THEIR SHOULDERS.) - -HOURS: You may touch my. - -CAVALIERS: May I touch your? - -HOURS: O, but lightly! - -CAVALIERS: O, so lightly! - -THE PIANOLA: - - - My little shy little lass has a waist. - - -(ZOE AND STEPHEN TURN BOLDLY WITH LOOSER SWING. THE TWILIGHT HOURS -ADVANCE FROM LONG LANDSHADOWS, DISPERSED, LAGGING, LANGUIDEYED, THEIR -CHEEKS DELICATE WITH CIPRIA AND FALSE FAINT BLOOM. THEY ARE IN GREY GAUZE -WITH DARK BAT SLEEVES THAT FLUTTER IN THE LAND BREEZE.) - -MAGINNI: AVANT HUIT! TRAVERSE! SALUT! COURS DE MAINS! CROISE! - -(THE NIGHT HOURS, ONE BY ONE, STEAL TO THE LAST PLACE. MORNING, NOON AND -TWILIGHT HOURS RETREAT BEFORE THEM. THEY ARE MASKED, WITH DAGGERED HAIR -AND BRACELETS OF DULL BELLS. WEARY THEY CURCHYCURCHY UNDER VEILS.) - -THE BRACELETS: Heigho! Heigho! - -ZOE: (TWIRLING, HER HAND TO HER BROW) O! - -MAGINNI: LES TIROIRS! CHAINE DE DAMES! LA CORBEILLE! DOS A DOS! - -(ARABESQUING WEARILY THEY WEAVE A PATTERN ON THE FLOOR, WEAVING, -UNWEAVING, CURTSEYING, TWIRLING, SIMPLY SWIRLING.) - -ZOE: I'm giddy! - -(SHE FREES HERSELF, DROOPS ON A CHAIR. STEPHEN SEIZES FLORRY AND TURNS -WITH HER.) - -MAGINNI: BOULANGERE! LES RONDS! LES PONTS! CHEVAUX DE BOIS! ESCARGOTS! - -(TWINING, RECEDING, WITH INTERCHANGING HANDS THE NIGHT HOURS LINK EACH -EACH WITH ARCHING ARMS IN A MOSAIC OF MOVEMENTS. STEPHEN AND FLORRY TURN -CUMBROUSLY.) - -MAGINNI: DANSEZ AVEC VOS DAMES! CHANGEZ DE DAMES! DONNEZ LE PETIT BOUQUET -A VOTRE DAME! REMERCIEZ! - -THE PIANOLA: - - - Best, best of all, - Baraabum! - - -KITTY: (JUMPS UP) O, they played that on the hobbyhorses at the Mirus -bazaar! - -(SHE RUNS TO STEPHEN. HE LEAVES FLORRY BRUSQUELY AND SEIZES KITTY. A -SCREAMING BITTERN'S HARSH HIGH WHISTLE SHRIEKS. GROANGROUSEGURGLING -TOFT'S CUMBERSOME WHIRLIGIG TURNS SLOWLY THE ROOM RIGHT ROUNDABOUT THE -ROOM.) - -THE PIANOLA: - - - My girl's a Yorkshire girl. - - -ZOE: - - - Yorkshire through and through. - - -Come on all! - -(SHE SEIZES FLORRY AND WALTZES HER.) - -STEPHEN: PAS SEUL! - -(HE WHEELS KITTY INTO LYNCH'S ARMS, SNATCHES UP HIS ASHPLANT FROM THE -TABLE AND TAKES THE FLOOR. ALL WHEEL WHIRL WALTZ TWIRL. BLOOMBELLA -KITTYLYNCH FLORRYZOE JUJUBY WOMEN. STEPHEN WITH HAT ASHPLANT FROGSPLITS -IN MIDDLE HIGHKICKS WITH SKYKICKING MOUTH SHUT HAND CLASP PART UNDER -THIGH. WITH CLANG TINKLE BOOMHAMMER TALLYHO HORNBLOWER BLUE GREEN YELLOW -FLASHES TOFT'S CUMBERSOME TURNS WITH HOBBYHORSE RIDERS FROM GILDED SNAKES -DANGLED, BOWELS FANDANGO LEAPING SPURN SOIL FOOT AND FALL AGAIN.) - -THE PIANOLA: - - - Though she's a factory lass - And wears no fancy clothes. - - -(CLOSECLUTCHED SWIFT SWIFTER WITH GLAREBLAREFLARE SCUDDING THEY -SCOOTLOOTSHOOT LUMBERING BY. BARAABUM!) - -TUTTI: Encore! Bis! Bravo! Encore! - -SIMON: Think of your mother's people! - -STEPHEN: Dance of death. - -(BANG FRESH BARANG BANG OF LACQUEY'S BELL, HORSE, NAG, STEER, PIGLINGS, -CONMEE ON CHRISTASS, LAME CRUTCH AND LEG SAILOR IN COCKBOAT ARMFOLDED -ROPEPULLING HITCHING STAMP HORNPIPE THROUGH AND THROUGH. BARAABUM! ON -NAGS HOGS BELLHORSES GADARENE SWINE CORNY IN COFFIN STEEL SHARK STONE -ONEHANDLED NELSON TWO TRICKIES FRAUENZIMMER PLUMSTAINED FROM PRAM FILLING -BAWLING GUM HE'S A CHAMPION. FUSEBLUE PEER FROM BARREL REV. EVENSONG LOVE -ON HACKNEY JAUNT BLAZES BLIND CODDOUBLED BICYCLERS DILLY WITH SNOWCAKE NO -FANCY CLOTHES. THEN IN LAST SWITCHBACK LUMBERING UP AND DOWN BUMP MASHTUB -SORT OF VICEROY AND REINE RELISH FOR TUBLUMBER BUMPSHIRE ROSE. BARAABUM!) - -(THE COUPLES FALL ASIDE. STEPHEN WHIRLS GIDDILY. ROOM WHIRLS BACK. EYES -CLOSED HE TOTTERS. RED RAILS FLY SPACEWARDS. STARS ALL AROUND SUNS TURN -ROUNDABOUT. BRIGHT MIDGES DANCE ON WALLS. HE STOPS DEAD.) - -STEPHEN: Ho! - -(STEPHEN'S MOTHER, EMACIATED, RISES STARK THROUGH THE FLOOR, IN LEPER -GREY WITH A WREATH OF FADED ORANGEBLOSSOMS AND A TORN BRIDAL VEIL, HER -FACE WORN AND NOSELESS, GREEN WITH GRAVEMOULD. HER HAIR IS SCANT AND -LANK. SHE FIXES HER BLUECIRCLED HOLLOW EYESOCKETS ON STEPHEN AND OPENS -HER TOOTHLESS MOUTH UTTERING A SILENT WORD. A CHOIR OF VIRGINS AND -CONFESSORS SING VOICELESSLY.) - -THE CHOIR: - - - Liliata rutilantium te confessorum ... - Iubilantium te virginum ... - - -(FROM THE TOP OF A TOWER BUCK MULLIGAN, IN PARTICOLOURED JESTER'S DRESS -OF PUCE AND YELLOW AND CLOWN'S CAP WITH CURLING BELL, STANDS GAPING AT -HER, A SMOKING BUTTERED SPLIT SCONE IN HIS HAND.) - -BUCK MULLIGAN: She's beastly dead. The pity of it! Mulligan meets the -afflicted mother. (HE UPTURNS HIS EYES) Mercurial Malachi! - -THE MOTHER: (WITH THE SUBTLE SMILE OF DEATH'S MADNESS) I was once the -beautiful May Goulding. I am dead. - -STEPHEN: (HORRORSTRUCK) Lemur, who are you? No. What bogeyman's trick is -this? - -BUCK MULLIGAN: (SHAKES HIS CURLING CAPBELL) The mockery of it! Kinch -dogsbody killed her bitchbody. She kicked the bucket. (TEARS OF MOLTEN -BUTTER FALL FROM HIS EYES ON TO THE SCONE) Our great sweet mother! EPI -OINOPA PONTON. - -THE MOTHER: (COMES NEARER, BREATHING UPON HIM SOFTLY HER BREATH OF WETTED -ASHES) All must go through it, Stephen. More women than men in the world. -You too. Time will come. - -STEPHEN: (CHOKING WITH FRIGHT, REMORSE AND HORROR) They say I killed you, -mother. He offended your memory. Cancer did it, not I. Destiny. - -THE MOTHER: (A GREEN RILL OF BILE TRICKLING FROM A SIDE OF HER MOUTH) You -sang that song to me. LOVE'S BITTER MYSTERY. - -STEPHEN: (EAGERLY) Tell me the word, mother, if you know now. The word -known to all men. - -THE MOTHER: Who saved you the night you jumped into the train at Dalkey -with Paddy Lee? Who had pity for you when you were sad among the -strangers? Prayer is allpowerful. Prayer for the suffering souls in the -Ursuline manual and forty days' indulgence. Repent, Stephen. - -STEPHEN: The ghoul! Hyena! - -THE MOTHER: I pray for you in my other world. Get Dilly to make you that -boiled rice every night after your brainwork. Years and years I loved -you, O, my son, my firstborn, when you lay in my womb. - -ZOE: (FANNING HERSELF WITH THE GRATE FAN) I'm melting! - -FLORRY: (POINTS TO STEPHEN) Look! He's white. - -BLOOM: (GOES TO THE WINDOW TO OPEN IT MORE) Giddy. - -THE MOTHER: (WITH SMOULDERING EYES) Repent! O, the fire of hell! - -STEPHEN: (PANTING) His noncorrosive sublimate! The corpsechewer! Raw head -and bloody bones. - -THE MOTHER: (HER FACE DRAWING NEAR AND NEARER, SENDING OUT AN ASHEN -BREATH) Beware! (SHE RAISES HER BLACKENED WITHERED RIGHT ARM SLOWLY -TOWARDS STEPHEN'S BREAST WITH OUTSTRETCHED FINGER) Beware God's hand! (A -GREEN CRAB WITH MALIGNANT RED EYES STICKS DEEP ITS GRINNING CLAWS IN -STEPHEN'S HEART.) - -STEPHEN: (STRANGLED WITH RAGE) Shite! (HIS FEATURES GROW DRAWN GREY AND -OLD) - -BLOOM: (AT THE WINDOW) What? - -STEPHEN: AH NON, PAR EXEMPLE! The intellectual imagination! With me all -or not at all. NON SERVIAM! - -FLORRY: Give him some cold water. Wait. (SHE RUSHES OUT) - -THE MOTHER: (WRINGS HER HANDS SLOWLY, MOANING DESPERATELY) O Sacred Heart -of Jesus, have mercy on him! Save him from hell, O Divine Sacred Heart! - -STEPHEN: No! No! No! Break my spirit, all of you, if you can! I'll bring -you all to heel! - -THE MOTHER: (IN THE AGONY OF HER DEATHRATTLE) Have mercy on Stephen, -Lord, for my sake! Inexpressible was my anguish when expiring with love, -grief and agony on Mount Calvary. - -STEPHEN: NOTHUNG! - -(HE LIFTS HIS ASHPLANT HIGH WITH BOTH HANDS AND SMASHES THE CHANDELIER. -TIME'S LIVID FINAL FLAME LEAPS AND, IN THE FOLLOWING DARKNESS, RUIN OF -ALL SPACE, SHATTERED GLASS AND TOPPLING MASONRY.) - -THE GASJET: Pwfungg! - -BLOOM: Stop! - -LYNCH: (RUSHES FORWARD AND SEIZES STEPHEN'S HAND) Here! Hold on! Don't -run amok! - -BELLA: Police! - -(STEPHEN, ABANDONING HIS ASHPLANT, HIS HEAD AND ARMS THROWN BACK STARK, -BEATS THE GROUND AND FLIES FROM THE ROOM, PAST THE WHORES AT THE DOOR.) - -BELLA: (SCREAMS) After him! - -(THE TWO WHORES RUSH TO THE HALLDOOR. LYNCH AND KITTY AND ZOE STAMPEDE -FROM THE ROOM. THEY TALK EXCITEDLY. BLOOM FOLLOWS, RETURNS.) - -THE WHORES: (JAMMED IN THE DOORWAY, POINTING) Down there. - -ZOE: (POINTING) There. There's something up. - -BELLA: Who pays for the lamp? (SHE SEIZES BLOOM'S COATTAIL) Here, you -were with him. The lamp's broken. - -BLOOM: (RUSHES TO THE HALL, RUSHES BACK) What lamp, woman? - -A WHORE: He tore his coat. - -BELLA: (HER EYES HARD WITH ANGER AND CUPIDITY, POINTS) Who's to pay for -that? Ten shillings. You're a witness. - -BLOOM: (SNATCHES UP STEPHEN'S ASHPLANT) Me? Ten shillings? Haven't you -lifted enough off him? Didn't he ...? - -BELLA: (LOUDLY) Here, none of your tall talk. This isn't a brothel. A ten -shilling house. - -BLOOM: (HIS HEAD UNDER THE LAMP, PULLS THE CHAIN. PULING, THE GASJET -LIGHTS UP A CRUSHED MAUVE PURPLE SHADE. HE RAISES THE ASHPLANT.) Only the -chimney's broken. Here is all he ... - -BELLA: (SHRINKS BACK AND SCREAMS) Jesus! Don't! - -BLOOM: (WARDING OFF A BLOW) To show you how he hit the paper. There's not -sixpenceworth of damage done. Ten shillings! - -FLORRY: (WITH A GLASS OF WATER, ENTERS) Where is he? - -BELLA: Do you want me to call the police? - -BLOOM: O, I know. Bulldog on the premises. But he's a Trinity student. -Patrons of your establishment. Gentlemen that pay the rent. (HE MAKES A -MASONIC SIGN) Know what I mean? Nephew of the vice-chancellor. You don't -want a scandal. - -BELLA: (ANGRILY) Trinity. Coming down here ragging after the boatraces -and paying nothing. Are you my commander here or? Where is he? I'll -charge him! Disgrace him, I will! (SHE SHOUTS) Zoe! Zoe! - -BLOOM: (URGENTLY) And if it were your own son in Oxford? (WARNINGLY) I -know. - -BELLA: (ALMOST SPEECHLESS) Who are. Incog! - -ZOE: (IN THE DOORWAY) There's a row on. - -BLOOM: What? Where? (HE THROWS A SHILLING ON THE TABLE AND STARTS) That's -for the chimney. Where? I need mountain air. - -(HE HURRIES OUT THROUGH THE HALL. THE WHORES POINT. FLORRY FOLLOWS, -SPILLING WATER FROM HER TILTED TUMBLER. ON THE DOORSTEP ALL THE WHORES -CLUSTERED TALK VOLUBLY, POINTING TO THE RIGHT WHERE THE FOG HAS CLEARED -OFF. FROM THE LEFT ARRIVES A JINGLING HACKNEY CAR. IT SLOWS TO IN FRONT -OF THE HOUSE. BLOOM AT THE HALLDOOR PERCEIVES CORNY KELLEHER WHO IS ABOUT -TO DISMOUNT FROM THE CAR WITH TWO SILENT LECHERS. HE AVERTS HIS FACE. -BELLA FROM WITHIN THE HALL URGES ON HER WHORES. THEY BLOW ICKYLICKYSTICKY -YUMYUM KISSES. CORNY KELLEHER REPLIES WITH A GHASTLY LEWD SMILE. THE -SILENT LECHERS TURN TO PAY THE JARVEY. ZOE AND KITTY STILL POINT RIGHT. -BLOOM, PARTING THEM SWIFTLY, DRAWS HIS CALIPH'S HOOD AND PONCHO AND -HURRIES DOWN THE STEPS WITH SIDEWAYS FACE. INCOG HAROUN AL RASCHID HE -FLITS BEHIND THE SILENT LECHERS AND HASTENS ON BY THE RAILINGS WITH FLEET -STEP OF A PARD STREWING THE DRAG BEHIND HIM, TORN ENVELOPES DRENCHED IN -ANISEED. THE ASHPLANT MARKS HIS STRIDE. A PACK OF BLOODHOUNDS, LED BY -HORNBLOWER OF TRINITY BRANDISHING A DOGWHIP IN TALLYHO CAP AND AN OLD -PAIR OF GREY TROUSERS, FOLLOW FROM FIR, PICKING UP THE SCENT, NEARER, -BAYING, PANTING, AT FAULT, BREAKING AWAY, THROWING THEIR TONGUES, BITING -HIS HEELS, LEAPING AT HIS TAIL. HE WALKS, RUNS, ZIGZAGS, GALLOPS, LUGS -LAID BACK. HE IS PELTED WITH GRAVEL, CABBAGESTUMPS, BISCUITBOXES, EGGS, -POTATOES, DEAD CODFISH, WOMAN'S SLIPPERSLAPPERS. AFTER HIM FRESHFOUND THE -HUE AND CRY ZIGZAG GALLOPS IN HOT PURSUIT OF FOLLOW MY LEADER: 65 C, 66 -C, NIGHT WATCH, JOHN HENRY MENTON, WISDOM HELY, V. B. DILLON, COUNCILLOR -NANNETTI, ALEXANDER KEYES, LARRY O'ROURKE, JOE CUFFE MRS O'DOWD, PISSER -BURKE, THE NAMELESS ONE, MRS RIORDAN, THE CITIZEN, GARRYOWEN, -WHODOYOUCALLHIM, STRANGEFACE, FELLOWTHATSOLIKE, SAWHIMBEFORE, -CHAPWITHAWEN, CHRIS CALLINAN, SIR CHARLES CAMERON, BENJAMIN DOLLARD, -LENEHAN, BARTELL D'ARCY, JOE HYNES, RED MURRAY, EDITOR BRAYDEN, T. M. -HEALY, MR JUSTICE FITZGIBBON, JOHN HOWARD PARNELL, THE REVEREND TINNED -SALMON, PROFESSOR JOLY, MRS BREEN, DENIS BREEN, THEODORE PUREFOY, MINA -PUREFOY, THE WESTLAND ROW POSTMISTRESS, C. P. M'COY, FRIEND OF LYONS, -HOPPY HOLOHAN, MANINTHESTREET, OTHERMANINTHESTREET, FOOTBALLBOOTS, -PUGNOSED DRIVER, RICH PROTESTANT LADY, DAVY BYRNE, MRS ELLEN M'GUINNESS, -MRS JOE GALLAHER, GEORGE LIDWELL, JIMMY HENRY ON CORNS, SUPERINTENDENT -LARACY, FATHER COWLEY, CROFTON OUT OF THE COLLECTOR-GENERAL'S, DAN -DAWSON, DENTAL SURGEON BLOOM WITH TWEEZERS, MRS BOB DORAN, MRS KENNEFICK, -MRS WYSE NOLAN, JOHN WYSE NOLAN, -HANDSOMEMARRIEDWOMANRUBBEDAGAINSTWIDEBEHINDINCLONSKEATRAM, THE BOOKSELLER -OF Sweets Of Sin, MISS DUBEDATANDSHEDIDBEDAD, MESDAMES GERALD AND -STANISLAUS MORAN OF ROEBUCK, THE MANAGING CLERK OF DRIMMIE'S, WETHERUP, -COLONEL HAYES, MASTIANSKY, CITRON, PENROSE, AARON FIGATNER, MOSES HERZOG, -MICHAEL E GERAGHTY, INSPECTOR TROY, MRS GALBRAITH, THE CONSTABLE OFF -ECCLES STREET CORNER, OLD DOCTOR BRADY WITH STETHOSCOPE, THE MYSTERY MAN -ON THE BEACH, A RETRIEVER, MRS MIRIAM DANDRADE AND ALL HER LOVERS.) - -THE HUE AND CRY: (HELTERSKELTERPELTERWELTER) He's Bloom! Stop Bloom! -Stopabloom! Stopperrobber! Hi! Hi! Stophim on the corner! - -(AT THE CORNER OF BEAVER STREET BENEATH THE SCAFFOLDING BLOOM PANTING -STOPS ON THE FRINGE OF THE NOISY QUARRELLING KNOT, A LOT NOT KNOWING A -JOT WHAT HI! HI! ROW AND WRANGLE ROUND THE WHOWHAT BRAWLALTOGETHER.) - -STEPHEN: (WITH ELABORATE GESTURES, BREATHING DEEPLY AND SLOWLY) You are -my guests. Uninvited. By virtue of the fifth of George and seventh of -Edward. History to blame. Fabled by mothers of memory. - -PRIVATE CARR: (TO CISSY CAFFREY) Was he insulting you? - -STEPHEN: Addressed her in vocative feminine. Probably neuter. Ungenitive. - -VOICES: No, he didn't. I seen him. The girl there. He was in Mrs Cohen's. -What's up? Soldier and civilian. - -CISSY CAFFREY: I was in company with the soldiers and they left me to -do--you know, and the young man run up behind me. But I'm faithful to the -man that's treating me though I'm only a shilling whore. - -STEPHEN: (CATCHES SIGHT OF LYNCH'S AND KITTY'S HEADS) Hail, Sisyphus. (HE -POINTS TO HIMSELF AND THE OTHERS) Poetic. Uropoetic. - -VOICES: Shes faithfultheman. - -CISSY CAFFREY: Yes, to go with him. And me with a soldier friend. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: He doesn't half want a thick ear, the blighter. Biff him -one, Harry. - -PRIVATE CARR: (TO CISSY) Was he insulting you while me and him was having -a piss? - -LORD TENNYSON: (GENTLEMAN POET IN UNION JACK BLAZER AND CRICKET FLANNELS, -BAREHEADED, FLOWINGBEARDED) Theirs not to reason why. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: Biff him, Harry. - -STEPHEN: (TO PRIVATE COMPTON) I don't know your name but you are quite -right. Doctor Swift says one man in armour will beat ten men in their -shirts. Shirt is synechdoche. Part for the whole. - -CISSY CAFFREY: (TO THE CROWD) No, I was with the privates. - -STEPHEN: (AMIABLY) Why not? The bold soldier boy. In my opinion every -lady for example ... - -PRIVATE CARR: (HIS CAP AWRY, ADVANCES TO STEPHEN) Say, how would it be, -governor, if I was to bash in your jaw? - -STEPHEN: (LOOKS UP TO THE SKY) How? Very unpleasant. Noble art of -selfpretence. Personally, I detest action. (HE WAVES HIS HAND) Hand hurts -me slightly. ENFIN CE SONT VOS OIGNONS. (TO CISSY CAFFREY) Some trouble -is on here. What is it precisely? - -DOLLY GRAY: (FROM HER BALCONY WAVES HER HANDKERCHIEF, GIVING THE SIGN OF -THE HEROINE OF JERICHO) Rahab. Cook's son, goodbye. Safe home to Dolly. -Dream of the girl you left behind and she will dream of you. - -(THE SOLDIERS TURN THEIR SWIMMING EYES.) - -BLOOM: (ELBOWING THROUGH THE CROWD, PLUCKS STEPHEN'S SLEEVE VIGOROUSLY) -Come now, professor, that carman is waiting. - -STEPHEN: (TURNS) Eh? (HE DISENGAGES HIMSELF) Why should I not speak to -him or to any human being who walks upright upon this oblate orange? (HE -POINTS HIS FINGER) I'm not afraid of what I can talk to if I see his eye. -Retaining the perpendicular. - -(HE STAGGERS A PACE BACK) - -BLOOM: (PROPPING HIM) Retain your own. - -STEPHEN: (LAUGHS EMPTILY) My centre of gravity is displaced. I have -forgotten the trick. Let us sit down somewhere and discuss. Struggle for -life is the law of existence but but human philirenists, notably the tsar -and the king of England, have invented arbitration. (HE TAPS HIS BROW) -But in here it is I must kill the priest and the king. - -BIDDY THE CLAP: Did you hear what the professor said? He's a professor -out of the college. - -CUNTY KATE: I did. I heard that. - -BIDDY THE CLAP: He expresses himself with such marked refinement of -phraseology. - -CUNTY KATE: Indeed, yes. And at the same time with such apposite -trenchancy. - -PRIVATE CARR: (PULLS HIMSELF FREE AND COMES FORWARD) What's that you're -saying about my king? - -(EDWARD THE SEVENTH APPEARS IN AN ARCHWAY. HE WARS A WHITE JERSEY ON -WHICH AN IMAGE OF THE SACRED HEART IS STITCHED WITH THE INSIGNIA OF -GARTER AND THISTLE, GOLDEN FLEECE, ELEPHANT OF DENMARK, SKINNER'S AND -PROBYN'S HORSE, LINCOLN'S INN BENCHER AND ANCIENT AND HONOURABLE -ARTILLERY COMPANY OF MASSACHUSETTS. HE SUCKS A RED JUJUBE. HE IS ROBED AS -A GRAND ELECT PERFECT AND SUBLIME MASON WITH TROWEL AND APRON, MARKED -made in Germany. IN HIS LEFT HAND HE HOLDS A PLASTERER'S BUCKET ON WHICH -IS PRINTED Defense d'uriner. A ROAR OF WELCOME GREETS HIM.) - -EDWARD THE SEVENTH: (SLOWLY, SOLEMNLY BUT INDISTINCTLY) Peace, perfect -peace. For identification, bucket in my hand. Cheerio, boys. (HE TURNS TO -HIS SUBJECTS) We have come here to witness a clean straight fight and we -heartily wish both men the best of good luck. Mahak makar a bak. - -(HE SHAKES HANDS WITH PRIVATE CARR, PRIVATE COMPTON, STEPHEN, BLOOM AND -LYNCH. GENERAL APPLAUSE. EDWARD THE SEVENTH LIFTS HIS BUCKET GRACIOUSLY -IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT.) - -PRIVATE CARR: (TO STEPHEN) Say it again. - -STEPHEN: (NERVOUS, FRIENDLY, PULLS HIMSELF UP) I understand your point of -view though I have no king myself for the moment. This is the age of -patent medicines. A discussion is difficult down here. But this is the -point. You die for your country. Suppose. (HE PLACES HIS ARM ON PRIVATE -CARR'S SLEEVE) Not that I wish it for you. But I say: Let my country die -for me. Up to the present it has done so. I didn't want it to die. Damn -death. Long live life! - -EDWARD THE SEVENTH: (LEVITATES OVER HEAPS OF SLAIN, IN THE GARB AND WITH -THE HALO OF JOKING JESUS, A WHITE JUJUBE IN HIS PHOSPHORESCENT FACE) - - - My methods are new and are causing surprise. - To make the blind see I throw dust in their eyes. - - -STEPHEN: Kings and unicorns! (HE FILLS BACK A PACE) Come somewhere and -we'll ... What was that girl saying? ... - -PRIVATE COMPTON: Eh, Harry, give him a kick in the knackers. Stick one -into Jerry. - -BLOOM: (TO THE PRIVATES, SOFTLY) He doesn't know what he's saying. Taken -a little more than is good for him. Absinthe. Greeneyed monster. I know -him. He's a gentleman, a poet. It's all right. - -STEPHEN: (NODS, SMILING AND LAUGHING) Gentleman, patriot, scholar and -judge of impostors. - -PRIVATE CARR: I don't give a bugger who he is. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: We don't give a bugger who he is. - -STEPHEN: I seem to annoy them. Green rag to a bull. - -(KEVIN EGAN OF PARIS IN BLACK SPANISH TASSELLED SHIRT AND PEEP-O'-DAY -BOY'S HAT SIGNS TO STEPHEN.) - -KEVIN EGAN: H'lo! BONJOUR! The VIEILLE OGRESSE with the DENTS JAUNES. - -(PATRICE EGAN PEEPS FROM BEHIND, HIS RABBITFACE NIBBLING A QUINCE LEAF.) - -PATRICE: SOCIALISTE! - -DON EMILE PATRIZIO FRANZ RUPERT POPE HENNESSY: (IN MEDIEVAL HAUBERK, TWO -WILD GEESE VOLANT ON HIS HELM, WITH NOBLE INDIGNATION POINTS A MAILED -HAND AGAINST THE PRIVATES) Werf those eykes to footboden, big grand -porcos of johnyellows todos covered of gravy! - -BLOOM: (TO STEPHEN) Come home. You'll get into trouble. - -STEPHEN: (SWAYING) I don't avoid it. He provokes my intelligence. - -BIDDY THE CLAP: One immediately observes that he is of patrician lineage. - -THE VIRAGO: Green above the red, says he. Wolfe Tone. - -THE BAWD: The red's as good as the green. And better. Up the soldiers! Up -King Edward! - -A ROUGH: (LAUGHS) Ay! Hands up to De Wet. - -THE CITIZEN: (WITH A HUGE EMERALD MUFFLER AND SHILLELAGH, CALLS) - - - May the God above - Send down a dove - With teeth as sharp as razors - To slit the throats - Of the English dogs - That hanged our Irish leaders. - - -THE CROPPY BOY: (THE ROPENOOSE ROUND HIS NECK, GRIPES IN HIS ISSUING -BOWELS WITH BOTH HANDS) - - - I bear no hate to a living thing, - But I love my country beyond the king. - - -RUMBOLD, DEMON BARBER: (ACCOMPANIED BY TWO BLACKMASKED ASSISTANTS, -ADVANCES WITH GLADSTONE BAG WHICH HE OPENS) Ladies and gents, cleaver -purchased by Mrs Pearcy to slay Mogg. Knife with which Voisin dismembered -the wife of a compatriot and hid remains in a sheet in the cellar, the -unfortunate female's throat being cut from ear to ear. Phial containing -arsenic retrieved from body of Miss Barron which sent Seddon to the -gallows. - -(HE JERKS THE ROPE. THE ASSISTANTS LEAP AT THE VICTIM'S LEGS AND DRAG HIM -DOWNWARD, GRUNTING THE CROPPY BOY'S TONGUE PROTRUDES VIOLENTLY.) - -THE CROPPY BOY: - - - Horhot ho hray hor hother's hest. - - -(HE GIVES UP THE GHOST. A VIOLENT ERECTION OF THE HANGED SENDS GOUTS OF -SPERM SPOUTING THROUGH HIS DEATHCLOTHES ON TO THE COBBLESTONES. MRS -BELLINGHAM, MRS YELVERTON BARRY AND THE HONOURABLE MRS MERVYN TALBOYS -RUSH FORWARD WITH THEIR HANDKERCHIEFS TO SOP IT UP.) - -RUMBOLD: I'm near it myself. (HE UNDOES THE NOOSE) Rope which hanged the -awful rebel. Ten shillings a time. As applied to Her Royal Highness. (HE -PLUNGES HIS HEAD INTO THE GAPING BELLY OF THE HANGED AND DRAWS OUT HIS -HEAD AGAIN CLOTTED WITH COILED AND SMOKING ENTRAILS) My painful duty has -now been done. God save the king! - -EDWARD THE SEVENTH: (DANCES SLOWLY, SOLEMNLY, RATTLING HIS BUCKET, AND -SINGS WITH SOFT CONTENTMENT) - - - On coronation day, on coronation day, - O, won't we have a merry time, - Drinking whisky, beer and wine! - - -PRIVATE CARR: Here. What are you saying about my king? - -STEPHEN: (THROWS UP HIS HANDS) O, this is too monotonous! Nothing. He -wants my money and my life, though want must be his master, for some -brutish empire of his. Money I haven't. (HE SEARCHES HIS POCKETS VAGUELY) -GAVE IT TO SOMEONE. - -PRIVATE CARR: Who wants your bleeding money? - -STEPHEN: (TRIES TO MOVE OFF) Will someone tell me where I am least likely -to meet these necessary evils? CA SE VOIT AUSSI A PARIS. Not that I ... -But, by Saint Patrick ...! - -(THE WOMEN'S HEADS COALESCE. OLD GUMMY GRANNY IN SUGARLOAF HAT APPEARS -SEATED ON A TOADSTOOL, THE DEATHFLOWER OF THE POTATO BLIGHT ON HER -BREAST.) - -STEPHEN: Aha! I know you, gammer! Hamlet, revenge! The old sow that eats -her farrow! - -OLD GUMMY GRANNY: (ROCKING TO AND FRO) Ireland's sweetheart, the king of -Spain's daughter, alanna. Strangers in my house, bad manners to them! -(SHE KEENS WITH BANSHEE WOE) Ochone! Ochone! Silk of the kine! (SHE -WAILS) You met with poor old Ireland and how does she stand? - -STEPHEN: How do I stand you? The hat trick! Where's the third person of -the Blessed Trinity? Soggarth Aroon? The reverend Carrion Crow. - -CISSY CAFFREY: (SHRILL) Stop them from fighting! - -A ROUGH: Our men retreated. - -PRIVATE CARR: (TUGGING AT HIS BELT) I'll wring the neck of any fucker -says a word against my fucking king. - -BLOOM: (TERRIFIED) He said nothing. Not a word. A pure misunderstanding. - -THE CITIZEN: ERIN GO BRAGH! - -(MAJOR TWEEDY AND THE CITIZEN EXHIBIT TO EACH OTHER MEDALS, DECORATIONS, -TROPHIES OF WAR, WOUNDS. BOTH SALUTE WITH FIERCE HOSTILITY.) - -PRIVATE COMPTON: Go it, Harry. Do him one in the eye. He's a proboer. - -STEPHEN: Did I? When? - -BLOOM: (TO THE REDCOATS) We fought for you in South Africa, Irish missile -troops. Isn't that history? Royal Dublin Fusiliers. Honoured by our -monarch. - -THE NAVVY: (STAGGERING PAST) O, yes! O God, yes! O, make the kwawr a -krowawr! O! Bo! - -(CASQUED HALBERDIERS IN ARMOUR THRUST FORWARD A PENTICE OF GUTTED -SPEARPOINTS. MAJOR TWEEDY, MOUSTACHED LIKE TURKO THE TERRIBLE, IN -BEARSKIN CAP WITH HACKLEPLUME AND ACCOUTREMENTS, WITH EPAULETTES, GILT -CHEVRONS AND SABRETACHES, HIS BREAST BRIGHT WITH MEDALS, TOES THE LINE. -HE GIVES THE PILGRIM WARRIOR'S SIGN OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPLARS.) - -MAJOR TWEEDY: (GROWLS GRUFFLY) Rorke's Drift! Up, guards, and at them! -Mahar shalal hashbaz. - -PRIVATE CARR: I'll do him in. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: (WAVES THE CROWD BACK) Fair play, here. Make a bleeding -butcher's shop of the bugger. - -(MASSED BANDS BLARE Garryowen AND God save the king.) - -CISSY CAFFREY: They're going to fight. For me! - -CUNTY KATE: The brave and the fair. - -BIDDY THE CLAP: Methinks yon sable knight will joust it with the best. - -CUNTY KATE: (BLUSHING DEEPLY) Nay, madam. The gules doublet and merry -saint George for me! - -STEPHEN: - - - The harlot's cry from street to street - Shall weave Old Ireland's windingsheet. - - -PRIVATE CARR: (LOOSENING HIS BELT, SHOUTS) I'll wring the neck of any -fucking bastard says a word against my bleeding fucking king. - -BLOOM: (SHAKES CISSY CAFFREY'S SHOULDERS) Speak, you! Are you struck -dumb? You are the link between nations and generations. Speak, woman, -sacred lifegiver! - -CISSY CAFFREY: (ALARMED, SEIZES PRIVATE CARR'S SLEEVE) Amn't I with you? -Amn't I your girl? Cissy's your girl. (SHE CRIES) Police! - -STEPHEN: (ECSTATICALLY, TO CISSY CAFFREY) - - - White thy fambles, red thy gan - And thy quarrons dainty is. - - -VOICES: Police! - -DISTANT VOICES: Dublin's burning! Dublin's burning! On fire, on fire! - -(BRIMSTONE FIRES SPRING UP. DENSE CLOUDS ROLL PAST. HEAVY GATLING GUNS -BOOM. PANDEMONIUM. TROOPS DEPLOY. GALLOP OF HOOFS. ARTILLERY. HOARSE -COMMANDS. BELLS CLANG. BACKERS SHOUT. DRUNKARDS BAWL. WHORES SCREECH. -FOGHORNS HOOT. CRIES OF VALOUR. SHRIEKS OF DYING. PIKES CLASH ON -CUIRASSES. THIEVES ROB THE SLAIN. BIRDS OF PREY, WINGING FROM THE SEA, -RISING FROM MARSHLANDS, SWOOPING FROM EYRIES, HOVER SCREAMING, GANNETS, -CORMORANTS, VULTURES, GOSHAWKS, CLIMBING WOODCOCKS, PEREGRINES, MERLINS, -BLACKGROUSE, SEA EAGLES, GULLS, ALBATROSSES, BARNACLE GEESE. THE MIDNIGHT -SUN IS DARKENED. THE EARTH TREMBLES. THE DEAD OF DUBLIN FROM PROSPECT AND -MOUNT JEROME IN WHITE SHEEPSKIN OVERCOATS AND BLACK GOATFELL CLOAKS ARISE -AND APPEAR TO MANY. A CHASM OPENS WITH A NOISELESS YAWN. TOM ROCHFORD, -WINNER, IN ATHLETE'S SINGLET AND BREECHES, ARRIVES AT THE HEAD OF THE -NATIONAL HURDLE HANDICAP AND LEAPS INTO THE VOID. HE IS FOLLOWED BY A -RACE OF RUNNERS AND LEAPERS. IN WILD ATTITUDES THEY SPRING FROM THE -BRINK. THEIR BODIES PLUNGE. FACTORY LASSES WITH FANCY CLOTHES TOSS REDHOT -YORKSHIRE BARAABOMBS. SOCIETY LADIES LIFT THEIR SKIRTS ABOVE THEIR HEADS -TO PROTECT THEMSELVES. LAUGHING WITCHES IN RED CUTTY SARKS RIDE THROUGH -THE AIR ON BROOMSTICKS. QUAKERLYSTER PLASTERS BLISTERS. IT RAINS DRAGONS' -TEETH. ARMED HEROES SPRING UP FROM FURROWS. THEY EXCHANGE IN AMITY THE -PASS OF KNIGHTS OF THE RED CROSS AND FIGHT DUELS WITH CAVALRY SABRES: -WOLFE TONE AGAINST HENRY GRATTAN, SMITH O'BRIEN AGAINST DANIEL O'CONNELL, -MICHAEL DAVITT AGAINST ISAAC BUTT, JUSTIN M'CARTHY AGAINST PARNELL, -ARTHUR GRIFFITH AGAINST JOHN REDMOND, JOHN O'LEARY AGAINST LEAR O'JOHNNY, -LORD EDWARD FITZGERALD AGAINST LORD GERALD FITZEDWARD, THE O'DONOGHUE OF -THE GLENS AGAINST THE GLENS OF THE O'DONOGHUE. ON AN EMINENCE, THE CENTRE -OF THE EARTH, RISES THE FELDALTAR OF SAINT BARBARA. BLACK CANDLES RISE -FROM ITS GOSPEL AND EPISTLE HORNS. FROM THE HIGH BARBACANS OF THE TOWER -TWO SHAFTS OF LIGHT FALL ON THE SMOKEPALLED ALTARSTONE. ON THE ALTARSTONE -MRS MINA PUREFOY, GODDESS OF UNREASON, LIES, NAKED, FETTERED, A CHALICE -RESTING ON HER SWOLLEN BELLY. FATHER MALACHI O'FLYNN IN A LACE PETTICOAT -AND REVERSED CHASUBLE, HIS TWO LEFT FEET BACK TO THE FRONT, CELEBRATES -CAMP MASS. THE REVEREND MR HUGH C HAINES LOVE M. A. IN A PLAIN CASSOCK -AND MORTARBOARD, HIS HEAD AND COLLAR BACK TO THE FRONT, HOLDS OVER THE -CELEBRANT'S HEAD AN OPEN UMBRELLA.) - -FATHER MALACHI O'FLYNN: INTROIBO AD ALTARE DIABOLI. - -THE REVEREND MR HAINES LOVE: To the devil which hath made glad my young -days. - -FATHER MALACHI O'FLYNN: (TAKES FROM THE CHALICE AND ELEVATES A -BLOODDRIPPING HOST) CORPUS MEUM. - -THE REVEREND MR HAINES LOVE: (RAISES HIGH BEHIND THE CELEBRANT'S -PETTICOAT, REVEALING HIS GREY BARE HAIRY BUTTOCKS BETWEEN WHICH A CARROT -IS STUCK) My body. - -THE VOICE OF ALL THE DAMNED: Htengier Tnetopinmo Dog Drol eht rof, -Aiulella! - -(FROM ON HIGH THE VOICE OF ADONAI CALLS.) - -ADONAI: Dooooooooooog! - -THE VOICE OF ALL THE BLESSED: Alleluia, for the Lord God Omnipotent -reigneth! - -(FROM ON HIGH THE VOICE OF ADONAI CALLS.) - -ADONAI: Goooooooooood! - -(IN STRIDENT DISCORD PEASANTS AND TOWNSMEN OF ORANGE AND GREEN FACTIONS -SING Kick the Pope AND Daily, daily sing to Mary.) - -PRIVATE CARR: (WITH FEROCIOUS ARTICULATION) I'll do him in, so help me -fucking Christ! I'll wring the bastard fucker's bleeding blasted fucking -windpipe! - -OLD GUMMY GRANNY: (THRUSTS A DAGGER TOWARDS STEPHEN'S HAND) Remove him, -acushla. At 8.35 a.m. you will be in heaven and Ireland will be free. -(SHE PRAYS) O good God, take him! - -(THE RETRIEVER, NOSING ON THE FRINGE OF THE CROWD, BARKS NOISILY.) - -BLOOM: (RUNS TO LYNCH) Can't you get him away? - -LYNCH: He likes dialectic, the universal language. Kitty! (TO BLOOM) Get -him away, you. He won't listen to me. - -(HE DRAGS KITTY AWAY.) - -STEPHEN: (POINTS) EXIT JUDAS. ET LAQUEO SE SUSPENDIT. - -BLOOM: (RUNS TO STEPHEN) Come along with me now before worse happens. -Here's your stick. - -STEPHEN: Stick, no. Reason. This feast of pure reason. - -CISSY CAFFREY: (PULLING PRIVATE CARR) Come on, you're boosed. He insulted -me but I forgive him. (SHOUTING IN HIS EAR) I forgive him for insulting -me. - -BLOOM: (OVER STEPHEN'S SHOULDER) Yes, go. You see he's incapable. - -PRIVATE CARR: (BREAKS LOOSE) I'll insult him. - -(HE RUSHES TOWARDS STEPHEN, FIST OUTSTRETCHED, AND STRIKES HIM IN THE -FACE. STEPHEN TOTTERS, COLLAPSES, FALLS, STUNNED. HE LIES PRONE, HIS FACE -TO THE SKY, HIS HAT ROLLING TO THE WALL. BLOOM FOLLOWS AND PICKS IT UP.) - -MAJOR TWEEDY: (LOUDLY) Carbine in bucket! Cease fire! Salute! - -THE RETRIEVER: (BARKING FURIOUSLY) Ute ute ute ute ute ute ute ute. - -THE CROWD: Let him up! Don't strike him when he's down! Air! Who? The -soldier hit him. He's a professor. Is he hurted? Don't manhandle him! -He's fainted! - -A HAG: What call had the redcoat to strike the gentleman and he under the -influence. Let them go and fight the Boers! - -THE BAWD: Listen to who's talking! Hasn't the soldier a right to go with -his girl? He gave him the coward's blow. - -(THEY GRAB AT EACH OTHER'S HAIR, CLAW AT EACH OTHER AND SPIT) - -THE RETRIEVER: (BARKING) Wow wow wow. - -BLOOM: (SHOVES THEM BACK, LOUDLY) Get back, stand back! - -PRIVATE COMPTON: (TUGGING HIS COMRADE) Here. Bugger off, Harry. Here's -the cops! - -(TWO RAINCAPED WATCH, TALL, STAND IN THE GROUP.) - -FIRST WATCH: What's wrong here? - -PRIVATE COMPTON: We were with this lady. And he insulted us. And -assaulted my chum. (THE RETRIEVER BARKS) Who owns the bleeding tyke? - -CISSY CAFFREY: (WITH EXPECTATION) Is he bleeding! - -A MAN: (RISING FROM HIS KNEES) No. Gone off. He'll come to all right. - -BLOOM: (GLANCES SHARPLY AT THE MAN) Leave him to me. I can easily ... - -SECOND WATCH: Who are you? Do you know him? - -PRIVATE CARR: (LURCHES TOWARDS THE WATCH) He insulted my lady friend. - -BLOOM: (ANGRILY) You hit him without provocation. I'm a witness. -Constable, take his regimental number. - -SECOND WATCH: I don't want your instructions in the discharge of my duty. - -PRIVATE COMPTON: (PULLING HIS COMRADE) Here, bugger off Harry. Or -Bennett'll shove you in the lockup. - -PRIVATE CARR: (STAGGERING AS HE IS PULLED AWAY) God fuck old Bennett. -He's a whitearsed bugger. I don't give a shit for him. - -FIRST WATCH: (TAKES OUT HIS NOTEBOOK) What's his name? - -BLOOM: (PEERING OVER THE CROWD) I just see a car there. If you give me a -hand a second, sergeant ... - -FIRST WATCH: Name and address. - -(CORNY KELLEKER, WEEPERS ROUND HIS HAT, A DEATH WREATH IN HIS HAND, -APPEARS AMONG THE BYSTANDERS.) - -BLOOM: (QUICKLY) O, the very man! (HE WHISPERS) Simon Dedalus' son. A bit -sprung. Get those policemen to move those loafers back. - -SECOND WATCH: Night, Mr Kelleher. - -CORNY KELLEHER: (TO THE WATCH, WITH DRAWLING EYE) That's all right. I -know him. Won a bit on the races. Gold cup. Throwaway. (HE LAUGHS) Twenty -to one. Do you follow me? - -FIRST WATCH: (TURNS TO THE CROWD) Here, what are you all gaping at? Move -on out of that. - -(THE CROWD DISPERSES SLOWLY, MUTTERING, DOWN THE LANE.) - -CORNY KELLEHER: Leave it to me, sergeant. That'll be all right. (HE -LAUGHS, SHAKING HIS HEAD) We were often as bad ourselves, ay or worse. -What? Eh, what? - -FIRST WATCH: (LAUGHS) I suppose so. - -CORNY KELLEHER: (NUDGES THE SECOND WATCH) Come and wipe your name off the -slate. (HE LILTS, WAGGING HIS HEAD) With my tooraloom tooraloom tooraloom -tooraloom. What, eh, do you follow me? - -SECOND WATCH: (GENIALLY) Ah, sure we were too. - -CORNY KELLEHER: (WINKING) Boys will be boys. I've a car round there. - -SECOND WATCH: All right, Mr Kelleher. Good night. - -CORNY KELLEHER: I'll see to that. - -BLOOM: (SHAKES HANDS WITH BOTH OF THE WATCH IN TURN) Thank you very much, -gentlemen. Thank you. (HE MUMBLES CONFIDENTIALLY) We don't want any -scandal, you understand. Father is a wellknown highly respected citizen. -Just a little wild oats, you understand. - -FIRST WATCH: O. I understand, sir. - -SECOND WATCH: That's all right, sir. - -FIRST WATCH: It was only in case of corporal injuries I'd have to report -it at the station. - -BLOOM: (NODS RAPIDLY) Naturally. Quite right. Only your bounden duty. - -SECOND WATCH: It's our duty. - -CORNY KELLEHER: Good night, men. - -THE WATCH: (SALUTING TOGETHER) Night, gentlemen. (THEY MOVE OFF WITH SLOW -HEAVY TREAD) - -BLOOM: (BLOWS) Providential you came on the scene. You have a car? ... - -CORNY KELLEHER: (LAUGHS, POINTING HIS THUMB OVER HIS RIGHT SHOULDER TO -THE CAR BROUGHT UP AGAINST THE SCAFFOLDING) Two commercials that were -standing fizz in Jammet's. Like princes, faith. One of them lost two quid -on the race. Drowning his grief. And were on for a go with the jolly -girls. So I landed them up on Behan's car and down to nighttown. - -BLOOM: I was just going home by Gardiner street when I happened to ... - -CORNY KELLEHER: (LAUGHS) Sure they wanted me to join in with the mots. -No, by God, says I. Not for old stagers like myself and yourself. (HE -LAUGHS AGAIN AND LEERS WITH LACKLUSTRE EYE) Thanks be to God we have it -in the house, what, eh, do you follow me? Hah, hah, hah! - -BLOOM: (TRIES TO LAUGH) He, he, he! Yes. Matter of fact I was just -visiting an old friend of mine there, Virag, you don't know him (poor -fellow, he's laid up for the past week) and we had a liquor together and -I was just making my way home ... - -(THE HORSE NEIGHS.) - -THE HORSE: Hohohohohohoh! Hohohohome! - -CORNY KELLEHER: Sure it was Behan our jarvey there that told me after we -left the two commercials in Mrs Cohen's and I told him to pull up and got -off to see. (HE LAUGHS) Sober hearsedrivers a speciality. Will I give him -a lift home? Where does he hang out? Somewhere in Cabra, what? - -BLOOM: No, in Sandycove, I believe, from what he let drop. - -(STEPHEN, PRONE, BREATHES TO THE STARS. CORNY KELLEHER, ASQUINT, DRAWLS -AT THE HORSE. BLOOM, IN GLOOM, LOOMS DOWN.) - -CORNY KELLEHER: (SCRATCHES HIS NAPE) Sandycove! (HE BENDS DOWN AND CALLS -TO STEPHEN) Eh! (HE CALLS AGAIN) Eh! He's covered with shavings anyhow. -Take care they didn't lift anything off him. - -BLOOM: No, no, no. I have his money and his hat here and stick. - -CORNY KELLEHER: Ah, well, he'll get over it. No bones broken. Well, I'll -shove along. (HE LAUGHS) I've a rendezvous in the morning. Burying the -dead. Safe home! - -THE HORSE: (NEIGHS) Hohohohohome. - -BLOOM: Good night. I'll just wait and take him along in a few ... - -(CORNY KELLEHER RETURNS TO THE OUTSIDE CAR AND MOUNTS IT. THE HORSE -HARNESS JINGLES.) - -CORNY KELLEHER: (FROM THE CAR, STANDING) Night. - -BLOOM: Night. - -(THE JARVEY CHUCKS THE REINS AND RAISES HIS WHIP ENCOURAGINGLY. THE CAR -AND HORSE BACK SLOWLY, AWKWARDLY, AND TURN. CORNY KELLEHER ON THE -SIDESEAT SWAYS HIS HEAD TO AND FRO IN SIGN OF MIRTH AT BLOOM'S PLIGHT. -THE JARVEY JOINS IN THE MUTE PANTOMIMIC MERRIMENT NODDING FROM THE -FARTHER SEAT. BLOOM SHAKES HIS HEAD IN MUTE MIRTHFUL REPLY. WITH THUMB -AND PALM CORNY KELLEHER REASSURES THAT THE TWO BOBBIES WILL ALLOW THE -SLEEP TO CONTINUE FOR WHAT ELSE IS TO BE DONE. WITH A SLOW NOD BLOOM -CONVEYS HIS GRATITUDE AS THAT IS EXACTLY WHAT STEPHEN NEEDS. THE CAR -JINGLES TOORALOOM ROUND THE CORNER OF THE TOORALOOM LANE. CORNY KELLEHER -AGAIN REASSURALOOMS WITH HIS HAND. BLOOM WITH HIS HAND ASSURALOOMS CORNY -KELLEHER THAT HE IS REASSURALOOMTAY. THE TINKLING HOOFS AND JINGLING -HARNESS GROW FAINTER WITH THEIR TOORALOOLOO LOOLOO LAY. BLOOM, HOLDING IN -HIS HAND STEPHEN'S HAT, FESTOONED WITH SHAVINGS, AND ASHPLANT, STANDS -IRRESOLUTE. THEN HE BENDS TO HIM AND SHAKES HIM BY THE SHOULDER.) - -BLOOM: Eh! Ho! (THERE IS NO ANSWER; HE BENDS AGAIN) Mr Dedalus! (THERE IS -NO ANSWER) The name if you call. Somnambulist. (HE BENDS AGAIN AND -HESITATING, BRINGS HIS MOUTH NEAR THE FACE OF THE PROSTRATE FORM) -Stephen! (THERE IS NO ANSWER. HE CALLS AGAIN.) Stephen! - -STEPHEN: (GROANS) Who? Black panther. Vampire. (HE SIGHS AND STRETCHES -HIMSELF, THEN MURMURS THICKLY WITH PROLONGED VOWELS) - - - Who ... drive... Fergus now - And pierce ... wood's woven shade? ... - -(HE TURNS ON HIS LEFT SIDE, SIGHING, DOUBLING HIMSELF TOGETHER.) - -BLOOM: Poetry. Well educated. Pity. (HE BENDS AGAIN AND UNDOES THE -BUTTONS OF STEPHEN'S WAISTCOAT) To breathe. (HE BRUSHES THE WOODSHAVINGS -FROM STEPHEN'S CLOTHES WITH LIGHT HAND AND FINGERS) One pound seven. Not -hurt anyhow. (HE LISTENS) What? - -STEPHEN: (MURMURS) - - - ... shadows ... the woods - ... white breast... dim sea. - - -(HE STRETCHES OUT HIS ARMS, SIGHS AGAIN AND CURLS HIS BODY. BLOOM, -HOLDING THE HAT AND ASHPLANT, STANDS ERECT. A DOG BARKS IN THE DISTANCE. -BLOOM TIGHTENS AND LOOSENS HIS GRIP ON THE ASHPLANT. HE LOOKS DOWN ON -STEPHEN'S FACE AND FORM.) - -BLOOM: (COMMUNES WITH THE NIGHT) Face reminds me of his poor mother. In -the shady wood. The deep white breast. Ferguson, I think I caught. A -girl. Some girl. Best thing could happen him. (HE MURMURS) ... swear that -I will always hail, ever conceal, never reveal, any part or parts, art or -arts ... (HE MURMURS) ... in the rough sands of the sea ... a cabletow's -length from the shore ... where the tide ebbs ... and flows ... - -(SILENT, THOUGHTFUL, ALERT HE STANDS ON GUARD, HIS FINGERS AT HIS LIPS IN -THE ATTITUDE OF SECRET MASTER. AGAINST THE DARK WALL A FIGURE APPEARS -SLOWLY, A FAIRY BOY OF ELEVEN, A CHANGELING, KIDNAPPED, DRESSED IN AN -ETON SUIT WITH GLASS SHOES AND A LITTLE BRONZE HELMET, HOLDING A BOOK IN -HIS HAND. HE READS FROM RIGHT TO LEFT INAUDIBLY, SMILING, KISSING THE -PAGE.) - -BLOOM: (WONDERSTRUCK, CALLS INAUDIBLY) Rudy! - -RUDY: (GAZES, UNSEEING, INTO BLOOM'S EYES AND GOES ON READING, KISSING, -SMILING. HE HAS A DELICATE MAUVE FACE. ON HIS SUIT HE HAS DIAMOND AND -RUBY BUTTONS. IN HIS FREE LEFT HAND HE HOLDS A SLIM IVORY CANE WITH A -VIOLET BOWKNOT. A WHITE LAMBKIN PEEPS OUT OF HIS WAISTCOAT POCKET.) - - - -- III -- - - -Preparatory to anything else Mr Bloom brushed off the greater bulk of the -shavings and handed Stephen the hat and ashplant and bucked him up -generally in orthodox Samaritan fashion which he very badly needed. His -(Stephen's) mind was not exactly what you would call wandering but a bit -unsteady and on his expressed desire for some beverage to drink Mr Bloom -in view of the hour it was and there being no pump of Vartry water -available for their ablutions let alone drinking purposes hit upon an -expedient by suggesting, off the reel, the propriety of the cabman's -shelter, as it was called, hardly a stonesthrow away near Butt bridge -where they might hit upon some drinkables in the shape of a milk and soda -or a mineral. But how to get there was the rub. For the nonce he was -rather nonplussed but inasmuch as the duty plainly devolved upon him to -take some measures on the subject he pondered suitable ways and means -during which Stephen repeatedly yawned. So far as he could see he was -rather pale in the face so that it occurred to him as highly advisable to -get a conveyance of some description which would answer in their then -condition, both of them being e.d.ed, particularly Stephen, always -assuming that there was such a thing to be found. Accordingly after a few -such preliminaries as brushing, in spite of his having forgotten to take -up his rather soapsuddy handkerchief after it had done yeoman service in -the shaving line, they both walked together along Beaver street or, more -properly, lane as far as the farrier's and the distinctly fetid -atmosphere of the livery stables at the corner of Montgomery street where -they made tracks to the left from thence debouching into Amiens street -round by the corner of Dan Bergin's. But as he confidently anticipated -there was not a sign of a Jehu plying for hire anywhere to be seen except -a fourwheeler, probably engaged by some fellows inside on the spree, -outside the North Star hotel and there was no symptom of its budging a -quarter of an inch when Mr Bloom, who was anything but a professional -whistler, endeavoured to hail it by emitting a kind of a whistle, holding -his arms arched over his head, twice. - -This was a quandary but, bringing common sense to bear on it, evidently -there was nothing for it but put a good face on the matter and foot it -which they accordingly did. So, bevelling around by Mullett's and the -Signal House which they shortly reached, they proceeded perforce in the -direction of Amiens street railway terminus, Mr Bloom being handicapped -by the circumstance that one of the back buttons of his trousers had, to -vary the timehonoured adage, gone the way of all buttons though, entering -thoroughly into the spirit of the thing, he heroically made light of the -mischance. So as neither of them were particularly pressed for time, as -it happened, and the temperature refreshing since it cleared up after the -recent visitation of Jupiter Pluvius, they dandered along past by where -the empty vehicle was waiting without a fare or a jarvey. As it so -happened a Dublin United Tramways Company's sandstrewer happened to be -returning and the elder man recounted to his companion A PROPOS of the -incident his own truly miraculous escape of some little while back. They -passed the main entrance of the Great Northern railway station, the -starting point for Belfast, where of course all traffic was suspended at -that late hour and passing the backdoor of the morgue (a not very -enticing locality, not to say gruesome to a degree, more especially at -night) ultimately gained the Dock Tavern and in due course turned into -Store street, famous for its C division police station. Between this -point and the high at present unlit warehouses of Beresford place Stephen -thought to think of Ibsen, associated with Baird's the stonecutter's in -his mind somehow in Talbot place, first turning on the right, while the -other who was acting as his FIDUS ACHATES inhaled with internal -satisfaction the smell of James Rourke's city bakery, situated quite -close to where they were, the very palatable odour indeed of our daily -bread, of all commodities of the public the primary and most -indispensable. Bread, the staff of life, earn your bread, O tell me where -is fancy bread, at Rourke's the baker's it is said. - -EN ROUTE to his taciturn and, not to put too fine a point on it, not yet -perfectly sober companion Mr Bloom who at all events was in complete -possession of his faculties, never more so, in fact disgustingly sober, -spoke a word of caution re the dangers of nighttown, women of ill fame -and swell mobsmen, which, barely permissible once in a while though not -as a habitual practice, was of the nature of a regular deathtrap for -young fellows of his age particularly if they had acquired drinking -habits under the influence of liquor unless you knew a little jiujitsu -for every contingency as even a fellow on the broad of his back could -administer a nasty kick if you didn't look out. Highly providential was -the appearance on the scene of Corny Kelleher when Stephen was blissfully -unconscious but for that man in the gap turning up at the eleventh hour -the finis might have been that he might have been a candidate for the -accident ward or, failing that, the bridewell and an appearance in the -court next day before Mr Tobias or, he being the solicitor rather, old -Wall, he meant to say, or Mahony which simply spelt ruin for a chap when -it got bruited about. The reason he mentioned the fact was that a lot of -those policemen, whom he cordially disliked, were admittedly unscrupulous -in the service of the Crown and, as Mr Bloom put it, recalling a case or -two in the A division in Clanbrassil street, prepared to swear a hole -through a ten gallon pot. Never on the spot when wanted but in quiet -parts of the city, Pembroke road for example, the guardians of the law -were well in evidence, the obvious reason being they were paid to protect -the upper classes. Another thing he commented on was equipping soldiers -with firearms or sidearms of any description liable to go off at any time -which was tantamount to inciting them against civilians should by any -chance they fall out over anything. You frittered away your time, he very -sensibly maintained, and health and also character besides which, the -squandermania of the thing, fast women of the DEMIMONDE ran away with a -lot of l.s.d. into the bargain and the greatest danger of all was who you -got drunk with though, touching the much vexed question of stimulants, he -relished a glass of choice old wine in season as both nourishing and -bloodmaking and possessing aperient virtues (notably a good burgundy -which he was a staunch believer in) still never beyond a certain point -where he invariably drew the line as it simply led to trouble all round -to say nothing of your being at the tender mercy of others practically. -Most of all he commented adversely on the desertion of Stephen by all his -pubhunting CONFRERES but one, a most glaring piece of ratting on the part -of his brother medicos under all the circs. - ---And that one was Judas, Stephen said, who up to then had said nothing -whatsoever of any kind. - -Discussing these and kindred topics they made a beeline across the back -of the Customhouse and passed under the Loop Line bridge where a brazier -of coke burning in front of a sentrybox or something like one attracted -their rather lagging footsteps. Stephen of his own accord stopped for no -special reason to look at the heap of barren cobblestones and by the -light emanating from the brazier he could just make out the darker figure -of the corporation watchman inside the gloom of the sentrybox. He began -to remember that this had happened or had been mentioned as having -happened before but it cost him no small effort before he remembered that -he recognised in the sentry a quondam friend of his father's, Gumley. To -avoid a meeting he drew nearer to the pillars of the railway bridge. - ---Someone saluted you, Mr Bloom said. - -A figure of middle height on the prowl evidently under the arches saluted -again, calling: - ---NIGHT! - -Stephen of course started rather dizzily and stopped to return the -compliment. Mr Bloom actuated by motives of inherent delicacy inasmuch as -he always believed in minding his own business moved off but nevertheless -remained on the QUI VIVE with just a shade of anxiety though not funkyish -in the least. Though unusual in the Dublin area he knew that it was not -by any means unknown for desperadoes who had next to nothing to live on -to be abroad waylaying and generally terrorising peaceable pedestrians by -placing a pistol at their head in some secluded spot outside the city -proper, famished loiterers of the Thames embankment category they might -be hanging about there or simply marauders ready to decamp with whatever -boodle they could in one fell swoop at a moment's notice, your money or -your life, leaving you there to point a moral, gagged and garrotted. - -Stephen, that is when the accosting figure came to close quarters, though -he was not in an over sober state himself recognised Corley's breath -redolent of rotten cornjuice. Lord John Corley some called him and his -genealogy came about in this wise. He was the eldest son of inspector -Corley of the G division, lately deceased, who had married a certain -Katherine Brophy, the daughter of a Louth farmer. His grandfather Patrick -Michael Corley of New Ross had married the widow of a publican there -whose maiden name had been Katherine (also) Talbot. Rumour had it (though -not proved) that she descended from the house of the lords Talbot de -Malahide in whose mansion, really an unquestionably fine residence of its -kind and well worth seeing, her mother or aunt or some relative, a woman, -as the tale went, of extreme beauty, had enjoyed the distinction of being -in service in the washkitchen. This therefore was the reason why the -still comparatively young though dissolute man who now addressed Stephen -was spoken of by some with facetious proclivities as Lord John Corley. - -Taking Stephen on one side he had the customary doleful ditty to tell. -Not as much as a farthing to purchase a night's lodgings. His friends had -all deserted him. Furthermore he had a row with Lenehan and called him to -Stephen a mean bloody swab with a sprinkling of a number of other -uncalledfor expressions. He was out of a job and implored of Stephen to -tell him where on God's earth he could get something, anything at all, to -do. No, it was the daughter of the mother in the washkitchen that was -fostersister to the heir of the house or else they were connected through -the mother in some way, both occurrences happening at the same time if -the whole thing wasn't a complete fabrication from start to finish. -Anyhow he was all in. - ---I wouldn't ask you only, pursued he, on my solemn oath and God knows -I'm on the rocks. - ---There'll be a job tomorrow or next day, Stephen told him, in a boys' -school at Dalkey for a gentleman usher. Mr Garrett Deasy. Try it. You may -mention my name. - ---Ah, God, Corley replied, sure I couldn't teach in a school, man. I was -never one of your bright ones, he added with a half laugh. I got stuck -twice in the junior at the christian brothers. - ---I have no place to sleep myself, Stephen informed him. - -Corley at the first go-off was inclined to suspect it was something to do -with Stephen being fired out of his digs for bringing in a bloody tart -off the street. There was a dosshouse in Marlborough street, Mrs -Maloney's, but it was only a tanner touch and full of undesirables but -M'Conachie told him you got a decent enough do in the Brazen Head over in -Winetavern street (which was distantly suggestive to the person addressed -of friar Bacon) for a bob. He was starving too though he hadn't said a -word about it. - -Though this sort of thing went on every other night or very near it still -Stephen's feelings got the better of him in a sense though he knew that -Corley's brandnew rigmarole on a par with the others was hardly deserving -of much credence. However HAUD IGNARUS MALORUM MISERIS SUCCURRERE DISCO -etcetera as the Latin poet remarks especially as luck would have it he -got paid his screw after every middle of the month on the sixteenth which -was the date of the month as a matter of fact though a good bit of the -wherewithal was demolished. But the cream of the joke was nothing would -get it out of Corley's head that he was living in affluence and hadn't a -thing to do but hand out the needful. Whereas. He put his hand in a -pocket anyhow not with the idea of finding any food there but thinking he -might lend him anything up to a bob or so in lieu so that he might -endeavour at all events and get sufficient to eat but the result was in -the negative for, to his chagrin, he found his cash missing. A few broken -biscuits were all the result of his investigation. He tried his hardest -to recollect for the moment whether he had lost as well he might have or -left because in that contingency it was not a pleasant lookout, very much -the reverse in fact. He was altogether too fagged out to institute a -thorough search though he tried to recollect. About biscuits he dimly -remembered. Who now exactly gave them he wondered or where was or did he -buy. However in another pocket he came across what he surmised in the -dark were pennies, erroneously however, as it turned out. - ---Those are halfcrowns, man, Corley corrected him. - -And so in point of fact they turned out to be. Stephen anyhow lent him -one of them. - ---Thanks, Corley answered, you're a gentleman. I'll pay you back one -time. Who's that with you? I saw him a few times in the Bleeding Horse in -Camden street with Boylan, the billsticker. You might put in a good word -for us to get me taken on there. I'd carry a sandwichboard only the girl -in the office told me they're full up for the next three weeks, man. God, -you've to book ahead, man, you'd think it was for the Carl Rosa. I don't -give a shite anyway so long as I get a job, even as a crossing sweeper. - -Subsequently being not quite so down in the mouth after the two and six -he got he informed Stephen about a fellow by the name of Bags Comisky -that he said Stephen knew well out of Fullam's, the shipchandler's, -bookkeeper there that used to be often round in Nagle's back with O'Mara -and a little chap with a stutter the name of Tighe. Anyhow he was lagged -the night before last and fined ten bob for a drunk and disorderly and -refusing to go with the constable. - -Mr Bloom in the meanwhile kept dodging about in the vicinity of the -cobblestones near the brazier of coke in front of the corporation -watchman's sentrybox who evidently a glutton for work, it struck him, was -having a quiet forty winks for all intents and purposes on his own -private account while Dublin slept. He threw an odd eye at the same time -now and then at Stephen's anything but immaculately attired interlocutor -as if he had seen that nobleman somewhere or other though where he was -not in a position to truthfully state nor had he the remotest idea when. -Being a levelheaded individual who could give points to not a few in -point of shrewd observation he also remarked on his very dilapidated hat -and slouchy wearing apparel generally testifying to a chronic -impecuniosity. Palpably he was one of his hangerson but for the matter of -that it was merely a question of one preying on his nextdoor neighbour -all round, in every deep, so to put it, a deeper depth and for the matter -of that if the man in the street chanced to be in the dock himself penal -servitude with or without the option of a fine would be a very rara avis -altogether. In any case he had a consummate amount of cool assurance -intercepting people at that hour of the night or morning. Pretty thick -that was certainly. - -The pair parted company and Stephen rejoined Mr Bloom who, with his -practised eye, was not without perceiving that he had succumbed to the -blandiloquence of the other parasite. Alluding to the encounter he said, -laughingly, Stephen, that is: - ---He is down on his luck. He asked me to ask you to ask somebody named -Boylan, a billsticker, to give him a job as a sandwichman. - -At this intelligence, in which he seemingly evinced little interest, Mr -Bloom gazed abstractedly for the space of a half a second or so in the -direction of a bucketdredger, rejoicing in the farfamed name of Eblana, -moored alongside Customhouse quay and quite possibly out of repair, -whereupon he observed evasively: - ---Everybody gets their own ration of luck, they say. Now you mention it -his face was familiar to me. But, leaving that for the moment, how much -did you part with, he queried, if I am not too inquisitive? - ---Half a crown, Stephen responded. I daresay he needs it to sleep -somewhere. - ---Needs! Mr Bloom ejaculated, professing not the least surprise at the -intelligence, I can quite credit the assertion and I guarantee he -invariably does. Everyone according to his needs or everyone according to -his deeds. But, talking about things in general, where, added he with a -smile, will you sleep yourself? Walking to Sandycove is out of the -question. And even supposing you did you won't get in after what occurred -at Westland Row station. Simply fag out there for nothing. I don't mean -to presume to dictate to you in the slightest degree but why did you -leave your father's house? - ---To seek misfortune, was Stephen's answer. - ---I met your respected father on a recent occasion, Mr Bloom -diplomatically returned, today in fact, or to be strictly accurate, on -yesterday. Where does he live at present? I gathered in the course of -conversation that he had moved. - ---I believe he is in Dublin somewhere, Stephen answered unconcernedly. -Why? - ---A gifted man, Mr Bloom said of Mr Dedalus senior, in more respects than -one and a born RACONTEUR if ever there was one. He takes great pride, -quite legitimate, out of you. You could go back perhaps, he hasarded, -still thinking of the very unpleasant scene at Westland Row terminus when -it was perfectly evident that the other two, Mulligan, that is, and that -English tourist friend of his, who eventually euchred their third -companion, were patently trying as if the whole bally station belonged to -them to give Stephen the slip in the confusion, which they did. - -There was no response forthcoming to the suggestion however, such as it -was, Stephen's mind's eye being too busily engaged in repicturing his -family hearth the last time he saw it with his sister Dilly sitting by -the ingle, her hair hanging down, waiting for some weak Trinidad shell -cocoa that was in the sootcoated kettle to be done so that she and he -could drink it with the oatmealwater for milk after the Friday herrings -they had eaten at two a penny with an egg apiece for Maggy, Boody and -Katey, the cat meanwhile under the mangle devouring a mess of eggshells -and charred fish heads and bones on a square of brown paper, in -accordance with the third precept of the church to fast and abstain on -the days commanded, it being quarter tense or if not, ember days or -something like that. - ---No, Mr Bloom repeated again, I wouldn't personally repose much trust in -that boon companion of yours who contributes the humorous element, Dr -Mulligan, as a guide, philosopher and friend if I were in your shoes. He -knows which side his bread is buttered on though in all probability he -never realised what it is to be without regular meals. Of course you -didn't notice as much as I did. But it wouldn't occasion me the least -surprise to learn that a pinch of tobacco or some narcotic was put in -your drink for some ulterior object. - -He understood however from all he heard that Dr Mulligan was a versatile -allround man, by no means confined to medicine only, who was rapidly -coming to the fore in his line and, if the report was verified, bade fair -to enjoy a flourishing practice in the not too distant future as a tony -medical practitioner drawing a handsome fee for his services in addition -to which professional status his rescue of that man from certain drowning -by artificial respiration and what they call first aid at Skerries, or -Malahide was it?, was, he was bound to admit, an exceedingly plucky deed -which he could not too highly praise, so that frankly he was utterly at a -loss to fathom what earthly reason could be at the back of it except he -put it down to sheer cussedness or jealousy, pure and simple. - ---Except it simply amounts to one thing and he is what they call picking -your brains, he ventured to throw o.ut. - -The guarded glance of half solicitude half curiosity augmented by -friendliness which he gave at Stephen's at present morose expression of -features did not throw a flood of light, none at all in fact on the -problem as to whether he had let himself be badly bamboozled to judge by -two or three lowspirited remarks he let drop or the other way about saw -through the affair and for some reason or other best known to himself -allowed matters to more or less. Grinding poverty did have that effect -and he more than conjectured that, high educational abilities though he -possessed, he experienced no little difficulty in making both ends meet. - -Adjacent to the men's public urinal they perceived an icecream car round -which a group of presumably Italians in heated altercation were getting -rid of voluble expressions in their vivacious language in a particularly -animated way, there being some little differences between the parties. - ---PUTTANA MADONNA, CHE CI DIA I QUATTRINI! HO RAGIONE? CULO ROTTO! - ---INTENDIAMOCI. MEZZO SOVRANO PIU ... - ---DICE LUI, PERO! - ---MEZZO. - ---FARABUTTO! MORTACCI SUI! - ---MA ASCOLTA! CINQUE LA TESTA PIU ... - -Mr Bloom and Stephen entered the cabman's shelter, an unpretentious -wooden structure, where, prior to then, he had rarely if ever been -before, the former having previously whispered to the latter a few hints -anent the keeper of it said to be the once famous Skin-the-Goat -Fitzharris, the invincible, though he could not vouch for the actual -facts which quite possibly there was not one vestige of truth in. A few -moments later saw our two noctambules safely seated in a discreet corner -only to be greeted by stares from the decidedly miscellaneous collection -of waifs and strays and other nondescript specimens of the genus HOMO -already there engaged in eating and drinking diversified by conversation -for whom they seemingly formed an object of marked curiosity. - ---Now touching a cup of coffee, Mr Bloom ventured to plausibly suggest to -break the ice, it occurs to me you ought to sample something in the shape -of solid food, say, a roll of some description. - -Accordingly his first act was with characteristic SANGFROID to order -these commodities quietly. The HOI POLLOI of jarvies or stevedores or -whatever they were after a cursory examination turned their eyes -apparently dissatisfied, away though one redbearded bibulous individual -portion of whose hair was greyish, a sailor probably, still stared for -some appreciable time before transferring his rapt attention to the -floor. Mr Bloom, availing himself of the right of free speech, he having -just a bowing acquaintance with the language in dispute, though, to be -sure, rather in a quandary over VOGLIO, remarked to his PROTEGE in an -audible tone of voice A PROPOS of the battle royal in the street which -was still raging fast and furious: - ---A beautiful language. I mean for singing purposes. Why do you not write -your poetry in that language? BELLA POETRIA! It is so melodious and full. -BELLADONNA. VOGLIO. - -Stephen, who was trying his dead best to yawn if he could, suffering from -lassitude generally, replied: - ---To fill the ear of a cow elephant. They were haggling over money. - ---Is that so? Mr Bloom asked. Of course, he subjoined pensively, at the -inward reflection of there being more languages to start with than were -absolutely necessary, it may be only the southern glamour that surrounds -it. - -The keeper of the shelter in the middle of this TETE-A-TETE put a boiling -swimming cup of a choice concoction labelled coffee on the table and a -rather antediluvian specimen of a bun, or so it seemed. After which he -beat a retreat to his counter, Mr Bloom determining to have a good square -look at him later on so as not to appear to. For which reason he -encouraged Stephen to proceed with his eyes while he did the honours by -surreptitiously pushing the cup of what was temporarily supposed to be -called coffee gradually nearer him. - ---Sounds are impostures, Stephen said after a pause of some little time, -like names. Cicero, Podmore. Napoleon, Mr Goodbody. Jesus, Mr Doyle. -Shakespeares were as common as Murphies. What's in a name? - ---Yes, to be sure, Mr Bloom unaffectedly concurred. Of course. Our name -was changed too, he added, pushing the socalled roll across. - -The redbearded sailor who had his weather eye on the newcomers boarded -Stephen, whom he had singled out for attention in particular, squarely by -asking: - ---And what might your name be? - -Just in the nick of time Mr Bloom touched his companion's boot but -Stephen, apparently disregarding the warm pressure from an unexpected -quarter, answered: - ---Dedalus. - -The sailor stared at him heavily from a pair of drowsy baggy eyes, rather -bunged up from excessive use of boose, preferably good old Hollands and -water. - ---You know Simon Dedalus? he asked at length. - ---I've heard of him, Stephen said. - -Mr Bloom was all at sea for a moment, seeing the others evidently -eavesdropping too. - ---He's Irish, the seaman bold affirmed, staring still in much the same -way and nodding. All Irish. - ---All too Irish, Stephen rejoined. - -As for Mr Bloom he could neither make head or tail of the whole business -and he was just asking himself what possible connection when the sailor -of his own accord turned to the other occupants of the shelter with the -remark: - ---I seen him shoot two eggs off two bottles at fifty yards over his -shoulder. The lefthand dead shot. - -Though he was slightly hampered by an occasional stammer and his gestures -being also clumsy as it was still he did his best to explain. - ---Bottles out there, say. Fifty yards measured. Eggs on the bottles. -Cocks his gun over his shoulder. Aims. - -He turned his body half round, shut up his right eye completely. Then he -screwed his features up someway sideways and glared out into the night -with an unprepossessing cast of countenance. - ---Pom! he then shouted once. - -The entire audience waited, anticipating an additional detonation, there -being still a further egg. - ---Pom! he shouted twice. - -Egg two evidently demolished, he nodded and winked, adding -bloodthirstily: - - - --BUFFALO BILL SHOOTS TO KILL, - NEVER MISSED NOR HE NEVER WILL. - - -A silence ensued till Mr Bloom for agreeableness' sake just felt like -asking him whether it was for a marksmanship competition like the Bisley. - ---Beg pardon, the sailor said. - ---Long ago? Mr Bloom pursued without flinching a hairsbreadth. - ---Why, the sailor replied, relaxing to a certain extent under the magic -influence of diamond cut diamond, it might be a matter of ten years. He -toured the wide world with Hengler's Royal Circus. I seen him do that in -Stockholm. - ---Curious coincidence, Mr Bloom confided to Stephen unobtrusively. - ---Murphy's my name, the sailor continued. D. B. Murphy of Carrigaloe. -Know where that is? - ---Queenstown harbour, Stephen replied. - ---That's right, the sailor said. Fort Camden and Fort Carlisle. That's -where I hails from. I belongs there. That's where I hails from. My little -woman's down there. She's waiting for me, I know. FOR ENGLAND, HOME AND -BEAUTY. She's my own true wife I haven't seen for seven years now, -sailing about. - -Mr Bloom could easily picture his advent on this scene, the homecoming to -the mariner's roadside shieling after having diddled Davy Jones, a rainy -night with a blind moon. Across the world for a wife. Quite a number of -stories there were on that particular Alice Ben Bolt topic, Enoch Arden -and Rip van Winkle and does anybody hereabouts remember Caoc O'Leary, a -favourite and most trying declamation piece by the way of poor John Casey -and a bit of perfect poetry in its own small way. Never about the runaway -wife coming back, however much devoted to the absentee. The face at the -window! Judge of his astonishment when he finally did breast the tape and -the awful truth dawned upon him anent his better half, wrecked in his -affections. You little expected me but I've come to stay and make a fresh -start. There she sits, a grasswidow, at the selfsame fireside. Believes -me dead, rocked in the cradle of the deep. And there sits uncle Chubb or -Tomkin, as the case might be, the publican of the Crown and Anchor, in -shirtsleeves, eating rumpsteak and onions. No chair for father. Broo! The -wind! Her brandnew arrival is on her knee, POST MORTEM child. With a high -ro! and a randy ro! and my galloping tearing tandy, O! Bow to the -inevitable. Grin and bear it. I remain with much love your brokenhearted -husband D B Murphy. - -The sailor, who scarcely seemed to be a Dublin resident, turned to one of -the jarvies with the request: - ---You don't happen to have such a thing as a spare chaw about you? - -The jarvey addressed as it happened had not but the keeper took a die of -plug from his good jacket hanging on a nail and the desired object was -passed from hand to hand. - ---Thank you, the sailor said. - -He deposited the quid in his gob and, chewing and with some slow -stammers, proceeded: - ---We come up this morning eleven o'clock. The threemaster ROSEVEAN from -Bridgwater with bricks. I shipped to get over. Paid off this afternoon. -There's my discharge. See? D. B. Murphy. A. B. S. - -In confirmation of which statement he extricated from an inside pocket -and handed to his neighbour a not very cleanlooking folded document. - ---You must have seen a fair share of the world, the keeper remarked, -leaning on the counter. - ---Why, the sailor answered upon reflection upon it, I've circumnavigated -a bit since I first joined on. I was in the Red Sea. I was in China and -North America and South America. We was chased by pirates one voyage. I -seen icebergs plenty, growlers. I was in Stockholm and the Black Sea, the -Dardanelles under Captain Dalton, the best bloody man that ever scuttled -a ship. I seen Russia. GOSPODI POMILYOU. That's how the Russians prays. - ---You seen queer sights, don't be talking, put in a jarvey. - ---Why, the sailor said, shifting his partially chewed plug. I seen queer -things too, ups and downs. I seen a crocodile bite the fluke of an anchor -same as I chew that quid. - -He took out of his mouth the pulpy quid and, lodging it between his -teeth, bit ferociously: - ---Khaan! Like that. And I seen maneaters in Peru that eats corpses and -the livers of horses. Look here. Here they are. A friend of mine sent me. - -He fumbled out a picture postcard from his inside pocket which seemed to -be in its way a species of repository and pushed it along the table. The -printed matter on it stated: CHOZA DE INDIOS. BENI, BOLIVIA. - -All focussed their attention at the scene exhibited, a group of savage -women in striped loincloths, squatted, blinking, suckling, frowning, -sleeping amid a swarm of infants (there must have been quite a score of -them) outside some primitive shanties of osier. - ---Chews coca all day, the communicative tarpaulin added. Stomachs like -breadgraters. Cuts off their diddies when they can't bear no more -children. - -See them sitting there stark ballocknaked eating a dead horse's liver -raw. - -His postcard proved a centre of attraction for Messrs the greenhorns for -several minutes if not more. - ---Know how to keep them off? he inquired generally. - -Nobody volunteering a statement he winked, saying: - ---Glass. That boggles 'em. Glass. - -Mr Bloom, without evincing surprise, unostentatiously turned over the -card to peruse the partially obliterated address and postmark. It ran as -follows: TARJETA POSTAL, SENOR A BOUDIN, GALERIA BECCHE, SANTIAGO, CHILE. -There was no message evidently, as he took particular notice. Though not -an implicit believer in the lurid story narrated (or the eggsniping -transaction for that matter despite William Tell and the Lazarillo-Don -Cesar de Bazan incident depicted in MARITANA on which occasion the -former's ball passed through the latter's hat) having detected a -discrepancy between his name (assuming he was the person he represented -himself to be and not sailing under false colours after having boxed the -compass on the strict q.t. somewhere) and the fictitious addressee of the -missive which made him nourish some suspicions of our friend's BONA FIDES -nevertheless it reminded him in a way of a longcherished plan he meant to -one day realise some Wednesday or Saturday of travelling to London via -long sea not to say that he had ever travelled extensively to any great -extent but he was at heart a born adventurer though by a trick of fate he -had consistently remained a landlubber except you call going to Holyhead -which was his longest. Martin Cunningham frequently said he would work a -pass through Egan but some deuced hitch or other eternally cropped up -with the net result that the scheme fell through. But even suppose it did -come to planking down the needful and breaking Boyd's heart it was not so -dear, purse permitting, a few guineas at the outside considering the fare -to Mullingar where he figured on going was five and six, there and back. -The trip would benefit health on account of the bracing ozone and be in -every way thoroughly pleasurable, especially for a chap whose liver was -out of order, seeing the different places along the route, Plymouth, -Falmouth, Southampton and so on culminating in an instructive tour of the -sights of the great metropolis, the spectacle of our modern Babylon where -doubtless he would see the greatest improvement, tower, abbey, wealth of -Park lane to renew acquaintance with. Another thing just struck him as a -by no means bad notion was he might have a gaze around on the spot to see -about trying to make arrangements about a concert tour of summer music -embracing the most prominent pleasure resorts, Margate with mixed bathing -and firstrate hydros and spas, Eastbourne, Scarborough, Margate and so -on, beautiful Bournemouth, the Channel islands and similar bijou spots, -which might prove highly remunerative. Not, of course, with a hole and -corner scratch company or local ladies on the job, witness Mrs C P M'Coy -type lend me your valise and I'll post you the ticket. No, something top -notch, an all star Irish caste, the Tweedy-Flower grand opera company -with his own legal consort as leading lady as a sort of counterblast to -the Elster Grimes and Moody-Manners, perfectly simple matter and he was -quite sanguine of success, providing puffs in the local papers could be -managed by some fellow with a bit of bounce who could pull the -indispensable wires and thus combine business with pleasure. But who? -That was the rub. Also, without being actually positive, it struck him a -great field was to be opened up in the line of opening up new routes to -keep pace with the times APROPOS of the Fishguard-Rosslare route which, -it was mooted, was once more on the TAPIS in the circumlocution -departments with the usual quantity of red tape and dillydallying of -effete fogeydom and dunderheads generally. A great opportunity there -certainly was for push and enterprise to meet the travelling needs of the -public at large, the average man, i.e. Brown, Robinson and Co. - -It was a subject of regret and absurd as well on the face of it and no -small blame to our vaunted society that the man in the street, when the -system really needed toning up, for the matter of a couple of paltry -pounds was debarred from seeing more of the world they lived in instead -of being always and ever cooped up since my old stick-in-the-mud took me -for a wife. After all, hang it, they had their eleven and more humdrum -months of it and merited a radical change of VENUE after the grind of -city life in the summertime for choice when dame Nature is at her -spectacular best constituting nothing short of a new lease of life. There -were equally excellent opportunities for vacationists in the home island, -delightful sylvan spots for rejuvenation, offering a plethora of -attractions as well as a bracing tonic for the system in and around -Dublin and its picturesque environs even, Poulaphouca to which there was -a steamtram, but also farther away from the madding crowd in Wicklow, -rightly termed the garden of Ireland, an ideal neighbourhood for elderly -wheelmen so long as it didn't come down, and in the wilds of Donegal -where if report spoke true the COUP D'OEIL was exceedingly grand though -the lastnamed locality was not easily getatable so that the influx of -visitors was not as yet all that it might be considering the signal -benefits to be derived from it while Howth with its historic associations -and otherwise, Silken Thomas, Grace O'Malley, George IV, rhododendrons -several hundred feet above sealevel was a favourite haunt with all sorts -and conditions of men especially in the spring when young men's fancy, -though it had its own toll of deaths by falling off the cliffs by design -or accidentally, usually, by the way, on their left leg, it being only -about three quarters of an hour's run from the pillar. Because of course -uptodate tourist travelling was as yet merely in its infancy, so to -speak, and the accommodation left much to be desired. Interesting to -fathom it seemed to him from a motive of curiosity, pure and simple, was -whether it was the traffic that created the route or viceversa or the two -sides in fact. He turned back the other side of the card, picture, and -passed it along to Stephen. - ---I seen a Chinese one time, related the doughty narrator, that had -little pills like putty and he put them in the water and they opened and -every pill was something different. One was a ship, another was a house, -another was a flower. Cooks rats in your soup, he appetisingly added, the -chinks does. - -Possibly perceiving an expression of dubiosity on their faces the -globetrotter went on, adhering to his adventures. - ---And I seen a man killed in Trieste by an Italian chap. Knife in his -back. Knife like that. - -Whilst speaking he produced a dangerouslooking claspknife quite in -keeping with his character and held it in the striking position. - ---In a knockingshop it was count of a tryon between two smugglers. Fellow -hid behind a door, come up behind him. Like that. PREPARE TO MEET YOUR -GOD, says he. Chuk! It went into his back up to the butt. - -His heavy glance drowsily roaming about kind of defied their further -questions even should they by any chance want to. - ---That's a good bit of steel, repeated he, examining his formidable -STILETTO. - -After which harrowing DENOUEMENT sufficient to appal the stoutest he -snapped the blade to and stowed the weapon in question away as before in -his chamber of horrors, otherwise pocket. - ---They're great for the cold steel, somebody who was evidently quite in -the dark said for the benefit of them all. That was why they thought the -park murders of the invincibles was done by foreigners on account of them -using knives. - -At this remark passed obviously in the spirit of WHERE IGNORANCE IS BLISS -Mr B. and Stephen, each in his own particular way, both instinctively -exchanged meaning glances, in a religious silence of the strictly ENTRE -NOUS variety however, towards where Skin-the-Goat, ALIAS the keeper, not -turning a hair, was drawing spurts of liquid from his boiler affair. His -inscrutable face which was really a work of art, a perfect study in -itself, beggaring description, conveyed the impression that he didn't -understand one jot of what was going on. Funny, very! - -There ensued a somewhat lengthy pause. One man was reading in fits and -starts a stained by coffee evening journal, another the card with the -natives CHOZA DE, another the seaman's discharge. Mr Bloom, so far as he -was personally concerned, was just pondering in pensive mood. He vividly -recollected when the occurrence alluded to took place as well as -yesterday, roughly some score of years previously in the days of the land -troubles, when it took the civilised world by storm, figuratively -speaking, early in the eighties, eightyone to be correct, when he was -just turned fifteen. - ---Ay, boss, the sailor broke in. Give us back them papers. - -The request being complied with he clawed them up with a scrape. - ---Have you seen the rock of Gibraltar? Mr Bloom inquired. - -The sailor grimaced, chewing, in a way that might be read as yes, ay or -no. - ---Ah, you've touched there too, Mr Bloom said, Europa point, thinking he -had, in the hope that the rover might possibly by some reminiscences but -he failed to do so, simply letting spirt a jet of spew into the sawdust, -and shook his head with a sort of lazy scorn. - ---What year would that be about? Mr B interrogated. Can you recall the -boats? - -Our SOI-DISANT sailor munched heavily awhile hungrily before answering: - ---I'm tired of all them rocks in the sea, he said, and boats and ships. -Salt junk all the time. - -Tired seemingly, he ceased. His questioner perceiving that he was not -likely to get a great deal of change out of such a wily old customer, -fell to woolgathering on the enormous dimensions of the water about the -globe, suffice it to say that, as a casual glance at the map revealed, it -covered fully three fourths of it and he fully realised accordingly what -it meant to rule the waves. On more than one occasion, a dozen at the -lowest, near the North Bull at Dollymount he had remarked a superannuated -old salt, evidently derelict, seated habitually near the not particularly -redolent sea on the wall, staring quite obliviously at it and it at him, -dreaming of fresh woods and pastures new as someone somewhere sings. And -it left him wondering why. Possibly he had tried to find out the secret -for himself, floundering up and down the antipodes and all that sort of -thing and over and under, well, not exactly under, tempting the fates. -And the odds were twenty to nil there was really no secret about it at -all. Nevertheless, without going into the MINUTIAE of the business, the -eloquent fact remained that the sea was there in all its glory and in the -natural course of things somebody or other had to sail on it and fly in -the face of providence though it merely went to show how people usually -contrived to load that sort of onus on to the other fellow like the hell -idea and the lottery and insurance which were run on identically the same -lines so that for that very reason if no other lifeboat Sunday was a -highly laudable institution to which the public at large, no matter where -living inland or seaside, as the case might be, having it brought home to -them like that should extend its gratitude also to the harbourmasters and -coastguard service who had to man the rigging and push off and out amid -the elements whatever the season when duty called IRELAND EXPECTS THAT -EVERY MAN and so on and sometimes had a terrible time of it in the -wintertime not forgetting the Irish lights, Kish and others, liable to -capsize at any moment, rounding which he once with his daughter had -experienced some remarkably choppy, not to say stormy, weather. - ---There was a fellow sailed with me in the Rover, the old seadog, himself -a rover, proceeded, went ashore and took up a soft job as gentleman's -valet at six quid a month. Them are his trousers I've on me and he gave -me an oilskin and that jackknife. I'm game for that job, shaving and -brushup. I hate roaming about. There's my son now, Danny, run off to sea -and his mother got him took in a draper's in Cork where he could be -drawing easy money. - ---What age is he? queried one hearer who, by the way, seen from the side, -bore a distant resemblance to Henry Campbell, the townclerk, away from -the carking cares of office, unwashed of course and in a seedy getup and -a strong suspicion of nosepaint about the nasal appendage. - ---Why, the sailor answered with a slow puzzled utterance, my son, Danny? -He'd be about eighteen now, way I figure it. - -The Skibbereen father hereupon tore open his grey or unclean anyhow shirt -with his two hands and scratched away at his chest on which was to be -seen an image tattooed in blue Chinese ink intended to represent an -anchor. - ---There was lice in that bunk in Bridgwater, he remarked, sure as nuts. I -must get a wash tomorrow or next day. It's them black lads I objects to. -I hate those buggers. Suck your blood dry, they does. - -Seeing they were all looking at his chest he accommodatingly dragged his -shirt more open so that on top of the timehonoured symbol of the -mariner's hope and rest they had a full view of the figure 16 and a young -man's sideface looking frowningly rather. - ---Tattoo, the exhibitor explained. That was done when we were Iying -becalmed off Odessa in the Black Sea under Captain Dalton. Fellow, the -name of Antonio, done that. There he is himself, a Greek. - ---Did it hurt much doing it? one asked the sailor. - -That worthy, however, was busily engaged in collecting round the. Someway -in his. Squeezing or. - ---See here, he said, showing Antonio. There he is cursing the mate. And -there he is now, he added, the same fellow, pulling the skin with his -fingers, some special knack evidently, and he laughing at a yarn. - -And in point of fact the young man named Antonio's livid face did -actually look like forced smiling and the curious effect excited the -unreserved admiration of everybody including Skin-the-Goat, who this time -stretched over. - ---Ay, ay, sighed the sailor, looking down on his manly chest. He's gone -too. Ate by sharks after. Ay, ay. - -He let go of the skin so that the profile resumed the normal expression -of before. - ---Neat bit of work, one longshoreman said. - ---And what's the number for? loafer number two queried. - ---Eaten alive? a third asked the sailor. - ---Ay, ay, sighed again the latter personage, more cheerily this time with -some sort of a half smile for a brief duration only in the direction of -the questioner about the number. Ate. A Greek he was. - -And then he added with rather gallowsbird humour considering his alleged -end: - - - --AS BAD AS OLD ANTONIO, - FOR HE LEFT ME ON MY OWNIO. - - -The face of a streetwalker glazed and haggard under a black straw hat -peered askew round the door of the shelter palpably reconnoitring on her -own with the object of bringing more grist to her mill. Mr Bloom, -scarcely knowing which way to look, turned away on the moment flusterfied -but outwardly calm, and, picking up from the table the pink sheet of the -Abbey street organ which the jarvey, if such he was, had laid aside, he -picked it up and looked at the pink of the paper though why pink. His -reason for so doing was he recognised on the moment round the door the -same face he had caught a fleeting glimpse of that afternoon on Ormond -quay, the partially idiotic female, namely, of the lane who knew the lady -in the brown costume does be with you (Mrs B.) and begged the chance of -his washing. Also why washing which seemed rather vague than not, your -washing. Still candour compelled him to admit he had washed his wife's -undergarments when soiled in Holles street and women would and did too a -man's similar garments initialled with Bewley and Draper's marking ink -(hers were, that is) if they really loved him, that is to say, love me, -love my dirty shirt. Still just then, being on tenterhooks, he desired -the female's room more than her company so it came as a genuine relief -when the keeper made her a rude sign to take herself off. Round the side -of the Evening Telegraph he just caught a fleeting glimpse of her face -round the side of the door with a kind of demented glassy grin showing -that she was not exactly all there, viewing with evident amusement the -group of gazers round skipper Murphy's nautical chest and then there was -no more of her. - ---The gunboat, the keeper said. - ---It beats me, Mr Bloom confided to Stephen, medically I am speaking, how -a wretched creature like that from the Lock hospital reeking with disease -can be barefaced enough to solicit or how any man in his sober senses, if -he values his health in the least. Unfortunate creature! Of course I -suppose some man is ultimately responsible for her condition. Still no -matter what the cause is from ... - -Stephen had not noticed her and shrugged his shoulders, merely remarking: - ---In this country people sell much more than she ever had and do a -roaring trade. Fear not them that sell the body but have not power to buy -the soul. She is a bad merchant. She buys dear and sells cheap. - -The elder man, though not by any manner of means an old maid or a prude, -said it was nothing short of a crying scandal that ought to be put a stop -to INSTANTER to say that women of that stamp (quite apart from any -oldmaidish squeamishness on the subject), a necessary evil, w ere not -licensed and medically inspected by the proper authorities, a thing, he -could truthfully state, he, as a PATERFAMILIAS, was a stalwart advocate -of from the very first start. Whoever embarked on a policy of the sort, -he said, and ventilated the matter thoroughly would confer a lasting boon -on everybody concerned. - ---You as a good catholic, he observed, talking of body and soul, believe -in the soul. Or do you mean the intelligence, the brainpower as such, as -distinct from any outside object, the table, let us say, that cup. I -believe in that myself because it has been explained by competent men as -the convolutions of the grey matter. Otherwise we would never have such -inventions as X rays, for instance. Do you? - -Thus cornered, Stephen had to make a superhuman effort of memory to try -and concentrate and remember before he could say: - ---They tell me on the best authority it is a simple substance and -therefore incorruptible. It would be immortal, I understand, but for the -possibility of its annihilation by its First Cause Who, from all I can -hear, is quite capable of adding that to the number of His other -practical jokes, CORRUPTIO PER SE and CORRUPTIO PER ACCIDENS both being -excluded by court etiquette. - -Mr Bloom thoroughly acquiesced in the general gist of this though the -mystical finesse involved was a bit out of his sublunary depth still he -felt bound to enter a demurrer on the head of simple, promptly rejoining: - ---Simple? I shouldn't think that is the proper word. Of course, I grant -you, to concede a point, you do knock across a simple soul once in a blue -moon. But what I am anxious to arrive at is it is one thing for instance -to invent those rays Rontgen did or the telescope like Edison, though I -believe it was before his time Galileo was the man, I mean, and the same -applies to the laws, for example, of a farreaching natural phenomenon -such as electricity but it's a horse of quite another colour to say you -believe in the existence of a supernatural God. - ---O that, Stephen expostulated, has been proved conclusively by several -of the bestknown passages in Holy Writ, apart from circumstantial -evidence. - -On this knotty point however the views of the pair, poles apart as they -were both in schooling and everything else with the marked difference in -their respective ages, clashed. - ---Has been? the more experienced of the two objected, sticking to his -original point with a smile of unbelief. I'm not so sure about that. -That's a matter for everyman's opinion and, without dragging in the -sectarian side of the business, I beg to differ with you IN TOTO there. -My belief is, to tell you the candid truth, that those bits were genuine -forgeries all of them put in by monks most probably or it's the big -question of our national poet over again, who precisely wrote them like -HAMLET and Bacon, as, you who know your Shakespeare infinitely better -than I, of course I needn't tell you. Can't you drink that coffee, by the -way? Let me stir it. And take a piece of that bun. It's like one of our -skipper's bricks disguised. Still no-one can give what he hasn't got. Try -a bit. - ---Couldn't, Stephen contrived to get out, his mental organs for the -moment refusing to dictate further. - -Faultfinding being a proverbially bad hat Mr Bloom thought well to stir -or try to the clotted sugar from the bottom and reflected with something -approaching acrimony on the Coffee Palace and its temperance (and -lucrative) work. To be sure it was a legitimate object and beyond yea or -nay did a world of good, shelters such as the present one they were in -run on teetotal lines for vagrants at night, concerts, dramatic evenings -and useful lectures (admittance free) by qualified men for the lower -orders. On the other hand he had a distinct and painful recollection they -paid his wife, Madam Marion Tweedy who had been prominently associated -with it at one time, a very modest remuneration indeed for her -pianoplaying. The idea, he was strongly inclined to believe, was to do -good and net a profit, there being no competition to speak of. Sulphate -of copper poison SO4 or something in some dried peas he remembered -reading of in a cheap eatinghouse somewhere but he couldn't remember when -it was or where. Anyhow inspection, medical inspection, of all eatables -seemed to him more than ever necessary which possibly accounted for the -vogue of Dr Tibble's Vi-Cocoa on account of the medical analysis -involved. - ---Have a shot at it now, he ventured to say of the coffee after being -stirred. - - Thus prevailed on to at any rate taste it Stephen lifted the heavy mug -from the brown puddle it clopped out of when taken up by the handle and -took a sip of the offending beverage. - ---Still it's solid food, his good genius urged, I'm a stickler for solid -food, his one and only reason being not gormandising in the least but -regular meals as the SINE QUA NON for any kind of proper work, mental or -manual. You ought to eat more solid food. You would feel a different man. - ---Liquids I can eat, Stephen said. But O, oblige me by taking away that -knife. I can't look at the point of it. It reminds me of Roman history. - -Mr Bloom promptly did as suggested and removed the incriminated article, -a blunt hornhandled ordinary knife with nothing particularly Roman or -antique about it to the lay eye, observing that the point was the least -conspicuous point about it. - ---Our mutual friend's stories are like himself, Mr Bloom APROPOS of -knives remarked to his CONFIDANTE SOTTO VOCE. Do you think they are -genuine? He could spin those yarns for hours on end all night long and -lie like old boots. Look at him. - -Yet still though his eyes were thick with sleep and sea air life was full -of a host of things and coincidences of a terrible nature and it was -quite within the bounds of possibility that it was not an entire -fabrication though at first blush there was not much inherent probability -in all the spoof he got off his chest being strictly accurate gospel. - -He had been meantime taking stock of the individual in front of him and -Sherlockholmesing him up ever since he clapped eyes on him. Though a -wellpreserved man of no little stamina, if a trifle prone to baldness, -there was something spurious in the cut of his jib that suggested a jail -delivery and it required no violent stretch of imagination to associate -such a weirdlooking specimen with the oakum and treadmill fraternity. He -might even have done for his man supposing it was his own case he told, -as people often did about others, namely, that he killed him himself and -had served his four or five goodlooking years in durance vile to say -nothing of the Antonio personage (no relation to the dramatic personage -of identical name who sprang from the pen of our national poet) who -expiated his crimes in the melodramatic manner above described. On the -other hand he might be only bluffing, a pardonable weakness because -meeting unmistakable mugs, Dublin residents, like those jarvies waiting -news from abroad would tempt any ancient mariner who sailed the ocean -seas to draw the long bow about the schooner HESPERUS and etcetera. And -when all was said and done the lies a fellow told about himself couldn't -probably hold a proverbial candle to the wholesale whoppers other fellows -coined about him. - ---Mind you, I'm not saying that it's all a pure invention, he resumed. -Analogous scenes are occasionally, if not often, met with. Giants, though -that is rather a far cry, you see once in a way, Marcella the midget -queen. In those waxworks in Henry street I myself saw some Aztecs, as -they are called, sitting bowlegged, they couldn't straighten their legs -if you paid them because the muscles here, you see, he proceeded, -indicating on his companion the brief outline of the sinews or whatever -you like to call them behind the right knee, were utterly powerless from -sitting that way so long cramped up, being adored as gods. There's an -example again of simple souls. - -However reverting to friend Sinbad and his horrifying adventures (who -reminded him a bit of Ludwig, ALIAS Ledwidge, when he occupied the boards -of the Gaiety when Michael Gunn was identified with the management in the -FLYING DUTCHMAN, a stupendous success, and his host of admirers came in -large numbers, everyone simply flocking to hear him though ships of any -sort, phantom or the reverse, on the stage usually fell a bit flat as -also did trains) there was nothing intrinsically incompatible about it, -he conceded. On the contrary that stab in the back touch was quite in -keeping with those italianos though candidly he was none the less free to -admit those icecreamers and friers in the fish way not to mention the -chip potato variety and so forth over in little Italy there near the -Coombe were sober thrifty hardworking fellows except perhaps a bit too -given to pothunting the harmless necessary animal of the feline -persuasion of others at night so as to have a good old succulent tuckin -with garlic DE RIGUEUR off him or her next day on the quiet and, he -added, on the cheap. - ---Spaniards, for instance, he continued, passionate temperaments like -that, impetuous as Old Nick, are given to taking the law into their own -hands and give you your quietus doublequick with those poignards they -carry in the abdomen. It comes from the great heat, climate generally. My -wife is, so to speak, Spanish, half that is. Point of fact she could -actually claim Spanish nationality if she wanted, having been born in -(technically) Spain, i.e. Gibraltar. She has the Spanish type. Quite -dark, regular brunette, black. I for one certainly believe climate -accounts for character. That's why I asked you if you wrote your poetry -in Italian. - ---The temperaments at the door, Stephen interposed with, were very -passionate about ten shillings. ROBERTO RUBA ROBA SUA. - ---Quite so, Mr Bloom dittoed. - ---Then, Stephen said staring and rambling on to himself or some unknown -listener somewhere, we have the impetuosity of Dante and the isosceles -triangle miss Portinari he fell in love with and Leonardo and san Tommaso -Mastino. - ---It's in the blood, Mr Bloom acceded at once. All are washed in the -blood of the sun. Coincidence I just happened to be in the Kildare street -museum today, shortly prior to our meeting if I can so call it, and I -was just looking at those antique statues there. The splendid proportions -of hips, bosom. You simply don't knock against those kind of women here. -An exception here and there. Handsome yes, pretty in a way you find but -what I'm talking about is the female form. Besides they have so little -taste in dress, most of them, which greatly enhances a woman's natural -beauty, no matter what you say. Rumpled stockings, it may be, possibly -is, a foible of mine but still it's a thing I simply hate to see. - -Interest, however, was starting to flag somewhat all round and then the -others got on to talking about accidents at sea, ships lost in a fog, goo -collisions with icebergs, all that sort of thing. Shipahoy of course had -his own say to say. He had doubled the cape a few odd times and weathered -a monsoon, a kind of wind, in the China seas and through all those perils -of the deep there was one thing, he declared, stood to him or words to -that effect, a pious medal he had that saved him. - -So then after that they drifted on to the wreck off Daunt's rock, wreck -of that illfated Norwegian barque nobody could think of her name for the -moment till the jarvey who had really quite a look of Henry Campbell -remembered it PALME on Booterstown strand. That was the talk of the town -that year (Albert William Quill wrote a fine piece of original verse of -distinctive merit on the topic for the Irish TIMES), breakers running -over her and crowds and crowds on the shore in commotion petrified with -horror. Then someone said something about the case of the S. S. LADY -CAIRNS of Swansea run into by the MONA which was on an opposite tack in -rather muggyish weather and lost with all hands on deck. No aid was -given. Her master, the MONA'S, said he was afraid his collision bulkhead -would give way. She had no water, it appears, in her hold. - -At this stage an incident happened. It having become necessary for him to -unfurl a reef the sailor vacated his seat. - ---Let me cross your bows mate, he said to his neighbour who was just -gently dropping off into a peaceful doze. - -He made tracks heavily, slowly with a dumpy sort of a gait to the door, -stepped heavily down the one step there was out of the shelter and bore -due left. While he was in the act of getting his bearings Mr Bloom who -noticed when he stood up that he had two flasks of presumably ship's rum -sticking one out of each pocket for the private consumption of his -burning interior, saw him produce a bottle and uncork it or unscrew and, -applying its nozzle to his lips, take a good old delectable swig out of -it with a gurgling noise. The irrepressible Bloom, who also had a shrewd -suspicion that the old stager went out on a manoeuvre after the -counterattraction in the shape of a female who however had disappeared to -all intents and purposes, could by straining just perceive him, when duly -refreshed by his rum puncheon exploit, gaping up at the piers and girders -of the Loop line rather out of his depth as of course it was all -radically altered since his last visit and greatly improved. Some person -or persons invisible directed him to the male urinal erected by the -cleansing committee all over the place for the purpose but after a brief -space of time during which silence reigned supreme the sailor, evidently -giving it a wide berth, eased himself closer at hand, the noise of his -bilgewater some little time subsequently splashing on the ground where it -apparently awoke a horse of the cabrank. A hoof scooped anyway for new -foothold after sleep and harness jingled. Slightly disturbed in his -sentrybox by the brazier of live coke the watcher of the corporation -stones who, though now broken down and fast breaking up, was none other -in stern reality than the Gumley aforesaid, now practically on the parish -rates, given the temporary job by Pat Tobin in all human probability from -dictates of humanity knowing him before shifted about and shuffled in his -box before composing his limbs again in to the arms of Morpheus, a truly -amazing piece of hard lines in its most virulent form on a fellow most -respectably connected and familiarised with decent home comforts all his -life who came in for a cool 100 pounds a year at one time which of course -the doublebarrelled ass proceeded to make general ducks and drakes of. -And there he was at the end of his tether after having often painted the -town tolerably pink without a beggarly stiver. He drank needless to be -told and it pointed only once more a moral when he might quite easily be -in a large way of business if--a big if, however--he had contrived to -cure himself of his particular partiality. - -All meantime were loudly lamenting the falling off in Irish shipping, -coastwise and foreign as well, which was all part and parcel of the same -thing. A Palgrave Murphy boat was put off the ways at Alexandra basin, -the only launch that year. Right enough the harbours were there only no -ships ever called. - -There were wrecks and wreckers, the keeper said, who was evidently AU -FAIT. - -What he wanted to ascertain was why that ship ran bang against the only -rock in Galway bay when the Galway harbour scheme was mooted by a Mr -Worthington or some name like that, eh? Ask the then captain, he advised -them, how much palmoil the British government gave him for that day's -work, Captain John Lever of the Lever Line. - ---Am I right, skipper? he queried of the sailor, now returning after his -private potation and the rest of his exertions. - -That worthy picking up the scent of the fagend of the song or words -growled in wouldbe music but with great vim some kind of chanty or other -in seconds or thirds. Mr Bloom's sharp ears heard him then expectorate -the plug probably (which it was), so that he must have lodged it for the -time being in his fist while he did the drinking and making water jobs -and found it a bit sour after the liquid fire in question. Anyhow in he -rolled after his successful libation-CUM-potation, introducing an -atmosphere of drink into the SOIREE, boisterously trolling, like a -veritable son of a seacook: - - - --THE BISCUITS WAS AS HARD AS BRASS - AND THE BEEF AS SALT AS LOT'S WIFE'S ARSE. - O, JOHNNY LEVER! - JOHNNY LEVER, O! - - -After which effusion the redoubtable specimen duly arrived on the scene -and regaining his seat he sank rather than sat heavily on the form -provided. Skin-the-Goat, assuming he was he, evidently with an axe to -grind, was airing his grievances in a forcible-feeble philippic anent the -natural resources of Ireland or something of that sort which he described -in his lengthy dissertation as the richest country bar none on the face -of God's earth, far and away superior to England, with coal in large -quantities, six million pounds worth of pork exported every year, ten -millions between butter and eggs and all the riches drained out of it by -England levying taxes on the poor people that paid through the nose -always and gobbling up the best meat in the market and a lot more surplus -steam in the same vein. Their conversation accordingly became general and -all agreed that that was a fact. You could grow any mortal thing in Irish -soil, he stated, and there was that colonel Everard down there in Navan -growing tobacco. Where would you find anywhere the like of Irish bacon? -But a day of reckoning, he stated CRESCENDO with no uncertain voice, -thoroughly monopolising all the conversation, was in store for mighty -England, despite her power of pelf on account of her crimes. There would -be a fall and the greatest fall in history. The Germans and the Japs were -going to have their little lookin, he affirmed. The Boers were the -beginning of the end. Brummagem England was toppling already and her -downfall would be Ireland, her Achilles heel, which he explained to them -about the vulnerable point of Achilles, the Greek hero, a point his -auditors at once seized as he completely gripped their attention by -showing the tendon referred to on his boot. His advice to every Irishman -was: stay in the land of your birth and work for Ireland and live for -Ireland. Ireland, Parnell said, could not spare a single one of her sons. - -Silence all round marked the termination of his FINALE. The impervious -navigator heard these lurid tidings, undismayed. - ---Take a bit of doing, boss, retaliated that rough diamond palpably a bit -peeved in response to the foregoing truism. - -To which cold douche referring to downfall and so on the keeper concurred -but nevertheless held to his main view. - ---Who's the best troops in the army? the grizzled old veteran irately -interrogated. And the best jumpers and racers? And the best admirals and -generals we've got? Tell me that. - ---The Irish, for choice, retorted the cabby like Campbell, facial -blemishes apart. - ---That's right, the old tarpaulin corroborated. The Irish catholic -peasant. He's the backbone of our empire. You know Jem Mullins? - -While allowing him his individual opinions as everyman the keeper added -he cared nothing for any empire, ours or his, and considered no Irishman -worthy of his salt that served it. Then they began to have a few -irascible words when it waxed hotter, both, needless to say, appealing to -the listeners who followed the passage of arms with interest so long as -they didn't indulge in recriminations and come to blows. - -From inside information extending over a series of years Mr Bloom was -rather inclined to poohpooh the suggestion as egregious balderdash for, -pending that consummation devoutly to be or not to be wished for, he was -fully cognisant of the fact that their neighbours across the channel, -unless they were much bigger fools than he took them for, rather -concealed their strength than the opposite. It was quite on a par with -the quixotic idea in certain quarters that in a hundred million years the -coal seam of the sister island would be played out and if, as time went -on, that turned out to be how the cat jumped all he could personally say -on the matter was that as a host of contingencies, equally relevant to -the issue, might occur ere then it was highly advisable in the interim to -try to make the most of both countries even though poles apart. Another -little interesting point, the amours of whores and chummies, to put it in -common parlance, reminded him Irish soldiers had as often fought for -England as against her, more so, in fact. And now, why? So the scene -between the pair of them, the licensee of the place rumoured to be or -have been Fitzharris, the famous invincible, and the other, obviously -bogus, reminded him forcibly as being on all fours with the confidence -trick, supposing, that is, it was prearranged as the lookeron, a student -of the human soul if anything, the others seeing least of the game. And -as for the lessee or keeper, who probably wasn't the other person at all, -he (B.) couldn't help feeling and most properly it was better to give -people like that the goby unless you were a blithering idiot altogether -and refuse to have anything to do with them as a golden rule in private -life and their felonsetting, there always being the offchance of a -Dannyman coming forward and turning queen's evidence or king's now like -Denis or Peter Carey, an idea he utterly repudiated. Quite apart from -that he disliked those careers of wrongdoing and crime on principle. Yet, -though such criminal propensities had never been an inmate of his bosom -in any shape or form, he certainly did feel and no denying it (while -inwardly remaining what he was) a certain kind of admiration for a man -who had actually brandished a knife, cold steel, with the courage of his -political convictions (though, personally, he would never be a party to -any such thing), off the same bat as those love vendettas of the south, -have her or swing for her, when the husband frequently, after some words -passed between the two concerning her relations with the other lucky -mortal (he having had the pair watched), inflicted fatal injuries on his -adored one as a result of an alternative postnuptial LIAISON by plunging -his knife into her, until it just struck him that Fitz, nicknamed Skin- -the-Goat, merely drove the car for the actual perpetrators of the outrage -and so was not, if he was reliably informed, actually party to the ambush -which, in point of fact, was the plea some legal luminary saved his skin -on. In any case that was very ancient history by now and as for our -friend, the pseudo Skin-the-etcetera, he had transparently outlived his -welcome. He ought to have either died naturally or on the scaffold high. -Like actresses, always farewell positively last performance then come up -smiling again. Generous to a fault of course, temperamental, no -economising or any idea of the sort, always snapping at the bone for the -shadow. So similarly he had a very shrewd suspicion that Mr Johnny Lever -got rid of some l s d. in the course of his perambulations round the -docks in the congenial atmosphere of the OLD IRELAND tavern, come back to -Erin and so on. Then as for the other he had heard not so long before the -same identical lingo as he told Stephen how he simply but effectually -silenced the offender. - ---He took umbrage at something or other, that muchinjured but on the -whole eventempered person declared, I let slip. He called me a jew and in -a heated fashion offensively. So I without deviating from plain facts in -the least told him his God, I mean Christ, was a jew too and all his -family like me though in reality I'm not. That was one for him. A soft -answer turns away wrath. He hadn't a word to say for himself as everyone -saw. Am I not right? - - He turned a long you are wrong gaze on Stephen of timorous dark pride at -the soft impeachment with a glance also of entreaty for he seemed to -glean in a kind of a way that it wasn't all exactly. - ---EX QUIBUS, Stephen mumbled in a noncommittal accent, their two or four -eyes conversing, CHRISTUS or Bloom his name is or after all any other, -SECUNDUM CARNEM. - ---Of course, Mr B. proceeded to stipulate, you must look at both sides of -the question. It is hard to lay down any hard and fast rules as to right -and wrong but room for improvement all round there certainly is though -every country, they say, our own distressful included, has the government -it deserves. But with a little goodwill all round. It's all very fine to -boast of mutual superiority but what about mutual equality. I resent -violence and intolerance in any shape or form. It never reaches anything -or stops anything. A revolution must come on the due instalments plan. -It's a patent absurdity on the face of it to hate people because they -live round the corner and speak another vernacular, in the next house so -to speak. - ---Memorable bloody bridge battle and seven minutes' war, Stephen -assented, between Skinner's alley and Ormond market. - -Yes, Mr Bloom thoroughly agreed, entirely endorsing the remark, that was -overwhelmingly right. And the whole world was full of that sort of thing. - ---You just took the words out of my mouth, he said. A hocuspocus of -conflicting evidence that candidly you couldn't remotely ... - -All those wretched quarrels, in his humble opinion, stirring up bad -blood, from some bump of combativeness or gland of some kind, erroneously -supposed to be about a punctilio of honour and a flag, were very largely -a question of the money question which was at the back of everything -greed and jealousy, people never knowing when to stop. - ---They accuse, remarked he audibly. - -He turned away from the others who probably and spoke nearer to, so as -the others in case they. - ---Jews, he softly imparted in an aside in Stephen's ear, are accused of -ruining. Not a vestige of truth in it, I can safely say. History, would -you be surprised to learn, proves up to the hilt Spain decayed when the -inquisition hounded the jews out and England prospered when Cromwell, an -uncommonly able ruffian who in other respects has much to answer for, -imported them. Why? Because they are imbued with the proper spirit. They -are practical and are proved to be so. I don't want to indulge in any -because you know the standard works on the subject and then orthodox as -you are. But in the economic, not touching religion, domain the priest -spells poverty. Spain again, you saw in the war, compared with goahead -America. Turks. It's in the dogma. Because if they didn't believe they'd -go straight to heaven when they die they'd try to live better, at least -so I think. That's the juggle on which the p.p's raise the wind on false -pretences. I'm, he resumed with dramatic force, as good an Irishman as -that rude person I told you about at the outset and I want to see -everyone, concluded he, all creeds and classes PRO RATA having a -comfortable tidysized income, in no niggard fashion either, something in -the neighbourhood of 300 pounds per annum. That's the vital issue at -stake and it's feasible and would be provocative of friendlier -intercourse between man and man. At least that's my idea for what it's -worth. I call that patriotism. UBI PATRIA, as we learned a smattering of -in our classical days in ALMA MATER, VITA BENE. Where you can live well, -the sense is, if you work. - -Over his untastable apology for a cup of coffee, listening to this -synopsis of things in general, Stephen stared at nothing in particular. -He could hear, of course, all kinds of words changing colour like those -crabs about Ringsend in the morning burrowing quickly into all colours of -different sorts of the same sand where they had a home somewhere beneath -or seemed to. Then he looked up and saw the eyes that said or didn't say -the words the voice he heard said, if you work. - ---Count me out, he managed to remark, meaning work. - -The eyes were surprised at this observation because as he, the person who -owned them pro tem. observed or rather his voice speaking did, all must -work, have to, together. - ---I mean, of course, the other hastened to affirm, work in the widest -possible sense. Also literary labour not merely for the kudos of the -thing. Writing for the newspapers which is the readiest channel nowadays. -That's work too. Important work. After all, from the little I know of -you, after all the money expended on your education you are entitled to -recoup yourself and command your price. You have every bit as much right -to live by your pen in pursuit of your philosophy as the peasant has. -What? You both belong to Ireland, the brain and the brawn. Each is -equally important. - ---You suspect, Stephen retorted with a sort of a half laugh, that I may -be 1160 important because I belong to the FAUBOURG SAINT PATRICE called -Ireland for short. - ---I would go a step farther, Mr Bloom insinuated. - ---But I suspect, Stephen interrupted, that Ireland must be important -because it belongs to me. - ---What belongs, queried Mr Bloom bending, fancying he was perhaps under -some misapprehension. Excuse me. Unfortunately, I didn't catch the latter -portion. What was it you ...? - -Stephen, patently crosstempered, repeated and shoved aside his mug of -coffee or whatever you like to call it none too politely, adding: 1170 - ---We can't change the country. Let us change the subject. - -At this pertinent suggestion Mr Bloom, to change the subject, looked down -but in a quandary, as he couldn't tell exactly what construction to put -on belongs to which sounded rather a far cry. The rebuke of some kind was -clearer than the other part. Needless to say the fumes of his recent orgy -spoke then with some asperity in a curious bitter way foreign to his -sober state. Probably the homelife to which Mr B attached the utmost -importance had not been all that was needful or he hadn't been -familiarised with the right sort of people. With a touch of fear for the -young man beside him whom he furtively scrutinised with an air of some -consternation remembering he had just come back from Paris, the eyes more -especially reminding him forcibly of father and sister, failing to throw -much light on the subject, however, he brought to mind instances of -cultured fellows that promised so brilliantly nipped in the bud of -premature decay and nobody to blame but themselves. For instance there -was the case of O'Callaghan, for one, the halfcrazy faddist, respectably -connected though of inadequate means, with his mad vagaries among whose -other gay doings when rotto and making himself a nuisance to everybody -all round he was in the habit of ostentatiously sporting in public a suit -of brown paper (a fact). And then the usual DENOUEMENT after the fun had -gone on fast and furious he got 1190 landed into hot water and had to be -spirited away by a few friends, after a strong hint to a blind horse from -John Mallon of Lower Castle Yard, so as not to be made amenable under -section two of the criminal law amendment act, certain names of those -subpoenaed being handed in but not divulged for reasons which will occur -to anyone with a pick of brains. Briefly, putting two and two together, -six sixteen which he pointedly turned a deaf ear to, Antonio and so -forth, jockeys and esthetes and the tattoo which was all the go in the -seventies or thereabouts even in the house of lords because early in life -the occupant of the throne, then heir apparent, the other members of the -upper ten and other high personages simply following in the footsteps of -the head of the state, he reflected about the errors of notorieties and -crowned heads running counter to morality such as the Cornwall case a -number of years before under their veneer in a way scarcely intended by -nature, a thing good Mrs Grundy, as the law stands, was terribly down on -though not for the reason they thought they were probably whatever it was -except women chiefly who were always fiddling more or less at one another -it being largely a matter of dress and all the rest of it. Ladies who -like distinctive underclothing should, and every welltailored man must, -trying to make the gap wider between them by innuendo and give more of a -genuine filip to acts of impropriety between the two, she unbuttoned his -and then he untied her, mind the pin, whereas savages in the cannibal -islands, say, at ninety degrees in the shade not caring a continental. -However, reverting to the original, there were on the other hand others -who had forced their way to the top from the lowest rung by the aid of -their bootstraps. Sheer force of natural genius, that. With brains, sir. - -For which and further reasons he felt it was his interest and duty even -to wait on and profit by the unlookedfor occasion though why he could not -exactly tell being as it was already several shillings to the bad having -in fact let himself in for it. Still to cultivate the acquaintance of -someone of no uncommon calibre who could provide food for reflection -would amply repay any small. Intellectual stimulation, as such, was, he -felt, from time to time a firstrate tonic for the mind. Added to which -was the coincidence of meeting, discussion, dance, row, old salt of the -here today and gone tomorrow type, night loafers, the whole galaxy of -events, all went to make up a miniature cameo of the world we live in -especially as the lives of the submerged tenth, viz. coalminers, divers, -scavengers etc., were very much under the microscope lately. To improve -the shining hour he wondered whether he might meet with anything -approaching the same luck as Mr Philip Beaufoy if taken down in writing -suppose he were to pen something out of the common groove (as he fully -intended doing) at the rate of one guinea per column. MY EXPERIENCES, let -us say, IN A CABMAN'S SHELTER. - -The pink edition extra sporting of the TELEGRAPH tell a graphic lie lay, -as luck would have it, beside his elbow and as he was just puzzling -again, far from satisfied, over a country belonging to him and the -preceding rebus the vessel came from Bridgwater and the postcard was -addressed A. Boudin find the captain's age, his eyes went aimlessly over -the respective captions which came under his special province the -allembracing give us this day our daily press. First he got a bit of a -start but it turned out to be only something about somebody named H. du -Boyes, agent for typewriters or something like that. Great battle, Tokio. -Lovemaking in Irish, 200 pounds damages. Gordon Bennett. Emigration -Swindle. Letter from His Grace. William. Ascot meeting, the Gold Cup. -Victory of outsider THROWAWAY recalls Derby of '92 when Capt. Marshall's -dark horse SIR HUGO captured the blue ribband at long odds. New York -disaster. Thousand lives lost. Foot and Mouth. Funeral of the late Mr -Patrick Dignam. - -So to change the subject he read about Dignam R. I. P. which, he -reflected, was anything but a gay sendoff. Or a change of address anyway. - ---THIS MORNING (Hynes put it in of course) THE REMAINS OF THE LATE MR -PATRICK DIGNAM WERE REMOVED FROM HIS RESIDENCE, NO 9 NEWBRIDGE AVENUE, -SANDYMOUNT, FOR INTERMENT IN GLASNEVIN. THE DECEASED GENTLEMAN WAS A MOST -POPULAR AND GENIAL PERSONALITY IN CITY LIFE AND HIS DEMISE AFTER A BRIEF -ILLNESS CAME AS A GREAT SHOCK TO CITIZENS OF ALL CLASSES BY WHOM HE IS -DEEPLY REGRETTED. THE OBSEQUIES, AT WHICH MANY FRIENDS OF THE DECEASED -WERE PRESENT, WERE CARRIED OUT (certainly Hynes wrote it with a nudge -from Corny) BY MESSRS H. J. O'NEILL AND SON, 164 NORTH STRAND ROAD. THE -MOURNERS INCLUDED: PATK. DIGNAM (SON), BERNARD CORRIGAN (BROTHER-IN-LAW), -JNO. HENRY MENTON, SOLR, MARTIN CUNNINGHAM, JOHN POWER, .)EATONDPH 1/8 -ADOR DORADOR DOURADORA (must be where he called Monks the dayfather about -Keyes's ad) THOMAS KERNAN, SIMON DEDALUS, STEPHEN DEDALUS B. ,4., EDW. J. -LAMBERT, CORNELIUS T. KELLEHER, JOSEPH M'C HYNES, L. BOOM, CP M'COY,-- -M'LNTOSH AND SEVERAL OTHERS. - - Nettled not a little by L. BOOM (as it incorrectly stated) and the line -of bitched type but tickled to death simultaneously by C. P. M'Coy and -Stephen Dedalus B. A. who were conspicuous, needless to say, by their -total absence (to say nothing of M'Intosh) L. Boom pointed it out to his -companion B. A. engaged in stifling another yawn, half nervousness, not -forgetting the usual crop of nonsensical howlers of misprints. - ---Is that first epistle to the Hebrews, he asked as soon as his bottom -jaw would let him, in? Text: open thy mouth and put thy foot in it. - ---It is. Really, Mr Bloom said (though first he fancied he alluded to the -archbishop till he added about foot and mouth with which there could be -no possible connection) overjoyed to set his mind at rest and a bit -flabbergasted at Myles Crawford's after all managing to. There. - -While the other was reading it on page two Boom (to give him for the -nonce his new misnomer) whiled away a few odd leisure moments in fits and -starts with the account of the third event at Ascot on page three, his -side. Value 1000 sovs with 3000 sovs in specie added. For entire colts -and fillies. Mr F. Alexander's THROWAWAY, b. h. by RIGHTAWAY, 5 yrs, 9 st -4 lbs (W. Lane) 1, lord Howard de Walden's ZINFANDEL (M. Cannon) z, Mr W. -Bass's SCEPTRE 3. Betting 5 to 4 on ZINFANDEL, 20 to 1 THROWAWAY (off). -SCEPTRE a shade heavier, 5 to 4 on ZINFANDEL, 20 to 1 THROWAWAY (off). -THROWAWAY and ZINFANDEL stood close order. It was anybody's race then the -rank outsider drew to the fore, got long lead, beating lord Howard de -Walden's chestnut colt and Mr W. Bass's bay filly SCEPTRE on a 2 1/2 mile -course. Winner trained by Braime so that Lenehan's version of the -business was all pure buncombe. Secured the verdict cleverly by a length. -1000 sovs with 3000 in specie. Also ran: J de Bremond's (French horse -Bantam Lyons was anxiously inquiring after not in yet but expected any -minute) MAXIMUM II. Different ways of bringing off a coup. Lovemaking -damages. Though that halfbaked Lyons ran off at a tangent in his -impetuosity to get left. Of course gambling eminently lent itself to that -sort of thing though as the event turned out the poor fool hadn't much -reason to congratulate himself on his pick, the forlorn hope. Guesswork -it reduced itself to eventually. - ---There was every indication they would arrive at that, he, Bloom, said. - ---Who? the other, whose hand by the way was hurt, said. - -One morning you would open the paper, the cabman affirmed, and read: -RETURN OF PARNELL. He bet them what they liked. A Dublin fusilier was in -that shelter one night and said he saw him in South Africa. Pride it was -killed him. He ought to have done away with himself or lain low for a -time after committee room no 15 until he was his old self again with no- -one to point a finger at him. Then they would all to a man have gone down -on their marrowbones to him to come back when he had recovered his -senses. Dead he wasn't. Simply absconded somewhere. The coffin they -brought over was full of stones. He changed his name to De Wet, the Boer -general. He made a mistake to fight the priests. And so forth and so on. - -All the same Bloom (properly so dubbed) was rather surprised at their -memories for in nine cases out of ten it was a case of tarbarrels and not -singly but in their thousands and then complete oblivion because it was -twenty odd years. Highly unlikely of course there was even a shadow of -truth in the stones and, even supposing, he thought a return highly -inadvisable, all things considered. Something evidently riled them in his -death. Either he petered out too tamely of acute pneumonia just when his -various different political arrangements were nearing completion or -whether it transpired he owed his death to his having neglected to change -his boots and clothes-after a wetting when a cold resulted and failing to -consult a specialist he being confined to his room till he eventually -died of it amid widespread regret before a fortnight was at an end or -quite possibly they were distressed to find the job was taken out of -their hands. Of course nobody being acquainted with his movements even -before there was absolutely no clue as to his whereabouts which were -decidedly of the ALICE, WHERE ART THOU order even prior to his starting -to go under several aliases such as Fox and Stewart so the remark which -emanated from friend cabby might be within the bounds of possibility. -Naturally then it would prey on his mind as a born leader of men which -undoubtedly he was and a commanding figure, a sixfooter or at any rate -five feet ten or eleven in his stockinged feet, whereas Messrs So and So -who, though they weren't even a patch on the former man, ruled the roost -after their redeeming features were very few and far between. It -certainly pointed a moral, the idol with feet of clay, and then -seventytwo of his trusty henchmen rounding on him with mutual -mudslinging. And the identical same with murderers. You had to come back. -That haunting sense kind of drew you. To show the understudy in the title -ROLE how to. He saw him once on the auspicious occasion when they broke -up the type in the INSUPPRESSIBLE or was it UNITED IRELAND, a privilege -he keenly appreciated, and, in point of fact, handed him his silk hat -when it was knocked off and he said THANK YOU, excited as he undoubtedly -was under his frigid exterior notwithstanding the little misadventure -mentioned between the cup and the lip: what's bred in the bone. Still as -regards return. You were a lucky dog if they didn't set the terrier at -you directly you got back. Then a lot of shillyshally usually followed, -Tom for and Dick and Harry against. And then, number one, you came up -against the man in possession and had to produce your credentials like -the claimant in the Tichborne case, Roger Charles Tichborne, BELLA was -the boat's name to the best of his recollection he, the heir, went down -in as the evidence went to show and there was a tattoo mark too in Indian -ink, lord Bellew was it, as he might very easily have picked up the -details from some pal on board ship and then, when got up to tally with -the description given, introduce himself with: EXCUSE ME, MY NAME IS SO -AND SO or some such commonplace remark. A more prudent course, as Bloom -said to the not over effusive, in fact like the distinguished personage -under discussion beside him, would have been to sound the lie of the land -first. - ---That bitch, that English whore, did for him, the shebeen proprietor -commented. She put the first nail in his coffin. - ---Fine lump of a woman all the same, the SOI-DISANT townclerk Henry -Campbell remarked, and plenty of her. She loosened many a man's thighs. I -seen her picture in a barber's. The husband was a captain or an officer. - ---Ay, Skin-the-Goat amusingly added, he was and a cottonball one. - -This gratuitous contribution of a humorous character occasioned a fair -amount of laughter among his ENTOURAGE. As regards Bloom he, without the -faintest suspicion of a smile, merely gazed in the direction of the door -and reflected upon the historic story which had aroused extraordinary -interest at the time when the facts, to make matters worse, were made -public with the usual affectionate letters that passed between them full -of sweet nothings. First it was strictly Platonic till nature intervened -and an attachment sprang up between them till bit by bit matters came to -a climax and the matter became the talk of the town till the staggering -blow came as a welcome intelligence to not a few evildisposed, however, -who were resolved upon encompassing his downfall though the thing was -public property all along though not to anything like the sensational -extent that it subsequently blossomed into. Since their names were -coupled, though, since he was her declared favourite, where was the -particular necessity to proclaim it to the rank and file from the -housetops, the fact, namely, that he had shared her bedroom which came -out in the witnessbox on oath when a thrill went through the packed court -literally electrifying everybody in the shape of witnesses swearing to -having witnessed him on such and such a particular date in the act of -scrambling out of an upstairs apartment with the assistance of a ladder -in night apparel, having gained admittance in the same fashion, a fact -the weeklies, addicted to the lubric a little, simply coined shoals of -money out of. Whereas the simple fact of the case was it was simply a -case of the husband not being up to the scratch, with nothing in common -between them beyond the name, and then a real man arriving on the scene, -strong to the verge of weakness, falling a victim to her siren charms and -forgetting home ties, the usual sequel, to bask in the loved one's -smiles. The eternal question of the life connubial, needless to say, -cropped up. Can real love, supposing there happens to be another chap in -the case, exist between married folk? Poser. Though it was no concern of -theirs absolutely if he regarded her with affection, carried away by a -wave of folly. A magnificent specimen of manhood he was truly augmented -obviously by gifts of a high order, as compared with the other military -supernumerary that is (who was just the usual everyday FAREWELL, MY -GALLANT CAPTAIN kind of an individual in the light dragoons, the l8th -hussars to be accurate) and inflammable doubtless (the fallen leader, -that is, not the other) in his own peculiar way which she of course, -woman, quickly perceived as highly likely to carve his way to fame which -he almost bid fair to do till the priests and ministers of the gospel as -a whole, his erstwhile staunch adherents, and his beloved evicted tenants -for whom he had done yeoman service in the rural parts of the country by -taking up the cudgels on their behalf in a way that exceeded their most -sanguine expectations, very effectually cooked his matrimonial goose, -thereby heaping coals of fire on his head much in the same way as the -fabled ass's kick. Looking back now in a retrospective kind of -arrangement all seemed a kind of dream. And then coming back was the -worst thing you ever did because it went without saying you would feel -out of place as things always moved with the times. Why, as he reflected, -Irishtown strand, a locality he had not been in for quite a number of -years looked different somehow since, as it happened, he went to reside -on the north side. North or south, however, it was just the wellknown -case of hot passion, pure and simple, upsetting the applecart with a -vengeance and just bore out the very thing he was saying as she also was -Spanish or half so, types that wouldn't do things by halves, passionate -abandon of the south, casting every shred of decency to the winds. - ---Just bears out what I was saying, he, with glowing bosom said to -Stephen, about blood and the sun. And, if I don't greatly mistake she was -Spanish too. - ---The king of Spain's daughter, Stephen answered, adding something or -other rather muddled about farewell and adieu to you Spanish onions and -the first land called the Deadman and from Ramhead to Scilly was so and -so many. - ---Was she? Bloom ejaculated, surprised though not astonished by any -means, I never heard that rumour before. Possible, especially there, it -was as she lived there. So, Spain. - -Carefully avoiding a book in his pocket SWEETS OF, which reminded him by -the by of that Cap l street library book out of date, he took out his -pocketbook and, turning over the various contents it contained rapidly -finally he. - ---Do you consider, by the by, he said, thoughtfully selecting a faded -photo which he laid on the table, that a Spanish type? - -Stephen, obviously addressed, looked down on the photo showing a large -sized lady with her fleshy charms on evidence in an open fashion as she -was in the full bloom of womanhood in evening dress cut ostentatiously -low for the occasion to give a liberal display of bosom, with more than -vision of breasts, her full lips parted and some perfect teeth, standing -near, ostensibly with gravity, a piano on the rest of which was IN OLD -MADRID, a ballad, pretty in its way, which was then all the vogue. Her -(the lady's) eyes, dark, large, looked at Stephen, about to smile about -something to be admired, Lafayette of Westmoreland street, Dublin's -premier photographic artist, being responsible for the esthetic -execution. - ---Mrs Bloom, my wife the PRIMA DONNA Madam Marion Tweedy, Bloom -indicated. Taken a few years since. In or about ninety six. Very like her -then. - -Beside the young man he looked also at the photo of the lady now his 1440 -legal wife who, he intimated, was the accomplished daughter of Major -Brian Tweedy and displayed at an early age remarkable proficiency as a -singer having even made her bow to the public when her years numbered -barely sweet sixteen. As for the face it was a speaking likeness in -expression but it did not do justice to her figure which came in for a -lot of notice usually and which did not come out to the best advantage in -that getup. She could without difficulty, he said, have posed for the -ensemble, not to dwell on certain opulent curves of the. He dwelt, being -a bit of an artist in his spare time, on the female form in general -developmentally because, as it so happened, no later than that afternoon -he had seen those Grecian statues, 1450 perfectly developed as works of -art, in the National Museum. Marble could give the original, shoulders, -back, all the symmetry, all the rest. Yes, puritanisme, it does though -Saint Joseph's sovereign thievery alors (Bandez!) Figne toi trop. Whereas -no photo could because it simply wasn't art in a word. - -The spirit moving him he would much have liked to follow Jack Tar's good -example and leave the likeness there for a very few minutes to speak for -itself on the plea he so that the other could drink in the beauty for -himself, her stage presence being, frankly, a treat in itself which the -camera could not at all do justice to. But it was scarcely professional -etiquette so. Though it was a warm pleasant sort of a night now yet -wonderfully cool for the season considering, for sunshine after storm. -And he did feel a kind of need there and then to follow suit like a kind -of inward voice and satisfy a possible need by moving a motion. -Nevertheless he sat tight just viewing the slightly soiled photo creased -by opulent curves, none the worse for wear however, and looked away -thoughtfully with the intention of not further increasing the other's -possible embarrassment while gauging her symmetry of heaving EMBONPOINT. -In fact the slight soiling was only an added charm like the case of linen -slightly soiled, good as new, much better in fact with the starch out. -Suppose she was gone when he? I looked for the lamp which she told me -came into his mind but merely as a passing fancy of his because he then -recollected the morning littered bed etcetera and the book about Ruby -with met him pike hoses (SIC) in it which must have fell down -sufficiently appropriately beside the domestic chamberpot with apologies -to Lindley Murray. - -The vicinity of the young man he certainly relished, educated, DISTINGUE -and impulsive into the bargain, far and away the pick of the bunch though -you wouldn't think he had it in him yet you would. Besides he said the -picture was handsome which, say what you like, it was though at the -moment she was distinctly stouter. And why not? An awful lot of -makebelieve went on about that sort of thing involving a lifelong slur -with the usual splash page of gutterpress about the same old matrimonial -tangle alleging misconduct with professional golfer or the newest stage -favourite instead of being honest and aboveboard about the whole -business. How they were fated to meet and an attachment sprang up between -the two so that their names were coupled in the public eye was told in -court with letters containing the habitual mushy and compromising -expressions leaving no loophole to show that they openly cohabited two or -three times a week at some wellknown seaside hotel and relations, when -the thing ran its normal course, became in due course intimate. Then the -decree NISI and the King's proctor tries to show cause why and, he -failing to quash it, NISI was made absolute. But as for that the two -misdemeanants, wrapped up as they largely were in one another, could -safely afford to ignore it as they very largely did till the matter was -put in the hands of a solicitor who filed a petition for the party -wronged in due course. He, B, enjoyed the distinction of being close to -Erin's uncrowned king in the flesh when the thing occurred on the -historic FRACAS when the fallen leader's, who notoriously stuck to his -guns to the last drop even when clothed in the mantle of adultery, -(leader's) trusty henchmen to the number of ten or a dozen or possibly -even more than that penetrated into the printing works of the -INSUPPRESSIBLE or no it was UNITED IRELAND (a by no means by the by -appropriate appellative) and broke up the typecases with hammers or -something like that all on account of some scurrilous effusions from the -facile pens of the O'Brienite scribes at the usual mudslinging occupation -reflecting on the erstwhile tribune's private morals. Though palpably a -radically altered man he was still a commanding figure though carelessly -garbed as usual with that look of settled purpose which went a long way -with the shillyshallyers till they discovered to their vast discomfiture -that their idol had feet of clay after placing him upon a pedestal which -she, however, was the first to perceive. As those were particularly hot -times in the general hullaballoo Bloom sustained a minor injury from a -nasty prod of some chap's elbow in the crowd that of course congregated -lodging some place about the pit of the stomach, fortunately not of a -grave character. His hat (Parnell's) a silk one was inadvertently knocked -off and, as a matter of strict history, Bloom was the man who picked it -up in the crush after witnessing the occurrence meaning to return it to -him (and return it to him he did with the utmost celerity) who panting -and hatless and whose thoughts were miles away from his hat at the time -all the same being a gentleman born with a stake in the country he, as a -matter of fact, having gone into it more for the kudos of the thing than -anything else, what's bred in the bone instilled into him in infancy at -his mother's knee in the shape of knowing what good form was came out at -once because he turned round to the donor and thanked him with perfect -APLOMB, saying: THANK YOU, SIR, though in a very different tone of voice -from the ornament of the legal profession whose headgear Bloom also set -to rights earlier in the course of the day, history repeating itself with -a difference, after the burial of a mutual friend when they had left him -alone in his glory after the grim task of having committed his remains to -the grave. - -On the other hand what incensed him more inwardly was the blatant jokes -of the cabman and so on who passed it all off as a jest, laughing 1530 -immoderately, pretending to understand everything, the why and the -wherefore, and in reality not knowing their own minds, it being a case -for the two parties themselves unless it ensued that the legitimate -husband happened to be a party to it owing to some anonymous letter from -the usual boy Jones, who happened to come across them at the crucial -moment in a loving position locked in one another's arms, drawing -attention to their illicit proceedings and leading up to a domestic -rumpus and the erring fair one begging forgiveness of her lord and master -upon her knees and promising to sever the connection and not receive his -visits any more if only the aggrieved husband would overlook the matter -and let bygones be bygones with tears in her eyes though possibly with -her tongue in her fair cheek at the same time as quite possibly there -were several others. He personally, being of a sceptical bias, believed -and didn't make the smallest bones about saying so either that man or men -in the plural were always hanging around on the waiting list about a -lady, even supposing she was the best wife in the world and they got on -fairly well together for the sake of argument, when, neglecting her -duties, she chose to be tired of wedded life and was on for a little -flutter in polite debauchery to press their attentions on her with -improper intent, the upshot being that her affections centred on another, -the cause of many LIAISONS between still attractive married women getting -on for fair and forty and younger men, no doubt as several famous cases -of feminine infatuation proved up to the hilt. - -It was a thousand pities a young fellow, blessed with an allowance of -brains as his neighbour obviously was, should waste his valuable time -with profligate women who might present him with a nice dose to last him -his lifetime. In the nature of single blessedness he would one day take -unto himself a wife when Miss Right came on the scene but in the interim -ladies' society was a CONDITIO SINE QUA NON though he had the gravest -possible doubts, not that he wanted in the smallest to pump Stephen about -Miss Ferguson (who was very possibly the particular lodestar who brought -him down to Irishtown so early in the morning), as to whether he would -find much satisfaction basking in the boy and girl courtship idea and the -company of smirking misses without a penny to their names bi or triweekly -with the orthodox preliminary canter of complimentplaying and walking out -leading up to fond lovers' ways and flowers and chocs. To think of him -house and homeless, rooked by some landlady worse than any stepmother, -was really too bad at his age. The queer suddenly things he popped out -with attracted the elder man who was several years the other's senior or -like his father but something substantial he certainly ought to eat even -were it only an eggflip made on unadulterated maternal nutriment or, -failing that, the homely Humpty Dumpty boiled. - ---At what o'clock did you dine? he questioned of the slim form and tired -though unwrinkled face. - ---Some time yesterday, Stephen said. - ---Yesterday! exclaimed Bloom till he remembered it was already tomorrow -Friday. Ah, you mean it's after twelve! - ---The day before yesterday, Stephen said, improving on himself. - -Literally astounded at this piece of intelligence Bloom reflected. Though -they didn't see eye to eye in everything a certain analogy there somehow -was as if both their minds were travelling, so to speak, in the one train -of thought. At his age when dabbling in politics roughly some score of -years previously when he had been a QUASI aspirant to parliamentary -honours in the Buckshot Foster days he too recollected in retrospect -(which was a source of keen satisfaction in itself) he had a sneaking -regard for those same ultra ideas. For instance when the evicted tenants -question, then at its first inception, bulked largely in people's mind -though, it goes without saying, not contributing a copper or pinning his -faith absolutely to its dictums, some of which wouldn't exactly hold -water, he at the outset in principle at all events was in thorough -sympathy with peasant possession as voicing the trend of modern opinion -(a partiality, however, which, realising his mistake, he was subsequently -partially cured of) and even was twitted with going a step farther than -Michael Davitt in the striking views he at one time inculcated as a -backtothelander, which was one reason he strongly resented the innuendo -put upon him in so barefaced a fashion by our friend at the gathering of -the clans in Barney Kiernan's so that he, though often considerably -misunderstood and the least pugnacious of mortals, be it repeated, -departed from his customary habit to give him (metaphorically) one in the -gizzard though, so far as politics themselves were concerned, he was only -too conscious of the casualties invariably resulting from propaganda and -displays of mutual animosity and the misery and suffering it entailed as -a foregone conclusion on fine young fellows, chiefly, destruction of the -fittest, in a word. - -Anyhow upon weighing up the pros and cons, getting on for one, as it was, -it was high time to be retiring for the night. The crux was it was a bit -risky to bring him home as eventualities might possibly ensue (somebody -having a temper of her own sometimes) and spoil the hash altogether as on -the night he misguidedly brought home a dog (breed unknown) with a lame -paw (not that the cases were either identical or the reverse though he -had hurt his hand too) to Ontario Terrace as he very distinctly -remembered, having been there, so to speak. On the other hand it was -altogether far and away too late for the Sandymount or Sandycove -suggestion so that he was in some perplexity as to which of the two -alternatives. Everything pointed to the fact that it behoved him to avail -himself to the full of the opportunity, all things considered. His -initial impression was he was a shade standoffish or not over effusive -but it grew on him someway. For one thing he mightn't what you call jump -at the idea, if approached, and what mostly worried him was he didn't -know how to lead up to it or word it exactly, supposing he did entertain -the proposal, as it would afford him very great personal pleasure if he -would allow him to help to put coin in his way or some wardrobe, if found -suitable. At all events he wound up by concluding, eschewing for the -nonce hidebound precedent, a cup of Epps's cocoa and a shakedown for the -night plus the use of a rug or two and overcoat doubled into a pillow at -least he would be in safe hands and as warm as a toast on a trivet he -failed to perceive any very vast amount of harm in that always with the -proviso no rumpus of any sort was kicked up. A move had to be made -because that merry old soul, the grasswidower in question who appeared to -be glued to the spot, didn't appear in any particular hurry to wend his -way home to his dearly beloved Queenstown and it was highly likely some -sponger's bawdyhouse of retired beauties where age was no bar off Sheriff -street lower would be the best clue to that equivocal character's -whereabouts for a few days to come, alternately racking their feelings -(the mermaids') with sixchamber revolver anecdotes verging on the -tropical calculated to freeze the marrow of anybody's bones and mauling -their largesized charms betweenwhiles with rough and tumble gusto to the -accompaniment of large potations of potheen and the usual blarney about -himself for as to who he in reality was let x equal my right name and -address, as Mr Algebra remarks PASSIM. At the same time he inwardly -chuckled over his gentle repartee to the blood and ouns champion about -his god being a jew. People could put up with being bitten by a wolf but -what properly riled them was a bite from a sheep. The most vulnerable -point too of tender Achilles. Your god was a jew. Because mostly they -appeared to imagine he came from Carrick-on-Shannon or somewhereabouts in -the county Sligo. - ---I propose, our hero eventually suggested after mature reflection while -prudently pocketing her photo, as it's rather stuffy here you just come -home with me and talk things over. My diggings are quite close in the -vicinity. You can't drink that stuff. Do you like cocoa? Wait. I'll just -pay this lot. - -The best plan clearly being to clear out, the remainder being plain -sailing, he beckoned, while prudently pocketing the photo, to the keeper -of the shanty who didn't seem to. - ---Yes, that's the best, he assured Stephen to whom for the matter of that -Brazen Head or him or anywhere else was all more or less. - -All kinds of Utopian plans were flashing through his (B's) busy brain, -education (the genuine article), literature, journalism, prize titbits, -up to date billing, concert tours in English watering resorts packed with -hydros and seaside theatres, turning money away, duets in Italian with -the accent perfectly true to nature and a quantity of other things, no -necessity, of course, to tell the world and his wife from the housetops -about it, and a slice of luck. An opening was all was wanted. Because he -more than suspected he had his father's voice to bank his hopes on which -it was quite on the cards he had so it would be just as well, by the way -no harm, to trail the conversation in the direction of that particular -red herring just to. - -The cabby read out of the paper he had got hold of that the former -viceroy, earl Cadogan, had presided at the cabdrivers' association dinner -in London somewhere. Silence with a yawn or two accompanied this -thrilling announcement. Then the old specimen in the corner who appeared -to have some spark of vitality left read out that sir Anthony MacDonnell -had left Euston for the chief secretary's lodge or words to that effect. -To which absorbing piece of intelligence echo answered why. - ---Give us a squint at that literature, grandfather, the ancient mariner -put in, manifesting some natural impatience. - ---And welcome, answered the elderly party thus addressed. - -The sailor lugged out from a case he had a pair of greenish goggles which -he very slowly hooked over his nose and both ears. - ---Are you bad in the eyes? the sympathetic personage like the townclerk -queried. - ---Why, answered the seafarer with the tartan beard, who seemingly was a -bit of a literary cove in his own small way, staring out of seagreen -portholes as you might well describe them as, I uses goggles reading. -Sand in the Red Sea done that. One time I could read a book in the dark, -manner of speaking. THE ARABIAN NIGHTS ENTERTAINMENT was my favourite and -RED AS A ROSE IS SHE. - -Hereupon he pawed the journal open and pored upon Lord only knows what, -found drowned or the exploits of King Willow, Iremonger having made a -hundred and something second wicket not out for Notts, during which time -(completely regardless of Ire) the keeper was intensely occupied -loosening an apparently new or secondhand boot which manifestly pinched -him as he muttered against whoever it was sold it, all of them who were -sufficiently awake enough to be picked out by their facial expressions, -that is to say, either simply looking on glumly or passing a trivial -remark. - -To cut a long story short Bloom, grasping the situation, was the first to -rise from his seat so as not to outstay their welcome having first and -foremost, being as good as his word that he would foot the bill for the -occasion, taken the wise precaution to unobtrusively motion to mine host -as a parting shot a scarcely perceptible sign when the others were not -looking to the effect that the amount due was forthcoming, making a grand -total of fourpence (the amount he deposited unobtrusively in four -coppers, literally the last of the Mohicans), he having previously -spotted on the printed pricelist for all who ran to read opposite him in -unmistakable figures, coffee 2d, confectionery do, and honestly well -worth twice the money once in a way, as Wetherup used to remark. - ---Come, he counselled to close the SEANCE. - -Seeing that the ruse worked and the coast was clear they left the shelter -or shanty together and the ELITE society of oilskin and company whom -nothing short of an earthquake would move out of their DOLCE FAR NIENTE. -Stephen, who confessed to still feeling poorly and fagged out, paused at -the, for a moment, the door. - ---One thing I never understood, he said to be original on the spur of the -moment. Why they put tables upside down at night, I mean chairs upside -down, on the tables in cafes. To which impromptu the neverfailing Bloom -replied without a moment's hesitation, saying straight off: - ---To sweep the floor in the morning. - -So saying he skipped around, nimbly considering, frankly at the same time -apologetic to get on his companion's right, a habit of his, by the bye, -his right side being, in classical idiom, his tender Achilles. The night -air was certainly now a treat to breathe though Stephen was a bit weak on -his pins. - ---It will (the air) do you good, Bloom said, meaning also the walk, in a -moment. The only thing is to walk then you'll feel a different man. Come. -It's not far. Lean on me. - -Accordingly he passed his left arm in Stephen's right and led him on -accordingly. - ---Yes, Stephen said uncertainly because he thought he felt a strange kind -of flesh of a different man approach him, sinewless and wobbly and all -that. - -Anyhow they passed the sentrybox with stones, brazier etc. where the -municipal supernumerary, ex Gumley, was still to all intents and purposes -wrapped in the arms of Murphy, as the adage has it, dreaming of fresh -fields and pastures new. And APROPOS of coffin of stones the analogy was -not at all bad as it was in fact a stoning to death on the part of -seventytwo out of eighty odd constituencies that ratted at the time of -the split and chiefly the belauded peasant class, probably the selfsame -evicted tenants he had put in their holdings. - -So they turned on to chatting about music, a form of art for which Bloom, -as a pure amateur, possessed the greatest love, as they made tracks arm -in arm across Beresford place. Wagnerian music, though confessedly grand -in its way, was a bit too heavy for Bloom and hard to follow at the first -go-off but the music of Mercadante's HUGUENOTS, Meyerbeer's SEVEN LAST -WORDS ON THE CROSS and Mozart's TWELFTH MASS he simply revelled in, the -GLORIA in that being, to his mind, the acme of first class music as such, -literally knocking everything else into a cocked hat. He infinitely -preferred the sacred music of the catholic church to anything the -opposite shop could offer in that line such as those Moody and Sankey -hymns or BID ME TO LIVE AND I WILL LIVE THY PROTESTANT TO BE. He also -yielded to none in his admiration of Rossini's STABAT MATER, a work -simply abounding in immortal numbers, in which his wife, Madam Marion -Tweedy, made a hit, a veritable sensation, he might safely say, greatly -adding to her other laureis and putting the others totally in the shade, -in the jesuit fathers' church in upper Gardiner street, the sacred -edifice being thronged to the doors to hear her with virtuosos, or -VIRTUOSI rather. There was the unanimous opinion that there was none to -come up to her and suffice it to say in a place of worship for music of a -sacred character there was a generally voiced desire for an encore. On -the whole though favouring preferably light opera of the DON GIOVANNI -description and MARTHA, a gem in its line, he had a PENCHANT, though with -only a surface knowledge, for the severe classical school such as -Mendelssohn. And talking of that, taking it for granted he knew all about -the old favourites, he mentioned PAR EXCELLENCE Lionel's air in MARTHA, -M'APPARI, which, curiously enough, he had heard or overheard, to be more -accurate, on yesterday, a privilege he keenly appreciated, from the lips -of Stephen's respected father, sung to perfection, a study of the number, -in fact, which made all the others take a back seat. Stephen, in reply to -a politely put query, said he didn't sing it but launched out into -praises of Shakespeare's songs, at least of in or about that period, the -lutenist Dowland who lived in Fetter lane near Gerard the herbalist, who -ANNO LUDENDO HAUSI, DOULANDUS, an instrument he was contemplating -purchasing from Mr Arnold Dolmetsch, whom B. did not quite recall though -the name certainly sounded familiar, for sixtyfive guineas and Farnaby -and son with their DUX and COMES conceits and Byrd (William) who played -the virginals, he said, in the Queen's chapel or anywhere else he found -them and one Tomkins who made toys or airs and John Bull. - -On the roadway which they were approaching whilst still speaking beyond -the swingchains a horse, dragging a sweeper, paced on the paven ground, -brushing a long swathe of mire up so that with the noise Bloom was not -perfectly certain whether he had caught aright the allusion to sixtyfive -guineas and John Bull. He inquired if it was John Bull the political -celebrity of that ilk, as it struck him, the two identical names, as a -striking coincidence. - -By the chains the horse slowly swerved to turn, which perceiving, Bloom, -who was keeping a sharp lookout as usual, plucked the other's sleeve -gently, jocosely remarking: - ---Our lives are in peril tonight. Beware of the steamroller. - -They thereupon stopped. Bloom looked at the head of a horse not worth -anything like sixtyfive guineas, suddenly in evidence in the dark quite -near so that it seemed new, a different grouping of bones and even flesh -because palpably it was a fourwalker, a hipshaker, a blackbuttocker, a -taildangler, a headhanger putting his hind foot foremost the while the -lord of his creation sat on the perch, busy with his thoughts. But such a -good poor brute he was sorry he hadn't a lump of sugar but, as he wisely -reflected, you could scarcely be prepared for every emergency that might -crop up. He was just a big nervous foolish noodly kind of a horse, -without a second care in the world. But even a dog, he reflected, take -that mongrel in Barney Kiernan's, of the same size, would be a holy -horror to face. But it was no animal's fault in particular if he was -built that way like the camel, ship of the desert, distilling grapes into -potheen in his hump. Nine tenths of them all could be caged or trained, -nothing beyond the art of man barring the bees. Whale with a harpoon -hairpin, alligator tickle the small of his back and he sees the joke, -chalk a circle for a rooster, tiger my eagle eye. These timely -reflections anent the brutes of the field occupied his mind somewhat -distracted from Stephen's words while the ship of the street was -manoeuvring and Stephen went on about the highly interesting old. - ---What's this I was saying? Ah, yes! My wife, he intimated, plunging IN -MEDIAS RES, would have the greatest of pleasure in making your -acquaintance as she is passionately attached to music of any kind. - -He looked sideways in a friendly fashion at the sideface of Stephen, -image of his mother, which was not quite the same as the usual handsome -blackguard type they unquestionably had an insatiable hankering after as -he was perhaps not that way built. - -Still, supposing he had his father's gift as he more than suspected, it -opened up new vistas in his mind such as Lady Fingall's Irish industries, -concert on the preceding Monday, and aristocracy in general. - -Exquisite variations he was now describing on an air YOUTH HERE HAS END -by Jans Pieter Sweelinck, a Dutchman of Amsterdam where the frows come -from. Even more he liked an old German song of JOHANNES JEEP about the -clear sea and the voices of sirens, sweet murderers of men, which boggled -Bloom a bit: - - - VON DER SIRENEN LISTIGKEIT - TUN DIE POETEN DICHTEN. - - -These opening bars he sang and translated EXTEMPORE. Bloom, nodding, said -he perfectly understood and begged him to go on by all means which he -did. - -A phenomenally beautiful tenor voice like that, the rarest of boons, -which Bloom appreciated at the very first note he got out, could easily, -if properly handled by some recognised authority on voice production such -as Barraclough and being able to read music into the bargain, command its -own price where baritones were ten a penny and procure for its fortunate -possessor in the near future an ENTREE into fashionable houses in the -best residential quarters of financial magnates in a large way of -business and titled people where with his university degree of B. A. (a -huge ad in its way) and gentlemanly bearing to all the more influence the -good impression he would infallibly score a distinct success, being -blessed with brains which also could be utilised for the purpose and -other requisites, if his clothes were properly attended to so as to the -better worm his way into their good graces as he, a youthful tyro in-- -society's sartorial niceties, hardly understood how a little thing like -that could militate against you. It was in fact only a matter of months -and he could easily foresee him participating in their musical and -artistic CONVERSAZIONES during the festivities of the Christmas season, -for choice, causing a slight flutter in the dovecotes of the fair sex and -being made a lot of by ladies out for sensation, cases of which, as he -happened to know, were on record--in fact, without giving the show away, -he himself once upon a time, if he cared to, could easily have. Added to -which of course would be the pecuniary emolument by no means to be -sneezed at, going hand in hand with his tuition fees. Not, he -parenthesised, that for the sake of filthy lucre he need necessarily -embrace the lyric platform as a walk in life for any lengthy space of -time. But a step in the required direction it was beyond yea or nay and -both monetarily and mentally it contained no reflection on his dignity in -the smallest and it often turned in uncommonly handy to be handed a -cheque at a muchneeded moment when every little helped. Besides, though -taste latterly had deteriorated to a degree, original music like that, -different from the conventional rut, would rapidly have a great vogue as -it would be a decided novelty for Dublin's musical world after the usual -hackneyed run of catchy tenor solos foisted on a confiding public by Ivan -St Austell and Hilton St Just and their GENUS OMNE. Yes, beyond a shadow -of a doubt he could with all the cards in his hand and he had a capital -opening to make a name for himself and win a high place in the city's -esteem where he could command a stiff figure and, booking ahead, give a -grand concert for the patrons of the King street house, given a backerup, -if one were forthcoming to kick him upstairs, so to speak, a big IF, -however, with some impetus of the goahead sort to obviate the inevitable -procrastination which often tripped -up a too much feted prince of good -fellows. And it need not detract from the other by one iota as, being his -own master, he would have heaps of time to practise literature in his -spare moments when desirous of so doing without its clashing with his -vocal career or containing anything derogatory whatsoever as it was a -matter for himself alone. In fact, he had the ball at his feet and that -was the very reason why the other, possessed of a remarkably sharp nose -for smelling a rat of any sort, hung on to him at all. - -The horse was just then. And later on at a propitious opportunity he -purposed (Bloom did), without anyway prying into his private affairs on -the FOOLS STEP IN WHERE ANGELS principle, advising him to sever his -connection with a certain budding practitioner who, he noticed, was prone -to disparage and even to a slight extent with some hilarious pretext when -not present, deprecate him, or whatever you like to call it which in -Bloom's humble opinion threw a nasty sidelight on that side of a person's -character, no pun intended. - -The horse having reached the end of his tether, so to speak, halted and, -rearing high a proud feathering tail, added his quota by letting fall on -the floor which the brush would soon brush up and polish, three smoking -globes of turds. Slowly three times, one after another, from a full -crupper he mired. And humanely his driver waited till he (or she) had -ended, patient in his scythed car. - -Side by side Bloom, profiting by the CONTRETEMPS, with Stephen passed -through the gap of the chains, divided by the upright, and, stepping over -a strand of mire, went across towards Gardiner street lower, Stephen -singing more boldly, but not loudly, the end of the ballad. - - - UND ALLE SCHIFFE BRUCKEN. - - -The driver never said a word, good, bad or indifferent, but merely -watched the two figures, as he sat on his lowbacked car, both black, one -full, one lean, walk towards the railway bridge, TO BE MARRIED BY FATHER -MAHER. As they walked they at times stopped and walked again continuing -their TETE-A-TETE (which, of course, he was utterly out of) about sirens -enemies of man's reason, mingled with a number of other topics of the -same category, usurpers, historical cases of the kind while the man in -the sweeper car or you might as well call it in the sleeper car who in -any case couldn't possibly hear because they were too far simply sat in -his seat near the end of lower Gardiner street AND LOOKED AFTER THEIR -LOWBACKED CAR. - - - * * * * * * * - - -What parallel courses did Bloom and Stephen follow returning? - -Starting united both at normal walking pace from Beresford place they -followed in the order named Lower and Middle Gardiner streets and -Mountjoy square, west: then, at reduced pace, each bearing left, -Gardiner's place by an inadvertence as far as the farther corner of -Temple street: then, at reduced pace with interruptions of halt, bearing -right, Temple street, north, as far as Hardwicke place. Approaching, -disparate, at relaxed walking pace they crossed both the circus before -George's church diametrically, the chord in any circle being less than -the arc which it subtends. - -Of what did the duumvirate deliberate during their itinerary? - -Music, literature, Ireland, Dublin, Paris, friendship, woman, -prostitution, diet, the influence of gaslight or the light of arc and -glowlamps on the growth of adjoining paraheliotropic trees, exposed -corporation emergency dustbuckets, the Roman catholic church, -ecclesiastical celibacy, the Irish nation, jesuit education, careers, the -study of medicine, the past day, the maleficent influence of the -presabbath, Stephen's collapse. - -Did Bloom discover common factors of similarity between their respective -like and unlike reactions to experience? - -Both were sensitive to artistic impressions, musical in preference to -plastic or pictorial. Both preferred a continental to an insular manner -of life, a cisatlantic to a transatlantic place of residence. Both -indurated by early domestic training and an inherited tenacity of -heterodox resistance professed their disbelief in many orthodox -religious, national, social and ethical doctrines. Both admitted the -alternately stimulating and obtunding influence of heterosexual -magnetism. - -Were their views on some points divergent? - -Stephen dissented openly from Bloom's views on the importance of dietary -and civic selfhelp while Bloom dissented tacitly from Stephen's views on -the eternal affirmation of the spirit of man in literature. Bloom -assented covertly to Stephen's rectification of the anachronism involved -in assigning the date of the conversion of the Irish nation to -christianity from druidism by Patrick son of Calpornus, son of Potitus, -son of Odyssus, sent by pope Celestine I in the year 432 in the reign of -Leary to the year 260 or thereabouts in the reign of Cormac MacArt (died -266 A.D.), suffocated by imperfect deglutition of aliment at Sletty and -interred at Rossnaree. The collapse which Bloom ascribed to gastric -inanition and certain chemical compounds of varying degrees of -adulteration and alcoholic strength, accelerated by mental exertion and -the velocity of rapid circular motion in a relaxing atmosphere, Stephen -attributed to the reapparition of a matutinal cloud (perceived by both -from two different points of observation Sandycove and Dublin) at first -no bigger than a woman's hand. - -Was there one point on which their views were equal and negative? - -The influence of gaslight or electric light on the growth of adjoining -paraheliotropic trees. - -Had Bloom discussed similar subjects during nocturnal perambulations in -the past? - -In 1884 with Owen Goldberg and Cecil Turnbull at night on public -thoroughfares between Longwood avenue and Leonard's corner and Leonard's -corner and Synge street and Synge street and Bloomfield avenue. - -In 1885 with Percy Apjohn in the evenings, reclined against the wall -between Gibraltar villa and Bloomfield house in Crumlin, barony of -Uppercross. In 1886 occasionally with casual acquaintances and -prospective purchasers on doorsteps, in front parlours, in third class -railway carriages of suburban lines. In 1888 frequently with major Brian -Tweedy and his daughter Miss Marion Tweedy, together and separately on -the lounge in Matthew Dillon's house in Roundtown. Once in 1892 and once -in 1893 with Julius (Juda) Mastiansky, on both occasions in the parlour -of his (Bloom's) house in Lombard street, west. - -What reflection concerning the irregular sequence of dates 1884, 1885, -1886, 1888, 1892, 1893, 1904 did Bloom make before their arrival at their -destination? - -He reflected that the progressive extension of the field of individual -development and experience was regressively accompanied by a restriction -of the converse domain of interindividual relations. - -As in what ways? - -From inexistence to existence he came to many and was as one received: -existence with existence he was with any as any with any: from existence -to nonexistence gone he would be by all as none perceived. - -What act did Bloom make on their arrival at their destination? - -At the housesteps of the 4th Of the equidifferent uneven numbers, number -7 Eccles street, he inserted his hand mechanically into the back pocket -of his trousers to obtain his latchkey. - -Was it there? - -It was in the corresponding pocket of the trousers which he had worn on -the day but one preceding. - -Why was he doubly irritated? - -Because he had forgotten and because he remembered that he had reminded -himself twice not to forget. - -What were then the alternatives before the, premeditatedly (respectively) -and inadvertently, keyless couple? - -To enter or not to enter. To knock or not to knock. - -Bloom's decision? - -A stratagem. Resting his feet on the dwarf wall, he climbed over the area -railings, compressed his hat on his head, grasped two points at the lower -union of rails and stiles, lowered his body gradually by its length of -five feet nine inches and a half to within two feet ten inches of the -area pavement and allowed his body to move freely in space by separating -himself from the railings and crouching in preparation for the impact of -the fall. - -Did he fall? - -By his body's known weight of eleven stone and four pounds in avoirdupois -measure, as certified by the graduated machine for periodical -selfweighing in the premises of Francis Froedman, pharmaceutical chemist -of 19 Frederick street, north, on the last feast of the Ascension, to -wit, the twelfth day of May of the bissextile year one thousand nine -hundred and four of the christian era (jewish era five thousand six -hundred and sixtyfour, mohammadan era one thousand three hundred and -twentytwo), golden number 5, epact 13, solar cycle 9, dominical letters C -B, Roman indiction 2, Julian period 6617, MCMIV. - -Did he rise uninjured by concussion? - -Regaining new stable equilibrium he rose uninjured though concussed by -the impact, raised the latch of the area door by the exertion of force at -its freely moving flange and by leverage of the first kind applied at its -fulcrum, gained retarded access to the kitchen through the subadjacent -scullery, ignited a lucifer match by friction, set free inflammable coal -gas by turningon the ventcock, lit a high flame which, by regulating, he -reduced to quiescent candescence and lit finally a portable candle. - -What discrete succession of images did Stephen meanwhile perceive? - -Reclined against the area railings he perceived through the transparent -kitchen panes a man regulating a gasflame of 14 CP, a man lighting a -candle of 1 CP, a man removing in turn each of his two boots, a man -leaving the kitchen holding a candle. - -Did the man reappear elsewhere? - -After a lapse of four minutes the glimmer of his candle was discernible -through the semitransparent semicircular glass fanlight over the -halldoor. The halldoor turned gradually on its hinges. In the open space -of the doorway the man reappeared without his hat, with his candle. - -Did Stephen obey his sign? - -Yes, entering softly, he helped to close and chain the door and followed -softly along the hallway the man's back and listed feet and lighted -candle past a lighted crevice of doorway on the left and carefully down a -turning staircase of more than five steps into the kitchen of Bloom's -house. - -What did Bloom do? - -He extinguished the candle by a sharp expiration of breath upon its -flame, drew two spoonseat deal chairs to the hearthstone, one for Stephen -with its back to the area window, the other for himself when necessary, -knelt on one knee, composed in the grate a pyre of crosslaid resintipped -sticks and various coloured papers and irregular polygons of best Abram -coal at twentyone shillings a ton from the yard of Messrs Flower and -M'Donald of 14 D'Olier street, kindled it at three projecting points of -paper with one ignited lucifer match, thereby releasing the potential -energy contained in the fuel by allowing its carbon and hydrogen elements -to enter into free union with the oxygen of the air. - -Of what similar apparitions did Stephen think? - -Of others elsewhere in other times who, kneeling on one knee or on two, -had kindled fires for him, of Brother Michael in the infirmary of the -college of the Society of Jesus at Clongowes Wood, Sallins, in the county -of Kildare: of his father, Simon Dedalus, in an unfurnished room of his -first residence in Dublin, number thirteen Fitzgibbon street: of his -godmother Miss Kate Morkan in the house of her dying sister Miss Julia -Morkan at 15 Usher's Island: of his aunt Sara, wife of Richie (Richard) -Goulding, in the kitchen of their lodgings at 62 Clanbrassil street: of -his mother Mary, wife of Simon Dedalus, in the kitchen of number twelve -North Richmond street on the morning of the feast of Saint Francis Xavier -1898: of the dean of studies, Father Butt, in the physics' theatre of -university College, 16 Stephen's Green, north: of his sister Dilly -(Delia) in his father's house in Cabra. - -What did Stephen see on raising his gaze to the height of a yard from the -fire towards the opposite wall? - -Under a row of five coiled spring housebells a curvilinear rope, -stretched between two holdfasts athwart across the recess beside the -chimney pier, from which hung four smallsized square handkerchiefs folded -unattached consecutively in adjacent rectangles and one pair of ladies' -grey hose with Lisle suspender tops and feet in their habitual position -clamped by three erect wooden pegs two at their outer extremities and the -third at their point of junction. - -What did Bloom see on the range? - -On the right (smaller) hob a blue enamelled saucepan: on the left -(larger) hob a black iron kettle. - -What did Bloom do at the range? - -He removed the saucepan to the left hob, rose and carried the iron kettle -to the sink in order to tap the current by turning the faucet to let it -flow. - -Did it flow? - -Yes. From Roundwood reservoir in county Wicklow of a cubic capacity of -2400 million gallons, percolating through a subterranean aqueduct of -filter mains of single and double pipeage constructed at an initial plant -cost of 5 pounds per linear yard by way of the Dargle, Rathdown, Glen of -the Downs and Callowhill to the 26 acre reservoir at Stillorgan, a -distance of 22 statute miles, and thence, through a system of relieving -tanks, by a gradient of 250 feet to the city boundary at Eustace bridge, -upper Leeson street, though from prolonged summer drouth and daily supply -of 12 1/2 million gallons the water had fallen below the sill of the -overflow weir for which reason the borough surveyor and waterworks -engineer, Mr Spencer Harty, C. E., on the instructions of the waterworks -committee had prohibited the use of municipal water for purposes other -than those of consumption (envisaging the possibility of recourse being -had to the impotable water of the Grand and Royal canals as in 1893) -particularly as the South Dublin Guardians, notwithstanding their ration -of 15 gallons per day per pauper supplied through a 6 inch meter, had -been convicted of a wastage of 20,000 gallons per night by a reading of -their meter on the affirmation of the law agent of the corporation, Mr -Ignatius Rice, solicitor, thereby acting to the detriment of another -section of the public, selfsupporting taxpayers, solvent, sound. - -What in water did Bloom, waterlover, drawer of water, watercarrier, -returning to the range, admire? - -Its universality: its democratic equality and constancy to its nature in -seeking its own level: its vastness in the ocean of Mercator's -projection: its unplumbed profundity in the Sundam trench of the Pacific -exceeding 8000 fathoms: the restlessness of its waves and surface -particles visiting in turn all points of its seaboard: the independence -of its units: the variability of states of sea: its hydrostatic -quiescence in calm: its hydrokinetic turgidity in neap and spring tides: -its subsidence after devastation: its sterility in the circumpolar -icecaps, arctic and antarctic: its climatic and commercial significance: -its preponderance of 3 to 1 over the dry land of the globe: its -indisputable hegemony extending in square leagues over all the region -below the subequatorial tropic of Capricorn: the multisecular stability -of its primeval basin: its luteofulvous bed: its capacity to dissolve and -hold in solution all soluble substances including millions of tons of the -most precious metals: its slow erosions of peninsulas and islands, its -persistent formation of homothetic islands, peninsulas and -downwardtending promontories: its alluvial deposits: its weight and -volume and density: its imperturbability in lagoons and highland tarns: -its gradation of colours in the torrid and temperate and frigid zones: -its vehicular ramifications in continental lakecontained streams and -confluent oceanflowing rivers with their tributaries and transoceanic -currents, gulfstream, north and south equatorial courses: its violence in -seaquakes, waterspouts, Artesian wells, eruptions, torrents, eddies, -freshets, spates, groundswells, watersheds, waterpartings, geysers, -cataracts, whirlpools, maelstroms, inundations, deluges, cloudbursts: its -vast circumterrestrial ahorizontal curve: its secrecy in springs and -latent humidity, revealed by rhabdomantic or hygrometric instruments and -exemplified by the well by the hole in the wall at Ashtown gate, -saturation of air, distillation of dew: the simplicity of its -composition, two constituent parts of hydrogen with one constituent part -of oxygen: its healing virtues: its buoyancy in the waters of the Dead -Sea: its persevering penetrativeness in runnels, gullies, inadequate -dams, leaks on shipboard: its properties for cleansing, quenching thirst -and fire, nourishing vegetation: its infallibility as paradigm and -paragon: its metamorphoses as vapour, mist, cloud, rain, sleet, snow, -hail: its strength in rigid hydrants: its variety of forms in loughs and -bays and gulfs and bights and guts and lagoons and atolls and -archipelagos and sounds and fjords and minches and tidal estuaries and -arms of sea: its solidity in glaciers, icebergs, icefloes: its docility -in working hydraulic millwheels, turbines, dynamos, electric power -stations, bleachworks, tanneries, scutchmills: its utility in canals, -rivers, if navigable, floating and graving docks: its potentiality -derivable from harnessed tides or watercourses falling from level to -level: its submarine fauna and flora (anacoustic, photophobe), -numerically, if not literally, the inhabitants of the globe: its ubiquity -as constituting 90 percent of the human body: the noxiousness of its -effluvia in lacustrine marshes, pestilential fens, faded flowerwater, -stagnant pools in the waning moon. - -Having set the halffilled kettle on the now burning coals, why did he -return to the stillflowing tap? - -To wash his soiled hands with a partially consumed tablet of Barrington's -lemonflavoured soap, to which paper still adhered, (bought thirteen hours -previously for fourpence and still unpaid for), in fresh cold -neverchanging everchanging water and dry them, face and hands, in a long -redbordered holland cloth passed over a wooden revolving roller. - -What reason did Stephen give for declining Bloom's offer? - -That he was hydrophobe, hating partial contact by immersion or total by -submersion in cold water, (his last bath having taken place in the month -of October of the preceding year), disliking the aqueous substances of -glass and crystal, distrusting aquacities of thought and language. - -What impeded Bloom from giving Stephen counsels of hygiene and -prophylactic to which should be added suggestions concerning a -preliminary wetting of the head and contraction of the muscles with rapid -splashing of the face and neck and thoracic and epigastric region in case -of sea or river bathing, the parts of the human anatomy most sensitive to -cold being the nape, stomach and thenar or sole of foot? - -The incompatibility of aquacity with the erratic originality of genius. - -What additional didactic counsels did he similarly repress? - -Dietary: concerning the respective percentage of protein and caloric -energy in bacon, salt ling and butter, the absence of the former in the -lastnamed and the abundance of the latter in the firstnamed. - -Which seemed to the host to be the predominant qualities of his guest? - -Confidence in himself, an equal and opposite power of abandonment and -recuperation. - -What concomitant phenomenon took place in the vessel of liquid by the -agency of fire? - -The phenomenon of ebullition. Fanned by a constant updraught of -ventilation between the kitchen and the chimneyflue, ignition was -communicated from the faggots of precombustible fuel to polyhedral masses -of bituminous coal, containing in compressed mineral form the foliated -fossilised decidua of primeval forests which had in turn derived their -vegetative existence from the sun, primal source of heat (radiant), -transmitted through omnipresent luminiferous diathermanous ether. Heat -(convected), a mode of motion developed by such combustion, was -constantly and increasingly conveyed from the source of calorification to -the liquid contained in the vessel, being radiated through the uneven -unpolished dark surface of the metal iron, in part reflected, in part -absorbed, in part transmitted, gradually raising the temperature of the -water from normal to boiling point, a rise in temperature expressible as -the result of an expenditure of 72 thermal units needed to raise 1 pound -of water from 50 degrees to 212 degrees Fahrenheit. - -What announced the accomplishment of this rise in temperature? - -A double falciform ejection of water vapour from under the kettlelid at -both sides simultaneously. - -For what personal purpose could Bloom have applied the water so boiled? - -To shave himself. - -What advantages attended shaving by night? - -A softer beard: a softer brush if intentionally allowed to remain from -shave to shave in its agglutinated lather: a softer skin if unexpectedly -encountering female acquaintances in remote places at incustomary hours: -quiet reflections upon the course of the day: a cleaner sensation when -awaking after a fresher sleep since matutinal noises, premonitions and -perturbations, a clattered milkcan, a postman's double knock, a paper -read, reread while lathering, relathering the same spot, a shock, a -shoot, with thought of aught he sought though fraught with nought might -cause a faster rate of shaving and a nick on which incision plaster with -precision cut and humected and applied adhered: which was to be done. - -Why did absence of light disturb him less than presence of noise? - -Because of the surety of the sense of touch in his firm full masculine -feminine passive active hand. - -What quality did it (his hand) possess but with what counteracting -influence? - -The operative surgical quality but that he was reluctant to shed human -blood even when the end justified the means, preferring, in their natural -order, heliotherapy, psychophysicotherapeutics, osteopathic surgery. - -What lay under exposure on the lower, middle and upper shelves of the -kitchen dresser, opened by Bloom? - -On the lower shelf five vertical breakfast plates, six horizontal -breakfast saucers on which rested inverted breakfast cups, a -moustachecup, uninverted, and saucer of Crown Derby, four white -goldrimmed eggcups, an open shammy purse displaying coins, mostly copper, -and a phial of aromatic (violet) comfits. On the middle shelf a chipped -eggcup containing pepper, a drum of table salt, four conglomerated black -olives in oleaginous paper, an empty pot of Plumtree's potted meat, an -oval wicker basket bedded with fibre and containing one Jersey pear, a -halfempty bottle of William Gilbey and Co's white invalid port, half -disrobed of its swathe of coralpink tissue paper, a packet of Epps's -soluble cocoa, five ounces of Anne Lynch's choice tea at 2/- per lb in a -crinkled leadpaper bag, a cylindrical canister containing the best -crystallised lump sugar, two onions, one, the larger, Spanish, entire, -the other, smaller, Irish, bisected with augmented surface and more -redolent, a jar of Irish Model Dairy's cream, a jug of brown crockery -containing a naggin and a quarter of soured adulterated milk, converted -by heat into water, acidulous serum and semisolidified curds, which added -to the quantity subtracted for Mr Bloom's and Mrs Fleming's breakfasts, -made one imperial pint, the total quantity originally delivered, two -cloves, a halfpenny and a small dish containing a slice of fresh -ribsteak. On the upper shelf a battery of jamjars (empty) of various -sizes and proveniences. - -What attracted his attention lying on the apron of the dresser? - -Four polygonal fragments of two lacerated scarlet betting tickets, -numbered 8 87, 88 6. - -What reminiscences temporarily corrugated his brow? - -Reminiscences of coincidences, truth stranger than fiction, preindicative -of the result of the Gold Cup flat handicap, the official and definitive -result of which he had read in the EVENING TELEGRAPH, late pink edition, -in the cabman's shelter, at Butt bridge. - -Where had previous intimations of the result, effected or projected, been -received by him? - -In Bernard Kiernan's licensed premises 8, 9 and 10 little Britain street: -in David Byrne's licensed premises, 14 Duke street: in O'Connell street -lower, outside Graham Lemon's when a dark man had placed in his hand a -throwaway (subsequently thrown away), advertising Elijah, restorer of the -church in Zion: in Lincoln place outside the premises of F. W. Sweny and -Co (Limited), dispensing chemists, when, when Frederick M. (Bantam) Lyons -had rapidly and successively requested, perused and restituted the copy -of the current issue of the FREEMAN'S JOURNAL AND NATIONAL PRESS which he -had been about to throw away (subsequently thrown away), he had proceeded -towards the oriental edifice of the Turkish and Warm Baths, 11 Leinster -street, with the light of inspiration shining in his countenance and -bearing in his arms the secret of the race, graven in the language of -prediction. - -What qualifying considerations allayed his perturbations? - -The difficulties of interpretation since the significance of any event -followed its occurrence as variably as the acoustic report followed the -electrical discharge and of counterestimating against an actual loss by -failure to interpret the total sum of possible losses proceeding -originally from a successful interpretation. - -His mood? - -He had not risked, he did not expect, he had not been disappointed, he -was satisfied. - -What satisfied him? - -To have sustained no positive loss. To have brought a positive gain to -others. Light to the gentiles. - -How did Bloom prepare a collation for a gentile? - -He poured into two teacups two level spoonfuls, four in all, of Epps's -soluble cocoa and proceeded according to the directions for use printed -on the label, to each adding after sufficient time for infusion the -prescribed ingredients for diffusion in the manner and in the quantity -prescribed. - -What supererogatory marks of special hospitality did the host show his -guest? - -Relinquishing his symposiarchal right to the moustache cup of imitation -Crown Derby presented to him by his only daughter, Millicent (Milly), he -substituted a cup identical with that of his guest and served -extraordinarily to his guest and, in reduced measure, to himself the -viscous cream ordinarily reserved for the breakfast of his wife Marion -(Molly). - -Was the guest conscious of and did he acknowledge these marks of -hospitality? - -His attention was directed to them by his host jocosely, and he accepted -them seriously as they drank in jocoserious silence Epps's massproduct, -the creature cocoa. - -Were there marks of hospitality which he contemplated but suppressed, -reserving them for another and for himself on future occasions to -complete the act begun? - -The reparation of a fissure of the length of 1 1/2 inches in the right -side of his guest's jacket. A gift to his guest of one of the four lady's -handkerchiefs, if and when ascertained to be in a presentable condition. - -Who drank more quickly? - -Bloom, having the advantage of ten seconds at the initiation and taking, -from the concave surface of a spoon along the handle of which a steady -flow of heat was conducted, three sips to his opponent's one, six to two, -nine to three. - -What cerebration accompanied his frequentative act? - -Concluding by inspection but erroneously that his silent companion was -engaged in mental composition he reflected on the pleasures derived from -literature of instruction rather than of amusement as he himself had -applied to the works of William Shakespeare more than once for the -solution of difficult problems in imaginary or real life. - -Had he found their solution? - -In spite of careful and repeated reading of certain classical passages, -aided by a glossary, he had derived imperfect conviction from the text, -the answers not bearing in all points. - -What lines concluded his first piece of original verse written by him, -potential poet, at the age of 11 in 1877 on the occasion of the offering -of three prizes of 10/-, 5/- and 2/6 respectively for competition by the -SHAMROCK, a weekly newspaper? - - - AN AMBITION TO SQUINT - AT MY VERSES IN PRINT - MAKES ME HOPE THAT FOR THESE YOU'LL FIND ROOM. - IF YOU SO CONDESCEND - THEN PLEASE PLACE AT THE END - THE NAME OF YOURS TRULY, L. BLOOM. - - -Did he find four separating forces between his temporary guest and him? - -Name, age, race, creed. - -What anagrams had he made on his name in youth? - - - Leopold Bloom - Ellpodbomool - Molldopeloob - Bollopedoom - Old Ollebo, M. P. - - -What acrostic upon the abbreviation of his first name had he (kinetic -poet) sent to Miss Marion (Molly) Tweedy on the 14 February 1888? - - POETS OFT HAVE SUNG IN RHYME - OF MUSIC SWEET THEIR PRAISE DIVINE. - LET THEM HYMN IT NINE TIMES NINE. - DEARER FAR THAN SONG OR WINE. - YOU ARE MINE. THE WORLD IS MINE. - - -What had prevented him from completing a topical song (music by R. G. -Johnston) on the events of the past, or fixtures for the actual, years, -entitled IF BRIAN BORU COULD BUT COME BACK AND SEE OLD DUBLIN NOW, -commissioned by Michael Gunn, lessee of the Gaiety Theatre, 46, 47, 48, -49 South King street, and to be introduced into the sixth scene, the -valley of diamonds, of the second edition (30 January 1893) of the grand -annual Christmas pantomime SINBAD THE SAILOR (produced by R Shelton 26 -December 1892, written by Greenleaf Whittier, scenery by George A. -Jackson and Cecil Hicks, costumes by Mrs and Miss Whelan under the -personal supervision of Mrs Michael Gunn, ballets by Jessie Noir, -harlequinade by Thomas Otto) and sung by Nelly Bouverist, principal girl? - -Firstly, oscillation between events of imperial and of local interest, -the anticipated diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria (born 1820, acceded -1837) and the posticipated opening of the new municipal fish market: -secondly, apprehension of opposition from extreme circles on the -questions of the respective visits of Their Royal Highnesses the duke and -duchess of York (real) and of His Majesty King Brian Boru (imaginary): -thirdly, a conflict between professional etiquette and professional -emulation concerning the recent erections of the Grand Lyric Hall on -Burgh Quay and the Theatre Royal in Hawkins street: fourthly, distraction -resultant from compassion for Nelly Bouverist's non-intellectual, non- -political, non-topical expression of countenance and concupiscence caused -by Nelly Bouverist's revelations of white articles of non-intellectual, -non-political, non-topical underclothing while she (Nelly Bouverist) was -in the articles: fifthly, the difficulties of the selection of -appropriate music and humorous allusions from EVERYBODY'S BOOK OF JOKES -(1000 pages and a laugh in every one): sixthly, the rhymes, homophonous -and cacophonous, associated with the names of the new lord mayor, Daniel -Tallon, the new high sheriff, Thomas Pile and the new solicitorgeneral, -Dunbar Plunket Barton. - -What relation existed between their ages? - -16 years before in 1888 when Bloom was of Stephen's present age Stephen -was 6. 16 years after in 1920 when Stephen would be of Bloom's present -age Bloom would be 54. In 1936 when Bloom would be 70 and Stephen 54 -their ages initially in the ratio of 16 to 0 would be as 17 1/2 to 13 -1/2, the proportion increasing and the disparity diminishing according as -arbitrary future years were added, for if the proportion existing in 1883 -had continued immutable, conceiving that to be possible, till then 1904 -when Stephen was 22 Bloom would be 374 and in 1920 when Stephen would be -38, as Bloom then was, Bloom would be 646 while in 1952 when Stephen -would have attained the maximum postdiluvian age of 70 Bloom, being 1190 -years alive having been born in the year 714, would have surpassed by 221 -years the maximum antediluvian age, that of Methusalah, 969 years, while, -if Stephen would continue to live until he would attain that age in the -year 3072 A.D., Bloomwould have been obliged to have been alive 83,300 -years, having been obliged to have been born in the year 81,396 B.C. - -What events might nullify these calculations? - -The cessation of existence of both or either, the inauguration of a new -era or calendar, the annihilation of the world and consequent -extermination of the human species, inevitable but impredictable. - -How many previous encounters proved their preexisting acquaintance? - -Two. The first in the lilacgarden of Matthew Dillon's house, Medina -Villa, Kimmage road, Roundtown, in 1887, in the company of Stephen's -mother, Stephen being then of the age of 5 and reluctant to give his hand -in salutation. The second in the coffeeroom of Breslin's hotel on a rainy -Sunday in the January of 1892, in the company of Stephen's father and -Stephen's granduncle, Stephen being then 5 years older. - -Did Bloom accept the invitation to dinner given then by the son and -afterwards seconded by the father? - -Very gratefully, with grateful appreciation, with sincere appreciative -gratitude, in appreciatively grateful sincerity of regret, he declined. - -Did their conversation on the subject of these reminiscences reveal a -third connecting link between them? - -Mrs Riordan (Dante), a widow of independent means, had resided in the -house of Stephen's parents from 1 September 1888 to 29 December 1891 and -had also resided during the years 1892, 1893 and 1894 in the City Arms -Hotel owned by Elizabeth O'Dowd of 54 Prussia street where, during parts -of the years 1893 and 1894, she had been a constant informant of Bloom -who resided also in the same hotel, being at that time a clerk in the -employment of Joseph Cuffe of 5 Smithfield for the superintendence of -sales in the adjacent Dublin Cattle market on the North Circular road. - -Had he performed any special corporal work of mercy for her? - -He had sometimes propelled her on warm summer evenings, an infirm widow -of independent, if limited, means, in her convalescent bathchair with -slow revolutions of its wheels as far as the corner of the North Circular -road opposite Mr Gavin Low's place of business where she had remained for -a certain time scanning through his onelensed binocular fieldglasses -unrecognisable citizens on tramcars, roadster bicycles equipped with -inflated pneumatic tyres, hackney carriages, tandems, private and hired -landaus, dogcarts, ponytraps and brakes passing from the city to the -Phoenix Park and vice versa. - -Why could he then support that his vigil with the greater equanimity? - -Because in middle youth he had often sat observing through a rondel of -bossed glass of a multicoloured pane the spectacle offered with continual -changes of the thoroughfare without, pedestrians, quadrupeds, -velocipedes, vehicles, passing slowly, quickly, evenly, round and round -and round the rim of a round and round precipitous globe. - -What distinct different memories had each of her now eight years -deceased? - -The older, her bezique cards and counters, her Skye terrier, her -suppositious wealth, her lapses of responsiveness and incipient catarrhal -deafness: the younger, her lamp of colza oil before the statue of the -Immaculate Conception, her green and maroon brushes for Charles Stewart -Parnell and for Michael Davitt, her tissue papers. - -Were there no means still remaining to him to achieve the rejuvenation -which these reminiscences divulged to a younger companion rendered the -more desirable? - -The indoor exercises, formerly intermittently practised, subsequently -abandoned, prescribed in Eugen Sandow's PHYSICAL STRENGTH AND HOW TO -OBTAIN IT which, designed particularly for commercial men engaged in -sedentary occupations, were to be made with mental concentration in front -of a mirror so as to bring into play the various families of muscles and -produce successively a pleasant rigidity, a more pleasant relaxation and -the most pleasant repristination of juvenile agility. - -Had any special agility been his in earlier youth? - -Though ringweight lifting had been beyond his strength and the full -circle gyration beyond his courage yet as a High school scholar he had -excelled in his stable and protracted execution of the half lever -movement on the parallel bars in consequence of his abnormally developed -abdominal muscles. - -Did either openly allude to their racial difference? - -Neither. - -What, reduced to their simplest reciprocal form, were Bloom's thoughts -about Stephen's thoughts about Bloom and about Stephen's thoughts about -Bloom's thoughts about Stephen? - -He thought that he thought that he was a jew whereas he knew that he knew -that he knew that he was not. - -What, the enclosures of reticence removed, were their respective -parentages? - -Bloom, only born male transubstantial heir of Rudolf Virag (subsequently -Rudolph Bloom) of Szombathely, Vienna, Budapest, Milan, London and Dublin -and of Ellen Higgins, second daughter of Julius Higgins (born Karoly) and -Fanny Higgins (born Hegarty). Stephen, eldest surviving male -consubstantial heir of Simon Dedalus of Cork and Dublin and of Mary, -daughter of Richard and Christina Goulding (born Grier). - -Had Bloom and Stephen been baptised, and where and by whom, cleric or -layman? - -Bloom (three times), by the reverend Mr Gilmer Johnston M. A., alone, in -the protestant church of Saint Nicholas Without, Coombe, by James -O'Connor, Philip Gilligan and James Fitzpatrick, together, under a pump -in the village of Swords, and by the reverend Charles Malone C. C., in -the church of the Three Patrons, Rathgar. Stephen (once) by the reverend -Charles Malone C. C., alone, in the church of the Three Patrons, Rathgar. - -Did they find their educational careers similar? - -Substituting Stephen for Bloom Stoom would have passed successively -through a dame's school and the high school. Substituting Bloom for -Stephen Blephen would have passed successively through the preparatory, -junior, middle and senior grades of the intermediate and through the -matriculation, first arts, second arts and arts degree courses of the -royal university. - -Why did Bloom refrain from stating that he had frequented the university -of life? - -Because of his fluctuating incertitude as to whether this observation had -or had not been already made by him to Stephen or by Stephen to him. - -What two temperaments did they individually represent? - -The scientific. The artistic. - -What proofs did Bloom adduce to prove that his tendency was towards -applied, rather than towards pure, science? - -Certain possible inventions of which he had cogitated when reclining in a -state of supine repletion to aid digestion, stimulated by his -appreciation of the importance of inventions now common but once -revolutionary, for example, the aeronautic parachute, the reflecting -telescope, the spiral corkscrew, the safety pin, the mineral water -siphon, the canal lock with winch and sluice, the suction pump. - -Were these inventions principally intended for an improved scheme of -kindergarten? - -Yes, rendering obsolete popguns, elastic airbladders, games of hazard, -catapults. They comprised astronomical kaleidoscopes exhibiting the -twelve constellations of the zodiac from Aries to Pisces, miniature -mechanical orreries, arithmetical gelatine lozenges, geometrical to -correspond with zoological biscuits, globemap playing balls, historically -costumed dolls. - -What also stimulated him in his cogitations? - -The financial success achieved by Ephraim Marks and Charles A. James, the -former by his 1d bazaar at 42 George's street, south, the latter at his -6-1/2d shop and world's fancy fair and waxwork exhibition at 30 Henry -street, admission 2d, children 1d: and the infinite possibilities -hitherto unexploited of the modern art of advertisement if condensed in -triliteral monoideal symbols, vertically of maximum visibility (divined), -horizontally of maximum legibility (deciphered) and of magnetising -efficacy to arrest involuntary attention, to interest, to convince, to -decide. - -Such as? - -K. II. Kino's 11/- Trousers. House of Keys. Alexander J. Keyes. - -Such as not? - -Look at this long candle. Calculate when it burns out and you receive -gratis 1 pair of our special non-compo boots, guaranteed 1 candle power. -Address: Barclay and Cook, 18 Talbot street. - -Bacilikil (Insect Powder). Veribest (Boot Blacking). Uwantit (Combined -pocket twoblade penknife with corkscrew, nailfile and pipecleaner). - -Such as never? - -What is home without Plumtree's Potted Meat? - -Incomplete. - -With it an abode of bliss. - -Manufactured by George Plumtree, 23 Merchants' quay, Dublin, put up in 4 -oz pots, and inserted by Councillor Joseph P. Nannetti, M. P., Rotunda -Ward, 19 Hardwicke street, under the obituary notices and anniversaries -of deceases. The name on the label is Plumtree. A plumtree in a meatpot, -registered trade mark. Beware of imitations. Peatmot. Trumplee. Moutpat. -Plamtroo. - -Which example did he adduce to induce Stephen to deduce that originality, -though producing its own reward, does not invariably conduce to success? - -His own ideated and rejected project of an illuminated showcart, drawn by -a beast of burden, in which two smartly dressed girls were to be seated -engaged in writing. - -What suggested scene was then constructed by Stephen? - -Solitary hotel in mountain pass. Autumn. Twilight. Fire lit. In dark -corner young man seated. Young woman enters. Restless. Solitary. She -sits. She goes to window. She stands. She sits. Twilight. She thinks. On -solitary hotel paper she writes. She thinks. She writes. She sighs. -Wheels and hoofs. She hurries out. He comes from his dark corner. He -seizes solitary paper. He holds it towards fire. Twilight. He reads. -Solitary. - -What? - -In sloping, upright and backhands: Queen's Hotel, Queen's Hotel, Queen's -Hotel. Queen's Ho... - -What suggested scene was then reconstructed by Bloom? - -The Queen's Hotel, Ennis, county Clare, where Rudolph Bloom (Rudolf -Virag) died on the evening of the 27 June 1886, at some hour unstated, in -consequence of an overdose of monkshood (aconite) selfadministered in the -form of a neuralgic liniment composed of 2 parts of aconite liniment to I -of chloroform liniment (purchased by him at 10.20 a.m. on the morning of -27 June 1886 at the medical hall of Francis Dennehy, 17 Church street, -Ennis) after having, though not in consequence of having, purchased at -3.15 p.m. on the afternoon of 27 June 1886 a new boater straw hat, extra -smart (after having, though not in consequence of having, purchased at -the hour and in the place aforesaid, the toxin aforesaid), at the general -drapery store of James Cullen, 4 Main street, Ennis. - -Did he attribute this homonymity to information or coincidence or -intuition? - -Coincidence. - -Did he depict the scene verbally for his guest to see? - -He preferred himself to see another's face and listen to another's words -by which potential narration was realised and kinetic temperament -relieved. - -Did he see only a second coincidence in the second scene narrated to him, -described by the narrator as A PISGAH SIGHT OF PALESTINE OR THE PARABLE -OF THE PLUMS? - -It, with the preceding scene and with others unnarrated but existent by -implication, to which add essays on various subjects or moral apothegms -(e.g. MY FAVOURITE HERO OR PROCRASTINATION IS THE THIEF OF TIME) composed -during schoolyears, seemed to him to contain in itself and in conjunction -with the personal equation certain possibilities of financial, social, -personal and sexual success, whether specially collected and selected as -model pedagogic themes (of cent per cent merit) for the use of -preparatory and junior grade students or contributed in printed form, -following the precedent of Philip Beaufoy or Doctor Dick or Heblon's -STUDIES IN BLUE, to a publication of certified circulation and solvency -or employed verbally as intellectual stimulation for sympathetic -auditors, tacitly appreciative of successful narrative and confidently -augurative of successful achievement, during the increasingly longer -nights gradually following the summer solstice on the day but three -following, videlicet, Tuesday, 21 June (S. Aloysius Gonzaga), sunrise -3.33 a.m., sunset 8.29 p.m. - -Which domestic problem as much as, if not more than, any other frequently -engaged his mind? - -What to do with our wives. - -What had been his hypothetical singular solutions? - -Parlour games (dominos, halma, tiddledywinks, spilikins, cup and ball, -nap, spoil five, bezique, twentyfive, beggar my neighbour, draughts, -chess or backgammon): embroidery, darning or knitting for the policeaided -clothing society: musical duets, mandoline and guitar, piano and flute, -guitar and piano: legal scrivenery or envelope addressing: biweekly -visits to variety entertainments: commercial activity as pleasantly -commanding and pleasingly obeyed mistress proprietress in a cool dairy -shop or warm cigar divan: the clandestine satisfaction of erotic -irritation in masculine brothels, state inspected and medically -controlled: social visits, at regular infrequent prevented intervals and -with regular frequent preventive superintendence, to and from female -acquaintances of recognised respectability in the vicinity: courses of -evening instruction specially designed to render liberal instruction -agreeable. - -What instances of deficient mental development in his wife inclined him -in favour of the lastmentioned (ninth) solution? - -In disoccupied moments she had more than once covered a sheet of paper -with signs and hieroglyphics which she stated were Greek and Irish and -Hebrew characters. She had interrogated constantly at varying intervals -as to the correct method of writing the capital initial of the name of a -city in Canada, Quebec. She understood little of political complications, -internal, or balance of power, external. In calculating the addenda of -bills she frequently had recourse to digital aid. After completion of -laconic epistolary compositions she abandoned the implement of -calligraphy in the encaustic pigment, exposed to the corrosive action of -copperas, green vitriol and nutgall. Unusual polysyllables of foreign -origin she interpreted phonetically or by false analogy or by both: -metempsychosis (met him pike hoses), ALIAS (a mendacious person mentioned -in sacred scripture). - -What compensated in the false balance of her intelligence for these and -such deficiencies of judgment regarding persons, places and things? - -The false apparent parallelism of all perpendicular arms of all balances, -proved true by construction. The counterbalance of her proficiency of -judgment regarding one person, proved true by experiment. - -How had he attempted to remedy this state of comparative ignorance? - -Variously. By leaving in a conspicuous place a certain book open at a -certain page: by assuming in her, when alluding explanatorily, latent -knowledge: by open ridicule in her presence of some absent other's -ignorant lapse. - -With what success had he attempted direct instruction? - -She followed not all, a part of the whole, gave attention with interest -comprehended with surprise, with care repeated, with greater difficulty -remembered, forgot with ease, with misgiving reremembered, rerepeated -with error. - -What system had proved more effective? - -Indirect suggestion implicating selfinterest. - -Example? - -She disliked umbrella with rain, he liked woman with umbrella, she -disliked new hat with rain, he liked woman with new hat, he bought new -hat with rain, she carried umbrella with new hat. - -Accepting the analogy implied in his guest's parable which examples of -postexilic eminence did he adduce? - -Three seekers of the pure truth, Moses of Egypt, Moses Maimonides, author -of MORE NEBUKIM (Guide of the Perplexed) and Moses Mendelssohn of such -eminence that from Moses (of Egypt) to Moses (Mendelssohn) there arose -none like Moses (Maimonides). - -What statement was made, under correction, by Bloom concerning a fourth -seeker of pure truth, by name Aristotle, mentioned, with permission, by -Stephen? - -That the seeker mentioned had been a pupil of a rabbinical philosopher, -name uncertain. - -Were other anapocryphal illustrious sons of the law and children of a -selected or rejected race mentioned? - -Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn (composer), Baruch Spinoza (philosopher), -Mendoza (pugilist), Ferdinand Lassalle (reformer, duellist). - -What fragments of verse from the ancient Hebrew and ancient Irish -languages were cited with modulations of voice and translation of texts -by guest to host and by host to guest? - -By Stephen: SUIL, SUIL, SUIL ARUN, SUIL GO SIOCAIR AGUS SUIL GO CUIN -(walk, walk, walk your way, walk in safety, walk with care). - -By Bloom: KIFELOCH, HARIMON RAKATEJCH M'BAAD L'ZAMATEJCH (thy temple amid -thy hair is as a slice of pomegranate). - -How was a glyphic comparison of the phonic symbols of both languages made -in substantiation of the oral comparison? - -By juxtaposition. On the penultimate blank page of a book of inferior -literary style, entituled SWEETS OF SIN (produced by Bloom and so -manipulated that its front cover carne in contact with the surface of the -table) with a pencil (supplied by Stephen) Stephen wrote the Irish -characters for gee, eh, dee, em, simple and modified, and Bloom in turn -wrote the Hebrew characters ghimel, aleph, daleth and (in the absence of -mem) a substituted qoph, explaining their arithmetical values as ordinal -and cardinal numbers, videlicet 3, 1, 4, and 100. - -Was the knowledge possessed by both of each of these languages, the -extinct and the revived, theoretical or practical? - -Theoretical, being confined to certain grammatical rules of accidence and -syntax and practically excluding vocabulary. - -What points of contact existed between these languages and between the -peoples who spoke them? - -The presence of guttural sounds, diacritic aspirations, epenthetic and -servile letters in both languages: their antiquity, both having been -taught on the plain of Shinar 242 years after the deluge in the seminary -instituted by Fenius Farsaigh, descendant of Noah, progenitor of Israel, -and ascendant of Heber and Heremon, progenitors of Ireland: their -archaeological, genealogical, hagiographical, exegetical, homiletic, -toponomastic, historical and religious literatures comprising the works -of rabbis and culdees, Torah, Talmud (Mischna and Ghemara), Massor, -Pentateuch, Book of the Dun Cow, Book of Ballymote, Garland of Howth, -Book of Kells: their dispersal, persecution, survival and revival: the -isolation of their synagogical and ecclesiastical rites in ghetto (S. -Mary's Abbey) and masshouse (Adam and Eve's tavern): the proscription of -their national costumes in penal laws and jewish dress acts: the -restoration in Chanah David of Zion and the possibility of Irish -political autonomy or devolution. - -What anthem did Bloom chant partially in anticipation of that multiple, -ethnically irreducible consummation? - - - KOLOD BALEJWAW PNIMAH - NEFESCH, JEHUDI, HOMIJAH. - - -Why was the chant arrested at the conclusion of this first distich? - -In consequence of defective mnemotechnic. - - -How did the chanter compensate for this deficiency? - -By a periphrastic version of the general text. - - -In what common study did their mutual reflections merge? - -The increasing simplification traceable from the Egyptian epigraphic -hieroglyphs to the Greek and Roman alphabets and the anticipation of -modern stenography and telegraphic code in the cuneiform inscriptions -(Semitic) and the virgular quinquecostate ogham writing (Celtic). Did the -guest comply with his host's request? - -Doubly, by appending his signature in Irish and Roman characters. - - -What was Stephen's auditive sensation? - -He heard in a profound ancient male unfamiliar melody the accumulation of -the past. - - -What was Bloom's visual sensation? - -He saw in a quick young male familiar form the predestination of a future. - - -What were Stephen's and Bloom's quasisimultaneous volitional -quasisensations of concealed identities? - -Visually, Stephen's: The traditional figure of hypostasis, depicted by -Johannes Damascenus, Lentulus Romanus and Epiphanius Monachus as -leucodermic, sesquipedalian with winedark hair. Auditively, Bloom's: The -traditional accent of the ecstasy of catastrophe. - -What future careers had been possible for Bloom in the past and with what -exemplars? - -In the church, Roman, Anglican or Nonconformist: exemplars, the very -reverend John Conmee S. J., the reverend T. Salmon, D. D., provost of -Trinity college, Dr Alexander J. Dowie. At the bar, English or Irish: -exemplars, Seymour Bushe, K. C., Rufus Isaacs, K. C. On the stage modern -or Shakespearean: exemplars, Charles Wyndham, high comedian Osmond Tearle -(died 1901), exponent of Shakespeare. - -Did the host encourage his guest to chant in a modulated voice a strange -legend on an allied theme? - -Reassuringly, their place, where none could hear them talk, being -secluded, reassured, the decocted beverages, allowing for subsolid -residual sediment of a mechanical mixture, water plus sugar plus cream -plus cocoa, having been consumed. - -Recite the first (major) part of this chanted legend. - - - LITTLE HARRY HUGHES AND HIS SCHOOLFELLOWS ALL - WENT OUT FOR TO PLAY BALL. - AND THE VERY FIRST BALL LITTLE HARRY HUGHES PLAYED - HE DROVE IT O'ER THE JEW'S GARDEN WALL. - AND THE VERY SECOND BALL LITTLE HARRY HUGHES PLAYED - HE BROKE THE JEW'S WINDOWS ALL. - - -How did the son of Rudolph receive this first part? - -With unmixed feeling. Smiling, a jew he heard with pleasure and saw the -unbroken kitchen window. - -Recite the second part (minor) of the legend. - - - THEN OUT THERE CAME THE JEW'S DAUGHTER - AND SHE ALL DRESSED IN GREEN. - "COME BACK, COME BACK, YOU PRETTY LITTLE BOY, - AND PLAY YOUR BALL AGAIN." - - "I CAN'T COME BACK AND I WON'T COME BACK - WITHOUT MY SCHOOLFELLOWS ALL. - FOR IF MY MASTER HE DID HEAR - HE'D MAKE IT A SORRY BALL." - - SHE TOOK HIM BY THE LILYWHITE HAND - AND LED HIM ALONG THE HALL - UNTIL SHE LED HIM TO A ROOM - WHERE NONE COULD HEAR HIM CALL. - - SHE TOOK A PENKNIFE OUT OF HER POCKET - AND CUT OFF HIS LITTLE HEAD. - AND NOW HE'LL PLAY HIS BALL NO MORE - FOR HE LIES AMONG THE DEAD. - - -How did the father of Millicent receive this second part? - -With mixed feelings. Unsmiling, he heard and saw with wonder a jew's -daughter, all dressed in green. - -Condense Stephen's commentary. - -One of all, the least of all, is the victim predestined. Once by -inadvertence twice by design he challenges his destiny. It comes when he -is abandoned and challenges him reluctant and, as an apparition of hope -and youth, holds him unresisting. It leads him to a strange habitation, -to a secret infidel apartment, and there, implacable, immolates him, -consenting. - -Why was the host (victim predestined) sad? - -He wished that a tale of a deed should be told of a deed not by him -should by him not be told. - -Why was the host (reluctant, unresisting) still? - -In accordance with the law of the conservation of energy. - -Why was the host (secret infidel) silent? - -He weighed the possible evidences for and against ritual murder: the -incitations of the hierarchy, the superstition of the populace, the -propagation of rumour in continued fraction of veridicity, the envy of -opulence, the influence of retaliation, the sporadic reappearance of -atavistic delinquency, the mitigating circumstances of fanaticism, -hypnotic suggestion and somnambulism. - -From which (if any) of these mental or physical disorders was he not -totally immune? - -From hypnotic suggestion: once, waking, he had not recognised his -sleeping apartment: more than once, waking, he had been for an indefinite -time incapable of moving or uttering sounds. From somnambulism: once, -sleeping, his body had risen, crouched and crawled in the direction of a -heatless fire and, having attained its destination, there, curled, -unheated, in night attire had lain, sleeping. - -Had this latter or any cognate phenomenon declared itself in any member -of his family? - -Twice, in Holles street and in Ontario terrace, his daughter Millicent -(Milly) at the ages of 6 and 8 years had uttered in sleep an exclamation -of terror and had replied to the interrogations of two figures in night -attire with a vacant mute expression. - -What other infantile memories had he of her? - -15 June 1889. A querulous newborn female infant crying to cause and -lessen congestion. A child renamed Padney Socks she shook with shocks her -moneybox: counted his three free moneypenny buttons, one, tloo, tlee: a -doll, a boy, a sailor she cast away: blond, born of two dark, she had -blond ancestry, remote, a violation, Herr Hauptmann Hainau, Austrian -army, proximate, a hallucination, lieutenant Mulvey, British navy. - -What endemic characteristics were present? - -Conversely the nasal and frontal formation was derived in a direct line -of lineage which, though interrupted, would continue at distant intervals -to more distant intervals to its most distant intervals. - -What memories had he of her adolescence? - -She relegated her hoop and skippingrope to a recess. On the duke's lawn, -entreated by an English visitor, she declined to permit him to make and -take away her photographic image (objection not stated). On the South -Circular road in the company of Elsa Potter, followed by an individual of -sinister aspect, she went half way down Stamer street and turned abruptly -back (reason of change not stated). On the vigil of the 15th anniversary -of her birth she wrote a letter from Mullingar, county Westmeath, making -a brief allusion to a local student (faculty and year not stated). - -Did that first division, portending a second division, afflict him? - -Less than he had imagined, more than he had hoped. - -What second departure was contemporaneously perceived by him similarly, -if differently? - -A temporary departure of his cat. - -Why similarly, why differently? - -Similarly, because actuated by a secret purpose the quest of a new male - -(Mullingar student) or of a healing herb (valerian). Differently, because -of different possible returns to the inhabitants or to the habitation. - -In other respects were their differences similar? - -In passivity, in economy, in the instinct of tradition, in -unexpectedness. - -As? - -Inasmuch as leaning she sustained her blond hair for him to ribbon it for -her (cf neckarching cat). Moreover, on the free surface of the lake in -Stephen's green amid inverted reflections of trees her uncommented spit, -describing concentric circles of waterrings, indicated by the constancy -of its permanence the locus of a somnolent prostrate fish (cf -mousewatching cat). - -Again, in order to remember the date, combatants, issue and consequences -of a famous military engagement she pulled a plait of her hair (cf -earwashing cat). Furthermore, silly Milly, she dreamed of having had an -unspoken unremembered conversation with a horse whose name had been -Joseph to whom (which) she had offered a tumblerful of lemonade which it -(he) had appeared to have accepted (cf hearthdreaming cat). Hence, in -passivity, in economy, in the instinct of tradition, in unexpectedness, -their differences were similar. - -In what way had he utilised gifts 1) an owl, 2) a clock, given as -matrimonial auguries, to interest and to instruct her? - -As object lessons to explain: 1) the nature and habits of oviparous -animals, the possibility of aerial flight, certain abnormalities of -vision, the secular process of imbalsamation: 2) the principle of the -pendulum, exemplified in bob, wheelgear and regulator, the translation in -terms of human or social regulation of the various positions of clockwise -moveable indicators on an unmoving dial, the exactitude of the recurrence -per hour of an instant in each hour when the longer and the shorter -indicator were at the same angle of inclination, VIDELICET, 5 5/11 -minutes past each hour per hour in arithmetical progression. - -In what manners did she reciprocate? - -She remembered: on the 27th anniversary of his birth she presented to him -a breakfast moustachecup of imitation Crown Derby porcelain ware. She -provided: at quarter day or thereabouts if or when purchases had been -made by him not for her she showed herself attentive to his necessities, -anticipating his desires. She admired: a natural phenomenon having been -explained by him to her she expressed the immediate desire to possess -without gradual acquisition a fraction of his science, the moiety, the -quarter, a thousandth part. - -What proposal did Bloom, diambulist, father of Milly, somnambulist, make -to Stephen, noctambulist? - -To pass in repose the hours intervening between Thursday (proper) and -Friday (normal) on an extemporised cubicle in the apartment immediately -above the kitchen and immediately adjacent to the sleeping apartment of -his host and hostess. - -What various advantages would or might have resulted from a prolongation -of such an extemporisation? - -For the guest: security of domicile and seclusion of study. For the host: -rejuvenation of intelligence, vicarious satisfaction. For the hostess: -disintegration of obsession, acquisition of correct Italian -pronunciation. - -Why might these several provisional contingencies between a guest and a -hostess not necessarily preclude or be precluded by a permanent -eventuality of reconciliatory union between a schoolfellow and a jew's -daughter? - -Because the way to daughter led through mother, the way to mother through -daughter. - -To what inconsequent polysyllabic question of his host did the guest -return a monosyllabic negative answer? - -If he had known the late Mrs Emily Sinico, accidentally killed at Sydney -Parade railway station, 14 October 1903. - -What inchoate corollary statement was consequently suppressed by the -host? - -A statement explanatory of his absence on the occasion of the interment -of Mrs Mary Dedalus (born Goulding), 26 June 1903, vigil of the -anniversary of the decease of Rudolph Bloom (born Virag). - -Was the proposal of asylum accepted? - -Promptly, inexplicably, with amicability, gratefully it was declined. -What exchange of money took place between host and guest? - -The former returned to the latter, without interest, a sum of money -(1-7-0), one pound seven shillings sterling, advanced by the latter to -the former. - -What counterproposals were alternately advanced, accepted, modified, -declined, restated in other terms, reaccepted, ratified, reconfirmed? - -To inaugurate a prearranged course of Italian instruction, place the -residence of the instructed. To inaugurate a course of vocal instruction, -place the residence of the instructress. To inaugurate a series of static -semistatic and peripatetic intellectual dialogues, places the residence -of both speakers (if both speakers were resident in the same place), the -Ship hotel and tavern, 6 Lower Abbey street (W. and E. Connery, -proprietors), the National Library of Ireland, 10 Kildare street, the -National Maternity Hospital, 29, 30 and 31 Holles street, a public -garden, the vicinity of a place of worship, a conjunction of two or more -public thoroughfares, the point of bisection of a right line drawn -between their residences (if both speakers were resident in different -places). - -What rendered problematic for Bloom the realisation of these mutually -selfexcluding propositions? - -The irreparability of the past: once at a performance of Albert Hengler's -circus in the Rotunda, Rutland square, Dublin, an intuitive particoloured -clown in quest of paternity had penetrated from the ring to a place in -the auditorium where Bloom, solitary, was seated and had publicly -declared to an exhilarated audience that he (Bloom) was his (the clown's) -papa. The imprevidibility of the future: once in the summer of 1898 he -(Bloom) had marked a florin (2/-) with three notches on the milled edge -and tendered it m payment of an account due to and received by J. and T. -Davy, family grocers, 1 Charlemont Mall, Grand Canal, for circulation on -the waters of civic finance, for possible, circuitous or direct, return. - -Was the clown Bloom's son? - -No. - -Had Bloom's coin returned? - -Never. - -Why would a recurrent frustration the more depress him? - -Because at the critical turningpoint of human existence he desired to -amend many social conditions, the product of inequality and avarice and -international animosity. - -He believed then that human life was infinitely perfectible, eliminating -these conditions? - -There remained the generic conditions imposed by natural, as distinct -from human law, as integral parts of the human whole: the necessity of -destruction to procure alimentary sustenance: the painful character of -the ultimate functions of separate existence, the agonies of birth and -death: the monotonous menstruation of simian and (particularly) human -females extending from the age of puberty to the menopause: inevitable -accidents at sea, in mines and factories: certain very painful maladies -and their resultant surgical operations, innate lunacy and congenital -criminality, decimating epidemics: catastrophic cataclysms which make -terror the basis of human mentality: seismic upheavals the epicentres of -which are located in densely populated regions: the fact of vital growth, -through convulsions of metamorphosis, from infancy through maturity to -decay. - -Why did he desist from speculation? - -Because it was a task for a superior intelligence to substitute other -more acceptable phenomena in the place of the less acceptable phenomena -to be removed. - -Did Stephen participate in his dejection? - -He affirmed his significance as a conscious rational animal proceeding -syllogistically from the known to the unknown and a conscious rational -reagent between a micro and a macrocosm ineluctably constructed upon the -incertitude of the void. - -Was this affirmation apprehended by Bloom? - -Not verbally. Substantially. - -What comforted his misapprehension? - -That as a competent keyless citizen he had proceeded energetically from -the unknown to the known through the incertitude of the void. - -In what order of precedence, with what attendant ceremony was the exodus -from the house of bondage to the wilderness of inhabitation effected? - - -Lighted Candle in Stick borne by -BLOOM -Diaconal Hat on Ashplant borne by -STEPHEN: - - -With what intonation secreto of what commemorative psalm? - -The 113th, MODUS PEREGRINUS: IN EXITU ISRAEL DE EGYPTO: DOMUS JACOB DE -POPULO BARBARO. - - -What did each do at the door of egress? - -Bloom set the candlestick on the floor. Stephen put the hat on his head. - - -For what creature was the door of egress a door of ingress? - -For a cat. - - -What spectacle confronted them when they, first the host, then the guest, -emerged silently, doubly dark, from obscurity by a passage from the rere -of the house into the penumbra of the garden? - -The heaventree of stars hung with humid nightblue fruit. - -With what meditations did Bloom accompany his demonstration to his -companion of various constellations? - -Meditations of evolution increasingly vaster: of the moon invisible in -incipient lunation, approaching perigee: of the infinite lattiginous -scintillating uncondensed milky way, discernible by daylight by an -observer placed at the lower end of a cylindrical vertical shaft 5000 ft -deep sunk from the surface towards the centre of the earth: of Sirius -(alpha in Canis Maior) 10 lightyears (57,000,000,000,000 miles) distant -and in volume 900 times the dimension of our planet: of Arcturus: of the -precession of equinoxes: of Orion with belt and sextuple sun theta and -nebula in which 100 of our solar systems could be contained: of moribund -and of nascent new stars such as Nova in 1901: of our system plunging -towards the constellation of Hercules: of the parallax or parallactic -drift of socalled fixed stars, in reality evermoving wanderers from -immeasurably remote eons to infinitely remote futures in comparison with -which the years, threescore and ten, of allotted human life formed a -parenthesis of infinitesimal brevity. - -Were there obverse meditations of involution increasingly less vast? - -Of the eons of geological periods recorded in the stratifications of the -earth: of the myriad minute entomological organic existences concealed in -cavities of the earth, beneath removable stones, in hives and mounds, of -microbes, germs, bacteria, bacilli, spermatozoa: of the incalculable -trillions of billions of millions of imperceptible molecules contained by -cohesion of molecular affinity in a single pinhead: of the universe of -human serum constellated with red and white bodies, themselves universes -of void space constellated with other bodies, each, in continuity, its -universe of divisible component bodies of which each was again divisible -in divisions of redivisible component bodies, dividends and divisors ever -diminishing without actual division till, if the progress were carried -far enough, nought nowhere was never reached. - -Why did he not elaborate these calculations to a more precise result? - -Because some years previously in 1886 when occupied with the problem of -the quadrature of the circle he had learned of .the existence of a number -computed to a relative degree of accuracy to be of such magnitude and of -so many places, e.g., the 9th power of the 9th power of 9, that, the -result having been obtained, 33 closely printed volumes of 1000 pages -each of innumerable quires and reams of India paper would have to be -requisitioned in order to contain the complete tale of its printed -integers of units, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds -of thousands, millions, tens of millions, hundreds of millions, billions, -the nucleus of the nebula of every digit of every series containing -succinctly the potentiality of being raised to the utmost kinetic -elaboration of any power of any of its powers. - -Did he find the problems of the inhabitability of the planets and their -satellites by a race, given in species, and of the possible social and -moral redemption of said race by a redeemer, easier of solution? - -Of a different order of difficulty. Conscious that the human organism, -normally capable of sustaining an atmospheric pressure of 19 tons, when -elevated to a considerable altitude in the terrestrial atmosphere -suffered with arithmetical progression of intensity, according as the -line of demarcation between troposphere and stratosphere was approximated -from nasal hemorrhage, impeded respiration and vertigo, when proposing -this problem for solution, he had conjectured as a working hypothesis -which could not be proved impossible that a more adaptable and -differently anatomically constructed race of beings might subsist -otherwise under Martian, Mercurial, Veneral, Jovian, Saturnian, Neptunian -or Uranian sufficient and equivalent conditions, though an apogean -humanity of beings created in varying forms with finite differences -resulting similar to the whole and to one another would probably there as -here remain inalterably and inalienably attached to vanities, to vanities -of vanities and to all that is vanity. - -And the problem of possible redemption? - -The minor was proved by the major. - -Which various features of the constellations were in turn considered? - -The various colours significant of various degrees of vitality (white, -yellow, crimson, vermilion, cinnabar): their degrees of brilliancy: their -magnitudes revealed up to and including the 7th: their positions: the -waggoner's star: Walsingham way: the chariot of David: the annular -cinctures of Saturn: the condensation of spiral nebulae into suns: the -interdependent gyrations of double suns: the independent synchronous -discoveries of Galileo, Simon Marius, Piazzi, Le Verrier, Herschel, -Galle: the systematisations attempted by Bode and Kepler of cubes of -distances and squares of times of revolution: the almost infinite -compressibility of hirsute comets and their vast elliptical egressive and -reentrant orbits from perihelion to aphelion: the sidereal origin of -meteoric stones: the Libyan floods on Mars about the period of the birth -of the younger astroscopist: the annual recurrence of meteoric showers -about the period of the feast of S. Lawrence (martyr, lo August): the -monthly recurrence known as the new moon with the old moon in her arms: -the posited influence of celestial on human bodies: the appearance of a -star (1st magnitude) of exceeding brilliancy dominating by night and day -(a new luminous sun generated by the collision and amalgamation in -incandescence of two nonluminous exsuns) about the period of the birth of -William Shakespeare over delta in the recumbent neversetting -constellation of Cassiopeia and of a star (2nd magnitude) of similar -origin but of lesser brilliancy which had appeared in and disappeared -from the constellation of the Corona Septentrionalis about the period of -the birth of Leopold Bloom and of other stars of (presumably) similar -origin which had (effectively or presumably) appeared in and disappeared -from the constellation of Andromeda about the period of the birth of -Stephen Dedalus, and in and from the constellation of Auriga some years -after the birth and death of Rudolph Bloom, junior, and in and from other -constellations some years before or after the birth or death of other -persons: the attendant phenomena of eclipses, solar and lunar, from -immersion to emersion, abatement of wind, transit of shadow, taciturnity -of winged creatures, emergence of nocturnal or crepuscular animals, -persistence of infernal light, obscurity of terrestrial waters, pallor of -human beings. - -His (Bloom's) logical conclusion, having weighed the matter and allowing -for possible error? - -That it was not a heaventree, not a heavengrot, not a heavenbeast, not a -heavenman. That it was a Utopia, there being no known method from the -known to the unknown: an infinity renderable equally finite by the -suppositious apposition of one or more bodies equally of the same and of -different magnitudes: a mobility of illusory forms immobilised in space, -remobilised in air: a past which possibly had ceased to exist as a -present before its probable spectators had entered actual present -existence. - -Was he more convinced of the esthetic value of the spectacle? - -Indubitably in consequence of the reiterated examples of poets in the -delirium of the frenzy of attachment or in the abasement of rejection -invoking ardent sympathetic constellations or the frigidity of the -satellite of their planet. - -Did he then accept as an article of belief the theory of astrological -influences upon sublunary disasters? - -It seemed to him as possible of proof as of confutation and the -nomenclature employed in its selenographical charts as attributable to -verifiable intuition as to fallacious analogy: the lake of dreams, the -sea of rains, the gulf of dews, the ocean of fecundity. - -What special affinities appeared to him to exist between the moon and -woman? - -Her antiquity in preceding and surviving successive tellurian -generations: her nocturnal predominance: her satellitic dependence: her -luminary reflection: her constancy under all her phases, rising and -setting by her appointed times, waxing and waning: the forced -invariability of her aspect: her indeterminate response to inaffirmative -interrogation: her potency over effluent and refluent waters: her power -to enamour, to mortify, to invest with beauty, to render insane, to -incite to and aid delinquency: the tranquil inscrutability of her visage: -the terribility of her isolated dominant implacable resplendent -propinquity: her omens of tempest and of calm: the stimulation of her -light, her motion and her presence: the admonition of her craters, her -arid seas, her silence: her splendour, when visible: her attraction, when -invisible. - -What visible luminous sign attracted Bloom's, who attracted Stephen's, -gaze? - -In the second storey (rere) of his (Bloom's) house the light of a -paraffin oil lamp with oblique shade projected on a screen of roller -blind supplied by Frank O'Hara, window blind, curtain pole and revolving -shutter manufacturer, 16 Aungier street. - -How did he elucidate the mystery of an invisible attractive person, his -wife Marion (Molly) Bloom, denoted by a visible splendid sign, a lamp? - -With indirect and direct verbal allusions or affirmations: with subdued -affection and admiration: with description: with impediment: with -suggestion. - -Both then were silent? - -Silent, each contemplating the other in both mirrors of the reciprocal -flesh of theirhisnothis fellowfaces. - -Were they indefinitely inactive? - -At Stephen's suggestion, at Bloom's instigation both, first Stephen, then -Bloom, in penumbra urinated, their sides contiguous, their organs of -micturition reciprocally rendered invisible by manual circumposition, -their gazes, first Bloom's, then Stephen's, elevated to the projected -luminous and semiluminous shadow. - -Similarly? - -The trajectories of their, first sequent, then simultaneous, urinations -were dissimilar: Bloom's longer, less irruent, in the incomplete form of -the bifurcated penultimate alphabetical letter, who in his ultimate year -at High School (1880) had been capable of attaining the point of greatest -altitude against the whole concurrent strength of the institution, 210 -scholars: Stephen's higher, more sibilant, who in the ultimate hours of -the previous day had augmented by diuretic consumption an insistent -vesical pressure. - -What different problems presented themselves to each concerning the -invisible audible collateral organ of the other? - -To Bloom: the problems of irritability, tumescence, rigidity, reactivity, -dimension, sanitariness, pilosity. - -To Stephen: the problem of the sacerdotal integrity of Jesus circumcised -(I January, holiday of obligation to hear mass and abstain from -unnecessary servile work) and the problem as to whether the divine -prepuce, the carnal bridal ring of the holy Roman catholic apostolic -church, conserved in Calcata, were deserving of simple hyperduly or of -the fourth degree of latria accorded to the abscission of such divine -excrescences as hair and toenails. - -What celestial sign was by both simultaneously observed? - -A star precipitated with great apparent velocity across the firmament -from Vega in the Lyre above the zenith beyond the stargroup of the Tress -of Berenice towards the zodiacal sign of Leo. - -How did the centripetal remainer afford egress to the centrifugal -departer? - -By inserting the barrel of an arruginated male key in the hole of an -unstable female lock, obtaining a purchase on the bow of the key and -turning its wards from right to left, withdrawing a bolt from its staple, -pulling inward spasmodically an obsolescent unhinged door and revealing -an aperture for free egress and free ingress. - -How did they take leave, one of the other, in separation? - -Standing perpendicular at the same door and on different sides of its -base, the lines of their valedictory arms, meeting at any point and -forming any angle less than the sum of two right angles. - -What sound accompanied the union of their tangent, the disunion of their -(respectively) centrifugal and centripetal hands? - -The sound of the peal of the hour of the night by the chime of the bells -in the church of Saint George. - -What echoes of that sound were by both and each heard? - -By Stephen: - - - LILIATA RUTILANTIUM. TURMA CIRCUMDET. - IUBILANTIUM TE VIRGINUM. CHORUS EXCIPIAT. - - -By Bloom: - - - HEIGHO, HEIGHO, - HEIGHO, HEIGHO. - - -Where were the several members of the company which with Bloom that day -at the bidding of that peal had travelled from Sandymount in the south to -Glasnevin in the north? - -Martin Cunningham (in bed), Jack Power (in bed), Simon Dedalus (in bed), -Ned Lambert (in bed), Tom Kernan (in bed), Joe Hynes (in bed), John Henry -Menton (in bed), Bernard Corrigan (in bed), Patsy Dignam (in bed), Paddy -Dignam (in the grave). - -Alone, what did Bloom hear? - -The double reverberation of retreating feet on the heavenborn earth, the -double vibration of a jew's harp in the resonant lane. - -Alone, what did Bloom feel? - -The cold of interstellar space, thousands of degrees below freezing point -or the absolute zero of Fahrenheit, Centigrade or Reaumur: the incipient -intimations of proximate dawn. - -Of what did bellchime and handtouch and footstep and lonechill remind -him? - -Of companions now in various manners in different places defunct: Percy -Apjohn (killed in action, Modder River), Philip Gilligan (phthisis, -Jervis Street hospital), Matthew F. Kane (accidental drowning, Dublin -Bay), Philip Moisel (pyemia, Heytesbury street), Michael Hart (phthisis, -Mater Misericordiae hospital), Patrick Dignam (apoplexy, Sandymount). - -What prospect of what phenomena inclined him to remain? - -The disparition of three final stars, the diffusion of daybreak, the -apparition of a new solar disk. - -Had he ever been a spectator of those phenomena? - -Once, in 1887, after a protracted performance of charades in the house of -Luke Doyle, Kimmage, he had awaited with patience the apparition of the -diurnal phenomenon, seated on a wall, his gaze turned in the direction of -Mizrach, the east. - -He remembered the initial paraphenomena? - -More active air, a matutinal distant cock, ecclesiastical clocks at -various points, avine music, the isolated tread of an early wayfarer, the -visible diffusion of the light of an invisible luminous body, the first -golden limb of the resurgent sun perceptible low on the horizon. - -Did he remain? - -With deep inspiration he returned, retraversing the garden, reentering -the passage, reclosing the door. With brief suspiration he reassumed the -candle, reascended the stairs, reapproached the door of the front room, -hallfloor, and reentered. - -What suddenly arrested his ingress? - -The right temporal lobe of the hollow sphere of his cranium came into -contact with a solid timber angle where, an infinitesimal but sensible -fraction of a second later, a painful sensation was located in -consequence of antecedent sensations transmitted and registered. - -Describe the alterations effected in the disposition of the articles of -furniture. - -A sofa upholstered in prune plush had been translocated from opposite the -door to the ingleside near the compactly furled Union Jack (an alteration -which he had frequently intended to execute): the blue and white checker -inlaid majolicatopped table had been placed opposite the door in the -place vacated by the prune plush sofa: the walnut sideboard (a projecting -angle of which had momentarily arrested his ingress) had been moved from -its position beside the door to a more advantageous but more perilous -position in front of the door: two chairs had been moved from right and -left of the ingleside to the position originally occupied by the blue and -white checker inlaid majolicatopped table. - -Describe them. - -One: a squat stuffed easychair, with stout arms extended and back slanted -to the rere, which, repelled in recoil, had then upturned an irregular -fringe of a rectangular rug and now displayed on its amply upholstered -seat a centralised diffusing and diminishing discolouration. The other: a -slender splayfoot chair of glossy cane curves, placed directly opposite -the former, its frame from top to seat and from seat to base being -varnished dark brown, its seat being a bright circle of white plaited -rush. - -What significances attached to these two chairs? - -Significances of similitude, of posture, of symbolism, of circumstantial -evidence, of testimonial supermanence. - -What occupied the position originally occupied by the sideboard? - -A vertical piano (Cadby) with exposed keyboard, its closed coffin -supporting a pair of long yellow ladies' gloves and an emerald ashtray -containing four consumed matches, a partly consumed cigarette and two -discoloured ends of cigarettes, its musicrest supporting the music in the -key of G natural for voice and piano of LOVE'S OLD SWEET SONG (words by -G. Clifton Bingham, composed by J. L. Molloy, sung by Madam Antoinette -Sterling) open at the last page with the final indications AD LIBITUM, -FORTE, pedal, ANIMATO, sustained pedal, RITIRANDO, close. - -With what sensations did Bloom contemplate in rotation these objects? - -With strain, elevating a candlestick: with pain, feeling on his right -temple a contused tumescence: with attention, focussing his gaze on a -large dull passive and a slender bright active: with solicitation, -bending and downturning the upturned rugfringe: with amusement, -remembering Dr Malachi Mulligan's scheme of colour containing the -gradation of green: with pleasure, repeating the words and antecedent act -and perceiving through various channels of internal sensibility the -consequent and concomitant tepid pleasant diffusion of gradual -discolouration. - -His next proceeding? - -From an open box on the majolicatopped table he extracted a black -diminutive cone, one inch in height, placed it on its circular base on a -small tin plate, placed his candlestick on the right corner of the -mantelpiece, produced from his waistcoat a folded page of prospectus -(illustrated) entitled Agendath Netaim, unfolded the same, examined it -superficially, rolled it into a thin cylinder, ignited it in the -candleflame, applied it when ignited to the apex of the cone till the -latter reached the stage of rutilance, placed the cylinder in the basin -of the candlestick disposing its unconsumed part in such a manner as to -facilitate total combustion. - -What followed this operation? - -The truncated conical crater summit of the diminutive volcano emitted a -vertical and serpentine fume redolent of aromatic oriental incense. - -What homothetic objects, other than the candlestick, stood on the -mantelpiece? - -A timepiece of striated Connemara marble, stopped at the hour of 4.46 -a.m. on the 21 March 1896, matrimonial gift of Matthew Dillon: a dwarf -tree of glacial arborescence under a transparent bellshade, matrimonial -gift of Luke and Caroline Doyle: an embalmed owl, matrimonial gift of -Alderman John Hooper. - -What interchanges of looks took place between these three objects and -Bloom? - -In the mirror of the giltbordered pierglass the undecorated back of the -dwarf tree regarded the upright back of the embalmed owl. Before the -mirror the matrimonial gift of Alderman John Hooper with a clear -melancholy wise bright motionless compassionate gaze regarded Bloom while -Bloom with obscure tranquil profound motionless compassionated gaze -regarded the matrimonial gift of Luke and Caroline Doyle. - -What composite asymmetrical image in the mirror then attracted his -attention? - -The image of a solitary (ipsorelative) mutable (aliorelative) man. - -Why solitary (ipsorelative)? - - - BROTHERS AND SISTERS HAD HE NONE. - YET THAT MAN'S FATHER WAS HIS GRANDFATHER'S SON. - - -Why mutable (aliorelative)? - -From infancy to maturity he had resembled his maternal procreatrix. From -maturity to senility he would increasingly resemble his paternal -procreator. - -What final visual impression was communicated to him by the mirror? - -The optical reflection of several inverted volumes improperly arranged -and not in the order of their common letters with scintillating titles on -the two bookshelves opposite. - - -Catalogue these books. - -THOM'S DUBLIN POST OFFICE DIRECTORY, 1886. -Denis Florence M'Carthy's POETICAL WORKS (copper beechleaf bookmark - at p. 5). -Shakespeare's WORKS (dark crimson morocco, goldtooled). -THE USEFUL READY RECKONER (brown cloth). -THE SECRET HISTORY OF THE COURT OF CHARLES II (red cloth, tooled - binding). -THE CHILD'S GUIDE (blue cloth). -The Beauties of Killarney (wrappers). -WHEN WE WERE BOYS by William O'Brien M. P. (green cloth, slightly faded, - envelope bookmark at p. 217). -THOUGHTS FROM SPINOZA (maroon leather). -THE STORY OF THE HEAVENS by Sir Robert Ball (blue cloth). -Ellis's THREE TRIPS TO MADAGASCAR (brown cloth, title obliterated). -THE STARK-MUNRO LETTERS by A. Conan Doyle, property of the City of - Dublin Public Library, 106 Capel street, lent 21 May (Whitsun Eve) - 1904, due 4 June 1904, 13 days overdue (black cloth binding, bearing - white letternumber ticket). -VOYAGES IN CHINA by "Viator" (recovered with brown paper, red ink title). -PHILOSOPHY OF THE TALMUD (sewn pamphlet). -Lockhart's LIFE OF NAPOLEON (cover wanting, marginal annotations, - minimising victories, aggrandising defeats of the protagonist). -SOLL UND HABEN by Gustav Freytag (black boards, Gothic characters, - cigarette coupon bookmark at p. 24). -Hozier's HISTORY OF THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR (brown cloth, a volumes, with - gummed label, Garrison Library, Governor's Parade, Gibraltar, on verso - of cover). -LAURENCE BLOOMFIELD IN IRELAND by William Allingham (second edition, - green cloth, gilt trefoil design, previous owner's name on recto of - flyleaf erased). -A HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY (cover, brown leather, detached, S plates, - antique letterpress long primer, author's footnotes nonpareil, marginal - clues brevier, captions small pica). -THE HIDDEN LIFE OF CHRIST (black boards). -IN THE TRACK OF THE SUN (yellow cloth, titlepage missing, recurrent title - intestation). -PHYSICAL STRENGTH AND HOW TO OBTAIN IT by Eugen Sandow (red cloth). -SHORT BUT YET PLAIN ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY written in French by F. Ignat. - Pardies and rendered into English by John Harris D. D. London, - printed for R. Knaplock at the Bifhop's Head, MDCCXI, with dedicatory - epiftle to his worthy friend Charles Cox, efquire, Member of - Parliament for the burgh of Southwark and having ink calligraphed - statement on the flyleaf certifying that the book was the property of - Michael Gallagher, dated this 10th day of May 1822 and requefting the - perfon who should find it, if the book should be loft or go aftray, - to reftore it to Michael Gallagher, carpenter, Dufery Gate, - Ennifcorthy, county Wicklow, the fineft place in the world. - - -What reflections occupied his mind during the process of reversion of the -inverted volumes? - -The necessity of order, a place for everything and everything in its -place: the deficient appreciation of literature possessed by females: the -incongruity of an apple incuneated in a tumbler and of an umbrella -inclined in a closestool: the insecurity of hiding any secret document -behind, beneath or between the pages of a book. - -Which volume was the largest in bulk? - -Hozier's HISTORY OF THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. - -What among other data did the second volume of the work in question -contain? - -The name of a decisive battle (forgotten), frequently remembered by a -decisive officer, major Brian Cooper Tweedy (remembered). - -Why, firstly and secondly, did he not consult the work in question? - -Firstly, in order to exercise mnemotechnic: secondly, because after an -interval of amnesia, when, seated at the central table, about to consult -the work in question, he remembered by mnemotechnic the name of the -military engagement, Plevna. - -What caused him consolation in his sitting posture? - -The candour, nudity, pose, tranquility, youth, grace, sex, counsel of a -statue erect in the centre of the table, an image of Narcissus purchased -by auction from P. A. Wren, 9 Bachelor's Walk. - -What caused him irritation in his sitting posture? Inhibitory pressure of -collar (size 17) and waistcoat (5 buttons), two articles of clothing -superfluous in the costume of mature males and inelastic to alterations -of mass by expansion. - -How was the irritation allayed? - -He removed his collar, with contained black necktie and collapsible stud, -from his neck to a position on the left of the table. He unbuttoned -successively in reversed direction waistcoat, trousers, shirt and vest -along the medial line of irregular incrispated black hairs extending in -triangular convergence from the pelvic basin over the circumference of -the abdomen and umbilicular fossicle along the medial line of nodes to -the intersection of the sixth pectoral vertebrae, thence produced both -ways at right angles and terminating in circles described about two -equidistant points, right and left, on the summits of the mammary -prominences. He unbraced successively each of six minus one braced -trouser buttons, arranged in pairs, of which one incomplete. - -What involuntary actions followed? - -He compressed between 2 fingers the flesh circumjacent to a cicatrice in -the left infracostal region below the diaphragm resulting from a sting -inflicted 2 weeks and 3 days previously (23 May 1904) by a bee. He -scratched imprecisely with his right hand, though insensible of -prurition, various points and surfaces of his partly exposed, wholly -abluted skin. He inserted his left hand into the left lower pocket of his -waistcoat and extracted and replaced a silver coin (I shilling), placed -there (presumably) on the occasion (17 October 1903) of the interment of -Mrs Emily Sinico, Sydney Parade. - -Compile the budget for 16 June 1904. - -DEBIT CREDIT - L--s--d L--s--d -1 Pork kidney 0--0--3 Cash in Hand 0--4--9 -1 Copy FREEMAN'S JOURNAL 0--0--1 Commission recd FREEMAN'S JOURNAL 1--7--6 -1 Bath And Gratification 0--1--6 Loan (Stephen Dedalus) 1--7--0 -Tramfare 0--0--1 -1 In Memoriam -Patrick Dignam 0--5--0 -2 Banbury cakes 0--0--1 -1 Lunch 0--0--7 -1 Renewal fee for book 0--1--0 -1 Packet Notepaper -and Envelopes 0--0--2 -1 Dinner -and Gratification 0--2--0 -I Postal Order -and Stamp 0--2--8 -Tramfare 0--0--1 -1 Pig's Foot 0--0--4 -1 Sheep's Trotter 0--0--3 -1 Cake Fry's -Plain Chocolate 0--0--1 -1 Square Soda Bread 0--0--4 -1 Coffee and Bun 0--0--4 -Loan (Stephen Dedalus) -refunded 1--7--0 - -BALANCE 0--17--5 - 2--19--3 2--19--3 - - -Did the process of divestiture continue? - -Sensible of a benignant persistent ache in his footsoles he extended his -foot to one side and observed the creases, protuberances and salient -points caused by foot pressure in the course of walking repeatedly in -several different directions, then, inclined, he disnoded the laceknots, -unhooked and loosened the laces, took off each of his two boots for the -second time, detached the partially moistened right sock through the fore -part of which the nail of his great toe had again effracted, raised his -right foot and, having unhooked a purple elastic sock suspender, took off -his right sock, placed his unclothed right foot on the margin of the seat -of his chair, picked at and gently lacerated the protruding part of the -great toenail, raised the part lacerated to his nostrils and inhaled the -odour of the quick, then, with satisfaction, threw away the lacerated -ungual fragment. - -Why with satisfaction? - -Because the odour inhaled corresponded to other odours inhaled of other -ungual fragments, picked and lacerated by Master Bloom, pupil of Mrs -Ellis's juvenile school, patiently each night in the act of brief -genuflection and nocturnal prayer and ambitious meditation. - -In what ultimate ambition had all concurrent and consecutive ambitions -now coalesced? - -Not to inherit by right of primogeniture, gavelkind or borough English, -or possess in perpetuity an extensive demesne of a sufficient number of -acres, roods and perches, statute land measure (valuation 42 pounds), of -grazing turbary surrounding a baronial hall with gatelodge and carriage -drive nor, on the other hand, a terracehouse or semidetached villa, -described as RUS IN URBE or QUI SI SANA, but to purchase by private -treaty in fee simple a thatched bungalowshaped 2 storey dwellinghouse of -southerly aspect, surmounted by vane and lightning conductor, connected -with the earth, with porch covered by parasitic plants (ivy or Virginia -creeper), halldoor, olive green, with smart carriage finish and neat -doorbrasses, stucco front with gilt tracery at eaves and gable, rising, -if possible, upon a gentle eminence with agreeable prospect from balcony -with stone pillar parapet over unoccupied and unoccupyable interjacent -pastures and standing in 5 or 6 acres of its own ground, at such a -distance from the nearest public thoroughfare as to render its -houselights visible at night above and through a quickset hornbeam hedge -of topiary cutting, situate at a given point not less than 1 statute mile -from the periphery of the metropolis, within a time limit of not more -than 15 minutes from tram or train line (e.g., Dundrum, south, or Sutton, -north, both localities equally reported by trial to resemble the -terrestrial poles in being favourable climates for phthisical subjects), -the premises to be held under feefarm grant, lease 999 years, the -messuage to consist of 1 drawingroom with baywindow (2 lancets), -thermometer affixed, 1 sittingroom, 4 bedrooms, 2 servants' rooms, tiled -kitchen with close range and scullery, lounge hall fitted with linen -wallpresses, fumed oak sectional bookcase containing the Encyclopaedia -Britannica and New Century Dictionary, transverse obsolete medieval and -oriental weapons, dinner gong, alabaster lamp, bowl pendant, vulcanite -automatic telephone receiver with adjacent directory, handtufted -Axminster carpet with cream ground and trellis border, loo table with -pillar and claw legs, hearth with massive firebrasses and ormolu mantel -chronometer clock, guaranteed timekeeper with cathedral chime, barometer -with hygrographic chart, comfortable lounge settees and corner fitments, -upholstered in ruby plush with good springing and sunk centre, three -banner Japanese screen and cuspidors (club style, rich winecoloured -leather, gloss renewable with a minimum of labour by use of linseed oil -and vinegar) and pyramidically prismatic central chandelier lustre, -bentwood perch with fingertame parrot (expurgated language), embossed -mural paper at 10/- per dozen with transverse swags of carmine floral -design and top crown frieze, staircase, three continuous flights at -successive right angles, of varnished cleargrained oak, treads and -risers, newel, balusters and handrail, with steppedup panel dado, dressed -with camphorated wax: bathroom, hot and cold supply, reclining and -shower: water closet on mezzanine provided with opaque singlepane oblong -window, tipup seat, bracket lamp, brass tierod and brace, armrests, -footstool and artistic oleograph on inner face of door: ditto, plain: -servants' apartments with separate sanitary and hygienic necessaries for -cook, general and betweenmaid (salary, rising by biennial unearned -increments of 2 pounds, with comprehensive fidelity insurance, annual -bonus (1 pound) and retiring allowance (based on the 65 system) after 30 -years' service), pantry, buttery, larder, refrigerator, outoffices, coal -and wood cellarage with winebin (still and sparkling vintages) for -distinguished guests, if entertained to dinner (evening dress), carbon -monoxide gas supply throughout. - -What additional attractions might the grounds contain? - -As addenda, a tennis and fives court, a shrubbery, a glass summerhouse -with tropical palms, equipped in the best botanical manner, a rockery -with waterspray, a beehive arranged on humane principles, oval flowerbeds -in rectangular grassplots set with eccentric ellipses of scarlet and -chrome tulips, blue scillas, crocuses, polyanthus, sweet William, sweet -pea, lily of the valley (bulbs obtainable from sir James W. Mackey -(Limited) wholesale and retail seed and bulb merchants and nurserymen, -agents for chemical manures, 23 Sackville street, upper), an orchard, -kitchen garden and vinery protected against illegal trespassers by -glasstopped mural enclosures, a lumbershed with padlock for various -inventoried implements. - -As? - -Eeltraps, lobsterpots, fishingrods, hatchet, steelyard, grindstone, -clodcrusher, swatheturner, carriagesack, telescope ladder, 10 tooth rake, -washing clogs, haytedder, tumbling rake, billhook, paintpot, brush, hoe -and so on. - -What improvements might be subsequently introduced? - -A rabbitry and fowlrun, a dovecote, a botanical conservatory, 2 hammocks -(lady's and gentleman's), a sundial shaded and sheltered by laburnum or -lilac trees, an exotically harmonically accorded Japanese tinkle gatebell -affixed to left lateral gatepost, a capacious waterbutt, a lawnmower with -side delivery and grassbox, a lawnsprinkler with hydraulic hose. - -What facilities of transit were desirable? - -When citybound frequent connection by train or tram from their respective -intermediate station or terminal. When countrybound velocipedes, a -chainless freewheel roadster cycle with side basketcar attached, or -draught conveyance, a donkey with wicker trap or smart phaeton with good -working solidungular cob (roan gelding, 14 h). - -What might be the name of this erigible or erected residence? - -Bloom Cottage. Saint Leopold's. Flowerville. - -Could Bloom of 7 Eccles street foresee Bloom of Flowerville? - -In loose allwool garments with Harris tweed cap, price 8/6, and useful -garden boots with elastic gussets and wateringcan, planting aligned young -firtrees, syringing, pruning, staking, sowing hayseed, trundling a -weedladen wheelbarrow without excessive fatigue at sunset amid the scent -of newmown hay, ameliorating the soil, multiplying wisdom, achieving -longevity. - -What syllabus of intellectual pursuits was simultaneously possible? - -Snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, folklore relative -to various amatory and superstitious practices, contemplation of the -celestial constellations. - -What lighter recreations? - -Outdoor: garden and fieldwork, cycling on level macadamised causeways -ascents of moderately high hills, natation in secluded fresh water and -unmolested river boating in secure wherry or light curricle with kedge -anchor on reaches free from weirs and rapids (period of estivation), -vespertinal perambulation or equestrian circumprocession with inspection -of sterile landscape and contrastingly agreeable cottagers' fires of -smoking peat turves (period of hibernation). Indoor: discussion in tepid -security of unsolved historical and criminal problems: lecture of -unexpurgated exotic erotic masterpieces: house carpentry with toolbox -containing hammer, awl nails, screws, tintacks, gimlet, tweezers, -bullnose plane and turnscrew. Might he become a gentleman farmer of field -produce and live stock? - -Not impossibly, with 1 or 2 stripper cows, 1 pike of upland hay and -requisite farming implements, e.g., an end-to-end churn, a turnip pulper -etc. - -What would be his civic functions and social status among the county -families and landed gentry? - -Arranged successively in ascending powers of hierarchical order, that of -gardener, groundsman, cultivator, breeder, and at the zenith of his -career, resident magistrate or justice of the peace with a family crest -and coat of arms and appropriate classical motto (SEMPER PARATUS), duly -recorded in the court directory (Bloom, Leopold P., M. P., P. C., K. P., -L. L. D. (HONORIS CAUSA), Bloomville, Dundrum) and mentioned in court and -fashionable intelligence (Mr and Mrs Leopold Bloom have left Kingstown -for England). - -What course of action did he outline for himself in such capacity? - -A course that lay between undue clemency and excessive rigour: the -dispensation in a heterogeneous society of arbitrary classes, incessantly -rearranged in terms of greater and lesser social inequality, of unbiassed -homogeneous indisputable justice, tempered with mitigants of the widest -possible latitude but exactable to the uttermost farthing with -confiscation of estate, real and personal, to the crown. Loyal to the -highest constituted power in the land, actuated by an innate love of -rectitude his aims would be the strict maintenance of public order, the -repression of many abuses though not of all simultaneously (every measure -of reform or retrenchment being a preliminary solution to be contained by -fluxion in the final solution), the upholding of the letter of the law -(common, statute and law merchant) against all traversers in covin and -trespassers acting in contravention of bylaws and regulations, all -resuscitators (by trespass and petty larceny of kindlings) of venville -rights, obsolete by desuetude, all orotund instigators of international -persecution, all perpetuators of international animosities, all menial -molestors of domestic conviviality, all recalcitrant violators of -domestic connubiality. - -Prove that he had loved rectitude from his earliest youth. - -To Master Percy Apjohn at High School in 1880 he had divulged his -disbelief in the tenets of the Irish (protestant) church (to which his -father Rudolf Virag (later Rudolph Bloom) had been converted from the -Israelitic faith and communion in 1865 by the Society for promoting -Christianity among the jews) subsequently abjured by him in favour of -Roman catholicism at the epoch of and with a view to his matrimony in -1888. To Daniel Magrane and Francis Wade in 1882 during a juvenile -friendship (terminated by the premature emigration of the former) he had -advocated during nocturnal perambulations the political theory of -colonial (e.g. Canadian) expansion and the evolutionary theories of -Charles Darwin, expounded in THE DESCENT OF MAN and THE ORIGIN OF -SPECIES. In 1885 he had publicly expressed his adherence to the -collective and national economic programme advocated by James Fintan -Lalor, John Fisher Murray, John Mitchel, J. F. X. O'Brien and others, the -agrarian policy of Michael Davitt, the constitutional agitation of -Charles Stewart Parnell (M. P. for Cork City), the programme of peace, -retrenchment and reform of William Ewart Gladstone (M. P. for Midlothian, -N. B.) and, in support of his political convictions, had climbed up into -a secure position amid the ramifications of a tree on Northumberland road -to see the entrance (2 February 1888) into the capital of a demonstrative -torchlight procession of 20,000 torchbearers, divided into 120 trade -corporations, bearing 2000 torches in escort of the marquess of Ripon and -(honest) John Morley. - -How much and how did he propose to pay for this country residence? - -As per prospectus of the Industrious Foreign Acclimatised Nationalised -Friendly Stateaided Building Society (incorporated 1874), a maximum of 60 -pounds per annum, being 1/6 of an assured income, derived from giltedged -securities, representing at 5 percent simple interest on capital of 1200 -pounds (estimate of price at 20 years' purchase), of which to be paid -on acquisition and the balance in the form of annual rent, viz. 800 -pounds plus 2 1/2 percent interest on the same, repayable quarterly in -equal annual instalments until extinction by amortisation of loan -advanced for purchase within a period of 20 years, amounting to an annual -rental of 64 pounds, headrent included, the titledeeds to remain in -possession of the lender or lenders with a saving clause envisaging -forced sale, foreclosure and mutual compensation in the event of -protracted failure to pay the terms assigned, otherwise the messuage to -become the absolute property of the tenant occupier upon expiry of the -period of years stipulated. - -What rapid but insecure means to opulence might facilitate immediate -purchase? - -A private wireless telegraph which would transmit by dot and dash system -the result of a national equine handicap (flat or steeplechase) of I or -more miles and furlongs won by an outsider at odds of 50 to 1 at 3 hr 8 m -p.m. at Ascot (Greenwich time), the message being received and available -for betting purposes in Dublin at 2.59 p.m. (Dunsink time). The -unexpected discovery of an object of great monetary value (precious -stone, valuable adhesive or impressed postage stamps (7 schilling, mauve, -imperforate, Hamburg, 1866: 4 pence, rose, blue paper, perforate, Great -Britain, 1855: 1 franc, stone, official, rouletted, diagonal surcharge, -Luxemburg, 1878), antique dynastical ring, unique relic) in unusual -repositories or by unusual means: from the air (dropped by an eagle in -flight), by fire (amid the carbonised remains of an incendiated edifice), -in the sea (amid flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict), on earth (in the -gizzard of a comestible fowl). A Spanish prisoner's donation of a distant -treasure of valuables or specie or bullion lodged with a solvent banking -corporation loo years previously at 5 percent compound interest of the -collective worth of 5,000,000 pounds stg (five million pounds sterling). -A contract with an inconsiderate contractee for the delivery of 32 -consignments of some given commodity in consideration of cash payment on -delivery per delivery at the initial rate of 1/4d to be increased -constantly in the geometrical progression of 2 (1/4d, 1/2d, 1d, 2d, 4d, -8d, 1s 4d, 2s 8d to 32 terms). A prepared scheme based on a study of the -laws of probability to break the bank at Monte Carlo. A solution of the -secular problem of the quadrature of the circle, government premium -1,000,000 pounds sterling. - -Was vast wealth acquirable through industrial channels? - -The reclamation of dunams of waste arenary soil, proposed in the -prospectus of Agendath Netaim, Bleibtreustrasse, Berlin, W. 15, by the -cultivation of orange plantations and melonfields and reafforestation. -The utilisation of waste paper, fells of sewer rodents, human excrement -possessing chemical properties, in view of the vast production of the -first, vast number of the second and immense quantity of the third, every -normal human being of average vitality and appetite producing annually, -cancelling byproducts of water, a sum total of 80 lbs. (mixed animal and -vegetable diet), to be multiplied by 4,386,035, the total population of -Ireland according to census returns of 1901. - -Were there schemes of wider scope? - -A scheme to be formulated and submitted for approval to the harbour -commissioners for the exploitation of white coal (hydraulic power), -obtained by hydroelectric plant at peak of tide at Dublin bar or at head -of water at Poulaphouca or Powerscourt or catchment basins of main -streams for the economic production of 500,000 W. H. P. of electricity. A -scheme to enclose the peninsular delta of the North Bull at Dollymount -and erect on the space of the foreland, used for golf links and rifle -ranges, an asphalted esplanade with casinos, booths, shooting galleries, -hotels, boardinghouses, readingrooms, establishments for mixed bathing. A -scheme for the use of dogvans and goatvans for the delivery of early -morning milk. A scheme for the development of Irish tourist traffic in -and around Dublin by means of petrolpropelled riverboats, plying in the -fluvial fairway between Island bridge and Ringsend, charabancs, narrow -gauge local railways, and pleasure steamers for coastwise navigation -(10/- per person per day, guide (trilingual) included). A scheme for the -repristination of passenger and goods traffics over Irish waterways, when -freed from weedbeds. A scheme to connect by tramline the Cattle Market -(North Circular road and Prussia street) with the quays (Sheriff street, -lower, and East Wall), parallel with the Link line railway laid (in -conjunction with the Great Southern and Western railway line) between the -cattle park, Liffey junction, and terminus of Midland Great Western -Railway 43 to 45 North Wall, in proximity to the terminal stations or -Dublin branches of Great Central Railway, Midland Railway of England, -City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway -Company, Dublin and Glasgow Steam Packet Company, Glasgow, Dublin and -Londonderry Steam Packet Company (Laird line), British and Irish Steam -Packet Company, Dublin and Morecambe Steamers, London and North Western -Railway Company, Dublin Port and Docks Board Landing Sheds and transit -sheds of Palgrave, Murphy and Company, steamship owners, agents for -steamers from Mediterranean, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium and Holland -and for Liverpool Underwriters' Association, the cost of acquired rolling -stock for animal transport and of additional mileage operated by the -Dublin United Tramways Company, limited, to be covered by graziers' fees. - -Positing what protasis would the contraction for such several schemes -become a natural and necessary apodosis? - -Given a guarantee equal to the sum sought, the support, by deed of gift -and transfer vouchers during donor's lifetime or by bequest after donor's -painless extinction, of eminent financiers (Blum Pasha, Rothschild -Guggenheim, Hirsch, Montefiore, Morgan, Rockefeller) possessing fortunes -in 6 figures, amassed during a successful life, and joining capital with -opportunity the thing required was done. - -What eventuality would render him independent of such wealth? - -The independent discovery of a goldseam of inexhaustible ore. - -For what reason did he meditate on schemes so difficult of realisation? - -It was one of his axioms that similar meditations or the automatic -relation to himself of a narrative concerning himself or tranquil -recollection of the past when practised habitually before retiring for -the night alleviated fatigue and produced as a result sound repose and -renovated vitality. - -His justifications? - -As a physicist he had learned that of the 70 years of complete human life -at least 2/7, viz. 20 years are passed in sleep. As a philosopher he knew -that at the termination of any allotted life only an infinitesimal part -of any person's desires has been realised. As a physiologist he believed -in the artificial placation of malignant agencies chiefly operative -during somnolence. - -What did he fear? - -The committal of homicide or suicide during sleep by an aberration of the -light of reason, the incommensurable categorical intelligence situated in -the cerebral convolutions. - -What were habitually his final meditations? - -Of some one sole unique advertisement to cause passers to stop in wonder, -a poster novelty, with all extraneous accretions excluded, reduced to its -simplest and most efficient terms not exceeding the span of casual vision -and congruous with the velocity of modern life. - -What did the first drawer unlocked contain? - -A Vere Foster's handwriting copybook, property of Milly (Millicent) -Bloom, certain pages of which bore diagram drawings, marked PAPLI, which -showed a large globular head with 5 hairs erect, 2 eyes in profile, the -trunk full front with 3 large buttons, 1 triangular foot: 2 fading -photographs of queen Alexandra of England and of Maud Branscombe, actress -and professional beauty: a Yuletide card, bearing on it a pictorial -representation of a parasitic plant, the legend MIZPAH, the date Xmas -1892, the name of the senders: from Mr + Mrs M. Comerford, the versicle: -MAY THIS YULETIDE BRING TO THEE, JOY AND PEACE AND WELCOME GLEE: a butt -of red partly liquefied sealing wax, obtained from the stores department -of Messrs Hely's, Ltd., 89, 90, and 91 Dame street: a box containing the -remainder of a gross of gilt "J" pennibs, obtained from same department -of same firm: an old sandglass which rolled containing sand which rolled: -a sealed prophecy (never unsealed) written by Leopold Bloom in 1886 -concerning the consequences of the passing into law of William Ewart -Gladstone's Home Rule bill of 1886 (never passed into law): a bazaar -ticket, no 2004, of S. Kevin's Charity Fair, price 6d, 100 prizes: an -infantile epistle, dated, small em monday, reading: capital pee Papli -comma capital aitch How are you note of interrogation capital eye I am -very well full stop new paragraph signature with flourishes capital em -Milly no stop: a cameo brooch, property of Ellen Bloom (born Higgins), -deceased: a cameo scarfpin, property of Rudolph Bloom (born Virag), -deceased: 3 typewritten letters, addressee, Henry Flower, c/o. P. O. -Westland Row, addresser, Martha Clifford, c/o. P. O. Dolphin's Barn: the -transliterated name and address of the addresser of the 3 letters in -reversed alphabetic boustrophedonic punctated quadrilinear cryptogram -(vowels suppressed) N. IGS./WI. UU. OX/W. OKS. MH/Y. IM: a press cutting -from an English weekly periodical MODERN SOCIETY, subject corporal -chastisement in girls' schools: a pink ribbon which had festooned an -Easter egg in the year 1899: two partly uncoiled rubber preservatives -with reserve pockets, purchased by post from Box 32, P. O., Charing -Cross, London, W. C.: 1 pack of 1 dozen creamlaid envelopes and -feintruled notepaper, watermarked, now reduced by 3: some assorted -Austrian-Hungarian coins: 2 coupons of the Royal and Privileged Hungarian -Lottery: a lowpower magnifying glass: 2 erotic photocards showing a) -buccal coition between nude senorita (rere presentation, superior -position) and nude torero (fore presentation, inferior position) b) anal -violation by male religious (fully clothed, eyes abject) of female -religious (partly clothed, eyes direct), purchased by post from Box 32, -P. O., Charing Cross, London, W. C.: a press cutting of recipe for -renovation of old tan boots: a Id adhesive stamp, lavender, of the reign -of Queen Victoria: a chart of the measurements of Leopold Bloom compiled -before, during and after 2 months' consecutive use of Sandow-Whiteley's -pulley exerciser (men's 15/-, athlete's 20/-) viz. chest 28 in and 29 1/2 -in, biceps 9 in and 10 in, forearm 8 1/2 in and 9 in, thigh 10 in and 12 -in, calf 11 in and 12 in: 1 prospectus of The Wonderworker, the world's -greatest remedy for rectal complaints, direct from Wonderworker, Coventry -House, South Place, London E C, addressed (erroneously) to Mrs L. Bloom -with brief accompanying note commencing (erroneously): Dear Madam. - -Quote the textual terms in which the prospectus claimed advantages for -this thaumaturgic remedy. - -It heals and soothes while you sleep, in case of trouble in breaking -wind, assists nature in the most formidable way, insuring instant relief -in discharge of gases, keeping parts clean and free natural action, an -initial outlay of 7/6 making a new man of you and life worth living. -Ladies find Wonderworker especially useful, a pleasant surprise when they -note delightful result like a cool drink of fresh spring water on a -sultry summer's day. Recommend it to your lady and gentlemen friends, -lasts a lifetime. Insert long round end. Wonderworker. - -Were there testimonials? - -Numerous. From clergyman, British naval officer, wellknown author, city -man, hospital nurse, lady, mother of five, absentminded beggar. - -How did absentminded beggar's concluding testimonial conclude? - -What a pity the government did not supply our men with wonderworkers -during the South African campaign! What a relief it would have been! - -What object did Bloom add to this collection of objects? - -A 4th typewritten letter received by Henry Flower (let H. F. be L. B.) -from Martha Clifford (find M. C.). - -What pleasant reflection accompanied this action? - -The reflection that, apart from the letter in question, his magnetic -face, form and address had been favourably received during the course of -the preceding day by a wife (Mrs Josephine Breen, born Josie Powell), a -nurse, Miss Callan (Christian name unknown), a maid, Gertrude (Gerty, -family name unknown). - -What possibility suggested itself? - -The possibility of exercising virile power of fascination in the not -immediate future after an expensive repast in a private apartment in the -company of an elegant courtesan, of corporal beauty, moderately -mercenary, variously instructed, a lady by origin. - -What did the 2nd drawer contain? - -Documents: the birth certificate of Leopold Paula Bloom: an endowment -assurance policy of 500 pounds in the Scottish Widows' Assurance Society, -intestated Millicent (Milly) Bloom, coming into force at 25 years as with -profit policy of 430 pounds, 462/10/0 and 500 pounds at 60 years or -death, 65 years or death and death, respectively, or with profit policy -(paidup) of 299/10/0 together with cash payment of 133/10/0, at option: a -bank passbook issued by the Ulster Bank, College Green branch showing -statement of a/c for halfyear ending 31 December 1903, balance in -depositor's favour: 18/14/6 (eighteen pounds, fourteen shillings and -sixpence, sterling), net personalty: certificate of possession of 900 -pounds, Canadian 4 percent (inscribed) government stock (free of stamp -duty): dockets of the Catholic Cemeteries' (Glasnevin) Committee, -relative to a graveplot purchased: a local press cutting concerning -change of name by deedpoll. - -Quote the textual terms of this notice. - -I, Rudolph Virag, now resident at no 52 Clanbrassil street, Dublin, -formerly of Szombathely in the kingdom of Hungary, hereby give notice -that I have assumed and intend henceforth upon all occasions and at all -times to be known by the name of Rudolph Bloom. - -What other objects relative to Rudolph Bloom (born Virag) were in the 2nd -drawer? - -An indistinct daguerreotype of Rudolf Virag and his father Leopold Virag -executed in the year 1852 in the portrait atelier of their (respectively) -1st and 2nd cousin, Stefan Virag of Szesfehervar, Hungary. An ancient -haggadah book in which a pair of hornrimmed convex spectacles inserted -marked the passage of thanksgiving in the ritual prayers for Pessach -(Passover): a photocard of the Queen's Hotel, Ennis, proprietor, Rudolph -Bloom: an envelope addressed: TO MY DEAR SON LEOPOLD. - -What fractions of phrases did the lecture of those five whole words -evoke? - -Tomorrow will be a week that I received... it is no use Leopold to be ... -with your dear mother ... that is not more to stand ... to her ... all -for me is out ... be kind to Athos, Leopold ... my dear son ... always -... of me ... DAS HERZ ... GOTT ... DEIN ... - -What reminiscences of a human subject suffering from progressive -melancholia did these objects evoke in Bloom? - -An old man, widower, unkempt of hair, in bed, with head covered, sighing: -an infirm dog, Athos: aconite, resorted to by increasing doses of grains -and scruples as a palliative of recrudescent neuralgia: the face in death -of a septuagenarian, suicide by poison. - -Why did Bloom experience a sentiment of remorse? - -Because in immature impatience he had treated with disrespect certain -beliefs and practices. - -As? - -The prohibition of the use of fleshmeat and milk at one meal: the -hebdomadary symposium of incoordinately abstract, perfervidly concrete -mercantile coexreligionist excompatriots: the circumcision of male -infants: the supernatural character of Judaic scripture: the ineffability -of the tetragrammaton: the sanctity of the sabbath. - -How did these beliefs and practices now appear to him? - -Not more rational than they had then appeared, not less rational than -other beliefs and practices now appeared. - -What first reminiscence had he of Rudolph Bloom (deceased)? - -Rudolph Bloom (deceased) narrated to his son Leopold Bloom (aged 6) a -retrospective arrangement of migrations and settlements in and between -Dublin, London, Florence, Milan, Vienna, Budapest, Szombathely with -statements of satisfaction (his grandfather having seen Maria Theresia, -empress of Austria, queen of Hungary), with commercial advice (having -taken care of pence, the pounds having taken care of themselves). Leopold -Bloom (aged 6) had accompanied these narrations by constant consultation -of a geographical map of Europe (political) and by suggestions for the -establishment of affiliated business premises in the various centres -mentioned. - -Had time equally but differently obliterated the memory of these -migrations in narrator and listener? - -In narrator by the access of years and in consequence of the use of -narcotic toxin: in listener by the access of years and in consequence of -the action of distraction upon vicarious experiences. - -What idiosyncracies of the narrator were concomitant products of amnesia? - -Occasionally he ate without having previously removed his hat. -Occasionally he drank voraciously the juice of gooseberry fool from an -inclined plate. Occasionally he removed from his lips the traces of food -by means of a lacerated envelope or other accessible fragment of paper. - -What two phenomena of senescence were more frequent? - -The myopic digital calculation of coins, eructation consequent upon -repletion. - -What object offered partial consolation for these reminiscences? - -The endowment policy, the bank passbook, the certificate of the -possession of scrip. - -Reduce Bloom by cross multiplication of reverses of fortune, from which -these supports protected him, and by elimination of all positive values -to a negligible negative irrational unreal quantity. - -Successively, in descending helotic order: Poverty: that of the outdoor -hawker of imitation jewellery, the dun for the recovery of bad and -doubtful debts, the poor rate and deputy cess collector. Mendicancy: that -of the fraudulent bankrupt with negligible assets paying 1s. 4d. in the -pound, sandwichman, distributor of throwaways, nocturnal vagrant, -insinuating sycophant, maimed sailor, blind stripling, superannuated -bailiffs man, marfeast, lickplate, spoilsport, pickthank, eccentric -public laughingstock seated on bench of public park under discarded -perforated umbrella. Destitution: the inmate of Old Man's House (Royal -Hospital) Kilmainham, the inmate of Simpson's Hospital for reduced but -respectable men permanently disabled by gout or want of sight. Nadir of -misery: the aged impotent disfranchised ratesupported moribund lunatic -pauper. - -With which attendant indignities? - -The unsympathetic indifference of previously amiable females, the -contempt of muscular males, the acceptance of fragments of bread, the -simulated ignorance of casual acquaintances, the latration of -illegitimate unlicensed vagabond dogs, the infantile discharge of -decomposed vegetable missiles, worth little or nothing, nothing or less -than nothing. - -By what could such a situation be precluded? - -By decease (change of state): by departure (change of place). - -Which preferably? - -The latter, by the line of least resistance. - -What considerations rendered departure not entirely undesirable? - -Constant cohabitation impeding mutual toleration of personal defects. The -habit of independent purchase increasingly cultivated. The necessity to -counteract by impermanent sojourn the permanence of arrest. - -What considerations rendered departure not irrational? - -The parties concerned, uniting, had increased and multiplied, which being -done, offspring produced and educed to maturity, the parties, if not -disunited were obliged to reunite for increase and multiplication, which -was absurd, to form by reunion the original couple of uniting parties, -which was impossible. - -What considerations rendered departure desirable? - -The attractive character of certain localities in Ireland and abroad, as -represented in general geographical maps of polychrome design or in -special ordnance survey charts by employment of scale numerals and -hachures. - -In Ireland? - -The cliffs of Moher, the windy wilds of Connemara, lough Neagh with -submerged petrified city, the Giant's Causeway, Fort Camden and Fort -Carlisle, the Golden Vale of Tipperary, the islands of Aran, the pastures -of royal Meath, Brigid's elm in Kildare, the Queen's Island shipyard in -Belfast, the Salmon Leap, the lakes of Killarney. - -Abroad? - -Ceylon (with spicegardens supplying tea to Thomas Kernan, agent for -Pulbrook, Robertson and Co, 2 Mincing Lane, London, E. C., 5 Dame street, -Dublin), Jerusalem, the holy city (with mosque of Omar and gate of -Damascus, goal of aspiration), the straits of Gibraltar (the unique -birthplace of Marion Tweedy), the Parthenon (containing statues of nude -Grecian divinities), the Wall street money market (which controlled -international finance), the Plaza de Toros at La Linea, Spain (where -O'Hara of the Camerons had slain the bull), Niagara (over which no human -being had passed with impunity), the land of the Eskimos (eaters of -soap), the forbidden country of Thibet (from which no traveller returns), -the bay of Naples (to see which was to die), the Dead Sea. - -Under what guidance, following what signs? - -At sea, septentrional, by night the polestar, located at the point of -intersection of the right line from beta to alpha in Ursa Maior produced -and divided externally at omega and the hypotenuse of the rightangled -triangle formed by the line alpha omega so produced and the line alpha -delta of Ursa Maior. On land, meridional, a bispherical moon, revealed in -imperfect varying phases of lunation through the posterior interstice of -the imperfectly occluded skirt of a carnose negligent perambulating -female, a pillar of the cloud by day. - -What public advertisement would divulge the occultation of the departed? - -5 pounds reward, lost, stolen or strayed from his residence 7 Eccles -street, missing gent about 40, answering to the name of Bloom, Leopold -(Poldy), height 5 ft 9 1/2 inches, full build, olive complexion, may have -since grown a beard, when last seen was wearing a black suit. Above sum -will be paid for information leading to his discovery. - -What universal binomial denominations would be his as entity and -nonentity? - -Assumed by any or known to none. Everyman or Noman. - -What tributes his? - -Honour and gifts of strangers, the friends of Everyman. A nymph immortal, -beauty, the bride of Noman. - -Would the departed never nowhere nohow reappear? - -Ever he would wander, selfcompelled, to the extreme limit of his cometary -orbit, beyond the fixed stars and variable suns and telescopic planets, -astronomical waifs and strays, to the extreme boundary of space, passing -from land to land, among peoples, amid events. Somewhere imperceptibly he -would hear and somehow reluctantly, suncompelled, obey the summons of -recall. Whence, disappearing from the constellation of the Northern Crown -he would somehow reappear reborn above delta in the constellation of -Cassiopeia and after incalculable eons of peregrination return an -estranged avenger, a wreaker of justice on malefactors, a dark crusader, -a sleeper awakened, with financial resources (by supposition) surpassing -those of Rothschild or the silver king. - -What would render such return irrational? - -An unsatisfactory equation between an exodus and return in time through -reversible space and an exodus and return in space through irreversible -time. - -What play of forces, inducing inertia, rendered departure undesirable? - -The lateness of the hour, rendering procrastinatory: the obscurity of the -night, rendering invisible: the uncertainty of thoroughfares, rendering -perilous: the necessity for repose, obviating movement: the proximity of -an occupied bed, obviating research: the anticipation of warmth (human) -tempered with coolness (linen), obviating desire and rendering desirable: -the statue of Narcissus, sound without echo, desired desire. - -What advantages were possessed by an occupied, as distinct from an -unoccupied bed? - -The removal of nocturnal solitude, the superior quality of human (mature -female) to inhuman (hotwaterjar) calefaction, the stimulation of -matutinal contact, the economy of mangling done on the premises in the -case of trousers accurately folded and placed lengthwise between the -spring mattress (striped) and the woollen mattress (biscuit section). - -What past consecutive causes, before rising preapprehended, of -accumulated fatigue did Bloom, before rising, silently recapitulate? - -The preparation of breakfast (burnt offering): intestinal congestion and -premeditative defecation (holy of holies): the bath (rite of John): the -funeral (rite of Samuel): the advertisement of Alexander Keyes (Urim and -Thummim): the unsubstantial lunch (rite of Melchisedek): the visit to -museum and national library (holy place): the bookhunt along Bedford row, -Merchants' Arch, Wellington Quay (Simchath Torah): the music in the -Ormond Hotel (Shira Shirim): the altercation with a truculent troglodyte -in Bernard Kiernan's premises (holocaust): a blank period of time -including a cardrive, a visit to a house of mourning, a leavetaking -(wilderness): the eroticism produced by feminine exhibitionism (rite of -Onan): the prolonged delivery of Mrs Mina Purefoy (heave offering): the -visit to the disorderly house of Mrs Bella Cohen, 82 Tyrone street, lower -and subsequent brawl and chance medley in Beaver street (Armageddon)- -nocturnal perambulation to and from the cabman's shelter, Butt Bridge -(atonement). - -What selfimposed enigma did Bloom about to rise in order to go so as to -conclude lest he should not conclude involuntarily apprehend? - -The cause of a brief sharp unforeseen heard loud lone crack emitted by -the insentient material of a strainveined timber table. - -What selfinvolved enigma did Bloom risen, going, gathering multicoloured -multiform multitudinous garments, voluntarily apprehending, not -comprehend? - -Who was M'Intosh? - -What selfevident enigma pondered with desultory constancy during 30 years -did Bloom now, having effected natural obscurity by the extinction of -artificial light, silently suddenly comprehend? - -Where was Moses when the candle went out? - -What imperfections in a perfect day did Bloom, walking, charged with -collected articles of recently disvested male wearing apparel, silently, -successively, enumerate? - -A provisional failure to obtain renewal of an advertisement: to obtain a -certain quantity of tea from Thomas Kernan (agent for Pulbrook, Robertson -and Co, 5 Dame Street, Dublin, and 2 Mincing Lane, London E. C.): to -certify the presence or absence of posterior rectal orifice in the case -of Hellenic female divinities: to obtain admission (gratuitous or paid) -to the performance of Leah by Mrs Bandmann Palmer at the Gaiety Theatre, -46, 47, 48, 49 South King street. - -What impression of an absent face did Bloom, arrested, silently recall? - -The face of her father, the late Major Brian Cooper Tweedy, Royal Dublin -Fusiliers, of Gibraltar and Rehoboth, Dolphin's Barn. - -What recurrent impressions of the same were possible by hypothesis? - -Retreating, at the terminus of the Great Northern Railway, Amiens street, -with constant uniform acceleration, along parallel lines meeting at -infinity, if produced: along parallel lines, reproduced from infinity, -with constant uniform retardation, at the terminus of the Great Northern -Railway, Amiens street, returning. - -What miscellaneous effects of female personal wearing apparel were -perceived by him? - -A pair of new inodorous halfsilk black ladies' hose, a pair of new violet -garters, a pair of outsize ladies' drawers of India mull, cut on generous -lines, redolent of opoponax, jessamine and Muratti's Turkish cigarettes -and containing a long bright steel safety pin, folded curvilinear, a -camisole of batiste with thin lace border, an accordion underskirt of -blue silk moirette, all these objects being disposed irregularly on the -top of a rectangular trunk, quadruple battened, having capped corners, -with multicoloured labels, initialled on its fore side in white lettering -B. C. T. (Brian Cooper Tweedy). - -What impersonal objects were perceived? - -A commode, one leg fractured, totally covered by square cretonne cutting, -apple design, on which rested a lady's black straw hat. Orangekeyed ware, -bought of Henry Price, basket, fancy goods, chinaware and ironmongery -manufacturer, 21, 22, 23 Moore street, disposed irregularly on the -washstand and floor and consisting of basin, soapdish and brushtray (on -the washstand, together), pitcher and night article (on the floor, -separate). - -Bloom's acts? - -He deposited the articles of clothing on a chair, removed his remaining -articles of clothing, took from beneath the bolster at the head of the -bed a folded long white nightshirt, inserted his head and arms into the -proper apertures of the nightshirt, removed a pillow from the head to the -foot of the bed, prepared the bedlinen accordingly and entered the bed. - -How? - -With circumspection, as invariably when entering an abode (his own or not -his own): with solicitude, the snakespiral springs of the mattress being -old, the brass quoits and pendent viper radii loose and tremulous under -stress and strain: prudently, as entering a lair or ambush of lust or -adders: lightly, the less to disturb: reverently, the bed of conception -and of birth, of consummation of marriage and of breach of marriage, of -sleep and of death. - -What did his limbs, when gradually extended, encounter? - -New clean bedlinen, additional odours, the presence of a human form, -female, hers, the imprint of a human form, male, not his, some crumbs, -some flakes of potted meat, recooked, which he removed. - -If he had smiled why would he have smiled? - -To reflect that each one who enters imagines himself to be the first to -enter whereas he is always the last term of a preceding series even if -the first term of a succeeding one, each imagining himself to be first, -last, only and alone whereas he is neither first nor last nor only nor -alone in a series originating in and repeated to infinity. - -What preceding series? - -Assuming Mulvey to be the first term of his series, Penrose, Bartell -d'Arcy, professor Goodwin, Julius Mastiansky, John Henry Menton, Father -Bernard Corrigan, a farmer at the Royal Dublin Society's Horse Show, -Maggot O'Reilly, Matthew Dillon, Valentine Blake Dillon (Lord Mayor of -Dublin), Christopher Callinan, Lenehan, an Italian organgrinder, an -unknown gentleman in the Gaiety Theatre, Benjamin Dollard, Simon Dedalus, -Andrew (Pisser) Burke, Joseph Cuffe, Wisdom Hely, Alderman John Hooper, -Dr Francis Brady, Father Sebastian of Mount Argus, a bootblack at the -General Post Office, Hugh E. (Blazes) Boylan and so each and so on to no -last term. - -What were his reflections concerning the last member of this series and -late occupant of the bed? - -Reflections on his vigour (a bounder), corporal proportion (a -billsticker), commercial ability (a bester), impressionability (a -boaster). - -Why for the observer impressionability in addition to vigour, corporal -proportion and commercial ability? - -Because he had observed with augmenting frequency in the preceding -members of the same series the same concupiscence, inflammably -transmitted, first with alarm, then with understanding, then with desire, -finally with fatigue, with alternating symptoms of epicene comprehension -and apprehension. - -With what antagonistic sentiments were his subsequent reflections -affected? - -Envy, jealousy, abnegation, equanimity. - -Envy? - -Of a bodily and mental male organism specially adapted for the -superincumbent posture of energetic human copulation and energetic piston -and cylinder movement necessary for the complete satisfaction of a -constant but not acute concupiscence resident in a bodily and mental -female organism, passive but not obtuse. - -Jealousy? - -Because a nature full and volatile in its free state, was alternately the -agent and reagent of attraction. Because attraction between agent(s) and -reagent(s) at all instants varied, with inverse proportion of increase -and decrease, with incessant circular extension and radial reentrance. -Because the controlled contemplation of the fluctuation of attraction -produced, if desired, a fluctuation of pleasure. - -Abnegation? - -In virtue of a) acquaintance initiated in September 1903 in the -establishment of George Mesias, merchant tailor and outfitter, 5 Eden -Quay, b) hospitality extended and received in kind, reciprocated and -reappropriated in person, c) comparative youth subject to impulses of -ambition and magnanimity, colleagual altruism and amorous egoism, d) -extraracial attraction, intraracial inhibition, supraracial prerogative, -e) an imminent provincial musical tour, common current expenses, net -proceeds divided. - -Equanimity? - -As as natural as any and every natural act of a nature expressed or -understood executed in natured nature by natural creatures in accordance -with his, her and their natured natures, of dissimilar similarity. As not -so calamitous as a cataclysmic annihilation of the planet in consequence -of a collision with a dark sun. As less reprehensible than theft, highway -robbery, cruelty to children and animals, obtaining money under false -pretences, forgery, embezzlement, misappropriation of public money, -betrayal of public trust, malingering, mayhem, corruption of minors, -criminal libel, blackmail, contempt of court, arson, treason, felony, -mutiny on the high seas, trespass, burglary, jailbreaking, practice of -unnatural vice, desertion from armed forces in the field, perjury, -poaching, usury, intelligence with the king's enemies, impersonation, -criminal assault, manslaughter, wilful and premeditated murder. As not -more abnormal than all other parallel processes of adaptation to altered -conditions of existence, resulting in a reciprocal equilibrium between -the bodily organism and its attendant circumstances, foods, beverages, -acquired habits, indulged inclinations, significant disease. As more than -inevitable, irreparable. - -Why more abnegation than jealousy, less envy than equanimity? - -From outrage (matrimony) to outrage (adultery) there arose nought but -outrage (copulation) yet the matrimonial violator of the matrimonially -violated had not been outraged by the adulterous violator of the -adulterously violated. - -What retribution, if any? - -Assassination, never, as two wrongs did not make one right. Duel by -combat, no. Divorce, not now. Exposure by mechanical artifice (automatic -bed) or individual testimony (concealed ocular witnesses), not yet. Suit -for damages by legal influence or simulation of assault with evidence of -injuries sustained (selfinflicted), not impossibly. Hushmoney by moral -influence possibly. If any, positively, connivance, introduction of -emulation (material, a prosperous rival agency of publicity: moral, a -successful rival agent of intimacy), depreciation, alienation, -humiliation, separation protecting the one separated from the other, -protecting the separator from both. - -By what reflections did he, a conscious reactor against the void of -incertitude, justify to himself his sentiments? - -The preordained frangibility of the hymen: the presupposed intangibility -of the thing in itself: the incongruity and disproportion between the -selfprolonging tension of the thing proposed to be done and the -selfabbreviating relaxation of the thing done; the fallaciously inferred -debility of the female: the muscularity of the male: the variations of -ethical codes: the natural grammatical transition by inversion involving -no alteration of sense of an aorist preterite proposition (parsed as -masculine subject, monosyllabic onomatopoeic transitive verb with direct -feminine object) from the active voice into its correlative aorist -preterite proposition (parsed as feminine subject, auxiliary verb and -quasimonosyllabic onomatopoeic past participle with complementary -masculine agent) in the passive voice: the continued product of -seminators by generation: the continual production of semen by -distillation: the futility of triumph or protest or vindication: the -inanity of extolled virtue: the lethargy of nescient matter: the apathy -of the stars. - -In what final satisfaction did these antagonistic sentiments and -reflections, reduced to their simplest forms, converge? - -Satisfaction at the ubiquity in eastern and western terrestrial -hemispheres, in all habitable lands and islands explored or unexplored -(the land of the midnight sun, the islands of the blessed, the isles of -Greece, the land of promise), of adipose anterior and posterior female -hemispheres, redolent of milk and honey and of excretory sanguine and -seminal warmth, reminiscent of secular families of curves of amplitude, -insusceptible of moods of impression or of contrarieties of expression, -expressive of mute immutable mature animality. - -The visible signs of antesatisfaction? - -An approximate erection: a solicitous adversion: a gradual elevation: a -tentative revelation: a silent contemplation. - -Then? - -He kissed the plump mellow yellow smellow melons of her rump, on each -plump melonous hemisphere, in their mellow yellow furrow, with obscure -prolonged provocative melonsmellonous osculation. - -The visible signs of postsatisfaction? - -A silent contemplation: a tentative velation: a gradual abasement: a -solicitous aversion: a proximate erection. - -What followed this silent action? - -Somnolent invocation, less somnolent recognition, incipient excitation, -catechetical interrogation. - -With what modifications did the narrator reply to this interrogation? - -Negative: he omitted to mention the clandestine correspondence between -Martha Clifford and Henry Flower, the public altercation at, in and in -the vicinity of the licensed premises of Bernard Kiernan and Co, Limited, -8, 9 and 10 Little Britain street, the erotic provocation and response -thereto caused by the exhibitionism of Gertrude (Gerty), surname unknown. -Positive: he included mention of a performance by Mrs Bandmann Palmer of -LEAH at the Gaiety Theatre, 46, 47, 48, 49 South King street, an -invitation to supper at Wynn's (Murphy's) Hotel, 35, 36 and 37 Lower -Abbey street, a volume of peccaminous pornographical tendency entituled -SWEETS OF SIN, anonymous author a gentleman of fashion, a temporary -concussion caused by a falsely calculated movement in the course of a -postcenal gymnastic display, the victim (since completely recovered) -being Stephen Dedalus, professor and author, eldest surviving son of -Simon Dedalus, of no fixed occupation, an aeronautical feat executed by -him (narrator) in the presence of a witness, the professor and author -aforesaid, with promptitude of decision and gymnastic flexibility. - -Was the narration otherwise unaltered by modifications? - -Absolutely. - -Which event or person emerged as the salient point of his narration? - -Stephen Dedalus, professor and author. - -What limitations of activity and inhibitions of conjugal rights were -perceived by listener and narrator concerning themselves during the -course of this intermittent and increasingly more laconic narration? - -By the listener a limitation of fertility inasmuch as marriage had been -celebrated 1 calendar month after the 18th anniversary of her birth (8 -September 1870), viz. 8 October, and consummated on the same date with -female issue born 15 June 1889, having been anticipatorily consummated on -the lo September of the same year and complete carnal intercourse, with -ejaculation of semen within the natural female organ, having last taken -place 5 weeks previous, viz. 27 November 1893, to the birth on 29 -December 1893 of second (and only male) issue, deceased 9 January 1894, -aged 11 days, there remained a period of 10 years, 5 months and 18 days -during which carnal intercourse had been incomplete, without ejaculation -of semen within the natural female organ. By the narrator a limitation of -activity, mental and corporal, inasmuch as complete mental intercourse -between himself and the listener had not taken place since the -consummation of puberty, indicated by catamenic hemorrhage, of the female -issue of narrator and listener, 15 September 1903, there remained a -period of 9 months and 1 day during which, in consequence of a -preestablished natural comprehension in incomprehension between the -consummated females (listener and issue), complete corporal liberty of -action had been circumscribed. - -How? - -By various reiterated feminine interrogation concerning the masculine -destination whither, the place where, the time at which, the duration for -which, the object with which in the case of temporary absences, projected -or effected. - -What moved visibly above the listener's and the narrator's invisible -thoughts? - -The upcast reflection of a lamp and shade, an inconstant series of -concentric circles of varying gradations of light and shadow. - -In what directions did listener and narrator lie? - -Listener, S. E. by E.: Narrator, N. W. by W.: on the 53rd parallel of -latitude, N., and 6th meridian of longitude, W.: at an angle of 45 -degrees to the terrestrial equator. - -In what state of rest or motion? - -At rest relatively to themselves and to each other. In motion being each -and both carried westward, forward and rereward respectively, by the -proper perpetual motion of the earth through everchanging tracks of -neverchanging space. - -In what posture? - -Listener: reclined semilaterally, left, left hand under head, right leg -extended in a straight line and resting on left leg, flexed, in the -attitude of Gea-Tellus, fulfilled, recumbent, big with seed. Narrator: -reclined laterally, left, with right and left legs flexed, the index -finger and thumb of the right hand resting on the bridge of the nose, in -the attitude depicted in a snapshot photograph made by Percy Apjohn, the -childman weary, the manchild in the womb. - -Womb? Weary? - -He rests. He has travelled. - -With? - -Sinbad the Sailor and Tinbad the Tailor and Jinbad the Jailer and Whinbad -the Whaler and Ninbad the Nailer and Finbad the Failer and Binbad the -Bailer and Pinbad the Pailer and Minbad the Mailer and Hinbad the Hailer -and Rinbad the Railer and Dinbad the Kailer and Vinbad the Quailer and -Linbad the Yailer and Xinbad the Phthailer. - -When? - -Going to dark bed there was a square round Sinbad the Sailor roc's auk's -egg in the night of the bed of all the auks of the rocs of Darkinbad the -Brightdayler. - -Where? - - - * * * * * * * - - -Yes because he never did a thing like that before as ask to get his -breakfast in bed with a couple of eggs since the CITY ARMS hotel when he -used to be pretending to be laid up with a sick voice doing his highness -to make himself interesting for that old faggot Mrs Riordan that he -thought he had a great leg of and she never left us a farthing all for -masses for herself and her soul greatest miser ever was actually afraid -to lay out 4d for her methylated spirit telling me all her ailments she -had too much old chat in her about politics and earthquakes and the end -of the world let us have a bit of fun first God help the world if all the -women were her sort down on bathingsuits and lownecks of course nobody -wanted her to wear them I suppose she was pious because no man would look -at her twice I hope Ill never be like her a wonder she didnt want us to -cover our faces but she was a welleducated woman certainly and her gabby -talk about Mr Riordan here and Mr Riordan there I suppose he was glad to -get shut of her and her dog smelling my fur and always edging to get up -under my petticoats especially then still I like that in him polite to -old women like that and waiters and beggars too hes not proud out of -nothing but not always if ever he got anything really serious the matter -with him its much better for them to go into a hospital where everything -is clean but I suppose Id have to dring it into him for a month yes and -then wed have a hospital nurse next thing on the carpet have him staying -there till they throw him out or a nun maybe like the smutty photo he has -shes as much a nun as Im not yes because theyre so weak and puling when -theyre sick they want a woman to get well if his nose bleeds youd think -it was O tragic and that dyinglooking one off the south circular when he -sprained his foot at the choir party at the sugarloaf Mountain the day I -wore that dress Miss Stack bringing him flowers the worst old ones she -could find at the bottom of the basket anything at all to get into a mans -bedroom with her old maids voice trying to imagine he was dying on -account of her to never see thy face again though he looked more like a -man with his beard a bit grown in the bed father was the same besides I -hate bandaging and dosing when he cut his toe with the razor paring his -corns afraid hed get bloodpoisoning but if it was a thing I was sick then -wed see what attention only of course the woman hides it not to give all -the trouble they do yes he came somewhere Im sure by his appetite anyway -love its not or hed be off his feed thinking of her so either it was one -of those night women if it was down there he was really and the hotel -story he made up a pack of lies to hide it planning it Hynes kept me who -did I meet ah yes I met do you remember Menton and who else who let me -see that big babbyface I saw him and he not long married flirting with a -young girl at Pooles Myriorama and turned my back on him when he slinked -out looking quite conscious what harm but he had the impudence to make up -to me one time well done to him mouth almighty and his boiled eyes of all -the big stupoes I ever met and thats called a solicitor only for I hate -having a long wrangle in bed or else if its not that its some little -bitch or other he got in with somewhere or picked up on the sly if they -only knew him as well as I do yes because the day before yesterday he was -scribbling something a letter when I came into the front room to show him -Dignams death in the paper as if something told me and he covered it up -with the blottingpaper pretending to be thinking about business so very -probably that was it to somebody who thinks she has a softy in him -because all men get a bit like that at his age especially getting on to -forty he is now so as to wheedle any money she can out of him no fool -like an old fool and then the usual kissing my bottom was to hide it not -that I care two straws now who he does it with or knew before that way -though Id like to find out so long as I dont have the two of them under -my nose all the time like that slut that Mary we had in Ontario terrace -padding out her false bottom to excite him bad enough to get the smell of -those painted women off him once or twice I had a suspicion by getting -him to come near me when I found the long hair on his coat without that -one when I went into the kitchen pretending he was drinking water 1 woman -is not enough for them it was all his fault of course ruining servants -then proposing that she could eat at our table on Christmas day if you -please O no thank you not in my house stealing my potatoes and the -oysters 2/6 per doz going out to see her aunt if you please common -robbery so it was but I was sure he had something on with that one it -takes me to find out a thing like that he said you have no proof it was -her proof O yes her aunt was very fond of oysters but I told her what I -thought of her suggesting me to go out to be alone with her I wouldnt -lower myself to spy on them the garters I found in her room the Friday -she was out that was enough for me a little bit too much her face swelled -up on her with temper when I gave her her weeks notice I saw to that -better do without them altogether do out the rooms myself quicker only -for the damn cooking and throwing out the dirt I gave it to him anyhow -either she or me leaves the house I couldnt even touch him if I thought -he was with a dirty barefaced liar and sloven like that one denying it up -to my face and singing about the place in the W C too because she knew -she was too well off yes because he couldnt possibly do without it that -long so he must do it somewhere and the last time he came on my bottom -when was it the night Boylan gave my hand a great squeeze going along by -the Tolka in my hand there steals another I just pressed the back of his -like that with my thumb to squeeze back singing the young May moon shes -beaming love because he has an idea about him and me hes not such a fool -he said Im dining out and going to the Gaiety though Im not going to give -him the satisfaction in any case God knows hes a change in a way not to -be always and ever wearing the same old hat unless I paid some -nicelooking boy to do it since I cant do it myself a young boy would like -me Id confuse him a little alone with him if we were Id let him see my -garters the new ones and make him turn red looking at him seduce him I -know what boys feel with that down on their cheek doing that frigging -drawing out the thing by the hour question and answer would you do this -that and the other with the coalman yes with a bishop yes I would because -I told him about some dean or bishop was sitting beside me in the jews -temples gardens when I was knitting that woollen thing a stranger to -Dublin what place was it and so on about the monuments and he tired me -out with statues encouraging him making him worse than he is who is in -your mind now tell me who are you thinking of who is it tell me his name -who tell me who the german Emperor is it yes imagine Im him think of him -can you feel him trying to make a whore of me what he never will he ought -to give it up now at this age of his life simply ruination for any woman -and no satisfaction in it pretending to like it till he comes and then -finish it off myself anyway and it makes your lips pale anyhow its done -now once and for all with all the talk of the world about it people make -its only the first time after that its just the ordinary do it and think -no more about it why cant you kiss a man without going and marrying him -first you sometimes love to wildly when you feel that way so nice all -over you you cant help yourself I wish some man or other would take me -sometime when hes there and kiss me in his arms theres nothing like a -kiss long and hot down to your soul almost paralyses you then I hate that -confession when I used to go to Father Corrigan he touched me father and -what harm if he did where and I said on the canal bank like a fool but -whereabouts on your person my child on the leg behind high up was it yes -rather high up was it where you sit down yes O Lord couldnt he say bottom -right out and have done with it what has that got to do with it and did -you whatever way he put it I forget no father and I always think of the -real father what did he want to know for when I already confessed it to -God he had a nice fat hand the palm moist always I wouldnt mind feeling -it neither would he Id say by the bullneck in his horsecollar I wonder -did he know me in the box I could see his face he couldnt see mine of -course hed never turn or let on still his eyes were red when his father -died theyre lost for a woman of course must be terrible when a man cries -let alone them Id like to be embraced by one in his vestments and the -smell of incense off him like the pope besides theres no danger with a -priest if youre married hes too careful about himself then give something -to H H the pope for a penance I wonder was he satisfied with me one thing -I didnt like his slapping me behind going away so familiarly in the hall -though I laughed Im not a horse or an ass am I I suppose he was thinking -of his fathers I wonder is he awake thinking of me or dreaming am I in it -who gave him that flower he said he bought he smelt of some kind of drink -not whisky or stout or perhaps the sweety kind of paste they stick their -bills up with some liqueur Id like to sip those richlooking green and -yellow expensive drinks those stagedoor johnnies drink with the opera -hats I tasted once with my finger dipped out of that American that had -the squirrel talking stamps with father he had all he could do to keep -himself from falling asleep after the last time after we took the port -and potted meat it had a fine salty taste yes because I felt lovely and -tired myself and fell asleep as sound as a top the moment I popped -straight into bed till that thunder woke me up God be merciful to us I -thought the heavens were coming down about us to punish us when I blessed -myself and said a Hail Mary like those awful thunderbolts in Gibraltar as -if the world was coming to an end and then they come and tell you theres -no God what could you do if it was running and rushing about nothing only -make an act of contrition the candle I lit that evening in Whitefriars -street chapel for the month of May see it brought its luck though hed -scoff if he heard because he never goes to church mass or meeting he says -your soul you have no soul inside only grey matter because he doesnt know -what it is to have one yes when I lit the lamp because he must have come -3 or 4 times with that tremendous big red brute of a thing he has I -thought the vein or whatever the dickens they call it was going to burst -though his nose is not so big after I took off all my things with the -blinds down after my hours dressing and perfuming and combing it like -iron or some kind of a thick crowbar standing all the time he must have -eaten oysters I think a few dozen he was in great singing voice no I -never in all my life felt anyone had one the size of that to make you -feel full up he must have eaten a whole sheep after whats the idea making -us like that with a big hole in the middle of us or like a Stallion -driving it up into you because thats all they want out of you with that -determined vicious look in his eye I had to halfshut my eyes still he -hasnt such a tremendous amount of spunk in him when I made him pull out -and do it on me considering how big it is so much the better in case any -of it wasnt washed out properly the last time I let him finish it in me -nice invention they made for women for him to get all the pleasure but if -someone gave them a touch of it themselves theyd know what I went through -with Milly nobody would believe cutting her teeth too and Mina Purefoys -husband give us a swing out of your whiskers filling her up with a child -or twins once a year as regular as the clock always with a smell of -children off her the one they called budgers or something like a nigger -with a shock of hair on it Jesusjack the child is a black the last time I -was there a squad of them falling over one another and bawling you -couldnt hear your ears supposed to be healthy not satisfied till they -have us swollen out like elephants or I dont know what supposing I risked -having another not off him though still if he was married Im sure hed -have a fine strong child but I dont know Poldy has more spunk in him yes -thatd be awfully jolly I suppose it was meeting Josie Powell and the -funeral and thinking about me and Boylan set him off well he can think -what he likes now if thatll do him any good I know they were spooning a -bit when I came on the scene he was dancing and sitting out with her the -night of Georgina Simpsons housewarming and then he wanted to ram it down -my neck it was on account of not liking to see her a wallflower that was -why we had the standup row over politics he began it not me when he said -about Our Lord being a carpenter at last he made me cry of course a woman -is so sensitive about everything I was fuming with myself after for -giving in only for I knew he was gone on me and the first socialist he -said He was he annoyed me so much I couldnt put him into a temper still -he knows a lot of mixedup things especially about the body and the inside -I often wanted to study up that myself what we have inside us in that -family physician I could always hear his voice talking when the room was -crowded and watch him after that I pretended I had a coolness on with her -over him because he used to be a bit on the jealous side whenever he -asked who are you going to and I said over to Floey and he made me the -present of Byron's poems and the three pairs of gloves so that finished -that I could quite easily get him to make it up any time I know how Id -even supposing he got in with her again and was going out to see her -somewhere Id know if he refused to eat the onions I know plenty of ways -ask him to tuck down the collar of my blouse or touch him with my veil -and gloves on going out I kiss then would send them all spinning however -alright well see then let him go to her she of course would only be too -delighted to pretend shes mad in love with him that I wouldnt so much -mind Id just go to her and ask her do you love him and look her square in -the eyes she couldnt fool me but he might imagine he was and make a -declaration to her with his plabbery kind of a manner like he did to me -though I had the devils own job to get it out of him though I liked him -for that it showed he could hold in and wasnt to be got for the asking he -was on the pop of asking me too the night in the kitchen I was rolling -the potato cake theres something I want to say to you only for I put him -off letting on I was in a temper with my hands and arms full of pasty -flour in any case I let out too much the night before talking of dreams -so I didnt want to let him know more than was good for him she used to be -always embracing me Josie whenever he was there meaning him of course -glauming me over and when I said I washed up and down as far as possible -asking me and did you wash possible the women are always egging on to -that putting it on thick when hes there they know by his sly eye blinking -a bit putting on the indifferent when they come out with something the -kind he is what spoils him I dont wonder in the least because he was very -handsome at that time trying to look like Lord Byron I said I liked -though he was too beautiful for a man and he was a little before we got -engaged afterwards though she didnt like it so much the day I was in fits -of laughing with the giggles I couldnt stop about all my hairpins falling -out one after another with the mass of hair I had youre always in great -humour she said yes because it grigged her because she knew what it meant -because I used to tell her a good bit of what went on between us not all -but just enough to make her mouth water but that wasnt my fault she didnt -darken the door much after we were married I wonder what shes got like -now after living with that dotty husband of hers she had her face -beginning to look drawn and run down the last time I saw her she must -have been just after a row with him because I saw on the moment she was -edging to draw down a conversation about husbands and talk about him to -run him down what was it she told me O yes that sometimes he used to go -to bed with his muddy boots on when the maggot takes him just imagine -having to get into bed with a thing like that that might murder you any -moment what a man well its not the one way everyone goes mad Poldy anyhow -whatever he does always wipes his feet on the mat when he comes in wet or -shine and always blacks his own boots too and he always takes off his hat -when he comes up in the street like then and now hes going about in his -slippers to look for 10000 pounds for a postcard U p up O sweetheart May -wouldnt a thing like that simply bore you stiff to extinction actually -too stupid even to take his boots off now what could you make of a man -like that Id rather die 20 times over than marry another of their sex of -course hed never find another woman like me to put up with him the way I -do know me come sleep with me yes and he knows that too at the bottom of -his heart take that Mrs Maybrick that poisoned her husband for what I -wonder in love with some other man yes it was found out on her wasnt she -the downright villain to go and do a thing like that of course some men -can be dreadfully aggravating drive you mad and always the worst word in -the world what do they ask us to marry them for if were so bad as all -that comes to yes because they cant get on without us white Arsenic she -put in his tea off flypaper wasnt it I wonder why they call it that if I -asked him hed say its from the Greek leave us as wise as we were before -she must have been madly in love with the other fellow to run the chance -of being hanged O she didnt care if that was her nature what could she do -besides theyre not brutes enough to go and hang a woman surely are they - -theyre all so different Boylan talking about the shape of my foot he -noticed at once even before he was introduced when I was in the D B C -with Poldy laughing and trying to listen I was waggling my foot we both -ordered 2 teas and plain bread and butter I saw him looking with his two -old maids of sisters when I stood up and asked the girl where it was what -do I care with it dropping out of me and that black closed breeches he -made me buy takes you half an hour to let them down wetting all myself -always with some brandnew fad every other week such a long one I did I -forgot my suede gloves on the seat behind that I never got after some -robber of a woman and he wanted me to put it in the Irish times lost in -the ladies lavatory D B C Dame street finder return to Mrs Marion Bloom -and I saw his eyes on my feet going out through the turning door he was -looking when I looked back and I went there for tea 2 days after in the -hope but he wasnt now how did that excite him because I was crossing them -when we were in the other room first he meant the shoes that are too -tight to walk in my hand is nice like that if I only had a ring with the -stone for my month a nice aquamarine Ill stick him for one and a gold -bracelet I dont like my foot so much still I made him spend once with my -foot the night after Goodwins botchup of a concert so cold and windy it -was well we had that rum in the house to mull and the fire wasnt black -out when he asked to take off my stockings lying on the hearthrug in -Lombard street west and another time it was my muddy boots hed like me to -walk in all the horses dung I could find but of course hes not natural -like the rest of the world that I what did he say I could give 9 points -in 10 to Katty Lanner and beat her what does that mean I asked him I -forget what he said because the stoppress edition just passed and the man -with the curly hair in the Lucan dairy thats so polite I think I saw his -face before somewhere I noticed him when I was tasting the butter so I -took my time Bartell dArcy too that he used to make fun of when he -commenced kissing me on the choir stairs after I sang Gounods AVE MARIA -what are we waiting for O my heart kiss me straight on the brow and part -which is my brown part he was pretty hot for all his tinny voice too my -low notes he was always raving about if you can believe him I liked the -way he used his mouth singing then he said wasnt it terrible to do that -there in a place like that I dont see anything so terrible about it Ill -tell him about that some day not now and surprise him ay and Ill take him -there and show him the very place too we did it so now there you are like -it or lump it he thinks nothing can happen without him knowing he hadnt -an idea about my mother till we were engaged otherwise hed never have got -me so cheap as he did he was 10 times worse himself anyhow begging me to -give him a tiny bit cut off my drawers that was the evening coming along -Kenilworth square he kissed me in the eye of my glove and I had to take -it off asking me questions is it permitted to enquire the shape of my -bedroom so I let him keep it as if I forgot it to think of me when I saw -him slip it into his pocket of course hes mad on the subject of drawers -thats plain to be seen always skeezing at those brazenfaced things on the -bicycles with their skirts blowing up to their navels even when Milly and -I were out with him at the open air fete that one in the cream muslin -standing right against the sun so he could see every atom she had on when -he saw me from behind following in the rain I saw him before he saw me -however standing at the corner of the Harolds cross road with a new -raincoat on him with the muffler in the Zingari colours to show off his -complexion and the brown hat looking slyboots as usual what was he doing -there where hed no business they can go and get whatever they like from -anything at all with a skirt on it and were not to ask any questions but -they want to know where were you where are you going I could feel him -coming along skulking after me his eyes on my neck he had been keeping -away from the house he felt it was getting too warm for him so I -halfturned and stopped then he pestered me to say yes till I took off my -glove slowly watching him he said my openwork sleeves were too cold for -the rain anything for an excuse to put his hand anear me drawers drawers -the whole blessed time till I promised to give him the pair off my doll -to carry about in his waistcoat pocket O MARIA SANTISIMA he did look a -big fool dreeping in the rain splendid set of teeth he had made me hungry -to look at them and beseeched of me to lift the orange petticoat I had on -with the sunray pleats that there was nobody he said hed kneel down in -the wet if I didnt so persevering he would too and ruin his new raincoat -you never know what freak theyd take alone with you theyre so savage for -it if anyone was passing so I lifted them a bit and touched his trousers -outside the way I used to Gardner after with my ring hand to keep him -from doing worse where it was too public I was dying to find out was he -circumcised he was shaking like a jelly all over they want to do -everything too quick take all the pleasure out of it and father waiting -all the time for his dinner he told me to say I left my purse in the -butchers and had to go back for it what a Deceiver then he wrote me that -letter with all those words in it how could he have the face to any woman -after his company manners making it so awkward after when we met asking -me have I offended you with my eyelids down of course he saw I wasnt he -had a few brains not like that other fool Henny Doyle he was always -breaking or tearing something in the charades I hate an unlucky man and -if I knew what it meant of course I had to say no for form sake dont -understand you I said and wasnt it natural so it is of course it used to -be written up with a picture of a womans on that wall in Gibraltar with -that word I couldnt find anywhere only for children seeing it too young -then writing every morning a letter sometimes twice a day I liked the way -he made love then he knew the way to take a woman when he sent me the 8 -big poppies because mine was the 8th then I wrote the night he kissed my -heart at Dolphins barn I couldnt describe it simply it makes you feel -like nothing on earth but he never knew how to embrace well like Gardner -I hope hell come on Monday as he said at the same time four I hate people -who come at all hours answer the door you think its the vegetables then -its somebody and you all undressed or the door of the filthy sloppy -kitchen blows open the day old frostyface Goodwin called about the -concert in Lombard street and I just after dinner all flushed and tossed -with boiling old stew dont look at me professor I had to say Im a fright -yes but he was a real old gent in his way it was impossible to be more -respectful nobody to say youre out you have to peep out through the blind -like the messengerboy today I thought it was a putoff first him sending -the port and the peaches first and I was just beginning to yawn with -nerves thinking he was trying to make a fool of me when I knew his -tattarrattat at the door he must have been a bit late because it was l/4 -after 3 when I saw the 2 Dedalus girls coming from school I never know -the time even that watch he gave me never seems to go properly Id want to -get it looked after when I threw the penny to that lame sailor for -England home and beauty when I was whistling there is a charming girl I -love and I hadnt even put on my clean shift or powdered myself or a thing -then this day week were to go to Belfast just as well he has to go to -Ennis his fathers anniversary the 27th it wouldnt be pleasant if he did -suppose our rooms at the hotel were beside each other and any fooling -went on in the new bed I couldnt tell him to stop and not bother me with -him in the next room or perhaps some protestant clergyman with a cough -knocking on the wall then hed never believe the next day we didnt do -something its all very well a husband but you cant fool a lover after me -telling him we never did anything of course he didnt believe me no its -better hes going where he is besides something always happens with him -the time going to the Mallow concert at Maryborough ordering boiling soup -for the two of us then the bell rang out he walks down the platform with -the soup splashing about taking spoonfuls of it hadnt he the nerve and -the waiter after him making a holy show of us screeching and confusion -for the engine to start but he wouldnt pay till he finished it the two -gentlemen in the 3rd class carriage said he was quite right so he was too -hes so pigheaded sometimes when he gets a thing into his head a good job -he was able to open the carriage door with his knife or theyd have taken -us on to Cork I suppose that was done out of revenge on him O I love -jaunting in a train or a car with lovely soft cushions I wonder will he -take a 1st class for me he might want to do it in the train by tipping -the guard well O I suppose therell be the usual idiots of men gaping at -us with their eyes as stupid as ever they can possibly be that was an -exceptional man that common workman that left us alone in the carriage -that day going to Howth Id like to find out something about him l or 2 -tunnels perhaps then you have to look out of the window all the nicer -then coming back suppose I never came back what would they say eloped -with him that gets you on on the stage the last concert I sang at where -its over a year ago when was it St Teresas hall Clarendon St little chits -of missies they have now singing Kathleen Kearney and her like on account -of father being in the army and my singing the absentminded beggar and -wearing a brooch for Lord Roberts when I had the map of it all and Poldy -not Irish enough was it him managed it this time I wouldnt put it past -him like he got me on to sing in the STABAT MATER by going around saying -he was putting Lead Kindly Light to music I put him up to that till the -jesuits found out he was a freemason thumping the piano lead Thou me on -copied from some old opera yes and he was going about with some of them -Sinner Fein lately or whatever they call themselves talking his usual -trash and nonsense he says that little man he showed me without the neck -is very intelligent the coming man Griffiths is he well he doesnt look it -thats all I can say still it must have been him he knew there was a -boycott I hate the mention of their politics after the war that Pretoria -and Ladysmith and Bloemfontein where Gardner lieut Stanley G 8th Bn 2nd -East Lancs Rgt of enteric fever he was a lovely fellow in khaki and just -the right height over me Im sure he was brave too he said I was lovely -the evening we kissed goodbye at the canal lock my Irish beauty he was -pale with excitement about going away or wed be seen from the road he -couldnt stand properly and I so hot as I never felt they could have made -their peace in the beginning or old oom Paul and the rest of the other -old Krugers go and fight it out between them instead of dragging on for -years killing any finelooking men there were with their fever if he was -even decently shot it wouldnt have been so bad I love to see a regiment -pass in review the first time I saw the Spanish cavalry at La Roque it -was lovely after looking across the bay from Algeciras all the lights of -the rock like fireflies or those sham battles on the 15 acres the Black -Watch with their kilts in time at the march past the 10th hussars the -prince of Wales own or the lancers O the lancers theyre grand or the -Dublins that won Tugela his father made his money over selling the horses -for the cavalry well he could buy me a nice present up in Belfast after -what I gave him theyve lovely linen up there or one of those nice kimono -things I must buy a mothball like I had before to keep in the drawer with -them it would be exciting going round with him shopping buying those -things in a new city better leave this ring behind want to keep turning -and turning to get it over the knuckle there or they might bell it round -the town in their papers or tell the police on me but theyd think were -married O let them all go and smother themselves for the fat lot I care -he has plenty of money and hes not a marrying man so somebody better get -it out of him if I could find out whether he likes me I looked a bit -washy of course when I looked close in the handglass powdering a mirror -never gives you the expression besides scrooching down on me like that -all the time with his big hipbones hes heavy too with his hairy chest for -this heat always having to lie down for them better for him put it into -me from behind the way Mrs Mastiansky told me her husband made her like -the dogs do it and stick out her tongue as far as ever she could and he -so quiet and mild with his tingating cither can you ever be up to men the -way it takes them lovely stuff in that blue suit he had on and stylish -tie and socks with the skyblue silk things on them hes certainly well off -I know by the cut his clothes have and his heavy watch but he was like a -perfect devil for a few minutes after he came back with the stoppress -tearing up the tickets and swearing blazes because he lost 20 quid he -said he lost over that outsider that won and half he put on for me on -account of Lenehans tip cursing him to the lowest pits that sponger he -was making free with me after the Glencree dinner coming back that long -joult over the featherbed mountain after the lord Mayor looking at me -with his dirty eyes Val Dillon that big heathen I first noticed him at -dessert when I was cracking the nuts with my teeth I wished I could have -picked every morsel of that chicken out of my fingers it was so tasty and -browned and as tender as anything only for I didnt want to eat everything -on my plate those forks and fishslicers were hallmarked silver too I wish -I had some I could easily have slipped a couple into my muff when I was -playing with them then always hanging out of them for money in a -restaurant for the bit you put down your throat we have to be thankful -for our mangy cup of tea itself as a great compliment to be noticed the -way the world is divided in any case if its going to go on I want at -least two other good chemises for one thing and but I dont know what kind -of drawers he likes none at all I think didnt he say yes and half the -girls in Gibraltar never wore them either naked as God made them that -Andalusian singing her Manola she didnt make much secret of what she -hadnt yes and the second pair of silkette stockings is laddered after one -days wear I could have brought them back to Lewers this morning and -kicked up a row and made that one change them only not to upset myself -and run the risk of walking into him and ruining the whole thing and one -of those kidfitting corsets Id want advertised cheap in the Gentlewoman -with elastic gores on the hips he saved the one I have but thats no good -what did they say they give a delightful figure line 11/6 obviating that -unsightly broad appearance across the lower back to reduce flesh my belly -is a bit too big Ill have to knock off the stout at dinner or am I -getting too fond of it the last they sent from ORourkes was as flat as a -pancake he makes his money easy Larry they call him the old mangy parcel -he sent at Xmas a cottage cake and a bottle of hogwash he tried to palm -off as claret that he couldnt get anyone to drink God spare his spit for -fear hed die of the drouth or I must do a few breathing exercises I -wonder is that antifat any good might overdo it the thin ones are not so -much the fashion now garters that much I have the violet pair I wore -today thats all he bought me out of the cheque he got on the first O no -there was the face lotion I finished the last of yesterday that made my -skin like new I told him over and over again get that made up in the same -place and dont forget it God only knows whether he did after all I said -to him Ill know by the bottle anyway if not I suppose Ill only have to -wash in my piss like beeftea or chickensoup with some of that opoponax -and violet I thought it was beginning to look coarse or old a bit the -skin underneath is much finer where it peeled off there on my finger -after the burn its a pity it isnt all like that and the four paltry -handkerchiefs about 6/- in all sure you cant get on in this world without -style all going in food and rent when I get it Ill lash it around I tell -you in fine style I always want to throw a handful of tea into the pot -measuring and mincing if I buy a pair of old brogues itself do you like -those new shoes yes how much were they Ive no clothes at all the brown -costume and the skirt and jacket and the one at the cleaners 3 whats that -for any woman cutting up this old hat and patching up the other the men -wont look at you and women try to walk on you because they know youve no -man then with all the things getting dearer every day for the 4 years -more I have of life up to 35 no Im what am I at all Ill be 33 in -September will I what O well look at that Mrs Galbraith shes much older -than me I saw her when I was out last week her beautys on the wane she -was a lovely woman magnificent head of hair on her down to her waist -tossing it back like that like Kitty OShea in Grantham street 1st thing I -did every morning to look across see her combing it as if she loved it -and was full of it pity I only got to know her the day before we left and -that Mrs Langtry the jersey lily the prince of Wales was in love with I -suppose hes like the first man going the roads only for the name of a -king theyre all made the one way only a black mans Id like to try a -beauty up to what was she 45 there was some funny story about the jealous -old husband what was it at all and an oyster knife he went no he made her -wear a kind of a tin thing round her and the prince of Wales yes he had -the oyster knife cant be true a thing like that like some of those books -he brings me the works of Master Francois Somebody supposed to be a -priest about a child born out of her ear because her bumgut fell out a -nice word for any priest to write and her a--e as if any fool wouldnt -know what that meant I hate that pretending of all things with that old -blackguards face on him anybody can see its not true and that Ruby and -Fair Tyrants he brought me that twice I remember when I came to page 50 -the part about where she hangs him up out of a hook with a cord -flagellate sure theres nothing for a woman in that all invention made up -about he drinking the champagne out of her slipper after the ball was -over like the infant Jesus in the crib at Inchicore in the Blessed -Virgins arms sure no woman could have a child that big taken out of her -and I thought first it came out of her side because how could she go to -the chamber when she wanted to and she a rich lady of course she felt -honoured H R H he was in Gibraltar the year I was born I bet he found -lilies there too where he planted the tree he planted more than that in -his time he might have planted me too if hed come a bit sooner then I -wouldnt be here as I am he ought to chuck that Freeman with the paltry -few shillings he knocks out of it and go into an office or something -where hed get regular pay or a bank where they could put him up on a -throne to count the money all the day of course he prefers plottering -about the house so you cant stir with him any side whats your programme -today I wish hed even smoke a pipe like father to get the smell of a man -or pretending to be mooching about for advertisements when he could have -been in Mr Cuffes still only for what he did then sending me to try and -patch it up I could have got him promoted there to be the manager he gave -me a great mirada once or twice first he was as stiff as the mischief -really and truly Mrs Bloom only I felt rotten simply with the old -rubbishy dress that I lost the leads out of the tails with no cut in it -but theyre coming into fashion again I bought it simply to please him I -knew it was no good by the finish pity I changed my mind of going to Todd -and Bums as I said and not Lees it was just like the shop itself rummage -sale a lot of trash I hate those rich shops get on your nerves nothing -kills me altogether only he thinks he knows a great lot about a womans -dress and cooking mathering everything he can scour off the shelves into -it if I went by his advices every blessed hat I put on does that suit me -yes take that thats alright the one like a weddingcake standing up miles -off my head he said suited me or the dishcover one coming down on my -backside on pins and needles about the shopgirl in that place in Grafton -street I had the misfortune to bring him into and she as insolent as ever -she could be with her smirk saying Im afraid were giving you too much -trouble what shes there for but I stared it out of her yes he was awfully -stiff and no wonder but he changed the second time he looked Poldy -pigheaded as usual like the soup but I could see him looking very hard at -my chest when he stood up to open the door for me it was nice of him to -show me out in any case Im extremely sorry Mrs Bloom believe me without -making it too marked the first time after him being insulted and me being -supposed to be his wife I just half smiled I know my chest was out that -way at the door when he said Im extremely sorry and Im sure you were - -yes I think he made them a bit firmer sucking them like that so long he -made me thirsty titties he calls them I had to laugh yes this one anyhow -stiff the nipple gets for the least thing Ill get him to keep that up and -Ill take those eggs beaten up with marsala fatten them out for him what -are all those veins and things curious the way its made 2 the same in -case of twins theyre supposed to represent beauty placed up there like -those statues in the museum one of them pretending to hide it with her -hand are they so beautiful of course compared with what a man looks like -with his two bags full and his other thing hanging down out of him or -sticking up at you like a hatrack no wonder they hide it with a -cabbageleaf that disgusting Cameron highlander behind the meat market or -that other wretch with the red head behind the tree where the statue of -the fish used to be when I was passing pretending he was pissing standing -out for me to see it with his babyclothes up to one side the Queens own -they were a nice lot its well the Surreys relieved them theyre always -trying to show it to you every time nearly I passed outside the mens -greenhouse near the Harcourt street station just to try some fellow or -other trying to catch my eye as if it was I of the 7 wonders of the world -O and the stink of those rotten places the night coming home with Poldy -after the Comerfords party oranges and lemonade to make you feel nice and -watery I went into r of them it was so biting cold I couldnt keep it when -was that 93 the canal was frozen yes it was a few months after a pity a -couple of the Camerons werent there to see me squatting in the mens place -meadero I tried to draw a picture of it before I tore it up like a -sausage or something I wonder theyre not afraid going about of getting a -kick or a bang of something there the woman is beauty of course thats -admitted when he said I could pose for a picture naked to some rich -fellow in Holles street when he lost the job in Helys and I was selling -the clothes and strumming in the coffee palace would I be like that bath -of the nymph with my hair down yes only shes younger or Im a little like -that dirty bitch in that Spanish photo he has nymphs used they go about -like that I asked him about her and that word met something with hoses in -it and he came out with some jawbreakers about the incarnation he never -can explain a thing simply the way a body can understand then he goes and -burns the bottom out of the pan all for his Kidney this one not so much -theres the mark of his teeth still where he tried to bite the nipple I -had to scream out arent they fearful trying to hurt you I had a great -breast of milk with Milly enough for two what was the reason of that he -said I could have got a pound a week as a wet nurse all swelled out the -morning that delicate looking student that stopped in no 28 with the -Citrons Penrose nearly caught me washing through the window only for I -snapped up the towel to my face that was his studenting hurt me they used -to weaning her till he got doctor Brady to give me the belladonna -prescription I had to get him to suck them they were so hard he said it -was sweeter and thicker than cows then he wanted to milk me into the tea -well hes beyond everything I declare somebody ought to put him in the -budget if I only could remember the I half of the things and write a book -out of it the works of Master Poldy yes and its so much smoother the skin -much an hour he was at them Im sure by the clock like some kind of a big -infant I had at me they want everything in their mouth all the pleasure -those men get out of a woman I can feel his mouth O Lord I must stretch -myself I wished he was here or somebody to let myself go with and come -again like that I feel all fire inside me or if I could dream it when he -made me spend the 2nd time tickling me behind with his finger I was -coming for about 5 minutes with my legs round him I had to hug him after -O Lord I wanted to shout out all sorts of things fuck or shit or anything -at all only not to look ugly or those lines from the strain who knows the -way hed take it you want to feel your way with a man theyre not all like -him thank God some of them want you to be so nice about it I noticed the -contrast he does it and doesnt talk I gave my eyes that look with my hair -a bit loose from the tumbling and my tongue between my lips up to him the -savage brute Thursday Friday one Saturday two Sunday three O Lord I cant -wait till Monday - -frseeeeeeeefronnnng train somewhere whistling the strength those engines -have in them like big giants and the water rolling all over and out of -them all sides like the end of Loves old sweeeetsonnnng the poor men that -have to be out all the night from their wives and families in those -roasting engines stifling it was today Im glad I burned the half of those -old Freemans and Photo Bits leaving things like that lying about hes -getting very careless and threw the rest of them up in the W C Ill get -him to cut them tomorrow for me instead of having them there for the next -year to get a few pence for them have him asking wheres last Januarys -paper and all those old overcoats I bundled out of the hall making the -place hotter than it is that rain was lovely and refreshing just after my -beauty sleep I thought it was going to get like Gibraltar my goodness the -heat there before the levanter came on black as night and the glare of -the rock standing up in it like a big giant compared with their 3 Rock -mountain they think is so great with the red sentries here and there the -poplars and they all whitehot and the smell of the rainwater in those -tanks watching the sun all the time weltering down on you faded all that -lovely frock fathers friend Mrs Stanhope sent me from the B Marche paris -what a shame my dearest Doggerina she wrote on it she was very nice whats -this her other name was just a p c to tell you I sent the little present -have just had a jolly warm bath and feel a very clean dog now enjoyed it -wogger she called him wogger wd give anything to be back in Gib and hear -you sing Waiting and in old Madrid Concone is the name of those exercises -he bought me one of those new some word I couldnt make out shawls amusing -things but tear for the least thing still there lovely I think dont you -will always think of the lovely teas we had together scrumptious currant -scones and raspberry wafers I adore well now dearest Doggerina be sure -and write soon kind she left out regards to your father also captain -Grove with love yrs affly Hester x x x x x she didnt look a bit married -just like a girl he was years older than her wogger he was awfully fond -of me when he held down the wire with his foot for me to step over at the -bullfight at La Linea when that matador Gomez was given the bulls ear -these clothes we have to wear whoever invented them expecting you to walk -up Killiney hill then for example at that picnic all staysed up you cant -do a blessed thing in them in a crowd run or jump out of the way thats -why I was afraid when that other ferocious old Bull began to charge the -banderilleros with the sashes and the 2 things in their hats and the -brutes of men shouting bravo toro sure the women were as bad in their -nice white mantillas ripping all the whole insides out of those poor -horses I never heard of such a thing in all my life yes he used to break -his heart at me taking off the dog barking in bell lane poor brute and it -sick what became of them ever I suppose theyre dead long ago the 2 of -them its like all through a mist makes you feel so old I made the scones -of course I had everything all to myself then a girl Hester we used to -compare our hair mine was thicker than hers she showed me how to settle -it at the back when I put it up and whats this else how to make a knot on -a thread with the one hand we were like cousins what age was I then the -night of the storm I slept in her bed she had her arms round me then we -were fighting in the morning with the pillow what fun he was watching me -whenever he got an opportunity at the band on the Alameda esplanade when -I was with father and captain Grove I looked up at the church first and -then at the windows then down and our eyes met I felt something go -through me like all needles my eyes were dancing I remember after when I -looked at myself in the glass hardly recognised myself the change he was -attractive to a girl in spite of his being a little bald intelligent -looking disappointed and gay at the same time he was like Thomas in the -shadow of Ashlydyat I had a splendid skin from the sun and the excitement -like a rose I didnt get a wink of sleep it wouldnt have been nice on -account of her but I could have stopped it in time she gave me the -Moonstone to read that was the first I read of Wilkie Collins East Lynne -I read and the shadow of Ashlydyat Mrs Henry Wood Henry Dunbar by that -other woman I lent him afterwards with Mulveys photo in it so as he see I -wasnt without and Lord Lytton Eugene Aram Molly bawn she gave me by Mrs -Hungerford on account of the name I dont like books with a Molly in them -like that one he brought me about the one from Flanders a whore always -shoplifting anything she could cloth and stuff and yards of it O this -blanket is too heavy on me thats better I havent even one decent -nightdress this thing gets all rolled under me besides him and his -fooling thats better I used to be weltering then in the heat my shift -drenched with the sweat stuck in the cheeks of my bottom on the chair -when I stood up they were so fattish and firm when I got up on the sofa -cushions to see with my clothes up and the bugs tons of them at night and -the mosquito nets I couldnt read a line Lord how long ago it seems -centuries of course they never came back and she didnt put her address -right on it either she may have noticed her wogger people were always -going away and we never I remember that day with the waves and the boats -with their high heads rocking and the smell of ship those Officers -uniforms on shore leave made me seasick he didnt say anything he was very -serious I had the high buttoned boots on and my skirt was blowing she -kissed me six or seven times didnt I cry yes I believe I did or near it -my lips were taittering when I said goodbye she had a Gorgeous wrap of -some special kind of blue colour on her for the voyage made very -peculiarly to one side like and it was extremely pretty it got as dull as -the devil after they went I was almost planning to run away mad out of it -somewhere were never easy where we are father or aunt or marriage waiting -always waiting to guiiiide him toooo me waiting nor speeeed his flying -feet their damn guns bursting and booming all over the shop especially -the Queens birthday and throwing everything down in all directions if you -didnt open the windows when general Ulysses Grant whoever he was or did -supposed to be some great fellow landed off the ship and old Sprague the -consul that was there from before the flood dressed up poor man and he in -mourning for the son then the same old bugles for reveille in the morning -and drums rolling and the unfortunate poor devils of soldiers walking -about with messtins smelling the place more than the old longbearded jews -in their jellibees and levites assembly and sound clear and gunfire for -the men to cross the lines and the warden marching with his keys to lock -the gates and the bagpipes and only captain Groves and father talking -about Rorkes drift and Plevna and sir Garnet Wolseley and Gordon at -Khartoum lighting their pipes for them everytime they went out drunken -old devil with his grog on the windowsill catch him leaving any of it -picking his nose trying to think of some other dirty story to tell up in -a corner but he never forgot himself when I was there sending me out of -the room on some blind excuse paying his compliments the Bushmills whisky -talking of course but hed do the same to the next woman that came along I -suppose he died of galloping drink ages ago the days like years not a -letter from a living soul except the odd few I posted to myself with bits -of paper in them so bored sometimes I could fight with my nails listening -to that old Arab with the one eye and his heass of an instrument singing -his heah heah aheah all my compriments on your hotchapotch of your heass -as bad as now with the hands hanging off me looking out of the window if -there was a nice fellow even in the opposite house that medical in Holles -street the nurse was after when I put on my gloves and hat at the window -to show I was going out not a notion what I meant arent they thick never -understand what you say even youd want to print it up on a big poster for -them not even if you shake hands twice with the left he didnt recognise -me either when I half frowned at him outside Westland row chapel where -does their great intelligence come in Id like to know grey matter they -have it all in their tail if you ask me those country gougers up in the -City Arms intelligence they had a damn sight less than the bulls and cows -they were selling the meat and the coalmans bell that noisy bugger trying -to swindle me with the wrong bill he took out of his hat what a pair of -paws and pots and pans and kettles to mend any broken bottles for a poor -man today and no visitors or post ever except his cheques or some -advertisement like that wonderworker they sent him addressed dear Madam -only his letter and the card from Milly this morning see she wrote a -letter to him who did I get the last letter from O Mrs Dwenn now what -possessed her to write from Canada after so many years to know the recipe -I had for pisto madrileno Floey Dillon since she wrote to say she was -married to a very rich architect if Im to believe all I hear with a villa -and eight rooms her father was an awfully nice man he was near seventy -always goodhumoured well now Miss Tweedy or Miss Gillespie theres the -piannyer that was a solid silver coffee service he had too on the -mahogany sideboard then dying so far away I hate people that have always -their poor story to tell everybody has their own troubles that poor Nancy -Blake died a month ago of acute neumonia well I didnt know her so well as -all that she was Floeys friend more than mine poor Nancy its a bother -having to answer he always tells me the wrong things and no stops to say -like making a speech your sad bereavement symphathy I always make that -mistake and newphew with 2 double yous in I hope hell write me a longer -letter the next time if its a thing he really likes me O thanks be to the -great God I got somebody to give me what I badly wanted to put some heart -up into me youve no chances at all in this place like you used long ago I -wish somebody would write me a loveletter his wasnt much and I told him -he could write what he liked yours ever Hugh Boylan in old Madrid stuff -silly women believe love is sighing I am dying still if he wrote it I -suppose thered be some truth in it true or no it fills up your whole day -and life always something to think about every moment and see it all -round you like a new world I could write the answer in bed to let him -imagine me short just a few words not those long crossed letters Atty -Dillon used to write to the fellow that was something in the four courts -that jilted her after out of the ladies letterwriter when I told her to -say a few simple words he could twist how he liked not acting with -precipat precip itancy with equal candour the greatest earthly happiness -answer to a gentlemans proposal affirmatively my goodness theres nothing -else its all very fine for them but as for being a woman as soon as youre -old they might as well throw you out in the bottom of the ashpit. - -Mulveys was the first when I was in bed that morning and Mrs Rubio -brought it in with the coffee she stood there standing when I asked her -to hand me and I pointing at them I couldnt think of the word a hairpin -to open it with ah horquilla disobliging old thing and it staring her in -the face with her switch of false hair on her and vain about her -appearance ugly as she was near 80 or a 100 her face a mass of wrinkles -with all her religion domineering because she never could get over the -Atlantic fleet coming in half the ships of the world and the Union Jack -flying with all her carabineros because 4 drunken English sailors took -all the rock from them and because I didnt run into mass often enough in -Santa Maria to please her with her shawl up on her except when there was -a marriage on with all her miracles of the saints and her black blessed -virgin with the silver dress and the sun dancing 3 times on Easter Sunday -morning and when the priest was going by with the bell bringing the -vatican to the dying blessing herself for his Majestad an admirer he -signed it I near jumped out of my skin I wanted to pick him up when I saw -him following me along the Calle Real in the shop window then he tipped -me just in passing but I never thought hed write making an appointment I -had it inside my petticoat bodice all day reading it up in every hole and -corner while father was up at the drill instructing to find out by the -handwriting or the language of stamps singing I remember shall I wear a -white rose and I wanted to put on the old stupid clock to near the time -he was the first man kissed me under the Moorish wall my sweetheart when -a boy it never entered my head what kissing meant till he put his tongue -in my mouth his mouth was sweetlike young I put my knee up to him a few -times to learn the way what did I tell him I was engaged for for fun to -the son of a Spanish nobleman named Don Miguel de la Flora and he -believed me that I was to be married to him in 3 years time theres many a -true word spoken in jest there is a flower that bloometh a few things I -told him true about myself just for him to be imagining the Spanish girls -he didnt like I suppose one of them wouldnt have him I got him excited he -crushed all the flowers on my bosom he brought me he couldnt count the -pesetas and the perragordas till I taught him Cappoquin he came from he -said on the black water but it was too short then the day before he left -May yes it was May when the infant king of Spain was born Im always like -that in the spring Id like a new fellow every year up on the tiptop under -the rockgun near OHaras tower I told him it was struck by lightning and -all about the old Barbary apes they sent to Clapham without a tail -careering all over the show on each others back Mrs Rubio said she was a -regular old rock scorpion robbing the chickens out of Inces farm and -throw stones at you if you went anear he was looking at me I had that -white blouse on open in the front to encourage him as much as I could -without too openly they were just beginning to be plump I said I was -tired we lay over the firtree cove a wild place I suppose it must be the -highest rock in existence the galleries and casemates and those frightful -rocks and Saint Michaels cave with the icicles or whatever they call them -hanging down and ladders all the mud plotching my boots Im sure thats the -way down the monkeys go under the sea to Africa when they die the ships -out far like chips that was the Malta boat passing yes the sea and the -sky you could do what you liked lie there for ever he caressed them -outside they love doing that its the roundness there I was leaning over -him with my white ricestraw hat to take the newness out of it the left -side of my face the best my blouse open for his last day transparent kind -of shirt he had I could see his chest pink he wanted to touch mine with -his for a moment but I wouldnt lee him he was awfully put out first for -fear you never know consumption or leave me with a child embarazada that -old servant Ines told me that one drop even if it got into you at all -after I tried with the Banana but I was afraid it might break and get -lost up in me somewhere because they once took something down out of a -woman that was up there for years covered with limesalts theyre all mad -to get in there where they come out of youd think they could never go far -enough up and then theyre done with you in a way till the next time yes -because theres a wonderful feeling there so tender all the time how did -we finish it off yes O yes I pulled him off into my handkerchief -pretending not to be excited but I opened my legs I wouldnt let him touch -me inside my petticoat because I had a skirt opening up the side I -tormented the life out of him first tickling him I loved rousing that dog -in the hotel rrrsssstt awokwokawok his eyes shut and a bird flying below -us he was shy all the same I liked him like that moaning I made him blush -a little when I got over him that way when I unbuttoned him and took his -out and drew back the skin it had a kind of eye in it theyre all Buttons -men down the middle on the wrong side of them Molly darling he called me -what was his name Jack Joe Harry Mulvey was it yes I think a lieutenant -he was rather fair he had a laughing kind of a voice so I went round to -the whatyoucallit everything was whatyoucallit moustache had he he said -hed come back Lord its just like yesterday to me and if I was married hed -do it to me and I promised him yes faithfully Id let him block me now -flying perhaps hes dead or killed or a captain or admiral its nearly 20 -years if I said firtree cove he would if he came up behind me and put his -hands over my eyes to guess who I might recognise him hes young still -about 40 perhaps hes married some girl on the black water and is quite -changed they all do they havent half the character a woman has she little -knows what I did with her beloved husband before he ever dreamt of her in -broad daylight too in the sight of the whole world you might say they -could have put an article about it in the Chronicle I was a bit wild -after when I blew out the old bag the biscuits were in from Benady Bros -and exploded it Lord what a bang all the woodcocks and pigeons screaming -coming back the same way that we went over middle hill round by the old -guardhouse and the jews burialplace pretending to read out the Hebrew on -them I wanted to fire his pistol he said he hadnt one he didnt know what -to make of me with his peak cap on that he always wore crooked as often -as I settled it straight H M S Calypso swinging my hat that old Bishop -that spoke off the altar his long preach about womans higher functions -about girls now riding the bicycle and wearing peak caps and the new -woman bloomers God send him sense and me more money I suppose theyre -called after him I never thought that would be my name Bloom when I used -to write it in print to see how it looked on a visiting card or -practising for the butcher and oblige M Bloom youre looking blooming -Josie used to say after I married him well its better than Breen or -Briggs does brig or those awful names with bottom in them Mrs Ramsbottom -or some other kind of a bottom Mulvey I wouldnt go mad about either or -suppose I divorced him Mrs Boylan my mother whoever she was might have -given me a nicer name the Lord knows after the lovely one she had Lunita -Laredo the fun we had running along Williss road to Europa point twisting -in and out all round the other side of Jersey they were shaking and -dancing about in my blouse like Millys little ones now when she runs up -the stairs I loved looking down at them I was jumping up at the pepper -trees and the white poplars pulling the leaves off and throwing them at -him he went to India he was to write the voyages those men have to make -to the ends of the world and back its the least they might get a squeeze -or two at a woman while they can going out to be drowned or blown up -somewhere I went up Windmill hill to the flats that Sunday morning with -captain Rubios that was dead spyglass like the sentry had he said hed -have one or two from on board I wore that frock from the B Marche paris -and the coral necklace the straits shining I could see over to Morocco -almost the bay of Tangier white and the Atlas mountain with snow on it -and the straits like a river so clear Harry Molly darling I was thinking -of him on the sea all the time after at mass when my petticoat began to -slip down at the elevation weeks and weeks I kept the handkerchief under -my pillow for the smell of him there was no decent perfume to be got in -that Gibraltar only that cheap peau despagne that faded and left a stink -on you more than anything else I wanted to give him a memento he gave me -that clumsy Claddagh ring for luck that I gave Gardner going to south -Africa where those Boers killed him with their war and fever but they -were well beaten all the same as if it brought its bad luck with it like -an opal or pearl still it must have been pure 18 carrot gold because it -was very heavy but what could you get in a place like that the sandfrog -shower from Africa and that derelict ship that came up to the harbour -Marie the Marie whatyoucallit no he hadnt a moustache that was Gardner -yes I can see his face cleanshaven Frseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeefrong that -train again weeping tone once in the dear deaead days beyondre call close -my eyes breath my lips forward kiss sad look eyes open piano ere oer the -world the mists began I hate that istsbeg comes loves sweet -sooooooooooong Ill let that out full when I get in front of the -footlights again Kathleen Kearney and her lot of squealers Miss This Miss -That Miss Theother lot of sparrowfarts skitting around talking about -politics they know as much about as my backside anything in the world to -make themselves someway interesting Irish homemade beauties soldiers -daughter am I ay and whose are you bootmakers and publicans I beg your -pardon coach I thought you were a wheelbarrow theyd die down dead off -their feet if ever they got a chance of walking down the Alameda on an -officers arm like me on the bandnight my eyes flash my bust that they -havent passion God help their poor head I knew more about men and life -when I was I S than theyll all know at 50 they dont know how to sing a -song like that Gardner said no man could look at my mouth and teeth -smiling like that and not think of it I was afraid he mightnt like my -accent first he so English all father left me in spite of his stamps Ive -my mothers eyes and figure anyhow he always said theyre so snotty about -themselves some of those cads he wasnt a bit like that he was dead gone -on my lips let them get a husband first thats fit to be looked at and a -daughter like mine or see if they can excite a swell with money that can -pick and choose whoever he wants like Boylan to do it 4 or 5 times locked -in each others arms or the voice either I could have been a prima donna -only I married him comes looooves old deep down chin back not too much -make it double My Ladys Bower is too long for an encore about the moated -grange at twilight and vaunted rooms yes Ill sing Winds that blow from -the south that he gave after the choirstairs performance Ill change that -lace on my black dress to show off my bubs and Ill yes by God Ill get -that big fan mended make them burst with envy my hole is itching me -always when I think of him I feel I want to I feel some wind in me better -go easy not wake him have him at it again slobbering after washing every -bit of myself back belly and sides if we had even a bath itself or my own -room anyway I wish hed sleep in some bed by himself with his cold feet on -me give us room even to let a fart God or do the least thing better yes -hold them like that a bit on my side piano quietly sweeeee theres that -train far away pianissimo eeeee one more song - -that was a relief wherever you be let your wind go free who knows if that -pork chop I took with my cup of tea after was quite good with the heat I -couldnt smell anything off it Im sure that queerlooking man in the -porkbutchers is a great rogue I hope that lamp is not smoking fill my -nose up with smuts better than having him leaving the gas on all night I -couldnt rest easy in my bed in Gibraltar even getting up to see why am I -so damned nervous about that though I like it in the winter its more -company O Lord it was rotten cold too that winter when I was only about -ten was I yes I had the big doll with all the funny clothes dressing her -up and undressing that icy wind skeeting across from those mountains the -something Nevada sierra nevada standing at the fire with the little bit -of a short shift I had up to heat myself I loved dancing about in it then -make a race back into bed Im sure that fellow opposite used to be there -the whole time watching with the lights out in the summer and I in my -skin hopping around I used to love myself then stripped at the washstand -dabbing and creaming only when it came to the chamber performance I put -out the light too so then there were 2 of us goodbye to my sleep for this -night anyhow I hope hes not going to get in with those medicals leading -him astray to imagine hes young again coming in at 4 in the morning it -must be if not more still he had the manners not to wake me what do they -find to gabber about all night squandering money and getting drunker and -drunker couldnt they drink water then he starts giving us his orders for -eggs and tea and Findon haddy and hot buttered toast I suppose well have -him sitting up like the king of the country pumping the wrong end of the -spoon up and down in his egg wherever he learned that from and I love to -hear him falling up the stairs of a morning with the cups rattling on the -tray and then play with the cat she rubs up against you for her own sake -I wonder has she fleas shes as bad as a woman always licking and lecking -but I hate their claws I wonder do they see anything that we cant staring -like that when she sits at the top of the stairs so long and listening as -I wait always what a robber too that lovely fresh place I bought I think -Ill get a bit of fish tomorrow or today is it Friday yes I will with some -blancmange with black currant jam like long ago not those 2 lb pots of -mixed plum and apple from the London and Newcastle Williams and Woods -goes twice as far only for the bones I hate those eels cod yes Ill get a -nice piece of cod Im always getting enough for 3 forgetting anyway Im -sick of that everlasting butchers meat from Buckleys loin chops and leg -beef and rib steak and scrag of mutton and calfs pluck the very name is -enough or a picnic suppose we all gave 5/- each and or let him pay it and -invite some other woman for him who Mrs Fleming and drove out to the -furry glen or the strawberry beds wed have him examining all the horses -toenails first like he does with the letters no not with Boylan there yes -with some cold veal and ham mixed sandwiches there are little houses down -at the bottom of the banks there on purpose but its as hot as blazes he -says not a bank holiday anyhow I hate those ruck of Mary Ann coalboxes -out for the day Whit Monday is a cursed day too no wonder that bee bit -him better the seaside but Id never again in this life get into a boat -with him after him at Bray telling the boatman he knew how to row if -anyone asked could he ride the steeplechase for the gold cup hed say yes -then it came on to get rough the old thing crookeding about and the -weight all down my side telling me pull the right reins now pull the left -and the tide all swamping in floods in through the bottom and his oar -slipping out of the stirrup its a mercy we werent all drowned he can swim -of course me no theres no danger whatsoever keep yourself calm in his -flannel trousers Id like to have tattered them down off him before all -the people and give him what that one calls flagellate till he was black -and blue do him all the good in the world only for that longnosed chap I -dont know who he is with that other beauty Burke out of the City Arms -hotel was there spying around as usual on the slip always where he wasnt -wanted if there was a row on youd vomit a better face there was no love -lost between us thats 1 consolation I wonder what kind is that book he -brought me Sweets of Sin by a gentleman of fashion some other Mr de Kock -I suppose the people gave him that nickname going about with his tube -from one woman to another I couldnt even change my new white shoes all -ruined with the saltwater and the hat I had with that feather all blowy -and tossed on me how annoying and provoking because the smell of the sea -excited me of course the sardines and the bream in Catalan bay round the -back of the rock they were fine all silver in the fishermens baskets old -Luigi near a hundred they said came from Genoa and the tall old chap with -the earrings I dont like a man you have to climb up to to get at I -suppose theyre all dead and rotten long ago besides I dont like being -alone in this big barracks of a place at night I suppose Ill have to put -up with it I never brought a bit of salt in even when we moved in the -confusion musical academy he was going to make on the first floor -drawingroom with a brassplate or Blooms private hotel he suggested go and -ruin himself altogether the way his father did down in Ennis like all the -things he told father he was going to do and me but I saw through him -telling me all the lovely places we could go for the honeymoon Venice by -moonlight with the gondolas and the lake of Como he had a picture cut out -of some paper of and mandolines and lanterns O how nice I said whatever I -liked he was going to do immediately if not sooner will you be my man -will you carry my can he ought to get a leather medal with a putty rim -for all the plans he invents then leaving us here all day youd never know -what old beggar at the door for a crust with his long story might be a -tramp and put his foot in the way to prevent me shutting it like that -picture of that hardened criminal he was called in Lloyds Weekly news 20 -years in jail then he comes out and murders an old woman for her money -imagine his poor wife or mother or whoever she is such a face youd run -miles away from I couldnt rest easy till I bolted all the doors and -windows to make sure but its worse again being locked up like in a prison -or a madhouse they ought to be all shot or the cat of nine tails a big -brute like that that would attack a poor old woman to murder her in her -bed Id cut them off him so I would not that hed be much use still better -than nothing the night I was sure I heard burglars in the kitchen and he -went down in his shirt with a candle and a poker as if he was looking for -a mouse as white as a sheet frightened out of his wits making as much -noise as he possibly could for the burglars benefit there isnt much to -steal indeed the Lord knows still its the feeling especially now with -Milly away such an idea for him to send the girl down there to learn to -take photographs on account of his grandfather instead of sending her to -Skerrys academy where shed have to learn not like me getting all IS at -school only hed do a thing like that all the same on account of me and -Boylan thats why he did it Im certain the way he plots and plans -everything out I couldnt turn round with her in the place lately unless I -bolted the door first gave me the fidgets coming in without knocking -first when I put the chair against the door just as I was washing myself -there below with the glove get on your nerves then doing the loglady all -day put her in a glasscase with two at a time to look at her if he knew -she broke off the hand off that little gimcrack statue with her roughness -and carelessness before she left that I got that little Italian boy to -mend so that you cant see the join for 2 shillings wouldnt even teem the -potatoes for you of course shes right not to ruin her hands I noticed he -was always talking to her lately at the table explaining things in the -paper and she pretending to understand sly of course that comes from his -side of the house he cant say I pretend things can he Im too honest as a -matter of fact and helping her into her coat but if there was anything -wrong with her its me shed tell not him I suppose he thinks Im finished -out and laid on the shelf well Im not no nor anything like it well see -well see now shes well on for flirting too with Tom Devans two sons -imitating me whistling with those romps of Murray girls calling for her -can Milly come out please shes in great demand to pick what they can out -of her round in Nelson street riding Harry Devans bicycle at night its as -well he sent her where she is she was just getting out of bounds wanting -to go on the skatingrink and smoking their cigarettes through their nose -I smelt it off her dress when I was biting off the thread of the button I -sewed on to the bottom of her jacket she couldnt hide much from me I tell -you only I oughtnt to have stitched it and it on her it brings a parting -and the last plumpudding too split in 2 halves see it comes out no matter -what they say her tongue is a bit too long for my taste your blouse is -open too low she says to me the pan calling the kettle blackbottom and I -had to tell her not to cock her legs up like that on show on the -windowsill before all the people passing they all look at her like me -when I was her age of course any old rag looks well on you then a great -touchmenot too in her own way at the Only Way in the Theatre royal take -your foot away out of that I hate people touching me afraid of her life -Id crush her skirt with the pleats a lot of that touching must go on in -theatres in the crush in the dark theyre always trying to wiggle up to -you that fellow in the pit at the Gaiety for Beerbohm Tree in Trilby the -last time Ill ever go there to be squashed like that for any Trilby or -her barebum every two minutes tipping me there and looking away hes a bit -daft I think I saw him after trying to get near two stylishdressed ladies -outside Switzers window at the same little game I recognised him on the -moment the face and everything but he didnt remember me yes and she didnt -even want me to kiss her at the Broadstone going away well I hope shell -get someone to dance attendance on her the way I did when she was down -with the mumps and her glands swollen wheres this and wheres that of -course she cant feel anything deep yet I never came properly till I was -what 22 or so it went into the wrong place always only the usual girls -nonsense and giggling that Conny Connolly writing to her in white ink on -black paper sealed with sealingwax though she clapped when the curtain -came down because he looked so handsome then we had Martin Harvey for -breakfast dinner and supper I thought to myself afterwards it must be -real love if a man gives up his life for her that way for nothing I -suppose there are a few men like that left its hard to believe in it -though unless it really happened to me the majority of them with not a -particle of love in their natures to find two people like that nowadays -full up of each other that would feel the same way as you do theyre -usually a bit foolish in the head his father must have been a bit queer -to go and poison himself after her still poor old man I suppose he felt -lost shes always making love to my things too the few old rags I have -wanting to put her hair up at I S my powder too only ruin her skin on her -shes time enough for that all her life after of course shes restless -knowing shes pretty with her lips so red a pity they wont stay that way I -was too but theres no use going to the fair with the thing answering me -like a fishwoman when I asked to go for a half a stone of potatoes the -day we met Mrs Joe Gallaher at the trottingmatches and she pretended not -to see us in her trap with Friery the solicitor we werent grand enough -till I gave her 2 damn fine cracks across the ear for herself take that -now for answering me like that and that for your impudence she had me -that exasperated of course contradicting I was badtempered too because -how was it there was a weed in the tea or I didnt sleep the night before -cheese I ate was it and I told her over and over again not to leave -knives crossed like that because she has nobody to command her as she -said herself well if he doesnt correct her faith I will that was the last -time she turned on the teartap I was just like that myself they darent -order me about the place its his fault of course having the two of us -slaving here instead of getting in a woman long ago am I ever going to -have a proper servant again of course then shed see him coming Id have to -let her know or shed revenge it arent they a nuisance that old Mrs -Fleming you have to be walking round after her putting the things into -her hands sneezing and farting into the pots well of course shes old she -cant help it a good job I found that rotten old smelly dishcloth that got -lost behind the dresser I knew there was something and opened the area -window to let out the smell bringing in his friends to entertain them -like the night he walked home with a dog if you please that might have -been mad especially Simon Dedalus son his father such a criticiser with -his glasses up with his tall hat on him at the cricket match and a great -big hole in his sock one thing laughing at the other and his son that got -all those prizes for whatever he won them in the intermediate imagine -climbing over the railings if anybody saw him that knew us I wonder he -didnt tear a big hole in his grand funeral trousers as if the one nature -gave wasnt enough for anybody hawking him down into the dirty old kitchen -now is he right in his head I ask pity it wasnt washing day my old pair -of drawers might have been hanging up too on the line on exhibition for -all hed ever care with the ironmould mark the stupid old bundle burned on -them he might think was something else and she never even rendered down -the fat I told her and now shes going such as she was on account of her -paralysed husband getting worse theres always something wrong with them -disease or they have to go under an operation or if its not that its -drink and he beats her Ill have to hunt around again for someone every -day I get up theres some new thing on sweet God sweet God well when Im -stretched out dead in my grave I suppose Ill have some peace I want to -get up a minute if Im let wait O Jesus wait yes that thing has come on me -yes now wouldnt that afflict you of course all the poking and rooting and -ploughing he had up in me now what am I to do Friday Saturday Sunday -wouldnt that pester the soul out of a body unless he likes it some men do -God knows theres always something wrong with us 5 days every 3 or 4 weeks -usual monthly auction isnt it simply sickening that night it came on me -like that the one and only time we were in a box that Michael Gunn gave -him to see Mrs Kendal and her husband at the Gaiety something he did -about insurance for him in Drimmies I was fit to be tied though I wouldnt -give in with that gentleman of fashion staring down at me with his -glasses and him the other side of me talking about Spinoza and his soul -thats dead I suppose millions of years ago I smiled the best I could all -in a swamp leaning forward as if I was interested having to sit it out -then to the last tag I wont forget that wife of Scarli in a hurry -supposed to be a fast play about adultery that idiot in the gallery -hissing the woman adulteress he shouted I suppose he went and had a woman -in the next lane running round all the back ways after to make up for it -I wish he had what I had then hed boo I bet the cat itself is better off -than us have we too much blood up in us or what O patience above its -pouring out of me like the sea anyhow he didnt make me pregnant as big as -he is I dont want to ruin the clean sheets I just put on I suppose the -clean linen I wore brought it on too damn it damn it and they always want -to see a stain on the bed to know youre a virgin for them all thats -troubling them theyre such fools too you could be a widow or divorced 40 -times over a daub of red ink would do or blackberry juice no thats too -purply O Jamesy let me up out of this pooh sweets of sin whoever -suggested that business for women what between clothes and cooking and -children this damned old bed too jingling like the dickens I suppose they -could hear us away over the other side of the park till I suggested to -put the quilt on the floor with the pillow under my bottom I wonder is it -nicer in the day I think it is easy I think Ill cut all this hair off me -there scalding me I might look like a young girl wouldnt he get the great -suckin the next time he turned up my clothes on me Id give anything to -see his face wheres the chamber gone easy Ive a holy horror of its -breaking under me after that old commode I wonder was I too heavy sitting -on his knee I made him sit on the easychair purposely when I took off -only my blouse and skirt first in the other room he was so busy where he -oughtnt to be he never felt me I hope my breath was sweet after those -kissing comfits easy God I remember one time I could scout it out -straight whistling like a man almost easy O Lord how noisy I hope theyre -bubbles on it for a wad of money from some fellow Ill have to perfume it -in the morning dont forget I bet he never saw a better pair of thighs -than that look how white they are the smoothest place is right there -between this bit here how soft like a peach easy God I wouldnt mind being -a man and get up on a lovely woman O Lord what a row youre making like -the jersey lily easy easy O how the waters come down at Lahore - -who knows is there anything the matter with my insides or have I -something growing in me getting that thing like that every week when was -it last I Whit Monday yes its only about 3 weeks I ought to go to the -doctor only it would be like before I married him when I had that white -thing coming from me and Floey made me go to that dry old stick Dr -Collins for womens diseases on Pembroke road your vagina he called it I -suppose thats how he got all the gilt mirrors and carpets getting round -those rich ones off Stephens green running up to him for every little -fiddlefaddle her vagina and her cochinchina theyve money of course so -theyre all right I wouldnt marry him not if he was the last man in the -world besides theres something queer about their children always smelling -around those filthy bitches all sides asking me if what I did had an -offensive odour what did he want me to do but the one thing gold maybe -what a question if I smathered it all over his wrinkly old face for him -with all my compriments I suppose hed know then and could you pass it -easily pass what I thought he was talking about the rock of Gibraltar the -way he put it thats a very nice invention too by the way only I like -letting myself down after in the hole as far as I can squeeze and pull -the chain then to flush it nice cool pins and needles still theres -something in it I suppose I always used to know by Millys when she was a -child whether she had worms or not still all the same paying him for that -how much is that doctor one guinea please and asking me had I frequent -omissions where do those old fellows get all the words they have -omissions with his shortsighted eyes on me cocked sideways I wouldnt -trust him too far to give me chloroform or God knows what else still I -liked him when he sat down to write the thing out frowning so severe his -nose intelligent like that you be damned you lying strap O anything no -matter who except an idiot he was clever enough to spot that of course -that was all thinking of him and his mad crazy letters my Precious one -everything connected with your glorious Body everything underlined that -comes from it is a thing of beauty and of joy for ever something he got -out of some nonsensical book that he had me always at myself 4 and 5 -times a day sometimes and I said I hadnt are you sure O yes I said I am -quite sure in a way that shut him up I knew what was coming next only -natural weakness it was he excited me I dont know how the first night -ever we met when I was living in Rehoboth terrace we stood staring at one -another for about 10 minutes as if we met somewhere I suppose on account -of my being jewess looking after my mother he used to amuse me the things -he said with the half sloothering smile on him and all the Doyles said he -was going to stand for a member of Parliament O wasnt I the born fool to -believe all his blather about home rule and the land league sending me -that long strool of a song out of the Huguenots to sing in French to be -more classy O beau pays de la Touraine that I never even sang once -explaining and rigmaroling about religion and persecution he wont let you -enjoy anything naturally then might he as a great favour the very 1st -opportunity he got a chance in Brighton square running into my bedroom -pretending the ink got on his hands to wash it off with the Albion milk -and sulphur soap I used to use and the gelatine still round it O I -laughed myself sick at him that day I better not make an alnight sitting -on this affair they ought to make chambers a natural size so that a woman -could sit on it properly he kneels down to do it I suppose there isnt in -all creation another man with the habits he has look at the way hes -sleeping at the foot of the bed how can he without a hard bolster its -well he doesnt kick or he might knock out all my teeth breathing with his -hand on his nose like that Indian god he took me to show one wet Sunday -in the museum in Kildare street all yellow in a pinafore lying on his -side on his hand with his ten toes sticking out that he said was a bigger -religion than the jews and Our Lords both put together all over Asia -imitating him as hes always imitating everybody I suppose he used to -sleep at the foot of the bed too with his big square feet up in his wifes -mouth damn this stinking thing anyway wheres this those napkins are ah -yes I know I hope the old press doesnt creak ah I knew it would hes -sleeping hard had a good time somewhere still she must have given him -great value for his money of course he has to pay for it from her O this -nuisance of a thing I hope theyll have something better for us in the -other world tying ourselves up God help us thats all right for tonight -now the lumpy old jingly bed always reminds me of old Cohen I suppose he -scratched himself in it often enough and he thinks father bought it from -Lord Napier that I used to admire when I was a little girl because I told -him easy piano O I like my bed God here we are as bad as ever after 16 -years how many houses were we in at all Raymond terrace and Ontario -terrace and Lombard street and Holles street and he goes about whistling -every time were on the run again his huguenots or the frogs march -pretending to help the men with our 4 sticks of furniture and then the -City Arms hotel worse and worse says Warden Daly that charming place on -the landing always somebody inside praying then leaving all their stinks -after them always know who was in there last every time were just getting -on right something happens or he puts his big foot in it Thoms and Helys -and Mr Cuffes and Drimmies either hes going to be run into prison over -his old lottery tickets that was to be all our salvations or he goes and -gives impudence well have him coming home with the sack soon out of the -Freeman too like the rest on account of those Sinner Fein or the -freemasons then well see if the little man he showed me dribbling along -in the wet all by himself round by Coadys lane will give him much -consolation that he says is so capable and sincerely Irish he is indeed -judging by the sincerity of the trousers I saw on him wait theres Georges -church bells wait 3 quarters the hour l wait 2 oclock well thats a nice -hour of the night for him to be coming home at to anybody climbing down -into the area if anybody saw him Ill knock him off that little habit -tomorrow first Ill look at his shirt to see or Ill see if he has that -French letter still in his pocketbook I suppose he thinks I dont know -deceitful men all their 20 pockets arent enough for their lies then why -should we tell them even if its the truth they dont believe you then -tucked up in bed like those babies in the Aristocrats Masterpiece he -brought me another time as if we hadnt enough of that in real life -without some old Aristocrat or whatever his name is disgusting you more -with those rotten pictures children with two heads and no legs thats the -kind of villainy theyre always dreaming about with not another thing in -their empty heads they ought to get slow poison the half of them then tea -and toast for him buttered on both sides and newlaid eggs I suppose Im -nothing any more when I wouldnt let him lick me in Holles street one -night man man tyrant as ever for the one thing he slept on the floor half -the night naked the way the jews used when somebody dies belonged to them -and wouldnt eat any breakfast or speak a word wanting to be petted so I -thought I stood out enough for one time and let him he does it all wrong -too thinking only of his own pleasure his tongue is too flat or I dont -know what he forgets that wethen I dont Ill make him do it again if he -doesnt mind himself and lock him down to sleep in the coalcellar with the -blackbeetles I wonder was it her Josie off her head with my castoffs hes -such a born liar too no hed never have the courage with a married woman -thats why he wants me and Boylan though as for her Denis as she calls him -that forlornlooking spectacle you couldnt call him a husband yes its some -little bitch hes got in with even when I was with him with Milly at the -College races that Hornblower with the childs bonnet on the top of his -nob let us into by the back way he was throwing his sheeps eyes at those -two doing skirt duty up and down I tried to wink at him first no use of -course and thats the way his money goes this is the fruits of Mr Paddy -Dignam yes they were all in great style at the grand funeral in the paper -Boylan brought in if they saw a real officers funeral thatd be something -reversed arms muffled drums the poor horse walking behind in black L Boom -and Tom Kernan that drunken little barrelly man that bit his tongue off -falling down the mens W C drunk in some place or other and Martin -Cunningham and the two Dedaluses and Fanny MCoys husband white head of -cabbage skinny thing with a turn in her eye trying to sing my songs shed -want to be born all over again and her old green dress with the lowneck -as she cant attract them any other way like dabbling on a rainy day I see -it all now plainly and they call that friendship killing and then burying -one another and they all with their wives and families at home more -especially Jack Power keeping that barmaid he does of course his wife is -always sick or going to be sick or just getting better of it and hes a -goodlooking man still though hes getting a bit grey over the ears theyre -a nice lot all of them well theyre not going to get my husband again into -their clutches if I can help it making fun of him then behind his back I -know well when he goes on with his idiotics because he has sense enough -not to squander every penny piece he earns down their gullets and looks -after his wife and family goodfornothings poor Paddy Dignam all the same -Im sorry in a way for him what are his wife and 5 children going to do -unless he was insured comical little teetotum always stuck up in some pub -corner and her or her son waiting Bill Bailey wont you please come home -her widows weeds wont improve her appearance theyre awfully becoming -though if youre goodlooking what men wasnt he yes he was at the Glencree -dinner and Ben Dollard base barreltone the night he borrowed the -swallowtail to sing out of in Holles street squeezed and squashed into -them and grinning all over his big Dolly face like a wellwhipped childs -botty didnt he look a balmy ballocks sure enough that must have been a -spectacle on the stage imagine paying 5/- in the preserved seats for that -to see him trotting off in his trowlers and Simon Dedalus too he was -always turning up half screwed singing the second verse first the old -love is the new was one of his so sweetly sang the maiden on the hawthorn -bough he was always on for flirtyfying too when I sang Maritana with him -at Freddy Mayers private opera he had a delicious glorious voice Phoebe -dearest goodbye sweetheart SWEETheart he always sang it not like Bartell -Darcy sweet tart goodbye of course he had the gift of the voice so there -was no art in it all over you like a warm showerbath O Maritana wildwood -flower we sang splendidly though it was a bit too high for my register -even transposed and he was married at the time to May Goulding but then -hed say or do something to knock the good out of it hes a widower now I -wonder what sort is his son he says hes an author and going to be a -university professor of Italian and Im to take lessons what is he driving -at now showing him my photo its not good of me I ought to have got it -taken in drapery that never looks out of fashion still I look young in it -I wonder he didnt make him a present of it altogether and me too after -all why not I saw him driving down to the Kingsbridge station with his -father and mother I was in mourning thats 11 years ago now yes hed be 11 -though what was the good in going into mourning for what was neither one -thing nor the other the first cry was enough for me I heard the -deathwatch too ticking in the wall of course he insisted hed go into -mourning for the cat I suppose hes a man now by this time he was an -innocent boy then and a darling little fellow in his lord Fauntleroy suit -and curly hair like a prince on the stage when I saw him at Mat Dillons -he liked me too I remember they all do wait by God yes wait yes hold on -he was on the cards this morning when I laid out the deck union with a -young stranger neither dark nor fair you met before I thought it meant -him but hes no chicken nor a stranger either besides my face was turned -the other way what was the 7th card after that the 10 of spades for a -journey by land then there was a letter on its way and scandals too the 3 -queens and the 8 of diamonds for a rise in society yes wait it all came -out and 2 red 8s for new garments look at that and didnt I dream -something too yes there was something about poetry in it I hope he hasnt -long greasy hair hanging into his eyes or standing up like a red Indian -what do they go about like that for only getting themselves and their -poetry laughed at I always liked poetry when I was a girl first I thought -he was a poet like lord Byron and not an ounce of it in his composition I -thought he was quite different I wonder is he too young hes about wait 88 -I was married 88 Milly is 15 yesterday 89 what age was he then at Dillons -5 or 6 about 88 I suppose hes 20 or more Im not too old for him if hes 23 -or 24 I hope hes not that stuckup university student sort no otherwise he -wouldnt go sitting down in the old kitchen with him taking Eppss cocoa -and talking of course he pretended to understand it all probably he told -him he was out of Trinity college hes very young to be a professor I hope -hes not a professor like Goodwin was he was a potent professor of John -Jameson they all write about some woman in their poetry well I suppose he -wont find many like me where softly sighs of love the light guitar where -poetry is in the air the blue sea and the moon shining so beautifully -coming back on the nightboat from Tarifa the lighthouse at Europa point -the guitar that fellow played was so expressive will I ever go back there -again all new faces two glancing eyes a lattice hid Ill sing that for him -theyre my eyes if hes anything of a poet two eyes as darkly bright as -loves own star arent those beautiful words as loves young star itll be a -change the Lord knows to have an intelligent person to talk to about -yourself not always listening to him and Billy Prescotts ad and Keyess ad -and Tom the Devils ad then if anything goes wrong in their business we -have to suffer Im sure hes very distinguished Id like to meet a man like -that God not those other ruck besides hes young those fine young men I -could see down in Margate strand bathingplace from the side of the rock -standing up in the sun naked like a God or something and then plunging -into the sea with them why arent all men like that thered be some -consolation for a woman like that lovely little statue he bought I could -look at him all day long curly head and his shoulders his finger up for -you to listen theres real beauty and poetry for you I often felt I wanted -to kiss him all over also his lovely young cock there so simple I wouldnt -mind taking him in my mouth if nobody was looking as if it was asking you -to suck it so clean and white he looks with his boyish face I would too -in 1/2 a minute even if some of it went down what its only like gruel or -the dew theres no danger besides hed be so clean compared with those pigs -of men I suppose never dream of washing it from I years end to the other -the most of them only thats what gives the women the moustaches Im sure -itll be grand if I can only get in with a handsome young poet at my age -Ill throw them the 1st thing in the morning till I see if the wishcard -comes out or Ill try pairing the lady herself and see if he comes out Ill -read and study all I can find or learn a bit off by heart if I knew who -he likes so he wont think me stupid if he thinks all women are the same -and I can teach him the other part Ill make him feel all over him till he -half faints under me then hell write about me lover and mistress publicly -too with our 2 photographs in all the papers when he becomes famous O but -then what am I going to do about him though - -no thats no way for him has he no manners nor no refinement nor no -nothing in his nature slapping us behind like that on my bottom because I -didnt call him Hugh the ignoramus that doesnt know poetry from a cabbage -thats what you get for not keeping them in their proper place pulling off -his shoes and trousers there on the chair before me so barefaced without -even asking permission and standing out that vulgar way in the half of a -shirt they wear to be admired like a priest or a butcher or those old -hypocrites in the time of Julius Caesar of course hes right enough in his -way to pass the time as a joke sure you might as well be in bed with what -with a lion God Im sure hed have something better to say for himself an -old Lion would O well I suppose its because they were so plump and -tempting in my short petticoat he couldnt resist they excite myself -sometimes its well for men all the amount of pleasure they get off a -womans body were so round and white for them always I wished I was one -myself for a change just to try with that thing they have swelling up on -you so hard and at the same time so soft when you touch it my uncle John -has a thing long I heard those cornerboys saying passing the comer of -Marrowbone lane my aunt Mary has a thing hairy because it was dark and -they knew a girl was passing it didnt make me blush why should it either -its only nature and he puts his thing long into my aunt Marys hairy -etcetera and turns out to be you put the handle in a sweepingbrush men -again all over they can pick and choose what they please a married woman -or a fast widow or a girl for their different tastes like those houses -round behind Irish street no but were to be always chained up theyre not -going to be chaining me up no damn fear once I start I tell you for their -stupid husbands jealousy why cant we all remain friends over it instead -of quarrelling her husband found it out what they did together well -naturally and if he did can he undo it hes coronado anyway whatever he -does and then he going to the other mad extreme about the wife in Fair -Tyrants of course the man never even casts a 2nd thought on the husband -or wife either its the woman he wants and he gets her what else were we -given all those desires for Id like to know I cant help it if Im young -still can I its a wonder Im not an old shrivelled hag before my time -living with him so cold never embracing me except sometimes when hes -asleep the wrong end of me not knowing I suppose who he has any man thatd -kiss a womans bottom Id throw my hat at him after that hed kiss anything -unnatural where we havent I atom of any kind of expression in us all of -us the same 2 lumps of lard before ever Id do that to a man pfooh the -dirty brutes the mere thought is enough I kiss the feet of you senorita -theres some sense in that didnt he kiss our halldoor yes he did what a -madman nobody understands his cracked ideas but me still of course a -woman wants to be embraced 20 times a day almost to make her look young -no matter by who so long as to be in love or loved by somebody if the -fellow you want isnt there sometimes by the Lord God I was thinking would -I go around by the quays there some dark evening where nobodyd know me -and pick up a sailor off the sea thatd be hot on for it and not care a -pin whose I was only do it off up in a gate somewhere or one of those -wildlooking gipsies in Rathfarnham had their camp pitched near the -Bloomfield laundry to try and steal our things if they could I only sent -mine there a few times for the name model laundry sending me back over -and over some old ones odd stockings that blackguardlooking fellow with -the fine eyes peeling a switch attack me in the dark and ride me up -against the wall without a word or a murderer anybody what they do -themselves the fine gentlemen in their silk hats that K C lives up -somewhere this way coming out of Hardwicke lane the night he gave us the -fish supper on account of winning over the boxing match of course it was -for me he gave it I knew him by his gaiters and the walk and when I -turned round a minute after just to see there was a woman after coming -out of it too some filthy prostitute then he goes home to his wife after -that only I suppose the half of those sailors are rotten again with -disease O move over your big carcass out of that for the love of Mike -listen to him the winds that waft my sighs to thee so well he may sleep -and sigh the great Suggester Don Poldo de la Flora if he knew how he came -out on the cards this morning hed have something to sigh for a dark man -in some perplexity between 2 7s too in prison for Lord knows what he does -that I dont know and Im to be slooching around down in the kitchen to get -his lordship his breakfast while hes rolled up like a mummy will I indeed -did you ever see me running Id just like to see myself at it show them -attention and they treat you like dirt I dont care what anybody says itd -be much better for the world to be governed by the women in it you -wouldnt see women going and killing one another and slaughtering when do -you ever see women rolling around drunk like they do or gambling every -penny they have and losing it on horses yes because a woman whatever she -does she knows where to stop sure they wouldnt be in the world at all -only for us they dont know what it is to be a woman and a mother how -could they where would they all of them be if they hadnt all a mother to -look after them what I never had thats why I suppose hes running wild now -out at night away from his books and studies and not living at home on -account of the usual rowy house I suppose well its a poor case that those -that have a fine son like that theyre not satisfied and I none was he not -able to make one it wasnt my fault we came together when I was watching -the two dogs up in her behind in the middle of the naked street that -disheartened me altogether I suppose I oughtnt to have buried him in that -little woolly jacket I knitted crying as I was but give it to some poor -child but I knew well Id never have another our 1st death too it was we -were never the same since O Im not going to think myself into the glooms -about that any more I wonder why he wouldnt stay the night I felt all the -time it was somebody strange he brought in instead of roving around the -city meeting God knows who nightwalkers and pickpockets his poor mother -wouldnt like that if she was alive ruining himself for life perhaps still -its a lovely hour so silent I used to love coming home after dances the -air of the night they have friends they can talk to weve none either he -wants what he wont get or its some woman ready to stick her knife in you -I hate that in women no wonder they treat us the way they do we are a -dreadful lot of bitches I suppose its all the troubles we have makes us -so snappy Im not like that he could easy have slept in there on the sofa -in the other room I suppose he was as shy as a boy he being so young -hardly 20 of me in the next room hed have heard me on the chamber arrah -what harm Dedalus I wonder its like those names in Gibraltar Delapaz -Delagracia they had the devils queer names there father Vilaplana of -Santa Maria that gave me the rosary Rosales y OReilly in the Calle las -Siete Revueltas and Pisimbo and Mrs Opisso in Governor street O what a -name Id go and drown myself in the first river if I had a name like her O -my and all the bits of streets Paradise ramp and Bedlam ramp and Rodgers -ramp and Crutchetts ramp and the devils gap steps well small blame to me -if I am a harumscarum I know I am a bit I declare to God I dont feel a -day older than then I wonder could I get my tongue round any of the -Spanish como esta usted muy bien gracias y usted see I havent forgotten -it all I thought I had only for the grammar a noun is the name of any -person place or thing pity I never tried to read that novel cantankerous -Mrs Rubio lent me by Valera with the questions in it all upside down the -two ways I always knew wed go away in the end I can tell him the Spanish -and he tell me the Italian then hell see Im not so ignorant what a pity -he didnt stay Im sure the poor fellow was dead tired and wanted a good -sleep badly I could have brought him in his breakfast in bed with a bit -of toast so long as I didnt do it on the knife for bad luck or if the -woman was going her rounds with the watercress and something nice and -tasty there are a few olives in the kitchen he might like I never could -bear the look of them in Abrines I could do the criada the room looks all -right since I changed it the other way you see something was telling me -all the time Id have to introduce myself not knowing me from Adam very -funny wouldnt it Im his wife or pretend we were in Spain with him half -awake without a Gods notion where he is dos huevos estrellados senor Lord -the cracked things come into my head sometimes itd be great fun supposing -he stayed with us why not theres the room upstairs empty and Millys bed -in the back room he could do his writing and studies at the table in -there for all the scribbling he does at it and if he wants to read in bed -in the morning like me as hes making the breakfast for I he can make it -for 2 Im sure Im not going to take in lodgers off the street for him if -he takes a gesabo of a house like this Id love to have a long talk with -an intelligent welleducated person Id have to get a nice pair of red -slippers like those Turks with the fez used to sell or yellow and a nice -semitransparent morning gown that I badly want or a peachblossom dressing -jacket like the one long ago in Walpoles only 8/6 or 18/6 Ill just give -him one more chance Ill get up early in the morning Im sick of Cohens old -bed in any case I might go over to the markets to see all the vegetables -and cabbages and tomatoes and carrots and all kinds of splendid fruits -all coming in lovely and fresh who knows whod be the 1st man Id meet -theyre out looking for it in the morning Mamy Dillon used to say they are -and the night too that was her massgoing Id love a big juicy pear now to -melt in your mouth like when I used to be in the longing way then Ill -throw him up his eggs and tea in the moustachecup she gave him to make -his mouth bigger I suppose hed like my nice cream too I know what Ill do -Ill go about rather gay not too much singing a bit now and then mi fa -pieta Masetto then Ill start dressing myself to go out presto non son piu -forte Ill put on my best shift and drawers let him have a good eyeful out -of that to make his micky stand for him Ill let him know if thats what he -wanted that his wife is I s l o fucked yes and damn well fucked too up to -my neck nearly not by him 5 or 6 times handrunning theres the mark of his -spunk on the clean sheet I wouldnt bother to even iron it out that ought -to satisfy him if you dont believe me feel my belly unless I made him -stand there and put him into me Ive a mind to tell him every scrap and -make him do it out in front of me serve him right its all his own fault -if I am an adulteress as the thing in the gallery said O much about it if -thats all the harm ever we did in this vale of tears God knows its not -much doesnt everybody only they hide it I suppose thats what a woman is -supposed to be there for or He wouldnt have made us the way He did so -attractive to men then if he wants to kiss my bottom Ill drag open my -drawers and bulge it right out in his face as large as life he can stick -his tongue 7 miles up my hole as hes there my brown part then Ill tell -him I want LI or perhaps 30/- Ill tell him I want to buy underclothes -then if he gives me that well he wont be too bad I dont want to soak it -all out of him like other women do I could often have written out a fine -cheque for myself and write his name on it for a couple of pounds a few -times he forgot to lock it up besides he wont spend it Ill let him do it -off on me behind provided he doesnt smear all my good drawers O I suppose -that cant be helped Ill do the indifferent l or 2 questions Ill know by -the answers when hes like that he cant keep a thing back I know every -turn in him Ill tighten my bottom well and let out a few smutty words -smellrump or lick my shit or the first mad thing comes into my head then -Ill suggest about yes O wait now sonny my turn is coming Ill be quite gay -and friendly over it O but I was forgetting this bloody pest of a thing -pfooh you wouldnt know which to laugh or cry were such a mixture of plum -and apple no Ill have to wear the old things so much the better itll be -more pointed hell never know whether he did it or not there thats good -enough for you any old thing at all then Ill wipe him off me just like a -business his omission then Ill go out Ill have him eying up at the -ceiling where is she gone now make him want me thats the only way a -quarter after what an unearthly hour I suppose theyre just getting up in -China now combing out their pigtails for the day well soon have the nuns -ringing the angelus theyve nobody coming in to spoil their sleep except -an odd priest or two for his night office or the alarmclock next door at -cockshout clattering the brains out of itself let me see if I can doze -off 1 2 3 4 5 what kind of flowers are those they invented like the stars -the wallpaper in Lombard street was much nicer the apron he gave me was -like that something only I only wore it twice better lower this lamp and -try again so as I can get up early Ill go to Lambes there beside -Findlaters and get them to send us some flowers to put about the place in -case he brings him home tomorrow today I mean no no Fridays an unlucky -day first I want to do the place up someway the dust grows in it I think -while Im asleep then we can have music and cigarettes I can accompany him -first I must clean the keys of the piano with milk whatll I wear shall I -wear a white rose or those fairy cakes in Liptons I love the smell of a -rich big shop at 7 1/2d a lb or the other ones with the cherries in them -and the pinky sugar 11d a couple of lbs of those a nice plant for the -middle of the table Id get that cheaper in wait wheres this I saw them -not long ago I love flowers Id love to have the whole place swimming in -roses God of heaven theres nothing like nature the wild mountains then -the sea and the waves rushing then the beautiful country with the fields -of oats and wheat and all kinds of things and all the fine cattle going -about that would do your heart good to see rivers and lakes and flowers -all sorts of shapes and smells and colours springing up even out of the -ditches primroses and violets nature it is as for them saying theres no -God I wouldnt give a snap of my two fingers for all their learning why -dont they go and create something I often asked him atheists or whatever -they call themselves go and wash the cobbles off themselves first then -they go howling for the priest and they dying and why why because theyre -afraid of hell on account of their bad conscience ah yes I know them well -who was the first person in the universe before there was anybody that -made it all who ah that they dont know neither do I so there you are they -might as well try to stop the sun from rising tomorrow the sun shines for -you he said the day we were lying among the rhododendrons on Howth head -in the grey tweed suit and his straw hat the day I got him to propose to -me yes first I gave him the bit of seedcake out of my mouth and it was -leapyear like now yes 16 years ago my God after that long kiss I near -lost my breath yes he said I was a flower of the mountain yes so we are -flowers all a womans body yes that was one true thing he said in his life -and the sun shines for you today yes that was why I liked him because I -saw he understood or felt what a woman is and I knew I could always get -round him and I gave him all the pleasure I could leading him on till he -asked me to say yes and I wouldnt answer first only looked out over the -sea and the sky I was thinking of so many things he didnt know of Mulvey -and Mr Stanhope and Hester and father and old captain Groves and the -sailors playing all birds fly and I say stoop and washing up dishes they -called it on the pier and the sentry in front of the governors house with -the thing round his white helmet poor devil half roasted and the Spanish -girls laughing in their shawls and their tall combs and the auctions in -the morning the Greeks and the jews and the Arabs and the devil knows who -else from all the ends of Europe and Duke street and the fowl market all -clucking outside Larby Sharons and the poor donkeys slipping half asleep -and the vague fellows in the cloaks asleep in the shade on the steps and -the big wheels of the carts of the bulls and the old castle thousands of -years old yes and those handsome Moors all in white and turbans like -kings asking you to sit down in their little bit of a shop and Ronda with -the old windows of the posadas 2 glancing eyes a lattice hid for her -lover to kiss the iron and the wineshops half open at night and the -castanets and the night we missed the boat at Algeciras the watchman -going about serene with his lamp and O that awful deepdown torrent O and -the sea the sea crimson sometimes like fire and the glorious sunsets and -the figtrees in the Alameda gardens yes and all the queer little streets -and the pink and blue and yellow houses and the rosegardens and the -jessamine and geraniums and cactuses and Gibraltar as a girl where I was -a Flower of the mountain yes when I put the rose in my hair like the -Andalusian girls used or shall I wear a red yes and how he kissed me -under the Moorish wall and I thought well as well him as another and then -I asked him with my eyes to ask again yes and then he asked me would I -yes to say yes my mountain flower and first I put my arms around him yes -and drew him down to me so he could feel my breasts all perfume yes and -his heart was going like mad and yes I said yes I will Yes. - - - -Trieste-Zurich-Paris -1914-1921 - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ulysses, by James Joyce - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ULYSSES *** - -This file should be named ulyss12.txt or ulyss12.zip -Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, ulyss11.txt -VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, ulyss10a.txt - -This etext was prepared by Col Choat . - -Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US -unless a copyright notice is included. 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* - diff --git a/examples/word_count/word_count.rb b/examples/word_count/word_count.rb index 11b98b1..36c1351 100644 --- a/examples/word_count/word_count.rb +++ b/examples/word_count/word_count.rb @@ -5,8 +5,20 @@ db = couch.database('word-count-example') db.delete! rescue nil db = couch.create_db('word-count-example') -%w{america.txt da-vinci.txt outline-of-science.txt ulysses.txt}.each do |book| -# %w{}.each do |book| +books = { + 'outline-of-science.txt' => 'http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20417/20417.txt', + 'ulysses.txt' => 'http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext03/ulyss12.txt', + 'america.txt' => 'http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16960/16960.txt', + 'da-vinci.txt' => 'http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/7ldv110.txt' +} + +books.each do |file, url| + pathfile = File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__),file) + `curl #{url} > #{pathfile}` unless File.exists?(pathfile) +end + + +books.keys.each do |book| title = book.split('.')[0] puts title File.open(File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__),book),'r') do |file| diff --git a/script/couchview b/script/couchview index 3e6bdc8..d2aea12 100755 --- a/script/couchview +++ b/script/couchview @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ command = ARGV[0] if !commands.include?(command) puts <<-USAGE -Usage: script/views (pull|push) my-database-name +Usage: couchview (pull|push) my-database-name For help on pull and push run script/views (pull|push) without a database name. USAGE exit @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ if ARGV.length == 1 case command when "pull" puts <<-PULL -script/views pull my-database-name +couchview pull my-database-name I will automagically create a "views" directory in your current working directory if none exists. Then I copy the design documents and views into a directory structure like: @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ If your view names don't end in "map" or "reduce" I'll add those suffixes as a p PULL when "push" puts <<-PUSH -script/views push my-database-name +couchview push my-database-name I'll push all the files in your views directory to the specified database. Because CouchDB caches the results of view calculation by function content, there's no performance penalty for duplicating the map function twice, which I'll do if you have a reduce function. This makes it possible to browse the results of just the map, which can be useful for both queries and debugging.